Module 6 (Materials & Hardware) SubModule 6.4 (Corrosion)

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.4 – Corrosion
MODULE 6
Sub Module 6.4
CORROSION
ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.3 - i Mar 2014
Contents
(A) CHEMICAL FUNDAMENTAL -------------------------------------------- 1

(B) TYPES OF CORROSION AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION ------------- 7
CAUSES OF CORROSION; MATERIAL TYPES, SUSCEPTIBILITY TO
CORROSION -------------------------------------------------------------------------19

6.3 - ii Mar 2014
CORROSION The corrosion process involves two concurrent changes. The

metal that is attacked, suffers an Anodic change while the
Corrosion costs the civil aircraft industry many millions of corrosive agent undergoes a Cathodic change. The result is that
pounds (sterling) each year and, with care and good husbandry, material is lost from the Anode and gained by the Cathode,
this figure can be reduced. The more that aircraft can be forming an ionic bond.
manufactured, operated and maintained with the short- and
long-term considerations of the effects of corrosion in mind,
then the more those maintenance costs will be reduced. CHEMICAL (OXIDATION) CORROSION
Metallic elements are usually compounded with other elements,

in the ground, before they are mined and (compared to the in a strict chemical sense, oxidation occurs whenever a metal is
actual metals into which they are subsequently formed) they are converted to its ions. an ion is a neutral atom that has gained or
relatively stable. Corrosion is the tendency of metals to revert to lost one or more of its electrons. the term oxidation is, however,
the thermodynamically more stable, oxidised, state. This occurs normally used to describe the direct combination of a metal with
when they react with dry air to form metal oxides, or with acids
the oxygen of the atmosphere. the phenomenon is essentially a
and alkalis to form metallic salts. Some metals, such as gold
and platinum, strongly resist corrosion. ‘dry’ one, although water vapour, in the air, does play a part in
the oxidation of some metals. with the exception of gold and
(A) CHEMICAL FUNDAMENTAL platinum, all metals, in contact with air, form a very thin, visible
oxide film.
Reactions, between metals and their environments, can occur in
either of two (often simultaneous) ways: chemical corrosion can be caused by direct exposure, of the
metal surface, to caustic liquids or gaseous agents such as:
 chemical (oxidation)
 electrochemical (galvanic)
spilled battery acids or battery fumes. spilled acids are less of a
problem now that nickel cadmium batteries are in common use.
In both cases, the metal is converted into metal
compounds such as carbonates, hydroxides, oxides or Flux deposits from inadequately cleaned joints. flux residues are
sulphates. hygroscopic (readily absorb moisture).

6.3 - 1 Mar 2014
Entrapped caustic cleaning compounds.caustic cleaning The graph shows the normal situation with no temperature
solutions should be kept capped when not in use. many increase but, occasionally, there is a continuation of oxidation,
corrosion-removal solutions are, in fact, corrosive agents and due to the fact that oxides may react chemically, or combine
should be carefully removed after use. with, water to produce a film that is not impervious to the
passage of further oxygen through it. the oxide skin may also
EFFECT OF OXIDE THICKNESS crack or flake and expose the metal surface to further oxidation.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
The oxide film, that forms on metals, generally tends to protect
them from further corrosive attack. the oxidation rate normally
The effect of an increase in temperature usually results in an
falls sharply as the film thickness increases (refer to fig. 01), so
increase in the rate of oxidation of a metal (refer to Fig. 02). The
that, at some time, there is virtually no further increase in film
actual curves are not as smooth as those shown.
thickness.

6.3 - 2 Mar 2014
EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELECTROCHEMICAL (GALVANIC) CORROSION
Alloying a metal with another metal sometimes improves the

oxidation resistance of the original metal (refer to fig. 03). The A more complicated form of corrosion, which can occur not
graph shows the effect of adding varying amounts of aluminium only on the surface of a metal, but also within the granular
(al) to iron. It can be seen that larger amounts of aluminium structure of the metal (especially in alloys).
result in a slower oxidation rate.
THE GALVANIC CELL
The mechanism of electrochemical corrosion (on single metal

and at bimetallic surfaces) is similar to that of a primary cell,
which produces a low-voltage direct current.
In its basic form, it consists of two dissimilar metals in the

