Research Methods

RMG09419

Caiphas Chekwoti, PhD

 Research Methods
• Course objectives
– To explain standard approaches to applied
research
– To develop a research proposal aimed at
solving problems of a corporate entity
– To utilise applied research methods and
research ethics in practical work within a
business entity
– To use data analysis techniques
 The Thesis Report Elements
– Title
– Abstract
– Background
• introduction
– Problem statement
– Research objectives
– Research questions
– Literature Review
– Methodology
• Conceptual framework (supported by theory)
• Measurement of variables (operationalisation)
• Data collection methods (sampling etc)
• Data analysis tools
– Findings and Discussion
– Summary of key findings, Conclusions and recommendations
– References
– Appendices
 What is research?
• Research refers to the systematic method of:
– enunciating a problem,
– formulating a hypothesis /proposition,
– collecting the facts or data,
– analyzing the facts, and
– reaching certain conclusions in form of:
• generalizations for some theoretical formulations
• solutions towards concerned problem
 So, what does research do?
• Broaden knowledge base
• Explain real world events/situations/developments e.g.
– The role of customer in the face increasing competition for companies
– Current emigration crisis out of Africa
– Refugee influx
– Firm performance e.g. Ethiopian airlines vs other carriers
– Data collection, storage and use – role in sector performance – agric etc
– Africa as a dark continent – generate less power than Taiwan
– Are female managers more productive than men?
– Should banks and telcos merge in the face of mobile money growth?
• Predict potential impacts of one or more events
– E.g. impact of university fee harmonisation across EAC
– Strict enforcement of regulations – mining industry
– Hike in parking fees - an effective instrument for decongestion?
 Types of Research
• Inductive logic: specific to general research
– Starts with specific observations or measures and
makes generalizations or constructs theories
– Involves examination of data showing patterns from
which hypotheses/theories are formulated
– Also called theoretical research

• Deductive logic: general to specific research

– starts with theory, generates testable hypotheses and
collects data to test them
– Also called empirical research
– Most suitable for you!!!
 Empirical research methods
– Quantitative research
• Data in form of numbers generated through
– Surveys
– simulation
• Quantitative techniques of analysis
– Descriptive statistics
– Graphical methods
– Statistical inference

– Qualitative research
• Data is narrative incl. interview transcripts, observations and personal
experiences
• Qualitative techniques of analysis
– Involves subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior
 Qualitative Research Methods
• Largely limited by the imagination of the researcher.
• Participant Observation
– It requires that the researcher become a participant in the
culture or context being observed. Participant observation
often requires months or years of intensive work because
the researcher needs to become accepted as a natural part
of the culture in order to assure that the observations are of
the natural phenomenon.
• Direct Observation
– The researcher is watching rather than taking part.
Consequently, technology can be a useful part of direct
observation. For instance, one can videotape the
phenomenon or observe from behind one-way mirrors.
 Qualitative Research Methods
• Unstructured Interviewing
– Unstructured interviewing involves direct interaction
between the researcher and a respondent or group.
Because each interview tends to be unique with no
predetermined set of questions asked of all respondents, it
is usually more difficult to analyze unstructured interview
data, especially when synthesizing across respondents.
• Case Studies
– A case study is an intensive study of a specific individual
or specific context. For instance, the role of Judiciary in
political outcomes – case of Kenyan Judiciary. There is no
single way to conduct a case study, and a combination of
methods (e.g., unstructured interviewing, direct
observation) can be used.
 Research Process
RESEARCH PROCESS IN FLOW CHART

FF

FF

Review the literature

Review concepts
Define and theories Design research Analyse data
Formulate (including Collect data Interpret
research (Test hypotheses
hypotheses sample design) (Execution) and report
problem Review previous F if any) F
research finding V VII
I III IV VI
II

Where F = feed back (Helps in controlling the sub-system

to which it is transmitted)
FF = feed forward (Serves the vital function of
providing criteria for evaluation)

!"#$%&$&
What you should expect during the research
process
– to make mistakes and to learn
– to write and rewrite your research report several times! Nobody
gets it right the first time!
– to spend many hours reading books and journals relating to
your topic!
– to spend many hours discussing your research with other
researchers or your supervisor
– to have your work criticized.
– to feel confused and sometimes even hopeless!

