Chapter 2

Network Transforms &

Analysis
Outline
2.1. Network transform equations and analysis
Reference: F.F. Kuo, "Network Analysis and Synthesis“: Chapter 7

2.2. Network functions for 1- and 2-port networks

2.3. Poles and Zeros of Network

2.4. Frequency response and Bode plot

AASTU, ECE, 2021 2

The transformed circuit
• When analyzing a network in time domain we will be dealing with
• Derivation and Integration
• However, when transformed to complex frequency domain these become
• Derivation → multiplication by ‘𝑠’
• Integration → division by ‘𝑠’
• Hence, it is easier to do network analysis in complex frequency domain.
• A Linear Time-invariant (LTI) system can be described by a set of ordinary
linear differential equations (OLDEs)
• Initial Conditions (ICs) : Capacitor voltage and Inductor current
• Zero Input Response (ZIR)[Source=0] and Zero State Response (ZSR)[IC=0]
• Complementary function and Particular Integral
• Transient and Steady State (SS) responses
• Free(Natural) and Forced Response
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The transformed circuit…

N
d ( n ) r (t ) M
d ( m ) e(t )
OLDE :  an n
+ a0 =  bm m
+ b0
n =1 dt m =1 dt
N M
Laplace Transform :  an s n R ( s ) =  bm s m E ( s )
n=0 m=0
M

R( s) m
b s m

Transfer function : H ( s ) = = m=0

N
E (s)
 n
a
n=0
s n

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The transformed circuit…
• If the network is lumped LTI:
R( s)
H (s) = is a rational function in s with real cofficents.
E (s)
N (s)
H (s) = , D( s )  0 : where N ( s ) and D( s ) are polynomial s
D( s)
bM −1 M −1 bM − 2 M − 2 b1 b0
s +
M
s + s + ... + s+
N (s) bM bM bM bM
H (s) = =
D ( s ) s N + a N −1 s M −1 + a N − 2 s N − 2 + ... + a1 s + a0
M aN aN aN aN
 (s − zm ) 𝑏
𝑘 = 𝑀 : Scale Factor
H ( s ) = k m =N1 𝑎𝑁
𝑧𝑚 : Transmission zeros
 (s − pn ) 𝑝𝑛: Poles
n =1
𝑂 = max(𝑀, 𝑁): Order
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Network Elements
• The voltage current relationships of network elements in time domain
and complex frequency domain are given as:
• Ideal energy sources
𝑉 𝑠 =ℒ 𝑣 𝑡 and 𝐼 𝑠 = ℒ[𝑖 𝑡 ]
• Resistor
v(t ) = Ri (t ) V ( s ) = RI ( s )
• Inductor
v(t ) = L
di (t )
V ( s) = sLI ( s) − Li (0− )
dt
1 t V ( s ) i (0 − )
i (t ) =  v( )d + i (0− ) I (s) = +
L − sL s
0

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Network Elements…
• An inductor is represented in frequency domain as
• An impedance sL in series with a voltage source : used in mesh analysis.
• An admittance 1/sL in parallel with a current source: used in nodal analysis.

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Network Elements…
• Capacitor
I ( s ) v (0 − )
t
1
v(t ) =  i ( )d + v(0 − ) V ( s) = +
C 0− sC s
i (t ) = C
dv(t ) I ( s) = sCV ( s) − Cv (0 − )
dt
• A capacitor is represented in frequency domain as
• An impedance 1/sC in series with a voltage source :used in mesh analysis
• An admittance sC in parallel with a current source: used in nodal analysis

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Example 1
• In the figure below, the switch is switched from position 1 to 2 at 𝑡 = 0.
Draw its transformed circuit and write the transformed equations using
mesh analysis.