presence of an electrolyte, An electrolyte is a chemical (or its
solution in water), which is able to conduct an electric current,
due to the process of ionisation. This forms a simple electric cell
in which the less ‘noble’ metal (the anode) is eaten away.
When, for example, zinc and copper plates, are partially

immersed in an electrolyte, of dilute sulphuric acid, and are
connected to an ammeter and voltmeter, the potential
difference, between the plates, causes a current to flow (refer to
fig. 04).
The reason for this effect is that the oxide film, which forms, is
rich in aluminium oxide, and provides more protection than iron
oxide. This process is also involved when chromium is added to
nickel to produce ‘stainless steel’, on which, the reaction with air
on the chromium produces a protective film of chromium oxide.

6.3 - 3 Mar 2014
hydrogen gas. The thermodynamic driving force of this cell is

the difference in galvanic potential between the two metals (zinc
and copper). The metal of lower potential (the anode) in such a
cell is oxidised or corroded.
Similar electrochemical corrosion processes, with balancing

anodic and cathodic reactions, occur in neutral (non-acidic)
electrolytes such as water. The anodic reaction will involve
oxidation (corrosion) of the metal with the lower galvanic
potential, but the cathodic reaction will, usually, be the reduction
of oxygen dissolved in the electrolyte.
FIG. 04
The zinc forms the anode of the cell, and is oxidised into ions
that dissolve into the acid. at the surface of the copper plate (the
cathode), a balancing reaction occurs. the electrons, formed in
the anode, are conducted around the circuit and meet with
positively charged hydrogen ions at the cathode, to give off
6.3 - 4 Mar 2014
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF CORROSION IN A

GALVANIC CELL.
The onset of corrosion (and its severity) will depend upon

several factors:
 Conductivity of the Solution: - Should the resistance of the

solution increase, then the rate of current flow will decrease.
This explains why little corrosion occurs in pure water (which
has a high resistance), whilst quite severe corrosion occurs
in salt water which conducts electricity quite well. Adding
various chemicals to the electrolyte can change the
resistance and, therefore, the reaction of the galvanic cell.
Adding sodium chloride (salt) to the solution, lowers the
resistance of the circuit and, hence, increases the current.
An acid, such as hydrochloric acid, added to the solution,
will remove the oxide film from the plate, which will also
lower the resistance, and increase the current flow.
 Potential difference between the metals: - the galvanic

potentials of metals and alloys, can be measured and typical
values found in solutions of seawater, or water with 3.5%
salt dissolved in it. table 01 shows, in any combination of
two metals, that one will be the anode, and one the cathode.
it will not, however, predict the severity of the corrosion, as
this depends on the type of electrolyte present.
Table 01

6.3 - 5 Mar 2014
 Electrical Resistance: - As the corrosion products build up

between two metals in contact, and with an electrolyte
present, the products can, in some instances, increase the
resistance of the action. This will result in slowing or even
halting the reaction. Alternatively, the products can bridge
any insulation, which has been placed between the metals,
and start an electrolytic action.
 Ratios of areas: - if the ratio of the anode to cathode area is
not unity, then the rate of corrosion can be much faster (or
slower), than would be obtained if they were of equal areas.
if the cathode area is small, relative to the anode area, then
the rate of corrosion is slow. if the cathode area is much
larger than the anode area, then the corrosion can be quite
severe (refer to fig. 05).
Fig. 05
 Single metal cells: - corrosion can happen within alloys or  Oxygen concentration (differential aeration): - corrosion can
metallic mixtures and can occur between metal grains and occur when the composition of the electrolyte varies at
their grain boundaries, as well as in several other places. it different parts of the contact area. for example, if the
can also occur if small metallic impurities are present within electrolyte is in contact with the air, the oxygen can be
a pure metal, even if the amount of impurity is merely a absorbed, giving a high ‘dissolved oxygen’ level, whilst the
fraction of one percent. the removal of impurities from electrolyte elsewhere (in a crevice perhaps), will be low in
metals, at the manufacturing stage, can greatly improve their dissolved oxygen. the effect of this is to make the metal,
corrosion resistance. close to the highly oxygenated part, a cathode and that in
contact with lower oxygenated part, an anode and so
corrosion will begin and, consequently, the crevice (pitting)
increases in depth.