Part of the game!!

 Research Report: Salient Issues
• A Research Report
• summarises the What, How and Why questions
– What the research is about - background
– What it is trying to achieve - objectives
– How it was implemented - methodology
– What has been learnt – findings and discussion
– Why is it worth learning - implications
– Why these results – methodology and literature
 Research proposal?
• To convince other people that your research is
worth spending scarce resources on.
– Showing how your research will make a difference
to the world
– Identifying a dilemma in existing theory that your
research will help solve
• To demonstrate expertise in a particular area of
study
– By intelligently summarizing, comparing and
integrating all relevant theory and existing research
 Title
• Gives summary of research project
• Conveys as much information as possible in as
few words as possible

• Tips about title:

– Should be simple and easily understood by others
– Should be catchy
– Should not be too long
– Should capture the heart of the research
• E.g. implications of the transition to digital banking
 Abstract
• Is a brief summary of the research
– Usually about 300 words
– Certainly no more than 1 page!!!

• The abstract should include

– What the study is about and what it aims to achieve (What) –
summary of context and objectives
– How the aims will (were) achieved (How) – summary of
methodology
– Summary of main findings
– Conclusion and implications
 The Impact of HRM Capabilities on Innovation
Mediated by Knowledge Management Capability
• Nowadays, managers recognize the value of knowledge as an intangible
asset which stimulates innovation in organisations. However, few studies
examine the role of human resource management in fostering knowledge
capability which leads more innovation in enterprises. For this reason, this
paper investigates the impacts of the policies and practices of human
resource management in the relationship between knowledge management
capability on innovation.
• The study is empirically based on the primary data collected from 122
medium and large sized organizations that are registered to Kocaeli
Chamber of Industry, operating in Kocaeli, one of the most important
industrial cities of Turkey. Data obtained from questionnaires will be
analyzed through the SPSS statistical packet program and PLS-Graph. The
Sobel test is used to measure the significance of mediation effect of
knowledge management capability.
• The results indicate that Human Resource Management (HRM) Capabilities
are positively related to Knowledge Management (KM) Capability which
turn into innovation. Furthermore, HRM Capabilities have both direct and
indirect effect mediated by KM Capabilities on Innovation.
 Introduction
• Should contain:
– question
– motivation
– method
– basic result
• scientific paper is not mystery novel; suspense comes from
revealing how the result was found
– limitations
 Background
• Provides context of the study:
– Geographical context – where is the study
being conducted
– Historical context – what is already known
– Contemporary context – locating the research
in the present knowledge and practice
– Policy Context
 Problem Statement
¨Elaborates the nature of problem that the
research is trying to address, hence research
questions
– What is the unanswered problem?
– What are you trying to find out or what puzzles are
you trying to explain?
– Have there been previous similar studies that
inadequately addressed the issue?
– What are the perceived gaps in knowledge?
Research Justification?
 Example
• Low investment rates and private sector manufacturing
firms".
• present some evidence to indicate that there is indeed a
research problem – why investment rates are low (e.g. from
reports, statistics agencies).
• the policy context, pointing out that private investment has
important implications for export and employment growth and
poverty reduction, but there is controversy.
• Controversy - whether the main reason for low investment is
an imperfection in credit markets or the volatility of
macroeconomic policies as perceived by entrepreneurs.
• Two different diagnoses have very different policy
implications. This provides a convincing justification for the
research you propose to do.
• Ensure readers know what you are studying and its importance
for policy
 Research questions
• Are statements that identify the phenomenon to
be studied.
• Needed for the different objectives. e.g.
– What underlies the low investment rates in private
sector manufacturing?
– Is the personality of manager correlated with
productivity?
– What explains the link between technology and
organisational performance?
– What is the effect of outsourcing logistical services on
organismal performance?
– What is the effect of employee bonding on employee
retention?
 Research questions
• To develop a strong research question from your ideas,
you should ask yourself these things:
– Do I know the field and its literature well?
– What are the important research questions in my field?
– What areas need further exploration?
– Could my study fill a gap? Lead to greater understanding?
– Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic
area?
– Has this study been done before? If so, is there room for
improvement?
– Is the timing right for this question to be answered? Is it a hot
topic, or is it becoming obsolete?
– Would funding sources be interested?
– Most importantly, will my study have a significant impact on the
field?
 Need a clear research question
• Observation of the world
• Theory – existence of competing theories –
need to understand which one is more accurate
• Previous research – no research ever answers
all questions
– New findings inspire new research questions
• Practical concerns – solving immediate
problems in the world
 Important to note
• Characteristics of a good research problem
– The problem is "researchable" - it is a problem that can be
investigated through the collection and analysis of data.
– The problem has theoretical or practical significance.
– It is a good problem for you.

