Wood is used intensively in structural engineering

(timber: truss, column, beam and etc.) and products

(laminates, plywood, particle board and etc.)
Timber Classification
Definition of wood, timber and lumber: Wood can be conveniently divided into hardwoods
and softwood. There are cases softwood timbers are
harder than some hardwoods. Most of the
: May be defined as the material that forms hardwoods are found in the tropical and semi-
the trunks and branches of trees tropical region of the world while softwood is found
: Wood cut from the trunk which can be in temperate zone.
used for constructing houses, furniture, bridges and
Conifers are evergreen trees having pointed
etc.
needle like leaves. They show distinct annual
: Used in U.S to signify such as sawn and rings, have straight fibres and soft with pine.
worked timber

Softwood Properties: Hardwood Properties:

broad leaves
coniferous and have needle shaped grow slowly to give
leaves high density and high strength
quick growing and give wood less easy to work because very hard
generally low density and fairly low very durable although
strength. without use preservatives
easily worked because softer, less most hardwoods are very expensive
dense, easier to cut due to slow
not normally highly durable unless growing
protected by preservatives hard to see the growth rings
since they grow quickly, softwood have vessels
are relatively cheap higher proportion of
clearly growth rings heartwood
no vessel Example:
Example:
Bass wood, Cheery, Cottonwood, Oak,
Hemlock, Redwood, Spruce, Pine, Walnut and etc.
Hemlock and etc.

Meranti, Kapur, Cengal, Balau,

Damar minyak, podo, sempilor Keruing, and etc.
In Malaysia, most of the timber’s products are a. Genus: Botanical group
hardwood. At least 3000 species of trees in forest b. Epithet: Exact species
and only 12 are softwoods. The hardwood timbers Example:
are classified into 3 classes based on density and Kayu Kempas Koompassia
natural durability. They are: ( Genus )
Malaccensis
Heavy hard wood (HHW)
( Epithet )
over 880 kg/m3
Based on Latin language
constructional timbers
some of them contain toxic material within their Wood Formation
tissue such as alkaloids and other substances
can be used in most exposed conditions without Wood formed as a result of
undergoing preservative treatment continuous secondary growth in cell. When
however, sapwood requires preservative seed of a tree germinates, it forms a shoot
treatment because less durable compare to consisting of thin medulla of spongy tissue
heartwood commonly known as the pith. The pith is
About 14 species under “Malaysian Grading completely enclosed within thin meristematic
Rules 1984 Edition 1” tissue known as cambium, which is turn is
i. Medium Hardwood (MHW) protected on the outside tissue call bark.
720 – 880 kg/m3 at 15% moisture content –
MSS 544: 2001 (Consider Dry condition < 19%) Growth of tree is a result of division of
Moderately heavy to heavy construction cambium cells, provides new cells to be added
Come of the timbers (kempas and tualang) are to the existing system. The accumulation of
heavy and strong, but insuffient for used in woody cells resulting from the cyclic activity
exposed condition and in ground contact.
of the cambium from year to year, accounts for
About 36 species under “Malaysian Grading
the growth in height and diameter of a stem
Rules 1984 Edition 1”
of a tree. The cambium produces bark tissue
(phloem) on the outside and woody tissue
ii. Light hardwood (LHW)
(xylem) on the inside of the stem.
less than 720 kg/m3
general utility timbers – joinery work, cabinet
marking, furniture, decorative panelling and etc.
require preservative treatment as a precaution
against wood destroying agents such as fungi an
insect.
About 47 species under “Malaysian Grading
Rules 1984 Edition 1”

No specific classification for softwood.

About 3 species under “Malaysian Grading Rules
1984 Edition 1”
Damar minyak is of commercial
importance at the moment. - Density
range about 385 – 735 kg/m3
Timber mainly used as decorative plywood and
paneling

Scientific Name or Botanical Name:

Are given based on international rules
Can have only one name
Consist of two part:
 Wood is aggregate of cells produced by the tree to
serve among others certain functions connected
with the life process of the tree. The functions are:
a. Conduction of water and dissolved mineral salt
solution from the roots to leaves for manufacture
of plant food materials
b. Storage and distribution of manufactured and
reserved food materials c. Provision of
mechanical strength of the tree as a shole