6.3 - 6 Mar 2014
(B) TYPES OF CORROSION AND THEIR unnoticed, until the paint or plating is lifted off the surface by the
IDENTIFICATION corrosion products or forms blisters.
Surface corrosion is a fairly uniform corrosion attack, which

There are many forms of corrosion. The form may depend on slowly reduces the cross-section of the metal. It is, possibly, the
the metals involved, their function, atmospheric conditions and least damaging form of corrosion.
corrosive agents present. The following are the more common A mild attack may result in only general etching of an area,
whilst a heavier attack may produce deposits which depend on
found on aircraft structures.
the type of metal that is being attacked.
Surface Dissimilar Metal ‘Pure’ aluminium, stainless steel and copper have more
resistance to surface corrosion than aluminium alloy,
Intergranular Exfoliation
magnesium alloy and non-stainless steels. This type of
Stress Fretting corrosion only becomes serious over a period of time and gives
a warning of worse corrosion to follow.
Crevice Filiform
DISSIMILAR METAL CORROSION
Pitting Corrosion Fatigue
Microbiological Hydrogen Embrittlement

Galvanic action leads to one of the more common forms of
corrosion, which occurs between two dissimilar metals in
contact with each other and where there is moisture present. It
SURFACE CORROSION is caused by the difference in galvanic potential of the two
metals where plating or jointing compound has been removed
or omitted. This type of corrosion can occur, for example, where
General roughening, etching or pitting of the metal surface, steel bolts, nuts, or studs are in contact with magnesium-rich
frequently accompanied by a powdery deposit of corrosion alloys such as aircraft wheels.
products, may be caused by direct chemical or electrochemical
attack. Corrosion can spread under the surface coating

6.3 - 7 Mar 2014
This may be taking place out of sight and may result in

extensive pitting. It may or may not be accompanied by surface
corrosion.
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
This corrosion is also known as intercrystallinecorrosion, and

results from micro-galvanic cells at the grain boundaries in the
metal (refer to Fig. 06).
Corrosion progresses from the metal surface, in narrow

pathways, along grain boundaries, often penetrating quite
deeply and having a serious, mechanical weakening effect. The
amount of metal corroded is small, relative to the volume of
metal affected.
Indications of the damage may not be visible to the naked eye.

intergranular corrosion may often be detected by ultrasonic,
eddy current or radiographic inspection procedures.
Fig. 06

6.3 - 8 Mar 2014
EXFOLIATION CORROSION STRESS CORROSION

Stress corrosion cracking is a cracking process, caused by the
Exfoliation (or layer) corrosion, of certain wrought aluminium combined action of a sustained tensile stress and a corrosive
alloys, is a form of intergranular corrosion in which the attack environment. Only certain combinations of alloys and
occurs in layers parallel to the surface. The wedging action, of environments result in stress corrosion cracking,although this
the corrosion products, occupies a larger volume than the alloy, type of failure may occur at stresses well below the yield
and will cause lifting of the metal surface, causing it to strength of the alloys. Many of the high-strength structural
‘exfoliate’. This occurs at an early stage, when the corrosion is alloys, used in aircraft, are prone to stress corrosion cracking in
on, or just below, the surface. a wide range of environments and they are particularly
susceptible in marine environments.
Exfoliation corrosion often attacks 7000 series alloys (those with
an appreciable amount of Zinc). When the corrosion occurs well In aircraft alloys, the principal stresses, causing this stress
below the surface, extensive damage can occur before the corrosion cracking, are not the applied service loads, but the
surface deformation is apparent. stresses developed within the metal duringmanufacture and
during assembly. For example, internal stresses can arise from
Spars, stringers and other high-strength parts, which are quenching after heat-treatment, from ‘force fits’, from badly
extruded or hot rolled, are often (because the grains tend to mating parts, or from welding procedures. Service stresses are
form in layers) susceptible to this kind of corrosion if they have only significant when they act in the same direction as internal
been poorly heat-treated. or assembly stresses.
Stress corrosion cracking has three distinct phases in that there

is an initial ‘Incubation’ period, (when a stress corrosion crack
starts from pitting or film breakdown). The incubation is followed
by a period of ‘Slow Growth’ of the stress concentrations and
culminates in a short, ‘Rapid Crack-Growth’ rate.
In highly stressed parts (e.g. landing gear components), cracks