• Components of a well stated research problem

– The variables of interest to the researcher.
– The specific relationship between the variables.
– The type of subjects involved.
 Objectives
¨ General objective
– Main purpose of the research in a more general statement
(one clear statement)
E.g.:
– To investigate the effect of outsourcing on organismal
performance

¨ Specific objectives
– These define the scope of the work
– A check list of how the general objective is addressed
E.g.:
• To determine the effect of outsourcing logistical services on
perceived performance.
• To evaluate the effect of outsourcing HRM services on perceived
performance.
• To examine the effect of outsourcing marketing services on
perceived performance.
• To determine the effect of outsourcing legal services on perceived
performance.
 Why should research objectives be
developed?
• Focus the study (narrowing it down to
essentials);
• Avoid the collection of data which are not
strictly necessary for understanding and
solving the problem you have identified;
and
• Organise the study in clearly defined
parts or phases.
 Research objectives
• Ensure they clearly indicate the specific focus and
purpose study. Key elements include:
– Specific – are they stated clearly and specifically, are they easily
understood as to what is intended, and indicate what is to be
achieved through the study
– Measurable – ensuring that they can measure what has been
intended through the study. Can the stated objectives measure
what they claim?
– Achievable – are they realistic and can they be achieved? Can
they actually achieve what it was originally intended? How will
they be achieved?
– Compatible – are they in line with the purpose and focus of the
research study?
• Use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated
e.g. to determine, to compare, to verify, to calculate, to
describe, and to establish. Avoid the use of vague non-
action verbs such as: to appreciate, to understand, or to
study.
 Hypothesis/Proposition
• What predictions would you make about the phenomenon you
are examining?
• Hypotheses are more specific predictions about the nature and
direction of the relationship between two variables (based on
theory).
– Strong hypotheses:
– Give insight into a research question;
– Are testable and measurable by the proposed experiments;
– Spring logically from the experience of the staff;
– Normally, no more than three primary hypotheses should be proposed
for a research study.
• Proposition is an assertion about judgement or opinion
– Oustourcing affects organisational performance
 Hypotheses
¨ (Testable) Hypotheses (based on theory)
– What you want to prove wrong or right
– Mirror images of specific objectives : Null or Alternative
Hypotheses

E.g.: In terms of the null hypotheses:

– H0: Outsourcing does not affect organisation performance
– H1: Outsourcing does affect organisation performance
 Literature review
• Literature review
– Places your proposed work in context
– Identifies relevant methodology
– Defines the magnitude of the value added of your proposed work
• Hence it is not necessary nor sufficient to just enlist who did
what
• Impose analytical structure e.g.
– Are there different approaches in the literature?
– How do they differ?
– How do you evaluate these differences?
– Is one group’s methodology better? Why?
• You will be able to write a good analytical lit review only if
you have thought carefully about the differences and
similarities of the different papers
 Literature Review (cont d)
¨ Provide a more pointing but critical review of
literature on the research activity
– to demonstrate your knowledge and skills

– Theoretical framework
– What are the competing theories or arguments, theoretical
foundations

– Empirical literature
– What real life studies exist on the issue and what are the
main conclusions; provide a synthesis

– Empirical research requires both!!