Formation of Annual Rings or Growth Rings

Sapwood it is usually darker in colour
Figure 5.1 The Formation of Annual Ring
food conduction and storage
less resistant to fungi and insect Temperate Species
can often be recognized, as it is usually
lighter in colour - proportion decrease
The rings of wood formed during each growing
continuously with the age of tress
season may be clear differentiated because the
young tress being almost almost all
vigour of growth during a single growing season is
sapwood
not uniform throughout. Early spring, the tissue
may be less than 20 % in mature three
produced consists of large and porous cells. This is
followed by a gradual decline vigour (of growth)
Heartwood which made the tissue become smaller and denser
cells. By late autumn (after the fall of the leaves),
structural support
growth for the year end. When the growth resumes
no longer store food
in early spring, the cambium starts putting on large
structural features is similar with sapwood
and porous cells which contrast significantly in
except, the cell walls of the latter are
texture with the cells of the immediate preceding
often permeated with resinous or gummy
layer of late autumn wood. This contrast produces
substances
growth rings
more resistant to fungi and insect

Tropical Species
The types of ring: Moisture, Shrinkage and
Clear growth rings are exceptional because there
Strength
are indistinct seasonal changes in climate.
- Growth ring- gelang tumbesaran = one set of
No notable differences between the textures of circumference added to tree.
wood produced. - Annual ring- gelang tahunan = also known as
Therefore, in tropical woods, these rings even if growth ring. - These annual rings give valuable
distinct, are not criterion of the age of the tree information about the age, the rapidity and
which calculated one year per ring like uniformity of its growth.
temperate species.
Definition of rings Shrinkage
Usually one ring-gelang is added each year. The All structures made from timber have the
rings are widest at the centre and narrower nearer possible effect of shrinkage.
the bark. The rings are widest at the bottom in
Strength
young, thrifty trees and near the top in old ones.
The factors affecting strength of timber are:
The rings consist of minute tabular or fibrous cells
tightly cemented together by lignin which gives
the strength to wood and each ring has two parts; Normally, young trees often give low density
the earlywood/springwood-kayu awal and the and reduced stresses.
latewood/summerwood-kayu akhir.
Mechanical properties if wood influenced by
moisture content.
But the modulus of elasticity is less affected by
changes in moisture.
 Termites Decay
An increasing of temperature, the timber
strength will decrease.

It determines the permissible stress and

modulus of elasticity.
IV.
Environmental factors affecting tree
growth such as temperature, type of soil, Treatment and Curing
spacing between trees. Timber can easily decay by swelling, fungi, insects,
fire, etc.
It can affects the strength of the wood
and can be classified natural defect, Basic approaches it is to create conditions
decay and insects and parasites attacked. unfavorable to fungi such as low humidity, heat and
Common defect types are shown in figure water insulation.
below:
Can be minimized by coating the surface of wood
with polymer films or drying oils, oil base paints,
varnishes and synthetic enamels.

Several methods;

the moisture content in timber should not

be more than 14%.
applied over outside of exposed timber.
unpleasant smell.
not suitable when timber is to be
painted. examples; creosote,
carbolinium, solignum, with or without
admixture with petroleum or suitable oils.

moisture content of 20 to 30% is permissible.

