Condenser Tube Life-Cycle Economics

There are literally miles and miles of tubing in every power plant that will operate very reliably for many
years. However, much of that tubing will spend much of its life in the most demanding of high-pressure
and high-temperature service, exposed to superheated steam and chemically treated water that can
reduce the expected life of the tubing. Most tubing will, at some point during the operating life of the
plant, require replacement. The challenge for the plant operations staff is to understand the possible
material failure mechanisms and keep an eye on those exchangers beginning to show signs of tube
failure.

Copper Tube Failure Mechanisms

A number of potential failure mechanisms are possible in power plant heat exchanger tubing. To
compound the identification challenges, the failure mechanisms common in copper alloys are quite
different than those for stainless steels and high-performance alloys.

First we look at copper alloys, commonly used in power plant feedwater heaters and condensers. The
most common damage mechanisms for copper alloys from the steam side are ammonia grooving and
stress corrosion cracking.

Ammonia Grooving. When hydrazine and similar derivatives are used to assist with oxygen scavenging,
these degrade into ammonia compounds. Admiralty, aluminum brass, and, to a lesser extent, 90-10
copper nickel, are sensitive to selective corrosion by ammonia compounds. As these are considered
noncondensables, the steam drives them into the center of the condenser, the air removal zone. The
ammonia combines with the condensate and concentrates on the support plates, running down the
surfaces. The ammonia solution attacks the tube surface adjacent to the support plate, creating grooves.

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). When the tubing has high residual stresses, another mechanism
can speed the failure process, stress corrosion cracking (SCC). Both admiralty and aluminum brass are
susceptible to ammonia-induced SCC. The stresses are commonly developed during the tube-
straightening operation during manufacturing. This failure mechanism can occur quite rapidly. A
condenser having tube failures caused by both ammonia grooving and SCC is not uncommon.

The failure mechanisms on the cooling waterside of the heat exchanger are remarkably different, given
the lower temperature levels and cooling medium. The mechanisms are usually erosion, corrosion, or a
combination of the two.

Erosion-corrosion. Copper patinas formed under water are usually oxy-hydroxide based and are soft.
High water velocities can erode the soft patina, exposing the base metal below. A new patina then
reforms, and when it reaches a critical thickness, the cycle repeats. This is called erosion-corrosion. For
admiralty and aluminum brass, the commonly accepted maximum water velocity to prevent this
mechanism is 6 feet per second. However, it is common to see failure in localized areas, although the
average velocity may be less than 6 feet per second.

Turbulence causes localized high velocity; a common example is inlet end erosion. Local obstructions,
such as mollusk shells, can also cause localized high water velocity, resulting in very quick failure. It is
not uncommon to experience tube perforations due to this cause within a few days of inlet screening
problems.
H2S and Sulfuric Acid Attack. Low pH and the presence of sulfur compounds will dissolve protective
patinas, exposing fresh metal. This causes corrosion rates to increase several orders of magnitude.
Polluted, stagnant waters create hydrogen sulfide generated from the decomposition of marine
organisms. When H2S is present, the copper patina cannot reform its protective surface. Today, new
power plants are rarely permitted to use clean fresh cooling water, so treated wastewater has become
one of the few cooling options available. When cooling water sources are switched from fresh to treated
wastewater, 90-10 copper-nickel tubing failures often start within six months of the change. Even water
containing relatively inert sulfur ions can become aggressive when sulfate-reducing bacteria are present.
The sulfate-reducing bacteria will convert the sulfate ions into a more aggressive species, such as H 2S or
sulfuric acid.

General Corrosion and Copper Transport. The patina that forms on admiralty brass, aluminum
brass, and copper-nickel is porous and allows copper ions to gradually diffuse into the water, even under
the best conditions. Copper ions are toxic to many aquatic organisms. This is the key reason that copper-
based paints are placed on marine structures to prevent biological fouling. As the copper dissolves, the
tube wall gradually thins. When water conditions are ideal, dissolution rates are slow and 25-year tube
life is typical. However, the copper transport can still be significant enough to have an impact at other
locations. For example, the tubes removed from a typical 300-MW condenser with admiralty tubes at the
time of replacement will weigh about 50% of the original approximately 400,000-pound tube weight. This
indicates that the 200,000 pounds of copper alloy has dissolved.

Where does this dissolved copper go? Both the condensate and the cooling water discharge are
candidates. Copper concentrations in condensate can range from 0.2 to 10 ppb, depending upon location.
Although this concentration appears to be very small, when one considers mass flow rates of millions of
pounds per hour range, the overtransport can be quite significant. In the closed steam side, it deposits at
locations where steam has an abrupt change of volume.

Depending upon the plant design, the copper lost may often plate out on the boiler tube surface (Figure
1) or on the high-pressure steam turbine blades. When the copper plates on the boiler tubes, it can
initiate catastrophic liquid metal embrittlement of the steel. The situation is aggravated as the deposit
layers, shown in Figure 1, act as an insulator, raising the boiler tube temperature. When the copper is in
direct contact with the boiler tubes, the melting point can drop to as low as 2,012F, where the typical
steel melting temperature is 2,700F. When the copper plates on the turbine blades, the turbine efficiency
drops and the overall plant output is restricted.

1. Alternating copper metal and iron oxide layers on boiler tube illustrate how corrosion can release
copper into the steam circuit of a boiler or into the cooling water from a condenser. Courtesy: Gary
Hoffman, ―Chemical Cleaning of Natural Circulation Boilers: The Good, the Bad, & the Ugly‖ (Southwest
Chemistry Workshop, Scottsdale, Ariz., July 2005)

On the cooling water side, the federal discharge limit in most areas is 1 ppm, a relatively easy target to
meet unless the tube is actively corroding (Figure 2). However, in many localities, regulators are
recognizing that 1 ppm in the hundreds of thousands of gallons per minute of water discharged can add
up to a significant amount of copper. In those regions, limits of 40 ppb or less have been imposed. This
target is significantly tougher and may require expensive polymer treatments to reducing the corrosion
rate.

2. Copper alloys in condenser tubes often experience ammonia stress corrosion cracking and grooving.
On the cooling water side, these same tubes experience erosion and corrosion when water velocities
exceed 6 fps and pitting and under deposit corrosion. Courtesy: Plymouth Tube

Stainless Steel Tube Failure Mechanisms

All stainless steels, both the commodity grades (TP 304, TP 316, and derivatives) and the higher-
performance versions, are resistant to the majority of boiler chemicals, including all of the hydrazine
derivatives. At higher temperatures, one mechanism does cause premature failure: chloride stress
corrosion cracking (Figure 3).

3. The steam side of this stainless steel tube has experienced stress corrosion cracking at the surface.
Courtesy: Plymouth Tube.

Stress Corrosion Cracking. Stainless steels containing 2% to 25% nickel are susceptible to cracking
when a combination of stress, chlorides, and temperature are present. Those containing 8% nickel (TP
304) are most sensitive (Figure 4). The minimum critical temperature for TP 304 is approximately 150F.
Because the metal temperature in condensers and lower-temperature balance-of-plant exchangers is
below the critical temperature, it is extremely rare for TP 304 and TP 316 tubing to fail from this
mechanism.
4. Time to failure of Fe, Cr, and Ni wires in boiling magnesium chloride illustrate the effect of nickel on
chloride stress corrosion cracking in stainless steels. Source: Plymouth Tube

SCC can occur in feedwater heaters when the steam chemistry has had a chloride excursion. Usually, this
occurs when a condenser tube leaks and the plant continues to operate. The damage can be extensive,
sometimes requiring replacement of the heater. The failure mechanism has also become more common
in plants that have switched from baseload to cycling modes. The chlorides concentrate in regions that
alternate between wet and dry, primarily in the desuperheating zone or in the adjacent area of the
condensing zone.

The cooling water side of stainless steel tubes are exposed to a different set of failure mechanisms.

Pitting and Crevice Corrosion. TP 304 and TP 316 are susceptible to pitting, crevice corrosion, and
microbiological influenced corrosion (MIC)–related crevice corrosion in many waters normally considered
benign. TP 304 and TP 316 should not be considered if the cooling water has chlorides that exceed 150
ppm and 500 ppm respectively (Figure 5). An expert should also consulted if the manganese levels are
higher than 20 ppb or iron levels exceed 0.5 ppm. Like copper alloys, TP 304 and TP 316 should not be
considered retubing material candidates if treated wastewater is the cooling water source.
5. Critical crevice temperature and maximum chloride levels versus PREn illustrate the pitting and
crevice corrosion resistance of various stainless steels. Source: Plymouth Tube

While not explicitly a material failure mechanism, condenser tube fouling is a common cause for
increasing heat rates and can be expensive to repair. Fouling can be due to either biological factors or
scaling. The layers are thermal barriers that raise steam saturation temperature and turbine
backpressure. Condenser tube fouling can easily cause an annual increase in fuel cost of $250,000 for a
mid-sized coal-fired plant.

Potentially a bigger concern is the damage of the tubing under the fouling deposit due to underdeposit or
crevice corrosion. Once the surface is covered, it is no longer flushed with the bulk cooling water and
contaminates, such as chloride or sulfur, concentrate. With a drop in pH, the acidic condition attacks the
passive surface layer, initiating a corrosion cell. As this cell encourages further concentration, attack can
be very rapid. It is not unusual to experience through-wall attack in three weeks on an improperly laid-up
0.028-inch-thick TP 304 condenser tube.

Scaling—due to the heating of cooling water saturated with calcium carbonate, gypsum, or silica—can
precipitate surface deposits that can significantly lower heat transfer. These constituents have inverse
solubility, meaning that they become less soluble as the water temperature increases. Often, the deposits
are thicker in the latter passes, or higher-temperature section of the condenser. It is common in some
plants with cooling towers or cooling lakes with high evaporation rates to see cleanliness factors, when
calculated by the HEI Condenser method, to be in the 50% to 65% range.

How About Titanium?

Titanium grade 2 is normally considered immune to any of the pitting and crevice corrosion mechanisms
common in the power generation cooling circuits. One exception may be the crystallization equipment
used in zero-discharge plants. In this equipment, grades 7 or 12 may need to be considered. However,
because of its low modulus of elasticity, titanium can be susceptible to vibration damage if the heat
exchanger is not properly designed.

The Value Comparison

Many operations do not calculate the increased costs related to a problem heat exchanger in addition to
the capital and installation costs of replacement tubing. Justification for your cleaning and/or retubing
starts with a defendable value comparison summary. The summary should depend upon a life-cycle basis
and not solely on the lowest initial cost. Your company must select the length of the life-cycle calculation,
as many coal-fired plants that have operated for 30 years may have another 20 years of expected
operating life remaining.

The life-cycle cost calculation will have several cost items that must be developed, including:

 Initial tube cost

 Installation costs

 Fuel savings based on higher thermal performance

 Lower cooling water chemical treatment costs

 Reduction of lost generation due to turbine efficiency losses

 Reduction or elimination of boiler tube and high-pressure turbine cleaning costs

 Elimination of emergency outages and/or derates to plug leaking tubes.

Condenser Retubing Case Study

The following case study provides an example for how to compare the true cost of running with existing,
poorly performing tubing with the cost of retubing a condenser. The approach applies equally as well to a
feedwater heater or other balance-of-plant heat exchangers.

Consider a condenser for a 300-MW coal-fired plant that currently uses 16,400 one-inch OD x 18 BWG
(0.049 average wall thickness) 90-10 copper nickel tubes that have an effective length of 42.2 feet. The
steam load is 1,480,000 lb per hour at an enthalpy of 950 Btu/lb. On this unit, the turbine exhaust area is
375 square feet. The circulating pumps provide a design flow of 114,000 gpm through the tubes that
develop a design head loss of 19.58 feet. At this time, 6% of the existing tubes are plugged. Scaling is
minimized through aggressive water chemistry controls providing a Heat Exchange Institute (HEI)–
defined cleanliness factor of 85%. The condenser was designed for an inlet water temperature of 85F,
which is a common inlet water temperature in early summer and early fall. However, it can be higher
during mid-summer.
In our model calculation, tube leaks are now occurring approximately twice per year, particularly during
peak summer season (hotter temperatures increase corrosion rates). Every four to five years the high-
pressure steam turbine must be cleaned due to copper plating on the turbine blades. During this period,
the total drop in plant capacity is 21 MW.