 Literature Review
¨Review for what?
– Know what is already documented
• Hence locate the gap in knowledge to fill

– Know how others have

• Hence inform your own choice of methods

A good review is very critical!!!!

• Can previous research be summarized in a table?

– Author, country, method, data, result
In essence literature review provides answers
to these queries ..
– Do I know the field and its literature well?
– What are the important research questions in my field?
– What areas need further exploration?
– Could my study fill a gap? Lead to greater understanding?
– Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this
topic/area?
– Has this study been done before? If so, is there room for
improvement?
– Is the timing right for this question to be answered? Is it a hot
topic, or is it becoming obsolete?
– Most importantly, will my study have a significant impact on the
field?
 Literature Review (cont d)
¨ Tips:
– Focus on key variables and relationships
– Get hands on recent findings, globally and within the
country or region
– We mean scholarly papers!!!
– Always remember you are looking for:
1. Gaps !
2. Gaps !
3. Gaps !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
In theory, methods or evidence
 Example – Investment behaviour
• Indicate whether authors used time series (macro) or cross
section (micro) evidence or not
• Interested in investment incentives use cross-section
(assuming post reform survey is available)
– If policy reforms were recently adopted which changed investment
incentives radically then time series analysis would be mis-leading
– Likewise, analysis largely based on pre-reform information is not
informative
• Value added. Above all think carefully what your contribution
will be.
– If there are already ten or more studies on the same issue,
then why do we need your study.
• Flawed methodology
• Newer or better data source
• Changed policy environment
– Good way to proceed is to imagine yourself in the position
of the reader
Methodology (most important part)
• Should show what you intend to do and how you are going to
do it.
• Readers should know whether the proposed work will indeed
answer the research questions
• Begin by presenting your conceptual framework/model
– Indicate its position in the literature (theory to support it)
– Discuss assumptions underlying it
– Identify the dependent and independent variables (indicate the arrows)
– Identify the intervening and moderating variables
– Identify the relevant theory to tie the relationships together
– Show how the final analysis/testing/estimation is carried out
– Discuss the variables of interest and why you include them
– Provide an operational measure of the variables in order to determine
data requirements
 Methodology
¨ Provides details on:
– How research objectives will be achieved
– How hypotheses will be tested/interrogated
– Research design and data collection methods
– Data analysis

¨ Analytical framework/model specification

– Based on the literature review
• Clearly cite where your tools/models are derived from
– Specify a quantitative model, if appropriate
Conceptual framework
 Methodology (continued...)
¨Data
– State the type of data that you have used : qualitative
data
• E.g. From participatory rural appraisal (PRA),
questionnaires
quantitative data
• E.g. cross-section, time-series, pooled data, panel or
longitudinal
– State how the variables are measured
– Indicate the data sources
 Methodology (continued...)

¨Note on cross-section data

– Secondary data collected already by other agents
or researchers
– Primary data to be collected in the research
activity, provide
• Sampling strategy (sampling design, sampling units,
sample size, selection, representativeness)
• Data collection instruments
– Questionnaire
– Focus group discussions
– Key informant interviews
• Discuss analysis strategy (how you will deal with)
– Relationship between the variables e.g. performing
organisations outsource
– Measurement error
– How you will test the hypotheses/proposition
– How your methodology will lead to answers to the
research questions should be clear.
 Methodology (continued...)
• Data analysis
– What techniques have been used to process your data
and test hypotheses?
• Description of occurrences
• Statistical procedures
• Econometric methods

– What computer packages did you use?