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Example 1…Solution
• The transformed circuit is

• Equation:

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Example 2
• In the figure below the switch is thrown to position 2 at 𝑡 = 0. Find i(t).
iL (0 − ) = 2amp
vC (0 − ) = 2V

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Example 2…Solution
• The transformed circuit is

• Transformed equation :
5 2  2
+ 2 − =  3 + s +  I (s)
s s  s

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Example 2…Solution…
• Solving for 𝐼(𝑠)
2s + 3
I (s) =
( s + 2)(s + 1)
1 1
I (s) = +
s + 2 s +1
• Inverse transforming

i (t ) = e −2t + e −t

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Example 3
• Consider the following circuit. At 𝑡 = 0, the switch is opened. Find the node
voltages 𝑣1(𝑡) and 𝑣2(𝑡)?
1
L= h C = 1f
2
G = 1 mho V = 1v

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Example 3…Solution
• The transformed circuit becomes

• Transformed equations :

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Example 3…Solution…
• Substituting values

• Solving the previous equations

• Inverse transforming

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Outline
2.1. Network transform equations and analysis

2.2. Network functions for 1- and 2-port networks

Reference: F.F. Kuo, "Network Analysis and Synthesis“: Chapter 7

V.K. Aatre, "Network Theory and Filter Design“: Chapter 6

2.3. Poles and Zeros of Network

2.4. Frequency response and Bode plot

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Network Function
• The excitation , 𝑒(𝑡), and response, 𝑟(𝑡), of a linear system are related by a
linear differential equation.
• When transformed to complex frequency domain the relationship between
excitation and response is algebraic one.
• If the system is initially inert, the excitation and response are related by the
system function 𝐻(𝑠) given by
R( s) = H ( s) E ( s)
• A network function is defined as the ratio of the zero-state response to the
input, both the response and the input expressed in Laplace domain.
R( s)
H (s) =
E (s)
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Network Function…
• The system function may have many different forms and may have special
names. Such as:
• Driving point admittance
• Transfer impedance
• Voltage or current ratio transfer function
• This is because
• excitation and response may be taken from the same port or different ports and
• excitation and response can be either voltage or current

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Driving Point Function
• If the excitation and the response are measured at the same set of terminals,
then the network function is called the driving point (DP) function.
Impedance
• When the excitation is a current source and the response is a voltage, then
the system function is an impedance.
V1 ( s )
z dp ( s ) = (DP impedance)
Admittance I1 ( s )
• When the excitation is a voltage source and the response is a current, 𝐻(𝑠) is
an admittance. I1 ( s )
ydp ( s ) = (DP admittance)
V1 ( s )
1
• Note: ydp ( s ) =
z dp ( s )
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Driving Point Function …

V0 ( s )
H ( s) = 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝐼2 (𝑠)
I g (s) 𝑉𝑔 (𝑠)
 1 
  sL 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑦𝑑𝑝 (𝑠) =
1
H ( s ) = z dp ( s ) = R + 
sC  1
1 𝑠𝐿 + + 𝑅1
+ sL 𝑠𝐶1
sC
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Driving Point Function …
• Ladder Network

• DP function: continued fraction expansion

1
z11 ( s ) = z1 ( s ) +
1
y2 ( s ) +
1
z3 ( s ) +
1
y4 ( s ) +
...
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Transfer Functions
• If the excitation and response are measured at different sets of terminals,
then the corresponding network function is called a transfer function.
Transfer Impedance
V2 ( s )
z 21 ( s ) = (Transfer impedance)
I1 ( s )

Transfer Admittance

I 2 (s)
y21 ( s ) = (Transfer admittance)
V1 ( s )

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Transfer Functions…
Voltage-ratio transfer function
• When the excitation is a voltage source and the response is also a voltage,
then 𝐻(𝑠) is a voltage-ratio transfer function.
V2 ( s )
G21 ( s ) = (Transfer voltage ratio)
V1 ( s )

V0 ( s ) V0 ( s ) = Z 2 ( s ) I ( s )
H (s) =
Vg ( s )
Vg ( s ) Z 2 (s)
I (s) = H (s) =
Z1 ( s ) + Z 2 ( s ) Z1 ( s ) + Z 2 ( s )

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Transfer Functions…
Current-ratio transfer function
• When the excitation is a current source and the response is another current
in the network, then 𝐻(𝑠) is called a current-ratio transfer function.
I 2 (s)
 21 ( s ) = (Transfer current ratio)
I1 ( s )

I 0 (s)
H (s) =  R + sL 
I g (s) I g ( s ) = I 0 ( s )1 + 
 1 sC 
I g ( s ) = I1 ( s ) + I 0 ( s )
I 0 (s) 1 sC
1 =
I1 ( s ) = I 0 ( s )( R + sL) I g ( s ) R + sL + 1 sC
sC