The original tubes lasted 22 years, but because of change in cooling tower operation and new water
sources, the expected life of the new 90-10 copper nickel tubing may only be 10 to 15 years. As this is a
closed-loop cooling tower plant, the service water has been chemically treated with ferric sulfate to assist
repassivation of the copper nickel after excursions of cooling water chemistry when trying to keep the
tubes and cooling tower clean. This cooling water is aggressive to many alloys, so picking an alloy
resistant to high chlorides and MIC is paramount. The alternative candidates that this utility is considering
are titanium grade 2, AL6XN high-performance austenitic stainless steel (UNS N08367), and SEA-CURE
(UNS S44660) high-performance ferritic stainless steel, all proven to have a good track record in similar
water. (AL6XN is a registered trademark of Allegheny Technologies; SEA-CURE is a registered trademark
of Plymouth Tube.) TP 304 and TP 316 are not candidates for this condenser, as the chloride levels
commonly climb over 700 ppm, and Mn and Fe levels are high.

The HEI Standards for Steam Surface Condensers are an excellent basis for comparing the thermal and
mechanical performance of the various tube materials. In addition to determining backpressure, the
potential for vibration damage, and changes in uplift can also be evaluated. Initial results of the analysis
are included in Table 1. Each of the following sections relates to a line item in the table.

Table 1. Comparison of thermal and mechanical properties of various condenser tube candidates for a
300-MW unit using HEI Standards for Steam Surface Condensers. Source: Plymouth Tube

Wall Thickness. When titanium or stainless steel tubing is selected for a condenser retubing, it is
common to choose 22 BWG (Birmingham Wire Gauge) or 0.028 inch. Stainless steels have a higher
modulus of elasticity than copper alloys. Because of the higher modulus, thin wall stainless tube can be
as stiff as the thicker-walled copper alloy. This minimizes the impact of vibration.
Cleanliness Factor. Although titanium‘s modulus of elasticity is lower than that of copper alloys, the
high material price requires titanium to be used in thin walls as well. This requires a change in design
philosophy. The thicker copper alloy ID and OD tube patinas require the designer to use lower cleanliness
factors than if stainless steel or titanium tubes were selected. Compared to 85% commonly measured for
clean copper alloys, the stainless steels and titanium traditionally exhibit HEI cleanliness of 95% or
better. In many cases, the stencil on stainless and titanium tubes that may have been in service for
several years may still be read. For our calculations, 95% is used.

Cooling Water Flow Rate. Although the original design flow was 114,000 gpm, flow will vary as the
head loss changes. The low-head/high-volume circulating water pumps have mass flow rates that are
highly sensitive to head loss. For example, the 1.5-foot head increase caused by plugging 6% of the
tubes may typically result in a 2% decrease in cooling water mass flow. Conversely the 3-foot head
decrease by changing to 0.028-inch wall thickness tubing from 0.049-inch wall original tubing can
typically result in 3% to 4% increase in mass flow. We‘ve included 3% in our calculations to be
conservative. If available, the specific pump curve(s) for the plant should be used.

Cooling Water Velocity. The cooling water velocity is calculated from the cooling water flow rate and
the inside diameter of the tubes. The water velocity is used to determine the temperature rise in the
tube. Although normally considered to have a significant impact on the condenser performance, the
cooling water mass flow is the key factor for removing heat.

Cooling Water Inlet Temperature. In this analysis, we‘ve used the design inlet water temperature for
the basis of the calculations. When the plant has an undersized condenser that is condenser-limited
during peak summer conditions, you might want to consider using the maximum inlet water temperature
for your analysis.

Condenser Backpressure. After the cooling water, steam flow, and tube alternative parameters have
been determined, the saturation temperature is calculated and the backpressure is found using the steam
tables. A lower backpressure, or better vacuum is desired, which increases turbine efficiency. For this
condenser, the 6% plugged tubes created a backpressure increase of 0.06 inch Hg. HEI predicts a very
significant backpressure drop of 0.16 inches for titanium and slightly lower 0.15 inches for the
superferritic S 44660. With higher thermal conductivity, the drop in pressure for the superaustenitic N
08367 is approximately half, at 0.08 inches.

HEI Tube Span Calculation. Over the years, many different vibration methodologies have been
developed to calculate a ―safe span‖ that results in no tube damage. Each of these uses a different series
of assumptions. The HEI span reported in Table 1 assumes that the condenser tube will vibrate and that
the support plates shall spaced to keep the vibration amplitude equal to or less than one-third of the
ligament spacing. When two adjacent tubes are vibrating, the design allows for an additional clearance of
one-third of the ligament preventing tube-to-tube collisions.

Although the absolute value for a safe span for a specific tube material may vary significantly, depending
upon the method used, the different methods are in relative agreement of the proportional span
relationship between alloy and wall for the same OD. If the specific method predicts a longer span for a
proposed tube selection, this alternative is considered more conservative, or safer. If the method predicts
a shorter span, the alternative selection is riskier.
In this analysis, HEI predicts a span of 36.87 inches for the Cu-Ni. The calculated span for titanium is
almost 5 inches shorter, suggesting that the risk of vibration damage is high, unless other preventative
measured are taken. N08367 has a slightly shorter calculated span, which suggests a slight increase in
risk for vibration damage. Only the S44660 has an HEI calculated span longer than for the Cu-Ni. The
most common solution to preventing vibration problems is the installation of ―stakes‖ mid-span between
the support plates. Wedged between the tubes, the stakes are additional supports.

Uplift Force. Copper-nickel has the highest metal density of any traditional condenser tube material.
When combined with the thick initial wall thickness, all of the alternatives will result in a condenser of
significantly less weight. The difference in pressure across the large turbine exhaust area can create
significant uplift. When this condenser is at 1.5 inches of backpressure, the uplift due to the vacuum is
approximately 700,000 lb. If another tube is selected, the drop in tube weight could result in damage to
the supports. Switching to titanium tubing results in a weight reduction of 204,000 lb. If titanium is
selected, the specialist should be consulted to check if reinforcements are needed in the anchoring areas.

Estimated Fuel Savings. The change in backpressure will have an impact on heat rate and, ultimately,
the amount of fuel that will be used. As this is a coal-fired plant, we‘ve assumed that the delivered cost
for the coal over a 20-year period will average $2.50 per million Btu. For this plant, we‘ve determined
that for each 0.1 inches of Hg change in backpressure, the plant will save or require 15 Btu for each
kWh. Currently the increase in backpressure due to the current 6% plugged tubes is costing us about
$59,000 per year in additional fuel costs. If we decide to switch tube material, we can then calculate an
additional fuel savings of $157,000 per year if titanium is chosen, $79,000 per year if superaustenitic
N08367 is selected, or $147,000 per year if superferritic S44660 is final choice.

Calculate the Annual Cost Savings

For this case study, the plant uses a 20-year remaining life for the life-cycle economics calculation.
Although we have a risk that the water chemistry may become more aggressive, we believe that our
chemists have enough control over the cooling water that we will continue to keep the tubes clean and
will be able to control pH and biological content so that 90-10 copper nickel will last the 20-year period
without an additional retubing. The other candidates have an excellent track record for doing the same,
even if the plant has water chemistry excursions.

For this case study, budgetary tube costs were obtained as shown in Table 2. During discussions with
potential tube installers, we found that the cost to install the various alloys is not significantly different:
approximately $250,000. Our consultant has recommended some staking due to the lower stiffness of the
titanium and the N08367 tubing, making it significantly more costly for the titanium than the austenitic
stainless steel. Based upon the consultant‘s recommendations, our installers have quoted an average of
$200,000 for the titanium and $50,000 for the austenitic stainless steel. The consultant is also concerned
about the additional uplift if titanium is chosen. We‘ve included $50,000 in the budget for reinforcement
of anchor points.
Table 2. Installation and operating costs of various tube candidates for a 300-MW power plant
condenser estimated over a 20-year operating life. Source: Plymouth Tube

At this point, we must include an estimate for operation and maintenance costs for the various tube
candidates. Based upon the fuel costs that we calculated in Table 1, we expect a savings of $3.1 million
over 20 years for titanium, $1.55 million for N08367, and almost $3.0 million for S44660, compared with
18 BWG copper nickel. Our experience with the copper nickel tube is that we will get occasional tube
leaks, predominately from erosion/corrosion from entrapped debris. We estimate that this will occur once
per year during the first five years and twice per year after five years. Fortunately, this condenser is of a
divided flow configuration, so we do not need to completely shut the plant down to fix the leak. To locate
the leaks and plug the tubes, it normally takes us two days. During a derate of that timeframe, we
typically lose $225,000 of income. As the other tube candidates are not susceptible to erosion corrosion,
no cost was assigned.

Our traditional cost for chemical treatment (pH adjustment, ferrous sulfate treatments, and others) to
protect the copper tubing has been about $100,000 per year. These will not be required, or will be
minimal, with the other alternatives.

It‘s common to see a significant drop in plant output due to copper build-up on the high-pressure (HP)
turbine blades. Copper deposits build up on HP turbine blades, lowering the efficiency of the turbine and
restricting the overall plant output. Approximately every four to five years, the derate is significant
enough to justify cleaning the turbine at a cost of approximately $250,000. As all of the copper-based
feedwater heaters have been replaced with other alloys in this case study, the only remaining source for
copper is the condenser. If we choose titanium or the high-performance stainless steels, this cleaning
cost disappears.
Summing of the installation, operation, and maintenance cost components, but not including the base 90-
10 related fuel cost, we see some very significant cost differences between the condenser tube
candidates. The combination of the derate costs required to fix tube leaks, water chemistry control, and
additional cleaning required due to copper transport adds over $10,000,000 to the cost directly related to
using copper-nickel condenser tubing. Although the installation and tubing costs of the titanium and
N08367 options are significantly higher, this is mitigated by a significant fuel saving (compared to the Cu-
Ni option) for titanium and, to a lesser extent, for N08367. The 20-year fuel savings pays for
approximately 92% of the titanium installation costs and about 44% of the N08367 costs.

Copper-Free Turbine Drive Economics

One very significant performance penalty was not included in the 20-year analysis. In the last row of
Table 2, copper deposits on the HP turbine blades can have an enormous financial impact. Derates of 20
MW or greater are possible on a plant of this size after a four- or five-year period and must be accounted
for in the economics of tube replacement. Consider the following assumptions:

 The turbine is cleaned every four to five years.

 The average MW derate is 5 MW.

 The plant is in operation 85% of the time.

 The average selling price is $55 per MWh.

In this situation, the total income lost over the 20-year period is more than $40 million dollars and
completely overpowers the economic analysis factors. This result emphasizes how important it is to keep
the plant operating efficiently and the importance of keeping the turbine free from copper deposits in
particular.

—Daniel S. Janikowski (djanikowski@plymouth.com) is group leader, power generation for Plymouth

Tube.

Condenser Performance Improvement Through Innovative Cleaning and Leak Detection

Technologies

Condensers are one part of the power plant where the technology is well defined and the benefits of
keeping a clean condenser are easily determined. Condenser maintenance is a "pay me now or pay me
later" proposition.

The theory of condenser operation is reasonably straightforward. Condenser design specifications define
a maximum effective rate of removal of the latent heat in the exhaust vapor entering the condenser, as
well as its heat transfer into the circulating water, determined by the condenser backpressure, cooling
water flow rate, and inlet temperature. Variations in the latter two parameters will change the
backpressure and also affect the heat rate for a given load. In order to minimize condensate subcooling,
caused by variations in inlet water temperature, some control over backpressure (and heat rate) may be
achieved by varying the cooling water flow rate. However, the reduced tube velocities can cause silt to
become deposited on the tube surfaces and, thus, negatively affect heat rate.
To avoid these effects, it may be possible to allow some of the circulating water returned from the
condenser to bypass the cooling towers, thereby adjusting the inlet temperature to maintain the
backpressure, but without reducing the total water flow rate or tube water velocity. These are the natural
responses between these variables for a clean condenser.

Unfortunately, condensers seldom operate under clean conditions for very long, and the ills to which they
are prone during normal service fall into five major categories:

 Fouling of the tube surfaces

 Tube or tube sheet fouling due to shellfish or debris

 Circulating water in-leakage

 Excess ambient air in-leakage

 Deficient air/noncondensable removal capability

The first two categories are related to fouling and tend to be cyclical in nature. They may, therefore, be
regarded as predictable, although the actual fouling impact will vary from plant to plant, and even
between units at the same plant. The last three categories of problems, concerning water or air in-
leakage, tend to occur randomly. Both categories of leaks are likely to occur at some point, and a
correction strategy can be prepared. When a problem will occur can only be anticipated, not predicted.

Tube Surface Fouling

It‘s only a matter of time until almost every condenser experiences some kind of tube or tubesheet
fouling. Most condenser circulating water sources contain dissolved solids that can precipitate and
become deposited on the inner surfaces of the tubes, adversely affecting the unit heat rate and/or
limiting generation capacity. These deposits can also contribute to various types of corrosion and, if not
removed periodically, the corrosion may eventually penetrate the tube wall, allowing circulating water to
leak into and contaminate the condensate.