• Excel, SPSS, Stata
 Methodology: the question
• Which approach is best suited to
answer the question at stake given
existing constraints ?
 Examples
• Private standards and An analysis of Global silk
flower exports, by Filip trade, by Fredrik Saïd
Hellberg Madsen
• Topic: How costly is it to • Topic: Do the introductions
fulfill private standards of silkworm hybrids
in order to export stimulate silk exports?
flowers from Ethiopia? • Method: Advanced
• Method: Mostly regressions (gravity equation)
descriptive figures and • Data: Quantitative data
correlations from COMTRADE, WDI and
• Data: Qualitative data also own collected
from a self-collected information on silkworm
survey of 25-30 farms
 Empirical Results and Discussion

Qualitative Research
¨Describe the discernible patterns and relate
them to the hypotheses (expected outcomes)
– Qualitative trends (frequencies etc)
– Common occurrences and their effects
– Lessons there from
• Discuss the implications of the findings
– In relation to the literature
• Do they validate or refute
• What contribution
 Empirical Results and Discussion

Quantitative Research
• Provide descriptive statistics of your variables
– Mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum
– You may also do some statistical and/or graphical analysis of
your data (cross-tabulation, bar graphs, trend lines)

• Present your statistical results (if any)

– Coefficients, standard error or t-values
– Flag variables that are statistically significant 10, 5, 1 percent
level
– Interpret your results – use economic language – such as
elasticities
• Discuss in relation to research objective, questions and
compare with literature
Summary of key findings, Conclusion and implications
• Briefly summarise:
– The research context, problem and objectives
– The methodologies
– The key findings (thematic as per research question
and objective)
• In terms of policy implications
• Hence, what are the policy recommendations?
 Conclusion
• Consider symmetry introduction and
conclusion: answer introductory questions
• Policy implications
• Future research
 References
• Provide full list of the literature used in the
report
– Put references alphabetically
– Only include references cited in the research report
– Ensure that author s names and date of publications
are correctly spelt
– Don t forget the bibliography of the author(s) cited
in the research report
 References
• Author-year system:
– Citation in text:
• As Keynes (1936, p. 136) argued …
– Reference:
• Keynes, John M., (1936), The General Theory of Employment,
Money , and Interest. London: McMillan.
• One-to-one:
– Every citation in the text should be in the reference list
– Every reference should be cited in the text
• Titles of books and journals in italics
• Internet: address after reference
– Krugman, P (2002-12-18), "Vintage 1948",
www.wws.princeton.edu/~pkrugman/ (2003-01-03).
• Stick to one standard from a scientific journal
 Footnotes
• The reader should know what type of footnote it
is:
– Source for fact/hypothesis/argument et c: include
page number in citation in main text
– General background source, e.g. textbook:
Write: See for example …
– Additional reasoning: use sparingly
• Results/facts which are generally known should
not be referenced.
 Style
• Write efficiently!
– The adjectives are the enemies of the nouns (Voltaire)
– Omit needless words (Strunk and White)
• The Elements of style, classic text available free on the net
• Keep a story line: e.g. short connecting phrases at the
beginning and end of sections: look for abrupt changes
which may confound the reader
• Strive for a correct, natural and clear style: use a style
guide (buy, borrow or search on the net)
• Find a critical reader, otherwise imagine one: could it
be clearer?
Academic Integrity
Academic Integrity

• Cite all of your sources

• Never represent the ideas or words of another as your own –
plagiarism can result in student dismissal!
• Use index cards when doing research
• Direct Quote – put in quotation marks
• Summary – condenses information and puts it in your own
words
• Paraphrase – roughly same length as original, but information
is stated in your own words.
• All of the above need to be cited – put citation information
on back of card for future reference.
 Misuse of Sources

Unintentional plagiarism
•Wrongly paraphrasing
•Paraphrasing without citing
•Copying & Pasting

Make sure you credit ideas of authors, quote properly & paraphrase.
Example: Quotation
• In most vital organizations, there is a common bond
of interdependence, mutual interest, interlocking
contributions, and simple joy. Part of the art of
leadership is to see that this common bond is
maintained and strengthened, a task certainly
requiring good communication.