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Transfer Functions…
• Note that, the network function is a function of the system elements
only.
• It is obtained from the network by using the standard circuit laws.
Such as:
• Kirchhoff’s laws
• Nodal analysis
• Mesh analysis

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Example 4
• Obtain the driving point impedance of the network. Then using the
following excitations determine the response.
1. ig (t ) = (Sino t )u (t )
2. ig (t ) is a square pulse in fig.b b

3. ig (t ) has waveform in fig.c

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Example 4…Solution
• First lets find the driving point impedance
• Note that it is the equivalent impedance of the 3 elements
1
z dp ( s ) =
ydp ( s )
1
ydp ( s ) = sC + + G
sL

1 s
H (s) = =
sC + + G C  s 2 +  G  s + 1 
1
sL   C  CL 

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Example 4…Solution…
1. ig (t ) = (Sinot )u (t )

Its transform is 0
I g (S ) = 2
s + o2

Hence, the response is

o s
Vo ( s ) = I g ( s ) H ( s ) = 2 
s + o2
 G 1 
C s + s +
2

 C LC 

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Example 4…Solution…
2. The excitation is given as
i (t ) = u (t ) − u (t − a)
1 1 − as
I (s) = − e
s s

Hence, the response is

1 − e − as s
Vo ( s ) = I g ( s ) H ( s ) = 
s  2 G 1 
C s + s +
 C LC 

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Example 4…Solution…
3. The excitation is given as
t t −a
ig (t ) = u (t ) + u (t ) − u (t − a )
a a
1 1 e − as
I ( s) = + 2 − 2
s as as

Hence, the response is

1 − e − as s
Vo ( s ) = I g ( s ) H ( s ) = 
s  2 G 1 
C s + s +
 C LC 

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Natural and Forced Response
• Consider the partial fraction expansion of 𝑅(𝑠)
Ai Bj
R( s) =  +
i s − si i s − sj

where 𝑠𝑖 are the poles of 𝐻(𝑠) and 𝑠𝑗 are the poles of 𝐸(𝑠).
• Taking the inverse Laplace transform of 𝑅(𝑠)

r (t ) =  Ai e +  B j e
si t s jt

i i
si t
• The terms i
A e are associated with the system 𝐻(𝑠) and are called the free
response terms.
s jt
• The terms B j e are due to the excitation 𝐸(𝑠) and are called the forced
response terms.
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Natural and Forced frequencies
• The frequencies 𝑠𝑖 are the natural frequency of the system, while the
frequencies 𝑠𝑗 are the frequencies of the excitation (forced frequencies).
• Example: Find the natural frequency of the following network.

di
L + Ri = 0
dt
( sL + R ) I ( S ) = 0
sL + R = 0
R
s=−
L
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Exercise
• Find the natural frequencies of the following networks?

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Exercise
• Find the free response and the forced response for the circuit below. The
system is inert before applying the source.
1
v g (t ) = (cost )u (t )
2

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Exercise
• Find the voltage transfer ratio of the active network shown below.

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Outline
2.1. Network transform equations and analysis

2.2. Network functions for 1- and 2-port networks

2.3. Poles and Zeros of Network

Reference: F.F. Kuo, "Network Analysis and Synthesis“: Chapter 6

V.K. Aatre, "Network Theory and Filter Design“: Chapter 6

2.4. Frequency response and Bode plot

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Poles and Zeros

N (n) M (m)
d r (t ) d e(t )

n =1
an
dt n
+ a0 =  bm
m =1 dt m
+ b0
Zeros: roots of 𝑁(𝑠)
𝐻 𝑠 =0
bM −1 M −1 bM − 2 M − 2 b1 b0 M
s + s + s + ... + s+  (s − z
M
m
)
N (s) bM bM bM bM
H (s) = = =k m =1
N
D( s ) s N + a N −1 s M −1 + a N − 2 s N − 2 + ... + a1 s + a0
aN aN aN aN
 (s − p )
n =1
n

Poles: roots of 𝐷(𝑠)

AASTU, ECE, 2021 𝐻 𝑠 =∞ 38
Poles and Zeros…
• For lumped LTI network
• numerator polynomial 𝑁(𝑠) & denominator polynomial 𝐷(𝑠) have real
coefficients
• zeros and poles must be real or occur in complex conjugate pairs
• In the complex 𝑠 plane, a pole is denoted by a small cross, and a zero by a
small circle.
• For example if,