Natural wood defects
odourless organic or inorganic salts and
adopted for inside location only.
examples of leachable type of preservatives;
zinc chloride, boric
acid(borax), etc.
the types of zinc chloride, sodium fluoride and
sodium-pentachloro phenate are toxic to fungi.
These types are expensive and odourless.
benzene-hexa-chloride is used as spray against
borers.
Boric acid is used against Lyctus borers and to
protect plywood in tea chests.
another type;
I. copper-chromate-arsenic composition.
II. acid-cupric-chromate composition.
III. chromate-zinc chloride composition.
IV. solvent treatment.
 manufacture in various grades.
it popular to make a furniture, concrete
i) Surface application
mould
by spraying, dipping or brushing the
B. Plywood
preservatives for a short period.
it used in beam making
at least two coats should be applied.
easily can make curve shape for
the subsequent coats should not be
designing
applied until the first one has dried C. Boards
or soaked into the wood.
two types namely particleboard and
used mostly for treating timber at site fiberboards.
and re-treatment of cut surfaces.
ii) Soaking treatment
Wood in constructions
submerging debarked timber in the
preservatives solution for sufficiently Timber can be used for structural and non-structural
long period until the required member in construction. For the structural purposes,
absorption of the preservative is the properties have to be in compliance with the
obtained. MS 544 standard requirements.
iii) Hot and cold process
ensures sterilisation against fungi and insects. a) For Furnitures
the timber is submerged in the Leban, Gading, Jati and Arang trees are used.
preservation solution which is heated to always this wood small sizes and expensive.
about 90°C to 95°C and maintained at b) For Bridge
this temperature. Then allowed to cool i.e. Cengal, Resak, Merbau
until the required absorption is obtained. normally this wood is used to build high
During the heating period, air in the structure and exposed to weather.
timber expands and is partially expelled. this wood is strong and soft even easy to
while cooling, the residual air in the work but expensive.
timber creates a partial vacuum which c) For houses
causes the preservative to be sucked into piling foundation : Bakau, Kempas and Keruing.
the timber. generally, two baths are used. mast : Balau Merah, Cengal, Keruing, Meranti
First-containing the water to prepare the Merah Tua
hot treatment. Second-cold bath- door and window frame : Meranti Merah
containing the preservatives into which Muda, Meranti Kuning
the timber is transferred immediately stair : Keruing, Kapor, Mengkulang.
after heating. floor : Bintangor, Sepetir, Cengal.
this to solve the danger of precipitation of d) For columns
chemicals at high temperature. Also Balau, Balau Merah, Cengal.
helps to make the process continuous in
case the quantity of timber is large.
Timber Standard Testing
Iv) Boucherie Process
v)Full cell or bethel process 1) Specific gravity
essentially a pressure process. 2) Volumetric shrinkage and swelling
used when maximum absorption of the :
preservative is desired.
timber charge is introduced into the To examine the radial, tangential,
cylinder. longitudinal, volume shrinkages of wood
vi)Empty cell process samples using green to oven dry method.
also known as pressure processes. To examine the radial, tangential,
aimed at a maximum penetration of the longitudinal, volume swelling of wood
preservative with a minimum sample using oven dry to green method
net retention. Percentage of radial, tangential,
Lawry process and Rueping process are longitudinal and volume shrinkage and
commonly used swelling of wood samples can be
calculated by using the following
Timber Products formula
A. Veneers
thin sheet of wood
 Compressive stress at maximum;
Percentage of shrinkage : Load = P / A
= Initial dimension – Final dimension x 100 % where,
Initial dimension P = Max. Crushing A = Cross section area
Percentage of Swelling : 6) Tensile strength
= Initial dimension – Final dimension x 100% 7) Brittleness test
Initial dimension Procedures: 8) Moisture content
Objectives:
procedures
The experiment is to determine the Moisture
Measure the radial, tangential and
Content using two method according MS 544:
longitudinal surface of wood samples at
1978.
least three different selected points.
a) Oven Drying
Weigh wood samples using to loading
b) Moisture Meter
balance.
The Moisture Content (MC) is defined as
Place wood samples in the oven as a
the the weight of the water expressed as a
temperature of 105 + 1° for 24 hours.
percentage of the moisture- free or ovendry
Remove wood samples from the oven and
weight of the wood.
let it dry in dessicator for one hour.
MC
Measure the radial, tangential and
= [ (Original Weight – Oven Dry Weight) / Oven
longitudinal surfaces of oven dried wood
Dry Weight] x 100%
samples at the same points before drying.
Equipment;
The wood samples in the water for 24
a) Moisture meter
hours.
b) Oven
Obtain the dimension of the soaked wood
c) Digital caliper
surfaces. The measurement must be done
d) Weigh scale
as the
3) Static bending strength Procedures:
Choose 3 Species of wood.
:
For oven dyring method specimen should
To obtain an approximate of the maximum
be cut to include the full cross- section of
load and load of proportion of timber for
the sample. The specimens should 20mm x
bending stress and Modulus of Elasticity
20 mm x 25mm
(MOE) of timber.
Take wood block weight ( appropriate to
To obtain the value of the deflection versus
0.01 gram reading) Put into the oven
the applied load.
for 24 hours until weight is constant
To classify the bending failure according to
Then, take weight of wood block
the appearance of the fractured surface.
(appropriate to 0.01 gram reading)
4) Impact bending strength
5) Compressive strength Used by moisture meter, take 3 point
different reading
:
To obtain an approximate of the maximum
load and of
proportionality of timber for compressive
stress and Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) of
timber.
To identify the types of failure when the
Compression Parallel to Grain
Tutorial 5

1. List four advantages and disadvantages of wood application in construction.

2. Referring to ASTM D143 for small clear specimen and BS 5820 for structural size, list the
preparation In Static Bending Test.
3. Give the detail explanation in timber standard testing; a. Specific gravity
b. Impact bending test
c. Tensile strength
d. Brittleness test
4. Write the formula used in Static Bending Strength
5. Differentiates the differences between heart, cup and star shake.
6. State the types of knot in tree and briefly give the causes.
7. List three diseases occurred in timber.
8. As an engineer, give the opinion the application of timber and concrete in construction.
9. State the equipment to determi ne the compression of timber.