• The direct quotation comes from page 101 of a book

entitled Leadership is an Art, by Max DePree.
Proper Way to Cite
APA Format:
• In most vital organizations, there is a common bond of
interdependence, mutual interest, interlocking
contributions, and simple joy. Part of the art of
leadership is to see that this common bond is maintained
and strengthened, a task certainly requiring good
communication (Depree, 1989, p. 101).
Paraphrase
• Besides quoting directly, the following is also an
acceptable way to use and acknowledge the DePree
material:

• As DePree (1989) noted, leadership requires good

communication skills that maintain and strengthen the
bonds of interdependence, mutual interest, joy, and
interlocking contributions that exist in most vital
organizations (p. 101).
Unacceptable
• If there was no reference to the source, the following use
of the DePree material would be unacceptable:

Most organizations have common bonds, and part of

being a leader is to see that common bonds are
maintained and strengthened. Good communication
skills are required for this task. (Paraphrased but with no
citation).
Acceptable
• Most organizations have common bonds, and part of
being a leader is to see that common bonds are
maintained and strengthened. Good communication
skills are required for this task (DePree, 1989, p. 101).

• Paraphrased with proper citation.

 Other examples to avoid plagiarism

As Temple Grandin, a woman who has Asperger s syndrome who has

become a successful engineer, author, and academic, said, If the world
was left to you socialites, we would still be in caves talking to each other
(Personal interview).

• This author has quoted a personal communication between

him/herself and another person; note the quotation marks.
 Avoiding plagiarism

• In terms of qualitative differences, however, researchers agree that

children with autism are less likely to display positive affect and/or
more likely to display negative affect than typically developing
children (Dawson, Hill, Spencer, Galpert, & Watson, 1990; Snow et al.,
1987; Yirmiya et al., 1989).

• Here the author summarized the findings of three articles (each

written by multiple authors) to come to this one point.
You digitize the following table from a book found at Google Books:

You include table 15.1 as it is.

Is it plagiarism?
 Answer
•Yes

•This is plagiarism. Even though it is not

being published it is still being viewed by
others.

•Therefore, the author needs to receive

credit for his work and you need to let
the audience know that this is not your
intellectual property by including a
footnote below the table.
You know it s a well-established fact that some famous people have suffered
from Asperger s Syndrome.

In your paper you write:

Current Asperger s syndrome (AS) research has discovered that adults with
AS have a remarkable ability to become completely focused on one topic, to
the exclusion of all else. This ability to block out the mundane world has lead
psychologists to hypothesize that many artists and scientists have Asperger s
syndrome. It is a well-established fact that Andy Warhol and Albert Einstein
were living with AS before it was known.

Is it plagiarism?
 Answer
• Yes

• This is plagiarism. This well-established fact needs to be verified, the

author or authors found, and a proper citation inserted.
Formatting
 Choose a type size that is easy to read

48 point posters

36 point
presentation slides

24 point

18 point
titles
14 point

12 point
text
10 point
8 point
footnotes
In your layouts, use white space for association,
emphasis, and hierarchy

space for
headings
space
for
margins

space for
illustrations
 House Keeping:
Work Plan/Time Frame

• Is an important planning tool

• It defines the time frame for completing
specific activities
– Identify specific activities and estimate the time for
each activity
– Plan to complete within agreed dates
– Be realistic, but sleep less
 Doing research
• Choose a topic that is focused and manageable.
• Acquaint yourself with the existing literature.
• Value added: Think critically about the material and the
topic and identify, if it hasn't already been identified, the
specific focus on your inquiry - framing a hypothesis.
• Organize the research to assess the validity of the
hypothesis or hypotheses.
• Make an outline – imposes discipline.
• Draw your conclusions on anticipated results.
• Write the final paper and draw out the implications of your
conclusions.
• Above all it should exhibit some economic content,
analytical depth, organization and Style and originality.
 Common Mistakes
• Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research
question.
• Failure to delimit the boundary conditions
• Failure to cite landmark studies.
• Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical
contributions by other researchers.
• Failure to stay focused on the research question.
• Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument in the
research report.
• Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on the
essentials.
• The report is not well-organized – scattered arguments and lack
of sense of direction.
• The writing is neither clear nor concise.
Thank you