• Zeros: Poles:

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Pole-Zero Diagram

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Pole-Zero Diagram…

a. f (t ) = u (t )
b. f (t ) = e − 0 t

c. f (t ) = cos 0t
d . f (t ) = e − 0 t
cos 0t

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Exercise
• Consider the network shown in figure below. Let 𝑥(𝑡) be the input and 𝑦(𝑡 )
(mesh current of the mesh II) be the output. Find 𝐻(𝑠) and draw the pole-
zero diagram?

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Pole Location
• Effect of pole location upon exponential decay: 𝝈𝟐 > 𝝈𝟏 > 0

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Pole Location…
• Pole locations corresponding to sin 𝜔1 𝑡 and sin 𝜔2 𝑡: 𝝎𝟐 > 𝝎𝟏 > 0

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Pole Location…
• Pole locations corresponding damped sinusoidal: 𝑹𝒆 𝒔𝟏 > 𝑹𝒆 𝒔𝟐

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Pole Location…
• Effect of right-half plane poles upon time response

• Unstable!

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Pole Location…
• Effect of double poles on the 𝑗𝜔 axis

• Unstable!

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OCNF and SCNF
• For dp-impedance function let 𝐼1 (𝑠) = 0.
N ( s ) V1 ( s )
H ( s ) = z dp ( s ) = =
D ( s ) I1 ( s )
D ( s )V1 ( s ) = 0
• Thus the roots of 𝐷(𝑠) (Poles) are the natural frequencies of the network under
open circuit conditions & are called the open-circuit natural frequencies (OCNF).
• On the other hand for a dp-admittance network function if we make the voltage
𝑉1 (𝑠) go to zero, then the zero input current response is governed by the equation
1 D ( s ) I1 ( s )
ydp ( s ) = = =
z dp ( s ) N ( s ) V1 ( s )
N ( s ) I1 ( s ) = 0
• The network is being tested under short circuit conditions and the roots of 𝑁(𝑠)
(Zeros) are called the short-circuit natural frequencies (SCNF).
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Example 5
• Find the OCNF, SCNF and the input impedance of the network shown
in figure below.

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Example 5…Solution
• OCNF → Poles
1
sL + =0
sC
s LC + 1 = 0
2

1
s=j
LC
j
p1 , p2 = 
8

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Example 5…Solution…
• SCNF → Zeros
4
• From the inductor circuit 4𝐻||1𝐻 = 𝐻 → z1 = 0
5
• The network reduces to
1
s=j
LC
j
s=
4
2
5
5
z 2 , z3 =  j
8
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Example 5…Solution…
• To find 𝑍𝑖𝑛
( s − z1 )( s − z 2 )( s − z3 )
Z in = k
( s − p1 )( s − p2 )
 2 5
s s + 
z dp ( s ) = k  8
 2 1
s + 
 8
• As 𝑠 → 0, the capacitor acts like an open circuit and the impedance of
s (s + 5 8)
network is 5𝑠 shown in figure. 2

Z in = 2
• Thus, 𝑘 = 1 and
(s + 1 8)
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Exercise
• Find the OCNF, SCNF and the input admittance of the network shown
in figure below.

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Outline
2.1. Network transform equations and analysis

2.2. Network functions for 1- and 2-port networks

2.3. Poles and Zeros of Network

2.4. Frequency response and Bode plot

Reference: F.F. Kuo, "Network Analysis and Synthesis“: Chapter 8

V.K. Aatre, "Network Theory and Filter Design“: Chapter 6

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Frequency Response
• Let 𝐻(𝑆) be any network function. Then
H ( s ) s = j = H ( j  ) = H ( j  ) e j (  )

is known as the frequency response of the network.