Fouling can affect not only unit heat rate but also the ability of the turbine to generate its design load
capacity. In fossil-fired plants, an increase in heat rate is reflected in higher fuel costs for a given load,
and increases of 2% are not uncommon. In both fossil and nuclear plants, if the fouling becomes severe,
it will cause the backpressure to rise to its upper limit, forcing a reduction in generated power. There are
reports of up to 20 MW having been recovered by the removal of severe accumulations of deposits.

Tube Fouling Characteristics

To effectively combat tube fouling, one must better understand the characteristics of tube fouling and
how it applies to site-specific conditions. Condenser tube fouling, which is mostly a tube interior concern,
generally falls into one of the following five categories.

Microbiological Fouling. Microbiological fouling routinely occurs in natural waters, as many bacterial
species will naturally colonize and grow on inert substrates. The temperature at the interior wall of
condenser tubes is ideal for growth of some bacteria. The resulting mass is frequently low in organic
solids (10% to 30% after drying), and the majority of constituents are inorganic particulates from the
cooling water that have become incorporated into the microbiological slime. Even a thin layer of
microbiological fouling can be particularly detrimental to heat transfer, as much of the slime mass
consists of water, which conducts heat poorly.

Scale Fouling. Scale (mineral crystallization) occurs on heat transfer surfaces under a combination of
dissolved mineral concentration and temperature effects. Scaling of certain common constituents in
natural waters (such as calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate) is promoted by elevated
temperatures, such as exist on the interior wall of condenser tubes, particularly toward the outlet end.
Other scale-forming minerals (including calcium sulfate) are more likely to form at cooler temperatures.
Scale can drastically reduce heat transfer, depending on the specific mineral formed and its thickness.
Although scaling water chemistry is not normally associated with corrosion, it is very possible that crevice
corrosion will occur beneath scale.

Particle Deposition Fouling. Particle deposition generally occurs in condenser tubes when the flow
rate is inadequate to keep particulates in suspension. Design flow through condenser tubes is often 7 to
10 ft/s, but this is an average (bulk flow), and some tubes may experience much lower flow than others.
This can be a problem if the waterbox is not full and upper tubes receive intermittent flow. Commonly,
areas of low flow result from partial blockage on the tubesheet or because an object is lodged within a
tube. It is unlikely that particle deposition will cause a significant loss of heat transfer for the condenser,
but it may serve as an initiation site for crevice corrosion. Common types of fouling particulates in
condensers include sediment/silt, diatoms, coal dust, and minerals precipitated from the cooling water
(calcium sulfate, calcium phosphate, silicates, etc.).

Corrosion Products Fouling. Corrosion products can grow relatively thick on the surfaces of certain
tubes, primarily copper alloys. Scale or deposition promotes copper oxide growth, and in some cases a
thin surface scale will enhance the growth of a thick underlying copper oxide layer, which will inhibit heat
transfer and establish sites for crevice corrosion.

Tubesheet Pluggage. Macro fouling can include blockage at the tubesheet and within the tubes by
various materials and debris, including rocks, concrete pipe debris, cooling tower materials (plastic
fill/wood), chunks of ash or coal, pieces of rust, paper trash, leaves and other vegetation, and aquatic
animals (crayfish, fish, and clams). The primary effect is reduced flow to certain tubes, which results in
particulate deposition and increased opportunity for microbiological growth. Additionally, localized high
velocities and tube wall erosion can occur as a result. If major tube sheet blockage occurs, the condenser
vacuum can be significantly degraded.

Condenser Cleaning Methods

Regardless of the tube material, the most effective way to ensure that tubes achieve their full life
expectancy and heat transfer efficiency is to keep them clean. Ideally, each time tube deposits,
sedimentation, biofouling, and obstructions are effectively removed, the tube surfaces are returned to
bare metal, providing the most effective heat transfer. The cleaned tube is given a new life as a result of
the rebuilding of the protective oxide coating.

Data obtained from an independent survey of 100 plants (two per state) found that the majority of
cleaning procedures are performed off-line, the most frequently chosen being mechanical cleaning.
Mechanical cleaning incorporates the use of metal scrapers or brushes being shot through the tubes by
water, air, or a combination of the two.
Among other off-line methods is the use of very high pressure water. Because the jet can only be moved
along the tube slowly, the time taken to clean a condenser can be become extended. Great care must be
taken to avoid damaging any tubesheet or tube coatings that may be present; otherwise, the successful
removal of fouling deposits maybe become associated with new tube leaks or increased tube sheet
corrosion that are only observable after the unit has been brought back online.

Chemicals are also used for off-line cleaning of condenser tubes. Several mildly acidic products are
available and will remove more deposit than most other methods; but this option is expensive, takes
longer, and the subsequent disposal of the chemicals-an environmental hazard-creates its own set of
problems. It has also been found quite frequently that some residual material still needs to be removed
by mechanical cleaning methods.

Very few online methods are available to clean condenser tubes, but the best known is the online ball-
cleaning system, which uses recirculated sponge rubber balls as the cleaning vehicle. These systems
often operate for only a part of each day and, rather than maintaining absolutely clean tube surfaces,
tend to merely limit the degree of tube fouling. Unfortunately, although the tubes may become cleaner if
abrasive balls are used, tube wear can become a problem.

There have been, on occasion, problems with the distribution of online sponge balls and their ability to
clean all of the condenser tubes. It is also not uncommon to find that numerous sponge balls have
become stuck in condenser tubes, and these appear among the material removed during off-line
mechanical cleaning operations. For these reasons, the tubes of condensers equipped with online
systems still have to be cleaned off-line periodically, especially if loss of generation capacity is of serious
concern.

Tube Cleaning Innovations

Off-line mechanical cleaning is especially useful where fouling problems exist or are too severe to be
handled by any of the other methods. Obviously, the tool selected has to be the most appropriate for
removing a particular type of deposit. Molded plastic cleaners (pigs) are quite popular for some light silt
applications. Brushes can also be used to remove these soft deposits as well as some microbiological
deposition. Brushes are also useful for cleaning tubes with enhanced surfaces (for example, those that
are spirally indented or finned) or tubes with thin wall metal inserts or epoxy-type coatings. Spring-
loaded metal cleaners have been designed to remove all types of deposits, particularly from tubes that
are fouled with hardened deposits such as mineral scale. All of the aforementioned cleaners are propelled
through the tubes by means of a water pump at approximately 300 psig.

An advantage of using 300 psig water pressures for tube cleaner propulsion is that the fouling material
can be safely collected in a plastic container for later drying, then weighing, to establish the deposit
density. That is followed in many cases by X-ray fluorescent analysis of the deposit cake. This method of
deposit analysis is unique to mechanical cleaning.

Water pressure of 300 psig is very effective for propelling cleaning tools through the tubes while
preventing their exit velocity from rising above a safe level. Some other cleaning systems use air or a
mixture of air and water to propel the cleaner, but air pressure is compressible and dangerous to use.

Case Study No. 1: South Texas Project

As a result of an innovative research program organized to resolve problems encountered in the field and
to develop new products where existing equipment was found to be inadequate, new tube cleaners were
developed. One notable example involves South Texas Project (STP) nuclear power station, which
experienced a serious buildup of calcium carbonate scale in more than 96,000 of its condensers‘ titanium
tubes. Conventional cleaning methods proved to be unsuccessful in removing scale from the inner
diameter of the tubes. Upon further examination, tests revealed that scale thickness ranged from 7.6 mils
to 31.2 mils and averaged 19.06 mils. Approximately 50% of the top 20 rows in waterbox four were
completely blocked with scale.

An innovative scale removal tube cleaner was utilized to restore the tubes to operational cleanliness. The
tube cleaner known as the Cal-Buster (Figure 1) consists of a Teflon body on which are mounted a
number of carbide rotary cutting wheels. These are placed at different angles around the body. The
carbide cutting wheels on the Cal-Buster fracture the crystalline structure of the calcium carbonate,
effectively breaking the bond to the tube wall as the cleaner travels down the tube. A subsequent pass of
a standard C4S cleaner forces the loosened calcium out in long strips.

1. The Cal-Buster removes scale on the inside of condenser tubes. Courtesy: Conco Systems Inc.

Working in teams of eight operators per 12-hour shift, around the clock, it took approximately five and a
half days to clean each waterbox. Each team used four two-gun portable water pump systems that shot
the tube cleaners with 200 to 300 psi water. Three pumps were used on the inlet side and one was used
on the outlet side when back-and-forth shooting was required to free the occasionally stuck cleaner.

In all, seven and a half cubic yards of calcium carbonate, weighing more than 5,000 pounds, were
removed from the 96,234 condenser tubes in Unit 1. Shortly thereafter, the same number of condenser
tubes in Unit 2 were cleaned using the same method, and more than four cubic yards of calcium
carbonate, weighing a little more than 3,000 pounds, was removed. STP personnel believe the tubes in
Unit 2 were less fouled because it had been cleaned with metal-bladed mechanical tube cleaners in 2001,
whereas the tubes in Unit 1 had been cleaned with nylon brushes that left ridges inside the tubes,
promoting faster build-up of debris and scale.

As a result of the condenser tube cleaning and removal of the calcium carbonate scale, STP plans to
establish a preventive maintenance cleaning regimen utilizing one pass of standard metal-bladed tube
cleaners to prevent the severe fouling that was observed and slow the buildup of scale.

Case Study No. 2: Ratcliffe-on-Soar

Another innovation was the development of the stainless steel tube-cleaning brush. The brush is made
from stainless steel and has more than 1,000 contact points per cleaner (Figure 2). The stainless brush
was successfully utilized at the 2,034-MW Ratcliffe-on-Soar power station in the United Kingdom to
remove accumulated macro fouling that consisted mostly of stones that had entered the cooling water
intake due to a breach in a retaining wall. The stones created a low-flow situation that had in turn
rendered the online ball-cleaning system ineffective. In addition to macro fouling, the condenser tubes
had been fitted with thin-walled brass inserts in both the inlet and outlet ends and were in varying
degrees of disrepair.

2. Another tube cleaning option is the stainless steel brush. Courtesy: Conco Systems Inc.

The stainless brush performed exceptionally well due to the inherent flexibility of its design. The cleaning
contractor utilized cleaners that were custom fit with smaller-than-normal trailing end caps that allowed
the cleaner to pass through the inserts and open fully to provide a full 360 degree cleaning of the inner
tube wall.

Following the four-day cleaning at Ratcliffe, performance engineers realized a 3- to 4-mbar improvement
in backpressure at full load, which meant the unit had hit its target vacuum for the first time in many
years. A 3-mbar improvement equates to approximately $200,000 a year savings in efficiency/fuel costs
alone (based on 60% utilization), which is extraordinary, as the unit cleaned hadn‘t been considered a
bad performer.

Determining Circulating Water In-leakage

In addition to innovations in tube cleaning, an awareness of best available technology for the resolution
of circulating water and air in-leakage is also necessary.

Circulating water in-leakage can result from penetrations through the tube walls, from joints between the
tubes and tube sheet that have developed leaks, or from other penetrations between the waterbox and
condenser shell that have lost their integrity. The contaminants in the circulating water change
condensate chemistry and/or pH, tending to increase boiler or steam generator corrosion. They may also
result in increased consumption of water treatment chemicals in an attempt to compensate for the
change in water chemistry. Poor water chemistry can also cause stress corrosion cracking of steam
turbine components.

Even a small circulating water in-leakage into the condensate can be damaging to the unit as a whole
and is often the cause of an unscheduled outage. The length of that outage will depend on the means
adopted to locate the source of the leak quickly; the online and off-line use of tracer gas (SF6) is the
preferred method.
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Condenser In-Leakage Guideline (Condenser In-Leakage
Guideline, EPRI Technical Report TR-112819, 2000) explores these problems in detail and shows how
tracer gas can be used to rapidly locate the source of either water or air in-leakage, allowing the problem
to be corrected quickly.

Methods of In-leakage Detection

The condenser is designed to form a barrier between the cooling water, which flows between the
waterboxes through the condenser tubes, and the shell side of the condenser, in which the exhaust vapor
is collected as condensate. However, even small circulating water leaks will quickly find their way into the
condensate, contaminating it with undesirable dissolved solids, which tend to cause corrosion in the
feedwater heaters, boilers, or steam generators. Online conductivity or salinity instruments are used to
indicate the presence of a leak, and steps should be taken to rectify the problem as soon as possible.
Unfortunately, this usually means taking the unit out of service, which translates into a loss of revenue,
which increases with the length of the outage. Thus, the time taken to locate and correct the problem
can be economically significant. This time can be reduced dramatically if the waterbox associated with
the leak can be identified while the unit is still online.