• where H ( j ) : amplitude or magnitude response
 ( ) : phase response
• The frequency response of the network is the value of the network function
evaluated on the imaginary axis (real frequency axis) of the complex 𝑠-plane.
• The amplitude and phase response of a system provide valuable information
in the analysis and design of transmission circuits.
• Most often the frequency response curves are plotted with frequency (𝜔 or 𝑓)
represented on logarithmic scale. H ( j ) dB = 20 log H ( j )
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Low-pass filter
• The cutoff frequency of the filter is
indicated on the amplitude response
curves as 𝜔𝑐 .
H ( jC ) = 0.707 H ( jmax )
20 log H ( jC ) = 20 log H ( jmax ) − 3dB
• The system will not “pass” frequencies
that are greater than 𝜔𝑐 .
• The phase response is almost linear till 𝜔𝑐 .
• Hence, if all the significant harmonic
terms are less than 𝜔𝑐 , then the system
will produce minimum phase distortion.

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Example 6
• Consider RC low-pass filter shown in figure below. Plot the amplitude and
phase characteristics of the network.

V2 ( s ) 1 / sC 1 RC
H (s) = = =
V1 ( s ) R + 1 / sC s + 1 RC
1 RC
H ( j ) =
j + 1 RC
1 RC
H ( j ) =
 2 + (1 RC )
2

 ( j ) = − tan −1 (RC )

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Example 6…
• The amplitude is unity and the phase
is zero degrees at 𝜔 = 0.
• The amplitude and phase decrease 1
monotonically as we increase 𝜔. 𝜔=
𝑅𝐶
• When 𝜔 = 1/𝑅𝐶, the amplitude is
0.707 and phase is 45°.
• Half power point

• As 𝜔 increases to infinity 𝐻(𝑗𝜔)

goes to zero and the phase
approaches −90°.

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Amplitude and phase from pole-zero diagram…
• For the system function
A0 ( s − z0 )( s − z1 )
H ( s) =
( s − p0 )( s − p1 )( s − p2 )
• 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) can be written as
A0 ( j − z0 )( j − z1 )
H ( j ) =
( j − p0 )( j − p1 )( j − p2 )

• Each one of the 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑧𝑖 or 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑝𝑗 represent a vector from the zero 𝑧𝑖 or pole 𝑝𝑗 to

any 𝑗𝜔 on the imaginary axis.
j  − z i = N i e j , j − p j = M j e
j j
• If we express i

• Then 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) can be given as

A0 N 0 N1 j ( + 1 + 2 − 0 −1 − 2 )
H ( j ) = e 0

M 0 M 1M 2
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Amplitude and phase from pole-zero diagram…

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Amplitude and phase from pole-zero diagram…
• In general

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Example 7
• For
4s
F ( s) = 2
s + 2s + 2
find the magnitude and phase for 𝜔 = 2.
Solution:
• First let us find the zeros and poles
4 j
F ( j ) =
( j + 1 + j )( j + 1 − j )
• Zero j = 0
• Poles: j = −1 − j and j = −1 + j

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Example 7…
• Magnitude
2 4
F ( j 2) = 4 * =
2 * 10 5

• Phase

 ( j 2) = 900 − 71.80 − 450 = −26.80

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Exercise (Reading Assignment)
• Examine the property of 𝐹(𝑠) around the poles and zeroes.
• Reference: F.F. Kuo, "Network Analysis and Synthesis“: Chapter 8

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Bode Plot
• Bode plots are semi-logarithmic plots of amplitude and phase versus
frequency.
• In these plots we take the logarithm of the amplitude/phase and plot it on
linear frequency scale.
• For amplitude 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) , if we express in terms of decibel it becomes
H ( j ) dB = 20 log H ( j )
N (s)
• For system function H (s) =
D( s)
| N ( j ) |
| H ( j ) |=
| D ( j ) |
• Expressing the amplitude in terms of decibels we have
20 log | H ( j ) |= 20 log | N ( j ) | −20 log | D( j ) |
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Bode Plot…
• In factored from both N(s) and D(s) are made up of 4 kinds of terms
• Constant 𝐾

• A root at origin, 𝑠

• A simple real root, s−a

• Complex set of roots, s 2 + 2s +  2 +  2
• To understand the nature of log-amplitude plots, we only need to discuss the
amplitude response of these 4 terms.
• If the term is on the numerator it carries positive sign, if on denominator
negative sign.

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Constant 𝑲
• The dB gain or loss is
20 log K = K 2
• 𝐾2 is either positive |𝐾| > 1 or negative |𝐾| < 1
• The phase is either 0° for 𝐾 > 0, or 180° for 𝐾 < 0.