Among the leak detection methods commonly employed in the past were smoke generators, foam or
plastic wrap applied to the tube sheet, tube pressure testing, and membrane-type rubber stoppers. These
earlier techniques could not confirm whether the leak was confined to only one tube, so adjacent tubes
were often plugged as well (often unnecessarily) as a form of "insurance plugging." All these methods
require that the shell side of the condenser be under vacuum, provided either by the air removal system
or, if the waterbox is divided, by running the unit at low load, taking each waterbox out of service in turn
and checking it for leaks.

Original investigations incorporated the use of helium as a tracer gas. This not only reduced the time
required to locate a leak but also eliminated much of the former uncertainty about whether the actual
source of the leak had been found. However, the lowest detectible concentration of helium is one part
per million above the background level, and helium was often unable to detect small water in-leaks.
Thus, a tracer gas with greater sensitivity was sought, and a technique using SF6 was developed. It was
found that SF6 in concentrations as low as one part per 10 billion (0.1 ppb) can be detected, so small
leaks now can be located with confidence.

The tracer gas method is illustrated in Figure 3, in which a tracer gas monitor, the Fluorotracer Analyzer
(Figure 4), is connected to the off-gas stream leaving the air removal system. A technician is stationed at
the monitor to observe the shape of the trace on the strip chart recorder. A typical response time is 30
to 45 seconds (Figure 5). Another technician is stationed in the waterbox and dispenses the tracer. The
two technicians communicate through two-way sound-powered radios, chosen to avoid RF interference
with other equipment.
3. How to use a tracer gas to inspect a condenser for water in-leakage. Source: Conco Systems Inc.

4. A Fluorotracer Analyzer can be used to determine the concentration of the tracer gas. Courtesy: Conco
Systems Inc.
5. The response time for sensing a tracer gas in the cooling water is usually 30 to 45 seconds. Source:
Conco Systems Inc.

Once the waterbox is open and the tube sheet is exposed, a series of plenums is placed over a section of
the tube sheet, each sized to cover an ever-smaller group of tubes. The technician in the waterbox
injects the tracer gas into the plenum using a portable dispenser (Figure 6). The vacuum within the
condenser allows the tracer gas to pass through any leaks that may be present and eventually appear in
the off-gas stream leaving the air removal system. The technician watching the tracer gas detector
monitor warns the other technician when the presence of the gas is observed. A smaller plenum is then
used, and so on. By using this systematic process of elimination, the problem tube can be rapidly
identified.

6. A technician injects SF6 into the condenser tube bundle prior to a tube leak test. Courtesy: Conco
Systems Inc.

Excess Ambient Air In-leakage

The design of condensers routinely allows for a normally acceptable level of air in-leakage, often
considered to be 1 scfm (2.13 kg/h) per 100 MW, although a new ASME standard (ASME Performance
Test Code on Steam Surface Condensers, PTC.12.2-1988) shows the limit to vary with the number of
condenser compartments and exhaust flow rate. The sources of such leaks can be labyrinth glands on
steam turbine shafts, as well as packing and seals that are less than leak-tight.

As with fouling, air in-leakage affects the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the hotwell, which can
cause corrosion damage to other parts of the unit. Of course, high dissolved oxygen levels can also be
caused by a change in the performance of the air removal equipment, and this should be checked before
undertaking the search for leaks. In many cases, the increased reliance on deaeration taking place within
the condenser makes minimizing air in-leakage even more important.

Air In-Leakage Detection Methods

As mentioned, condensers are designed to perform correctly with the unavoidable and low level of air in-
leakage that is always present. However, greater air in-leakage than this low normal value will increase
the concentration of noncondensables in the shell side of the condenser and cause the thermal resistance
to heat transfer to increase. An increase in backpressure and unit heat rate will result. Air in-leakage may
even rise to the point where the backpressure approaches its operating limit, forcing a reduction in load.

Another effect of high air in-leakage is often an increase in the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the
condensate, a concentration that will tend to increase with lower condensate temperatures. The
consequences are increased corrosion of feedheaters, boilers, and steam generators and/or an increase
in the consumption of water treatment chemicals. Such consequences can create very complex issues
involving the transport of corrosion products. Sometimes the result is accelerated corrosion in carbon
steel high-pressure feedwater heaters and copper alloy feedwater heaters and excessive deposits in
boiler waterwall tubes, superheater, and reheaters as well as in the steam turbine path (published work
in this area is extensive). All of these consequences have a negative impact on unit profitability and
performance.

Using the tracer gas technique, the source of most air in-leaks can be located with the unit online. Once
again, a tracer gas monitor is installed in the off-gas line from the air removal system and the technician
utilizing a handheld tracer gas dispenser roams around the unit in a methodical manner until the
technician at the monitor observes a response. The leak detection survey starts at the turbine deck level
and proceeds from top to bottom of the unit, one deck at a time. Care must be taken when dispensing
the tracer gas so that only one potential source is sprayed at a time; otherwise, the ability to associate a
response with a particular source may become impaired.

Enfield Power Station Air Ingress Survey

An excellent example of how systematic leak detection principles can return significant performance gains
was demonstrated at the E.ON UK Enfield power station, a 400-MW combined-cycle plant with an air-
cooled condenser located just north of London. Enfield had experienced problems related to air in-
leakage dating back to 2000. An increase in steam turbine air ejector discharge rates since November
2005 as well as a gradual loss in vacuum resulted in numerous online leak investigations across the
affected plant areas. Enfield performance engineers conducted vacuum drop tests and noted a leakage
rate greater than 1.55 mbar/min. In addition to the increased leakage rate, feedwater dissolved oxygen
levels were averaging 60 µg/kg.

Enfield retained an experienced leak detection contractor, who systematically tested the vacuum
boundary utilizing helium as the tracer gas. After only two days of testing, the contractor located
numerous leaks, including a sizeable 670-mm crack in an intermediate-pressure bypass pipe. This crack
was located under a considerable amount of lagging and, once exposed, was corrected that day. Upon
sealing the crack, considerable improvement in vacuum was seen (Figure 7).

7. Vacuum improvement occurred almost instantly once a crack was repaired. Source: Conco Systems
Inc.

Following the leak survey, vacuum loss was reduced from 1.55 mbar/min to 0.43 mbar/min, a 72%
improvement. Feedwater dissolved oxygen dropped from 60 µg/kg to 5 µg/kg, an improvement of 91%.
As a result of the efficiency improvements, Enfield estimates that the cost of the leak detection survey
will pay for itself in only two weeks, and the overall yearly savings would be significant.

—Eric H. Fayard is technical marketing manager for Conco Systems Inc.

Q & A > Question Details

Sometimes it is seen that the leaky tube of heat exchanger is used by plugging both sides. I
want to know the percentage of tubes that can be used in plugged condition in running
condition and also the standard for this plugging.

Heat Exchangers

Maintenance

Safety, Health, Environment and Quality (SHEQ)

Thermal Technology

Answers
03/01/2017 A: RAMAKRISHNA DADI, HMEL, dadi2rama@gmail.com
We found many tube leaks in cooling water tube side exchanger due to low velocity
to fouling the tubes and corroded.we normally refinery condition maximum is 10-12%
can only allowed otherwise you need to throughput reduction required like flow also
reduced. second time we found more cross to 15% we procure new tube bundle to
replace for next heat exchanger leak or opportunity condition.
My suggestion for cooling water exchangers back flush sequence weekly to minimize
the tube fouling.
We found recently recycle gas preheater exchanger tubesheet is alloy P11 but we
never observed any tube leaks but after we found after 5 years tube sheet is
corrosion/erosion found in tubesheet. So i strongly recommends any heat exchanger
minimum 2-3 years need to open and hydro jetting for increase the life

10/11/2010 A: Vivek Jain, Panipat Refinery, Indian Oil Corporation Limited,

vivek265@gmail.com
Normally 20% per pass is the maximum limit of the tubes which can be plugged.

06/04/2010 A: Mike Watson, Tube Tech International Ltd, mike.watson@tubetech.com

Typically shell and tube exchangers are built overcapacity of about 30%. As a global
cleaning / inspection specialist we have found up to 30% plugged whether it be due
to blockages that cannot be cleaned or leaky tubes. We are developing an On-Line
Cleaning system for Shell and Tube Exchangers during full production at 20 bar and
300 degrees C. This will ensure tubes are less likely to corrode or erode as the tubes
will be kept clean all the time.

03/04/2010 A: Balasubramanian Iyer, Nexen CNOOC Limited, balasubramanian.n@aol.in

Approximately about 9% of the tubes can be plugged. And if still more than 9-10%
tubes are to be plugged then one can just do some calculations for the heat transfer
and check that the required heat transfer is achieved or not. Generally if conditions
arise for more than 10% of tubes to be plugged then it is better to go for tube
replacement to have same heat transfer efficiency.

03/04/2010 A: Ralph Ragsdale, Ragsdale Refining Courses, ralph.ragsdale@att.net

The percentage of tubes plugged is typically limited by the extent of heat duty loss
you can tolerate. I have never seen more than 25%. I don't know of a standard or
correct procedure for the plugging operation. Obviously, if it is not done well, there
will eventually be leaks again.

Water-Cooled Condensers & Chiller Barrel Fundamentals

Water-cooled condensers and chiller barrels are specialized heat exchangers. They exchange heat by
removing heat from one fluid and transferring it to another fluid.

A water-cooled condenser is a heat exchanger that removes heat from refrigerant vapor and
transfers it to the water running through it. Having the refrigerant vapor condensed on the outside of a
tube does this. In doing so, the vapor condenses and gives up heat to the water running inside the tube.

A chiller barrel works just the opposite. A chiller barrel is actually a direct expansion
evaporator. Chiller barrels evaporate the refrigerant inside the tube. Heat is removed from the water
running through the outside shell of the tubes.

The water-cooled condenser is an important component on the high side of an air-

conditioning/refrigeration system. The chiller barrel is an important component on the low side of a
system.

It is necessary to know four basic things in order to predict how a heat exchanger will perform:

1. Temperature differential (DT)

2. Velocity and pressure drop (V and DP)

3. Fouling

4. Fluid type

For condensers, DT is the condensing temperature minus the incoming water temperature. For
chillers, DT is the incoming water temperature minus the suction temperature. The greater the DT, the
greater the rate of heat exchange in a given time period, usually expressed in BTU‘s/Hr.

Velocity is the speed at which a fluid flows. There is an ideal rate of flow through a heat exchanger for
any fluid. At this ideal flow rate, the fluid mixes with itself in such a way that it produces maximum heat
pick-up. Turbulent flow causes cooler fluid to be constantly moved into contact with the heat surface. If
the flow is too slow, a laminar condition may develop. That is a condition in which only the fluid right
next to the heat exchange wall is being heated, but beyond this very thin layer, the heat can‘t penetrate
to the rest of the fluid. But — the velocity must be limited by another condition, pressure drop (DP). DP
increases with velocity. After a certain point, the amount of energy expended to overcome DP will be
more than any efficiency picked up by increased velocity. High DP and high velocity also produces
problems that greatly shorten the life of a heat exchanger. Impingement corrosion and erosion will
shorten the life to just a few months, if bad enough.

Fouling occurs because most water is not pure. There are many materials dissolved or suspended in
water. These materials coat the surface of the tubes and inhibit heat transfer. Even on the refrigerant
side, oil can coat the surfaces and act as an insulator between the refrigerant and the water. It is
impossible to prevent all fouling, so a fouling factor must be included when sizing a heat exchanger.

The fourth factor, fluid type, has to be taken into consideration. As an example in many chillers, glycols
or brine solutions are used in low temperature applications. Due to a decrease in heat transfer
coefficients, ratings based on water are no longer valid.

Sizing Water-Cooled Condensers

To size a water-cooled condenser, we must first find the total heat of rejection for the system. For an
air-conditioning or high backpressure system, it is safe to size the condenser by nominal horsepower, or
tons of refrigeration load. 12,000 BTU/hr is the normal figure for one ton or horsepower. To this, add
3,000 BTU/hr heat of compression for a total of 15,000 BTU/hr per ton.

For medium and low temperature systems, take the actual load and add 3,000 BTU/hr per horsepower.

For instance, a low temperature three-ton load with a 10 horsepower compressor would be
calculated:

3 tons = 36,000 BTU

3,000 x 10 = 30,000 BTU

total = 66,000 BTU’s.

Note: In medium and low temperature applications, it is prudent to add 10% to the calculated load
for pull-down conditions. This results in 6,600 BTU‘s. Therefore, the
condenser requirement is for 72,600 BTU’s/hr.

Now, a specific condenser can be selected from a manufacturer‘s catalog. Many catalogs will be based
upon the ARI standard of 20° DT between the incoming water temperature and the condensing
temperature. This is because 105°F is used for water-cooled condenser condensing temperature. The
cooling tower water temperature into the condenser is assumed to be 85°F. If the DT is significantly
greater than 20°F, a smaller, less costly unit may work. We can apply the 8/10 rule. For every 10%
increase in DT, there will be an 8% increase in capacity.

Example: If condensing temperature rises to 109°F, a 20% greater DT has been obtained (4°F is 20%
of 20°F). This will be a 16% increase, at a given water flow of capacity (.8 x 20% = 16%).

If the initial DT is less than 20°F, the 9/10 rule can be used. For every 10% decrease in initial
temperature, there will be a 9% decrease in capacity.

For instance, the condensing temperature drops to 101°F. We now have a 20% decrease in DT. This is
an 18% decrease in capacity, again at the same flow rate. This could result in the selection of a larger,
more costly condenser.

There are limitations in applying these rules, and one of them has to do with water velocity. The water
velocity in shell and tube condensers (the most popular design) should be kept less than 8 feet per
second. The velocity is a function of design and water flow rate. Manufacturer‘s catalogs may show
performance graphs that list the maximum GPM a particular condenser can handle. If not otherwise
stated, that rating should be at less than 8 feet per second. If there is any doubt, call the
manufacturer. In fact, most condenser manufacturers, such as Standard Refrigeration Co., have
computer programs to properly size a water-cooled condenser from your specifications.

It‘s also very important to consider the fluids the condenser is going to handle. To handle non-corrosive
refrigerants and water, condensers are made of steel and copper. If ammonia, brine, or other odd
solutions are going to be used, consult the manufacturer. While a water-cooled condenser is primarily a
heat exchanger, the shell and tube condenser is also a receiver. Pump down requirements should be
considered in its selection. If a system needs greater receiver capacity than a particular condenser
selected can supply, receivers can be put in series behind the condenser.

Most condenser ratings printed in manufacturer‘s catalogs take into consideration a ―fouling factor‖. It is
usually expressed as a ―.005 fouling factor‖. ―Fouling‖ is the coating of tubing walls with scale and
dirt. This increases heat transfer resistance and reduces the condenser‘s efficiency. It is impossible to
completely prevent fouling so an allowance is made in condenser ratings for some fouling. Water
conditions vary widely, so it is the user‘s responsibility to keep the condenser clean. Generally speaking,
if the water leaving the condenser is more than 10° greater than the refrigerant condensing temperature,
the condenser needs to be cleaned.

Sizing Chiller Barrels

Chiller barrels function just the opposite of a condenser. Instead of using liquid to cool refrigerant, a
chiller barrel uses refrigerant to cool a liquid. It is an evaporator. Refrigerant evaporates inside tubes as
water flows through a baffled course on the outside of the tubes.

Sizing a chiller barrel depends on the same basic factors as for condensers: DT, velocity DP, fouling,
and fluid types, plus range, approach, and superheat. Range is the difference between the incoming
water temperature and the outgoing water temperature. Approach is the temperature difference
between the outgoing water temperature and the refrigerant temperature. Superheat is the difference
between actual saturated refrigerant temperature and suction gauge temperature. The best way to size
a chiller barrel is by temperature range and GPM flow rate. GPM should be converted to pounds of water
per hour by multiplying GPM by 500 (1 gallon of water is 8.3 pounds. 8.3 x 60 = 498, rounded off to
500.)

Example: Incoming water temperature 55°F, outgoing water temperature wanted 45°F. Therefore,
range is 10°F. Flow rate, 20 GPM. 20 x 500 = 10,000 pounds per hour. 10,000 x 10 = 100,000 BTU‘s
per hour.

If the liquid isn‘t water, the BTU figure has to be adjusted for the heat values of the fluid to find the
true BTU load. A common ―fluid‖ is a mix of glycol and water. The capacity correction factors for glycol
solutions are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.

If we picked a chiller barrel rated at 100,000 BTU/hr but our fluid is a 50/50 mix of glycol and water, the
barrel will be only rated at 60,000 BTU/hr (100,000 x .60). We will need to pick a larger chiller barrel to
get back to the required 100,000 BTU/hr with the 50/50 glycol water mix.

Another way to size a chiller barrel is by compressor capacity. A chiller barrel can only do what a
compressor can pump. If the compressor is rated 200,000 BTU/hr at a certain suction and condensing
temperature, the chiller barrel must have the capacity to handle that.

Sizing for air-conditioning is easiest of all. The barrel can be sized by nominal tons. ARI ratings for air-
conditioning are based on a 10° range, 9° approach, 7° superheat, and a .005 fouling factor.

Sizing chiller barrels for other than standard air conditioning requires careful selection.

The temperature differential is made up of two different components:

1. Range on the DT between incoming and outgoing water.

2. Approach the DT between outgoing water and refrigerant temperature.

These are critical. Changing approach temperature can result in dramatic results. One degree change in
approach means a 15% change in chiller barrel capacity. Five degrees difference can amount to a
300% change! A chiller barrel at a 10°F range and a 4°F approach rated 36,000 BTU will be 164,000
BTU at a 12°F approach. But one never gets something for nothing. Approach does have limits. The
capacity of the compressor will drop by lowering the suction evaporator temperature. Another risk in
wide approach temperatures is freezing. Any evaporator temperature below freezing is in danger of
freeze-up, which destroys the chiller barrel. Systems that do run below freezing with glycol mixes should
be hand fed to prevent dilution of the mix if there are any leaks, so the freezing point remains low.

Also, there is simply a limit on the amount of heat transfer that can occur in any heat exchanger. There
is only so much surface area to work with.

Most manufacturers size their units for 7 or 8°F superheat, although some use 0° superheat. The catalog
literature should specify this. It there is any doubt call the manufacturer.

3°F superheat equals about one degree of approach and although this means a 15% increase in capacity,
too low a superheat may damage the compressor. It is poor practice to go below 5°F superheat, and
then only if an accumulator is used. (Accumulators benefit all systems.)

Flow velocity in a chiller barrel must be less than 4.5 feet per second. Excessive velocity will damage the
chiller barrel. Most manufacturers‘ catalogs will list GPM flow rates using 4.5 F.P.S.

Pressure drops of 8 psig or under are acceptable. If the DP is higher than 8 psig, choose a different
model chiller barrel where the DP will be 8 or less than 8 psig.

Proper freeze protection should be used on all water chillers. A freeze stat set at 34°F on the outlet of
the chiller barrel should always be used. Freeze-up is the primary cause of unit failure. Of course, if the
chiller barrel is located outside, where ambient freezing temperatures may be encountered, some type of
heat must be applied, like heat tape, to keep from freezing the barrel.

Chiller barrel selection is now a simple matter. (For the following example, use Standard Refrigeration
Company‘s ―Evaporator Catalog, Chiller Barrels, Subcoolers, 1994-1995‖.)

A chiller barrel has the following specifications:

1. Must handle 900,000 BTU/hr load

2. Has a 10 psig pressure drop available

3. No suction accumulator

4. Incoming water temperature: 55°F

5. Outgoing water temperature: 45°F

6. The compressor will operate at a 34°F suction temperature

We have: Range = 10°F (55°F Water In - 45°F Water Out)

Approach = 11°F (45°F Water Out - 34° Suction Temperature)

Chiller barrels are usually used where downtime is very costly. Quick serviceability is a plus factor.

Chiller barrel construction is important. Chiller barrels can be more than one circuit barrels. A dual
circuit barrel has two refrigeration inlets and outlets. Each circuit can be used for separate, but similar
loads. Quad circuits are designed for four separate and similar loads.
Chiller barrels will need to be cleaned periodically for proper operation. If chiller barrel price is not the
only consideration, consider purchasing a cleanable barrel with removable heads. If price is the only
major parameter in selecting a chiller barrel, ―sealed‖ or non-serviceable chiller barrels are available in
smaller sizes, up to about 25 tons capacity.

With this in mind, we will use the standard FSX serviceable chiller barrel.

First find the chart for the FSX 10° range. Under the approach column of 11°F, go down until the
appropriate tons is encountered. 900,000 ÷ 12,000 = 75 tons. In this case, it will be an FSX 60, rated at
77.2 tons. The pressure drop (DP) shown is 9.90 psig at 185 GPM. (See note on page 12 on
determining flow rate.) See Figure 2. The FSX60 is the choice since it meets all the specifications.

Figure 2.

To review:

First, determine the load as accurately as possible. Second, get the operating conditions -- fluids, pump
capacities, system accessories, ambient temperatures, etc., and judge how they may affect
performance. Then pick a condenser or chiller barrel that assures good results. If in doubt, call the
manufacturer for help. Now, they all have computer programs to help pick the proper product.

Feature this resource?:

No
TurbineBlade (Nuclear)

(OP)

24 Nov 07 16:46

Hi,

I would like to gather information about factors to consider when plugging the HX tube. What are the factors
that I should considered? The HX is a low pressure and low temperature (<70C) application.

Thanks

Recommended for you

rmw (Mechanical)24 Nov 07 21:53

Please give more information about your application; tubesheet material, tube material, service (e.g. steam,
water, oil, other) accessibility and anything else you can think to tell about it that would help us give you some
'tips'.

rmw

TurbineBlade (Nuclear)

(OP)

26 Nov 07 08:55

HI rmw,

Tube Side
P=0.7 Mpa(g),
Tinlet = 66C,
Flow 525 kg/s
Secondary side
P=1.03 MPa(g),
Tinlet=22C,
Flow : 630 L/s

The tube O.D. is 0.625in,in a triangular pitch arrangement

Tube Material: Stainless Steel

gr2vessels (Mechanical)26 Nov 07 22:15

blade,
There are many type of tube plugs, just google the "exchanger tube plug". For various service and
applications, materials and pressure / temperature conditions, you will find a suitable plug. Some fancy
explosive applications, some rammed up the end of the tube, some welded, etc..
However, the plugging is not a simple issue, you need to understand that the plug could fail also and you must
take that in account. The reply from rmw tried to point you towards the need for you to understand ALL of the
issues associated with plugging a HEX tube. Do you have a full understanding of why did fail the tube joint first
place? One tube leak might herald the catastrophic failure of the whole equipment, hence rmw needs to make
sure he's asking all the relevant questions and you answer to all of them, before committing to an answer
suited to your problem.
Please read again rmw's reply and try to answer correctly all the items he listed. Send as many as possible (or
allowed) details, in order to get the best answer, so you and others in your shoes may learn from the topic.
cheers,
gr2vessels

TXiceman (Mechanical)27 Nov 07 08:09

IS the tube failure in the tube wall or is it at the tube/tube sheet joint?

As noted above, there are several types of tube plugs. The most simpleis the tapered plug that is driven into
the tube ends to isolate the "Bad" tube. Problem with this approach is how hard do you drive the plug. If you
drive it too hard, it will distort the tubes and effect the ajoining tube seals, especially if it is a less than TEMA
tube pitch and thin tube sheets.

Then you start to chase a leak in an ever expanding circle.

Next is how many tubes to plug before you adversly effect the heat transfer. If you have a HE rating program,
you can check the selection based on gropping some of the surface area. Generally you can go to about 5%
of the tubes before you notice a difference. If all of the tubes are plugged in one pass, watch the tube velicity
to make sure you do not creat a errosion problem.

A plugged tube should not be considered a permenate repair, although some run for years. You need to get to
the root of the failure, especially if you have more tubes fail.

Ken

Ken
KE5DFR

TurbineBlade (Nuclear)

(OP)

27 Nov 07 09:40

Hi all,

This HX was designed 30 years ago. The HX is for water cooling application. About 3% of the tubes are to be
plugged to fix a FIV problem. During commissioning dated back 30 yrs, it was found the HX has a FIV problem
when the secondary side flow reaches to 100%.

The uncertainty that I am facing is that I do not know the condition of the HX. The HX was inspected 15 years
ago and eddy current inspection was performed. Everything looked fine. However, things may be different
when we inspect the HX now. Therefore, I am trying find out about industry practise when it comes to the
tube plugging. So far, 5% seems to be the magic number without doing any in-depth analysis. If it is >5%,
what are the things that one should be aware.

Tube sheet material: SA 240 TP304

thanks

TXiceman (Mechanical)27 Nov 07 15:34

As you plug tubes, you loose heat transfer surface and you also will increase tube velocity. Generally you want
to keep tube velocity under 7 to 8 fps with 5 to 6 being preferred.
You can calculate the heat transfer surface loss from the number of tubes dropped. In your heat transfer
equation
Q=U*A*LMTD, assume U is constant and assume your LMTD is constant. With the reduced area, you can
calculate the reduce heat transfer duty.
With fewer tubes, and a reduction in surface, the LMTD will drop a bit as well. If you take more tubes out in
one pass than another, becare of the tube velocity in the pass wit the most dropped tubes. In order to keep
water velocity within range, you may have to drop the flow on the chiller a bit.
Like I said, if you have access to a program line HTRI or B-JAC, you cam run the exchange with different tube
counts to see how it is effected.
You can predict the out come but it is hard to hit it 100% on the money.