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Single root at origin, 𝒔
• The loss or gain of a single root at origin is
 20 log | j |= 20 log 
• Thus the plot of magnitude in dB vs frequency is a straight line with slope of
± 20𝑑B/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒.
• 20 when 𝑠 is in the numerator.
• -20 when 𝑠 is in the denominator.
• The phase is ±90°:
• 90° when s is in the numerator.
• −90° when s is in the denominator

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Single root at origin, 𝒔 …

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The factor 𝒔 + 𝜶
• For convenience lets set 𝛼 =1. Then the magnitude is
 20 log | j + 1 |= 20 log( 2 + 1)
1
2

• The phase is
arg( j + 1) = tan −1 

• A straight line approximation can be obtained by examining the asymptotic

behavior of the factor 𝑗𝜔 + 1
• For 𝜔 << 1, the low frequency asymptote is
 20 log( + 1)  20 log 1 = 0dB
1
2 2

• For 𝜔 >> 1, the high frequency asymptote is

 20 log( + 1)  20 log 
1
2 2

• These 2 asymptotic approximations meet at 𝜔 = 1: break frequency or cutoff frequency

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The factor 𝒔 + 𝜶…

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The factor 𝒔+𝜶…
• Note that the maximum error is for 𝜔 = 1 (for non normalized 𝜔 = 𝛼.)
• For the general case 𝛼 different from 1, we normalize the term by dividing
by 𝛼.
• The low frequency asymptote is
1

 2  2
20 log 2 + 1  20 log 1 = 0dB
 

• The high frequency asymptote is

1

 2
 2
20 log 2 + 1  20 log  − 20 log 
 

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Complex conjugates
• For complex conjugates it is convenient to adopt a standard symbol.
• We describe the pole (zero) in terms of magnitude 𝜔0 and angle 𝜃 measured
from the negative real axis.
• These parameters that describe the pole (zero) are
• 𝜔0, the undamped frequency of oscillation, and
• 𝜁, the damping factor.
• If the pole (zero) pair is given as
p1, 2 = −  j
• 𝛼 and 𝛽 are related to 𝜔0 and 𝜁 with
 = 0 cos  = 0
 = 0 sin  = 0 1 −  2

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Complex conjugates…
• Substituting these terms in the conjugate equation: (s − p1 )(s − p2 )
( )(
( j +  + j )( j +  − j ) = j + 0 + j0 1 −  2 j + 0 − j0 1 −  2 )
(
= −  2 + 2 j0 + 0
2
)
• For 𝜔0 = 1 (for convenience), the magnitude of conjugate pairs can be
expressed as

 20 log 1 −  2 + j 2 = 20 log (1 −  ) 
1
2 2
+ 4 2 2 2

• The phase is
2
 ( ) = tan −1

1−  2

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Complex conjugates…
• The asymptotic behavior is
• For low frequency, 𝜔 << 1

 20 log (1 −  )  = 20 log1 = 0dB
1
2 2
+ 4 2 2 2

• For high frequency, 𝜔 >> 1


 20 log (1 −  )  = 40 log 
1
2 2
+ 4 2 2 2

which is a straight line with slope of 40𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒.

• These 2 asymptotes meet at 𝜔 = 1

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Complex conjugates…
• 𝜔0 = 1

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Magnitude: second-order pole

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Phase: second-order pole

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Example 8
• Using Bode plot asymptotes, draw the magnitude vs. frequency for the
following system function. Plot the actual response using Matlab.
0.1s
G (s) =
 s  s 
2
s
 + 1  + + 1 
 50  16 *10 10 
4 3

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Example 8 …

 = 0 and  = 50 : first - order break

frequencies
 = 400 : second - order break frequency
 = 0 .2

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Example 8… Matlab Plot

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Assignment
• V.K. Aatre, "Network Theory and Filter Design“:
✓Chapter 5: 5.3, 5.6, 5.9
✓Chapter 6: 6.1, 6.4, 6.3, 6.5, 6.10
• F.F. Kuo, "Network Analysis and Synthesis“:
✓Chapter 7: 7.3, 7.4, 7.6
✓Chapter 8: 8.1, 8.3
✓ Matlab → 8.6, 8.7, 8.8

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