Ken
KE5DFR

rmw (Mechanical)27 Nov 07 20:21

Your question is more understandable now. As a general rule of thumb 5% is the plugging margin. However,
30 years ago some HX's (this sounds like a FWH or a ACW to me) were designed with plenty of excess margin
on the pressure drop sizing. I'd get the mfgr or a competitor of the mfgr to run the calculations if you can't.
However in either case, TXiceman has hit on the limiting factor and that is the velocity limit of the SS tubing
which is 7-8 fps. Plug until you reach that limit. Make sure you don't have to account for any high flow
scenarios.
Material wise, you will be safe with tapered SS plugs at this low pressure. No use to go to heroics like
explosive or hydraulic; way too over kill.
For the tubes that you are plugging for the FIV reasons, are you planning to put a rod in the plugged tubes (at
least in the FIV zone) or stake the tubes in the zone that is experiencing the FIV?
If you are plugging otherwise good tubes, you should consider puncturing the tubes before plugging.

rmw

MJCronin (Mechanical)4 Dec 07 12:24

Turbineblade...

Plugging of S&T HXs is sometimes more of an art than a science. You can easily make more problems than you
currently have....
It may be advisable to call in an expert and get his opinion.
There are two individuals who have a lot of experience in this area:
Carl F Andreone & Stanley Yokell ( The MGT Consultin network)

http://www.mgt-inc.com

Consider the purchase of this book:

http://www.amazon.com/Tubular-Heat-Exchanger-Inspection-Maintenance/dp/0070017786

-MJC

Stanman1 (Mechanical)5 Feb 08 13:47

Thanks to the individual who suggested you contact Carl Andreone or me (Stanley Yokell). As one writer
suggested, tube plugging is not always a simple matter. If they ever get around to it, Chemical
Engineering will publish a recently written article on Tube Plugging and Sleeving. Look for it.

In the meantime, if you would like to talk over your problem give me or Carl a holler.

Stan Yokell

5 Troubleshooting Tips For Tubular Heat Exchangers

Like all equipment, tubular heat exchangers can encounter problems during their lifetime. Leaks can
occur, but what is most critical is if your end product becomes contaminated. We examine some typical
problems, and what you can do to avoid them.

Shortcuts can jeopardize food quality

The last thing you want is a problem with a heat exchanger that holds up operations or affects product
quality. Proper maintenance and cleaning can prevent many typical problems.

―Respect the recommended procedures!‖ is the best advice for customers from Jimmy Moons, Cluster
Product Manager for Heat Transfer in Cluster Europe and Central Asia for Tetra Pak. He sometimes
observes how service engineers at the customer carry out the services themselves and make critical
mistakes, such as fitting the wrong gasket. And sometimes services are not carried out on time or
shortcuts are introduced for the recommended cleaning-in-place procedures. ―Shortcuts can jeopardize
food quality,‖ he says.

Sometimes he sees tubular heat exchangers used for applications they were not designed for. ―Whenever
you change the recipe or product, it is always a good idea to seek our advice to hear if this is possible,‖
Moons recommends.

Five typical problems with installed tubular heat exchangers – and how to avoid them

Based on his experience, he has identified five typical problems with installed tubular heat exchangers –
and has advice on how to avoid them.
1. Leakages due to poor service

Tubular heat exchangers typically have a service interval of 6,000 running hours, or two years. The
service should be carried out regularly at this interval by a qualified service engineer. Using trained
service engineers helps avoid mistakes like incorrectly replacing old gaskets, which can lead to leakages.

2. Leakages due to incorrect gaskets

A Tetra Pak tubular heat exchanger has a large number of gaskets or O-rings. Different types are used
for different places, but they may look almost identical. Some are made to resist high temperatures and
some are not. It is important to use original gaskets with the right rubber quality and marked with a
product label and number for easy identification. Then follow the instructions carefully. The right gasket
has to be placed in the right section of the unit for a heat exchanger to function properly without
leakage.

3. Leakages due to corrosion

Though this problem is fairly uncommon, it does happen, and when it does it can be very serious. For
most food and beverage applications without salt, a heat exchanger made of high-grade 316 stainless
steel is sufficient. But suppose you decide later to use the same heat exchanger for processing products
with certain concentrations of salt. The salty solution can attack this form of stainless steel, especially in
higher concentrations and at high temperatures. The result can be disastrous if a hole forms and
incoming product on the shell side becomes mixed with outgoing product on the tube side. Always inform
the manufacturer if you are planning to process salty solutions such as sport drinks, salty types of
yoghurt drinks or sauces containing salts. In that case, an alloy of stainless steel containing a higher
content of molybdenum (SMO) is recommended.

4. Contamination due to poor cleaning

Proper cleaning according to the recommendations ensures the sterility of heat exchangers. If you have a
cleaning detergent and cleaning regime that works well, don‘t change it! Just by changing the cleaning
agent or cutting the cleaning time, you may be able to save money – but the cleaning could become less
efficient, resulting in the build-up of residues. That means unwanted bacteria can multiply and that you
are not sterilizing the equipment properly. Likewise, you can run into problems if the cleaning is not
performed at regular intervals. Therefore to avoid problems, cleaning of the heat exchanger should
always be performed according to the manufacturer‘s recommended programme for cleaning-in-place.
Poor cleaning can jeopardize food quality.

5. Pressure drop is too high

There can be a number of reasons for an increase in the pressure drop. Perhaps one ingredient, such as
a starch derivative, has been replaced by starch from another supplier, and the viscosity of the product
has changed. Ask the manufacturer for advice when you change the product recipe and they should be
able to upgrade or modify the heat exchanger to handle a more viscous product. Whenever selecting a
suitable tubular heat exchanger, it is important for the manufacturer to know the exact physical
properties of the product. Tetra Pak can often do specific tests in its labs to arrive at the exact viscosity
properties of a customer‘s product before designing a heat exchanger to handle it. In this way, the flow
rate can be maintained without unexpected increases in pressure drop.
Fluid-induced vibration in heat exchanger tube bundles

Project coordinator(s)

Dr. Craig Meskell

Email: cmeskell@tcd.ie
Tel: +353 1 896 1455

Research Student(s)

Mr. Daniel Keogh

Description

Watch an Innovation Academy video about this research on www.youtube.com/watch?v=QOQdROO4nPI

A key feature of the Pressurized Water Reactor is that water is heated under pressure to ~300˚C in the
core. The pressurization prevents the water boiling. This is called the ―primary coolant‖. Typically the
reactor core transfers 5GW of heat power to the coolant. This energy is then transferred to the secondary
coolant which is also water, but this is allowed to boil. This heat transfer occurs in very large heat
exchangers called Steam Generators (SG). The SG consists of literally hundreds of long, slender tubes,
typical ~19mm diameter, with a length of the order of 10m. The hot primary coolant flows inside the
tubes, while the secondary coolant flows across the bundle of tubes. The combination of flexible tubes
(the tubes have an aspect ratio larger than a guitar string), and highly turbulent, energetic cross flow
means that the structure is prone to flow induced vibration. As the primary and secondary coolant must
be kept separate, the tubes must not rupture. Thus, the flow induced vibration represents a major
operational and design constraint. For example, a particular type of flow induced vibration called
fluidelastic instability places an upper limit on the flow velocity, and hence heat exchange rates and
hence electricity generating capacity of the entire plant. In terms of designing for life extensions or
uprating, or for longer design life in new build of 60 years, the long term fretting wear damage
associated with flow-induced vibration is the key limiting factor. The critical nature of the problem means
that a very conservative engineering approach to predicting and managing flow-induced vibration in
nuclear steam generators has been adopted. However, as in any engineering system, an overly
conservative approach embeds large inefficiencies.

In both CCGT and coal plant, the heat exchanger is a steam generator, similar to the nuclear steam
generators discussed above, but with combustion gas on the hot side. Concentrating solar plant, which
are currently under ongoing development will use a combination of molten slat and pressurized water to
raise steam for the generating turbines. The performance and reliability of the heat exchanger is
important to the overall efficiency, reliability and economics of these facilities, and so this work will have
wide applicability in energy systems.

Dan is currently on a 6-month research visit in École Polytechnique de Montréal, Canada working
with Professor Njuki Mureithi, studying two-phase flow in nuclear steam generators with the intention of
improving theoretical models of flow-induced vibration.

Funding Body
HEA PTRLI GREP

Heat Exchangers Shell and Tube

Tubeside Repair by Plugging ASME PCC-2

Repair of tubes may be accomplished by plugging the tube at the tubesheet with a welded or mechanical
attachment.

All tubes that are plugged should be pierced to provide for venting and draining. Piercing of each tube
prevents possible plug blowout and permits the validation of the integrity of the tube plug. Large
temperature differential between tubeside and shell side may require the tube to be cut in two.

For tube piercing, internal tube cutters are commercially available.

One of the most overlooked best practices for plugging a tube is to vent the tube beforehand. Tube
venting is a process by which a small puncture is made inside of the tube, releasing any pressure or
chemicals that may be trapped inside. The term positive venting refers to the intentional creation of a
pierced hole to vent the tube. The hole should be of sufficient size so that deposits cannot seal it while
the heat exchanger is still in service.

Source for text and image: Elliott Tool Technologies

Tapered Plugs

Friction fit tapered plugs (Picture below) shall only be used in services that meet all of the following
conditions, unless an engineering evaluation is performed indicating the acceptability of these plugs in
other services:

 Shell-side operating pressure 14 bar (200 psi) or less

 Shell-side operating temperature 205°C (400°F) or less

 Tube-to-tubesheet joints are expanded and not welded

NOTE: Inspection of the expanded tube for tube thinning should be made to ensure that installation of
the plug does not further damage the tube leading to seal failure between the plug and the tubes.

 Tapered plugs that are installed where tubes are not pierced can present a serious safety hazard.
If the tube cannot be pierced, the tube should be pulled or other measures should be taken to
ensure personnel protection, such as welding the plug to the tubesheet and draining all liquids
from the tube being plugged.
Mechanical plugs

Mechanical plugs (Picture below) should be considered in situations where friction fit tapered plugs are
not appropriate for the pressure and/or temperature of service or other mechanical/environmental
conditions. These types of plugs have been used in services of up to 483 bar (7.000 psi) and 595°C
(1.100°F). Mechanical plugs are typically installed by a pneumatic or hydraulic system. Other styles of
plugs may be considered for higher pressures.
Consideration shall also be given to the following:

1. Tubes with internal surface severely corroded or cracked

2. When the tube and the plug have dissimilar metallurgy

3. Installation in severely corrosive service

4. Condition of the mechanical joint of the tube to tubesheet in rolled tube situations

A plug map should be developed to record the number and location of tubes that have been plugged.
Additionally, the number of tubes, cumulative number of tubes versus the duration, should be charted.
When the sharp turn in tube failure numbers occurs, replacement of the tube bundle should be
considered. See image below for example chart.

Sample Chart: Number of Tube Failures by Month

Tracking of pressure loss due to tube pluggage should be considered as some exchanger types cannot
function properly beyond certain tubeside pressure losses. Provisions for internal bypass should be
considered if repair is not performed in order to prevent failure of pass partitions. Proper design of this
bypass can be determined from industry references.

Reality and Practical Side

The Pop-A-Plug® image below system is a mechanical tube plug to seal leaking or degraded high-
pressure heat exchanger tubes. The design ob-jective was to produce a fast and simple to in-stall
mechanical tube plug with the same or bet-ter installed stability than a friction fit or welded plug.
The Pop-A-Plug® system eliminates the need for hammering or welding tube plugs. The system is long
proven in fossil fuel and nuclear power generation stations. The Pop-A-Plug® heat exchanger tube
plugging system is the only plug that features external and internal serrated rings designed to maintain a
leak-tight seal un-der extreme thermal and pressure cycling.

The Pop-A-Plug® is installed using a controlled force, which protects against damage to tube sheet
ligaments and the adjacent tube sheet joints.

Thus the life of your heat exchanger is ex-tended and costs are reduced when you need to re-tube.

Another advantage is the Pop-A-Plug® system takes only minutes to install.

The system is available in a wide array of materials and can be matched to the tube or tube sheet it is
installed in. Matching the material eliminates differences in thermal expansion rates and ensures a perfect
seal is maintained during temperature cycles experienced by the heat exchanger.

®Pop-A-Plug is a registered trademark of EST Group, Hatfield, PA, USA

1. Pop-A-Plug® Heat Exchanger Tube Plugs

2. Installation Training - Pop-A-Plug® P2 Heat Exchanger Tube Plugging System
3. Pop-A-Plug® Tube Plug Installation, 6000 PsiG Test, and Removal

Heat Exchanger Tube Plugs

Extend the life of your heat exchanger by sealing the ends of leaking tubes with heat exchanger tube
plugs. Uniform taper and smooth surface finish help to ensure positive sealing with minimum force
required for installation.
Specifications

Materials Alloy 400, alloy 600, brass 360, 1214 carbon steel, 316 stainless steel

Tube Outside Diameter 1/2 through 1 in.

Tube Wall Gauge 11 to 14, 12 to 17, 15 to 20

View and purchase our most widely used products.

Discover more about how Swagelok products can work for you. Browse our catalogs or locate a sales
and service center.

Safe Product Selection: The complete catalog contents must be reviewed to ensure that the
system designer and user make a safe product selection. When selecting products, the total
system design must be considered to ensure safe, trouble-free performance. Function,
material compatibility, adequate ratings, proper installation, operation, and maintenance are
the responsibilities of the system designer and user.

Heat Exchangers – Frequently Asked Questions & Answers

Heat exchangers can be complicated and complex pieces of equipment. We have compiled a list of
frequently asked questions that have come from work we‘ve done over the years. Hopefully, our answers
to these questions will help you take the correct course of action for your heat exchanger, whether it be
a service, repair or replacement.

If you have any questions you don‘t see below, please contact us and we will be more than happy to
help.

How much does it cost to repair a heat exchanger?

This could range from £100 to £1,000,000. This first question is really difficult to answer because every
type of repair is different. It‘s a case of ‗how long is a piece of string‘. The things to take into
consideration are:

1. The type of damage to the heat exchanger

2. The extent of the damage to the heat exchanger

3. The cost of the parts required to repair the heat exchanger

4. The cost of the labour required to perform the repair

What you need to consider before repairing your heat exchanger

Sometimes a repair might be more expensive than a replacement. Therefore if your heat exchanger
breaks down, you should consider the following…
 1. How old is your heat exchanger?

Depending on the type of heat exchanger, if it is older than, let‘s

say 10 years, it may be worth considering a replacement. Getting
it repaired might just be papering over the cracks. If your heat
exchanger is relatively new, then a repair is probably the way to
go unless there is a major, irreparable problem with it.

2. How is your heat exchanger performing?

If you find that your heat exchanger is not performing well under
normal function, again you may want to consider a replacement.
It might not be worth paying for the repair. To assess the
performance of your heat exchanger we can perform a number
of tests. For example, a pressure test to see if there are any
leaks; a flow-rate test to see if there are any blockages; an
ultrasonic test to check the wear of the tube material.

3. How often does your heat exchanger break down?

If your heat exchanger continually breaks down, again you might want to assess whether it‘s worth
repairing or whether you should just replace it.

What you should do next…

Get in touch with us and before you take any action, we can provide full testing, analysis and
recommendations. We will carry out a full inspection and, where required, pressure, flow-rate and
ultrasonic testing to establish the scale of the damage to your heat exchanger.

How long do heat exchangers last?

A heat exchangers lifespan depends on a number of factors. A typical heat exchanger should last for
around 10 years in full working order. However, this depends on the following factors:

 How often you have your heat exchanger cleaned

 The working environment where your heat exchanger is in use

 Whether your heat exchanger is being used for it‘s original purpose

 How often your heat exchanger breaks down

 The amount of strain your heat exchanger is under

A well designed heat exchanger working in a suitable environment will last for many years. However if
the unit is working in an environment that it is not suited to, or originally designed for, it can fail in a
short period of time.

What happens when a heat exchanger fails?

Heat exchangers can break down for a variety of reasons. These can include blockages, corrosion,
erosion or leakages. These types of problems can result in poor performance or, in the worst case
scenario, a complete breakdown.
Below are the most common reasons for a heat exchanger breakdown.

Unblocking a turbine condenser heat exchanger

using rotating brushes and water feed to remove
debris

Reason for breakdown: blocked heat

exchanger

A heat exchanger can easily get blocked due to

mineral deposits coming from the water, or oil which
carbonises and causes a build up in the tubes. In
most cases you would see a gradual decline in the
performance of your heat exchanger, meaning
reduced efficiency.

How we deal with a heat exchanger blockage

Firstly we will perform tests to diagnose the issue.

For example, we would perform a flow-rate test to see how much water is passing through your heat
exchanger. If this result is poor, it usually indicates a blockage. If that‘s the case, we would then go
about finding the blockage and clearing it, as well as trying to identify the root cause of the issue. This
work can be carried out on your premises/vessel or we can take your unit away and do the work at our
base in Sheffield.

Click on the YouTube video below to see an example of how AKS deal with a blocked heat
exchanger. (You may need to accept YouTube’s privacy terms to view the video).

Reason for failure: corroded/eroded heat exchanger

Another common reason why a heat exchanger may fail is due to corroded or eroded parts. A heat
exchanger works hard to move substances such as oil or water from one place to another. Therefore
erosion and corrosion are commonplace after a period of time.

How we deal with heat exchanger corrosion and erosion

Following an initial inspection and diagnosis, we would identify the corroded or eroded tubes and replace
them. This is the most cost-effective way to deal with this issue. We provide a variety of tubes to suit all
types of heat exchangers, in materials such as cupro-nickel and copper.

Reason for failure: leaking heat exchanger

A leaking heat exchanger is an inefficient heat exchanger or, in some cases, a broken one. Your heat
exchanger needs to operate at a certain pressure level in order to do its job correctly, so inevitably a leak
can cause problems.

How we deal with heat exchanger corrosion and erosion

We can identify a leak using pressure testing. We use a hydraulic pump with calibrated gauges to test the
pressure levels of your heat exchanger. Once we find the root and location of the problem, we either
repair or replace that particular part, leaving your heat exchanger in full working order.

How often should a heat exchanger be cleaned?

It is good working practice to service, inspect and clean your heat exchangers every 12 months. However
subject to the working conditions, this may be every 24 months.

Each system is different and it is important that you identify the cleaning period for your heat exchanger
to ensure continued efficient performance. If you are in any doubt, please contact a specialist who can
help you with this.

How often should heat exchanger tubes be replaced?

This completely depends on the working environment of the heat exchanger.

If the unit is working in a corrosive environment, such as in sea (salt) water, or if the materials used to
build it have not been selected correctly, then replacement could be a matter of weeks or months.

A well designed heat exchanger with good material selection can result in many years of working life
before tubes require to be changed.

Here is a complete list of the factors that can affect the lifespan of your heat exchanger tubes:
  Working environment

 Exposure to corrosion (ie salt water)

 Materials used to manufacture

 Frequency of use

 Workload

 Frequency of cleaning & maintenance

 Quality of workmanship

 Working efficiency

What if my heat exchanger needs to be replaced?

If the worst case scenario occurs and your heat exchanger needs to be replaced, you still have a number
of options. Before replacing a heat exchanger, we will always do our best to repair it. However in some
cases, it is more cost-efficient to simply replace it altogether.

Options when replacing a heat exchanger:

1. Replace with a like-for-like, identical original unit – the most common-sense way to replace your
heat exchanger.

2. Use an alternative supply replacement unit – if you can find a like-for-like replacement, we could
source or manufacture one.

3. Use an upgraded unit – you may take the opportunity to improve your system by making an
upgrade

How much does a new heat exchanger cost?

Again this is difficult to answer. It could range from £100 to £1,000,000, depending on the unit. There is
no way to estimate this without performing a survey first.

February 24th, 2020

HOW TO CLEAN AND MAINTAIN YOUR HEAT EXCHANGER

 HEAT EXCHANGER,

 CLEAN-IN-PLACE

Listen Now

Heat exchangers are designed to optimize heat transfer from one gas or liquid to another during
processing and Clean-in-place (CIP). Degraded heat exchanger performance from fouling or aging results
in extra operating and energy costs to compensate for gaps in the target temperature. Cleaning and
maintenance of heat exchangers is therefore important to keeping systems running efficiently. Regular
maintenance ensures equipment is in working condition and helps prevent emergency
repairs. The cost of cleaning a heat exchanger is small compared to the cost of lost production should a
heat exchanger require an unscheduled shutdown.
 Product or chemical deposits on heat-transfer surfaces weaken an exchanger‘s heat-transfer capacity and
must be cleaned away regularly to maintain high performance and prevent disruption of processing. Heat
exchanger fouling, or the unwanted accumulation of deposits on heat-transfer surfaces, can result in
several costs:

1. Production loss from shutdowns

2. Maintenance costs for removal of heavy fouling deposits

3. Replacement of plugged equipment

Alfa Laval Frontline Heat Exchanger

Deposits that affect heat exchanger performance occur as fouling and aging.

 Fouling is the freshly deposited material on contact surfaces

 Aging occurs close to the surface of heat transfer components

Three key factors play into the frequency and degree of fouling:

 Fluid temperature

 Nature of the fluid

 Fluid velocity

1. FLUID TEMPERATURE

Water can produce scaling from minerals such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Salts deposit on the heat
exchanger surface with increases in temperature. Similarly with increase in temperature
during food processing, biological growth can occur.

2. NATURE OF THE FLUID

During milk processing, for example, fouling leads to a rise in pressure drop across the exchanger by
reducing flow from the growth of deposits. In dairy industries, proteins, fats, sugars, and minerals from
 milk and dairy products that can come out of solution and deposit on heat exchanger surfaces and foul
channels.

3. FLUID VELOCITY

In most cases, fouling decreases at higher fluid velocities because increasing flow velocity increases the
fluid shear stress which causes more removal of deposits. For particulate fouling, increasing the flow
velocity may completely eliminate fouling.

But for stronger deposits, increasing the flow velocity beyond a particular point may not decrease fouling
significantly, and in the case of very strong deposits, increasing flow velocity may not have any effect.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

In this article, we outline cleaning procedures for the most commonly occurring types of fouling and
aging in hygienic processing:

 Incrustation: the accumulation of a crust or coating of processed fluids, minerals, or cleaning agents on
the surface of heat exchanger parts.

 Scaling: a type of incrustation caused by calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, and silicates.

 Sediment: comes from corrosion products, metal oxides, silt, alumina, and diatomic organisms
(microalgae) and their excrement.

 Biological growth: Sources of biological fouling include bacteria, nematodes, and protozoa.

Alfa Laval M Series Heat Exchanger

HOW DO I KNOW WHEN TO CLEAN A HEAT EXCHANGER?

You can tell when it’s time to clean your heat exchanger when the exchanger doesn’t
achieve the correct product temperatures for heating or cooling. The incorrect temperatures
result from plate surface fouling that reduces temperature transfer.
 You might also see pressure drops higher than specified because fouling is constricting the channel
passage and increasing fluid velocity.

CLEANING-IN-PLACE (CIP)

Cleaning-In-Place (CIP) equipment can clean plate heat exchangers without disassembly. CIP is a
combination of time, temperature and concentration. CIP provides both chemical and mechanical
cleaning to the heat exchanger. If system configuration prohibits CIP, operators must perform manual
cleaning.

CIP cleaning of heat exchangers typically includes several goals:

 Cleaning lime deposits

 Passivating surfaces to reduce susceptibility to corrosion

 Neutralizing cleaning chemicals before draining.

THE IMPORTANCE OF FLOW RATE

The proper flow rate ensures effective mechanical action of fluids during cleaning. Some manufacturers
recommended approximately 1 ft/sec velocity across heat exchanger plates, but requirements vary by
manufacturer.

The flow rate during the cleaning of the product side should always be at least the same as
the production’s flow rate. An increased flow rate may be required in some cases--for example, in
milk sterilisation and the processing of viscous liquids or liquids containing particles.

RECOMMENDED LIMITS FOR CLEANING SOLUTIONS

• 5% by volume caustic at a maximum of 70°C

• 0.5% by weight acid solution at a maximum of 70°C

Manufacturers can provide more detailed information about cleaning and sterilization for specific
equipment.

BASIC CHEMICAL CLEANING PROCESS

Chemical cleaning in CIP offers several advantages:

 Quicker cleaning process

 Less labor intensity

 Cleans components that mechanical cleaning can‘t do

Operators typically follow four steps in the chemical cleaning process in CIP:

1. Alkaline clean: removes build-up of organic materials

2. Rinse: generally completed with a high-flow water flusher to remove loose debris and remaining residue
from the alkaline step

3. Acid cleaning: helps dissolve and soften fouling materials more deeply

4. Final rinse
CHOOSING THE RIGHT CLEANING AGENTS

Selecting the right chemicals for cleaning heat exchangers is important to ensure proper cleaning and to
avoid damaging exchanger components. For example, the following solvents and other cleaning agents
can damage heat exchanger plates and gaskets:

 Ketones such as Acetone, Methyletylketone, Methylisobutylketone

 Esters such as Ethylacetate, Butylacetate

 Halogenated hydrocarbons such as Chlorothene, Carbon tetrachloride, Freons

 Aromatics such as Benzene, Toluene

CLEANING AGENTS TO USE, BY PURPOSE

INCRUSTATION, SCALING

Cleaning incrustation or scaling is a process of removing calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, or silicates
from plate surfaces. Cleaning agents must be compatible with both the plate metal and the composition
of gaskets.

In the case of titanium and stainless steel plates, never use hydrochloric acid. Also, never use water of
more than 300 ppm of chlorine during the preparation of cleaning solutions. Chlorine, commonly used as
growth inhibitor in cooling water systems, reduces the corrosion resistance of stainless steels,
including Hastelloy, Incoloy, Inconel and SMO. Chlorine weakens the protection layer of these steels,
making them more susceptible to corrosion attacks than they otherwise should be. In every case where
chlorination of non-titanium equipment cannot be avoided, you must consult your equipment supplier.

REMOVING SEDIMENT

Sediment most commonly consists of metal Oxides, silt,

Alumina, and Diatomic organisms and their excrement.
Sediment accumulates because heat releases minerals and
other particles from fluids during processing cycles, and those
settle and deposit on heat transfer surfaces.

You should never use hydrochloric acid with stainless steel or

titanium plates because the acid causes general corrosion,
pitting, and stress corrosion cracking.

REMOVING BIOLOGICAL GROWTH

When using heat exchangers to increase the temperature of

processed foods, biological growth such as bacteria,
nematodes, and protozoa can occur. Removing the growth
requires the same attention to plate and gasket composition as for incrustation.

CLEANING A SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

 Shell-and-tube heat exchangers have
comparatively low internal fluid velocities so
are more susceptible to fouling than plate
heat exchangers. To maintain efficient
operation, keep the heat transfer
surfaces of the heat exchanger clean.

Cleaning chemicals depend on the same

variables for a plate-and-frame heat
exchanger, and cleaning compounds must be
compatible with the metallurgy of the heat
exchanger.

In all cleaning processes, operators must use proper protective equipment, such as safety boots, safety
gloves and eye protection, to avoid injury.

Alfa Laval Aalborg MX

MAINTAINING A PLATE AND FRAME HEAT EXCHANGER

To keep the heat exchanger in good condition, regular maintenance is required. In addition to cleaning
plates on a regular basis, gaskets must be replaced as needed to prevent leaks.

Alfa Laval Baseline Heat Exchanger

REGASKETING

For clip-on gaskets, the regasketing process is as easy as taking the current gasket off and clipping a new
one on.

FOR GLUED GASKETS

1. Remove the old gasket

 2. Clean the sealing surface until it is free of foreign matter such as fat, grease or other soil.

3. Check the new gasket and remove rubber residual before attaching.

4. Clip on a new gasket or apply glue as required by gasket type

5. Perform heat treatment to set the glued gasket according to manufacturer‘s instructions.

The new gasket is wrongly positioned if it rises out of the gasket groove or is positioned outside the
groove.

WHY DOES MY PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER LEAK?

When closing a heat exchanger after maintenance, the plate pack dimension must be within the
manufacturer‘s specified tolerance to ensure proper operation. Overtightening can damage the plates,
while under tightening can cause the plates to leak.

Illustration: Tightening bolts as needed to maintain the correct dimension A. Tighten the four bolts (1),
(2), (3), (4) evenly until dimension A has been reached. Measure dimension A during tightening.

ADDITIONAL MAINTENANCE

Pressure testing must be performed by a person authorized according to local laws and regulations.

A hydrostatic leakage test confirms the internal and external sealing function of the heat exchanger. The
specialist tests one media side at a time with the other side open to the ambient pressure. In a multi-
pass set up, all sections of the same side must be tested simultaneously.

Regular maintenance keeps the heat exchanger in good working orders and makes opening
and closing more efficient.

 Keep the carrying bar and guiding bar clean with paraffin oil.

 Keep the tightening bolts cleaned for ease of opening, closing, and adjusting the A dimension.

 Lubricate threads of tightening bolts with an EP (extreme pressure) grease. For example, use
Gleitmo 800 or its equivalent.

 Grease the suspension wheels on the pressure plate and the connection plates.
 If stainless steel surfaces of the frame plate, pressure plate and connection plates are glass blasted, they
should be cleaned with a cloth wetted with paraffin oil.

HEAT EXCHANGER MONITORING

Heat exchange monitoring helps to keep the heat exchange system running effectively

1. Inlet and outlet temperature for cold fluid

2. Inlet and outlet temperature for hot fluid

3. Mass flow rates for both cold and hot fluids

4. Pressure change across the heat exchanger for both hot and cold fluids

How Ultrasound Technology Was Used To Locate Low-Level Leaks in Heat Exchangers

Adrian Messer | Manager of US Operations, UE Systems

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How Ultrasound Technology Was Used To Locate Low-Level Leaks in Heat Exchangers

Ultrasonic leak detection has been used for a variety of applications ranging from energy reduction by
locating compressed air leaks to quality assurance inspections such as locating wind noise and water
leaks in automobiles. The secret to success is to understand what type of leak produces a detectable
ultrasound and what does not, along with the techniques that can be used for effective leak
identification. Once understood, there are instances where the limits of detection can be enhanced to
help locate a leak in difficult situations.

Typically, ultrasound leak detection is used to locate leaks where the pressure differential is enough to
produce a turbulent flow as the gas moves from the high-pressure to the low-pressure side of a
leak. Most often any leak with a rate below 1×10-3 std. cc/sec will not generate a detectable, turbulent
flow. For this reason, the majority of leak applications for ultrasound are limited to leaks above this
threshold. One of the advantages of ultrasound is that leak detection is not limited to a specific fluid. The
technology is open to identifying leaks in all types of gas and even fluid systems.

When confronted with a potentially difficult situation that involved locating low-level leaks in a particular
shell-in-tube heat exchanger they were fabricating, Dan Rennert of Mason Manufacturing decided to
investigate ultrasound. Having used the technology for a previous employer, Dan was aware of the
potential for success as well as the downside. He understood that ultrasound instruments detect a
turbulent flow and that to produce this turbulence, the flow rate would have to be in excess of some of
the types of leaks he suspected he‘d need to find. He had performed a standard hydrostatic test on the
exchanger and did locate several leaks but felt there might be more, smaller leaks present.

Mason Manufacturing fabricates a variety of pressure vessels and heat exchangers for chemical, food and
grain processors. Some of their clients are very demanding in terms of the quality of products they order.
They expect Mason Manufacturing to deliver a leak-free product, and Mason in turn pursues all options to
meet these demands.
Dan considered utilizing helium testing, which he felt would find smaller leaks than ultrasound typically
can sense. His concern was two-fold: the proximity of the tubes and the time it would take to identify the
leaks. Typically helium detection is time consuming in that the sensor has to be carefully manipulated
around the test area. In addition there is the potential for confusion should the helium from one site drift
to the sensor as it is scanning an adjacent site. In this instance the tubes in the heat exchanger were in
close proximity. There was a 3/8″ distance between tubes, which could make the identification of a
particular leaking tube difficult. This was a large exchanger with over 8,000 tubes in a 15-16 foot
diameter tube sheet with the tubes extending several inches from the tube sheet. Manipulating a sensor
around this configuration could take days to complete.

Since Dan had decided to investigate the use of ultrasound leak detection for this application, he
consulted Mr. Mark Goodman, VP of Engineering at UE Systems. Mr. Goodman agreed with Mr. Rennert‘s
concern that the leaks might not produce enough detectable ultrasound since they were slow forming
and low level. He suggested that they use a method called Liquid Leak Amplification. This incorporates
the use of a surfactant with low surface tension. The heat exchanger is pressurized and the liquid is
applied to sections of the tube sheet. This is similar in nature to the typical ―bubble test‖ with one
exception. The fluid used has low surface tension so that a low-flow leak will form a bubble that will
burst almost immediately. This produces a detectable ultrasound. Standard soap and commercially
formulated bubble test solutions when used on low level leaks (typically below 1×10-3 cc/sec) will take a
much longer time to form bubbles and an even longer time for the bubble to burst. Plus, with unusual
configurations such as in this case where the tubes extended beyond the tube sheet, the bubbles would
not be seen and, therefore, the leak would not be detected.

Mr. Rennert decided to try the Liquid Leak Amplification method. He pressurized the heat exchanger to
about 50 PSI and sprayed the Liquid Leak Amplifier on four-foot-square sections of the exchanger tube
sheet. It is usual with this procedure to have a number of bubbles form upon contact with the tube
sheet, so he waited until the initial formation of bubbles subsided. Dan then plugged in the scanning
module and began to scan along the tube sheet section with the ultrasonic sensor. He repeated this
process of spraying the liquid onto one four-foot section at a time, waiting and scanning. He identified
the leaks by detecting what he describes as a slow ―pop-pop‖ sound occurring about 1-2 seconds apart.
While he did not see the bubbles, he was able to confirm the leak by noting that the popping sounds did
not occur around any adjacent tubes. It took him only 8 hours to complete the scan of 8,000 tubes.
Three leaks were identified in addition to those he had located previously with the hydrostatic test.

Convinced that he had found and repaired all the leaks, he sent the heat exchanger to his customer. It
would have been extremely expensive for their customer if they had a leak in the heat exchanger since
the leak would have contaminated their product. With this procedure, Mason was able to deliver a leak-
free heat exchanger to a very satisfied customer.

In the future, Dan anticipates using ultrasound for large exchangers to be sure the gaskets are tight.
They will use it before a hydro test on these exchangers. As Dan explained, ―If you have an exchanger
that‘s 10-11 foot diameter and fill it up with water, that‘s a lot of water.‖ Dan estimates that this will save
them many gallons of water. His procedure will be to add 5 psi of air after the gasket has been installed
and test with Liquid Leak Amplifier.
Since Dan had used the ultrasound equipment previously in a chemical plant testing for steam leaks, he
was familiar enough with the technology to adapt it to his current position. He anticipates using
ultrasound in their shop to cut energy waste by locating air leaks. In fact he recently walked along one
area in his plant near a wall and found leaks in the airline, a crack in the housing of an air dryer and
another leak in an air hose.

One word of caution: any method established for leak detection has its benefits and its limitations. Leak
detection is generally ―hard work.‖ It requires knowledge of the test subject and test conditions and an
understanding of the type of leak to be detected. For example, is it a liquid or a gas; is it a slow forming
leak or a high-flow leak? Once understood, the inspector must decide on the technology and method best
suited for the particular leak. It also requires strategy for preparation, safety, application, identification
and confirmation of the leak. Some types of testing might need to conform to specific codes and
standards. In addition, a method for leak management must be implemented so that the leaks are not
only identified but also repaired and re-checked for quality assurance.

Tags: Heat Exchangers, Helium, Liquid Leak Amplification, Adrian Messer, ultrasound

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adrian MesserManager of US Operations, UE Systems

Adrian Messer is the Manager of US Operations for UE Systems, Inc. For more than
a decade, Adrian has been helping facilities around the country transform their
reliability programs by successfully implementing Ultrasound technology for
condition monitoring and energy conservation applications. As a subject matter
expert on Ultrasound technology and implementation best practices, Mr. Messer has
been a featured speaker at many industry events. He is a graduate of Clemson
University and maintains close ties to the University assisting current students in a
mentorship program through the College of Business & Behavioral Science. Adrian is
a Certified Maintenance & Reliability Professional (CMRP) through the Society of Maintenance & Reliability
Professionals (SMRP), and he is also a charter member of Carolina‘s Chapter of SMRP and the current
interim Chairman of the chapter.

hi friends.i'm searching about plug sizing for heat exchanger tubes.can anyone give me a useful table
for plug dimension calculation included :d,D,L ?
Well there is no hard and fast rule for the design of tubes plug. Being a maintenance engineer i know few
things about it;
1. Length of Plug length is usually 38mm.
2. Taper in plug is 5 degree.
3. Minor Dia of plug is less than ID of tube.
4. Plug material is same as of Tube material.
5. In case of -----s during welding of plug with tubesheeet, a hole is drilled on plug's major dia side at its
centre to cater expansion effect. Such type of plugs are known as Johnsons Plug.

Dear AAQE
Very thanks for your usefull information.
I shall like to add in point (5) that Johnson plugs are also used where the operating temperature
differences are huge in tube & shell side. It is to give the plug required elasticity against thermal stresses.
Best regards,