may originate from a stress raiser such as a scratch or surface
corrosion. This problem is characteristic of aluminium, copper,
stainless steels and high-strength alloy steels and may occur
along lines of cold working. Signs of stress corrosion are given
6.3 - 9 Mar 2014
by minute cracks radiating from areas of the greatest stress FRETTING CORROSION
concentration. Likely areas for this type of corrosion are U/C
jacks, shock absorbers, bellcranks with pressed-in bushes, or Fretting corrosion is the result of rubbing movement between
two heavily loaded surfaces, one, or both, of which are metallic.
other areas where parts are a force fit, highly stressed or have
The rubbing action destroys any natural protective film and also
residual stresses induced during the forming process. removes particles of metal from the surface. In its early stages,
the debris of this corrosion forms a black powder. These
particles form an abrasive compound, which aggravates the
effect of the rubbing action and the surface is continually
removed to expose fresh metal to the corrosive attack. This
form of attack can eventually cause cracking and fatigue failure.
The most likely areas affected are gears, screw jacks, loose
panels, splined hydraulic pump drives and rivets (when they
become loose). , It may be serious enough to cause cracking
and fatigue failure.
Fig. 06 stress corrosion

Fig. 07 Fretting Corrosion

6.3 - 10 Mar 2014
CREVICE CORROSION Screws and fasteners have are common sources of crevice
crevices are liable to preferential attack, usually by a differential corrosion problems. the stainless steel screws shown below
aeration form of corrosion, intensified by the high ratio of corroded in the moist atmosphere of a pleasure boat hull. see
cathode to anode area involved. the attack is more severe figure 08 (a)
where crevices collect dust and moisture.
Fig. 08(a) crevice corrosion
Fig. 08 crevice corrosion

6.3 - 11 Mar 2014
FILIFORM CORROSION
Filiform corrosion occurs beneath thin, protective coatings, on

aluminium and steel alloys, with the paint or coating often
bulging or blistering. On aircraft structures, the attack often
starts at fasteners and extends as thread-like lines of corrosion
under the paint. It may not be readily visible until it has become
quite severe. The damage tends to be very shallow and is not,
usually, structurally dangerous.
PITTING CORROSION
Pitting corrosion can occur on aircraft materials when the

protective film, whether applied or natural, breaks down locally
and this may also lead to intergranular corrosion. The corrosion
often stems from the screening effect of silt, scale or corrosion
deposits that reduce the oxygen concentration at local points on
the metal surface, which establishes differential concentration
cells.
Local rough spots, inclusions, contaminations and lack of

homogeneity in the alloy or metal are also possible causes of
pitting. In size and depth, the pits are widely variable and a
large number of pits can give a surface a ‘blotchy’ appearance.
Aluminium and magnesium alloys, chromium-plated and

stainless steels (including nitrided surfaces), are all particularly
susceptible to this form of corrosion. pitting corrosion of an
aluminium alloy component can be detected by the appearance
of white powder on the surface of the metal (refer to fig. 36). Fig. 09 Pitting corrosion

6.3 - 12 Mar 2014
Corrosion Fatigue
Corrosion fatigue is a special case of stress corrosion caused

by the combined effects of cyclic stress and corrosion. No metal
is immune from some reduction of its resistance to cyclic
stressing if the metal is in a corrosive environment. Damage
from corrosion fatigue is greater than the sum of the damage
from both cyclic stresses and corrosion. Control of corrosion
fatigue can be accomplished by either lowering the cyclic
stresses or by corrosion control.
The "beach marks" on the propeller shown below mark the

progression of fatigue on this surface.
Fig. 10 Fatigue corrosion
Similar beach marks are shown on the aerospace part below

left. The high magnification scanning electron microscope
image on the right shows striations (individual crack progression
marks). The part shown below is also discussed in the section
on fretting corrosion.

6.3 - 13 Mar 2014
Fig. 10 (b) example of Fatige corrosion
An infamous example of corrosion fatigue occured in 1988 on Fig. 10 (c)Fatige corrosion

an airliner flying between the Hawaiian islands. This disaster,
which cost one life, prompted the airlines to look at their
airplanes and inspect for corrosion fatigue.

6.3 - 14 Mar 2014
DEALLOYING The bottom photo shows a layer of copper on the surface of a

dealloyed 70% copper-30% nickel cupronickel heat exchanger
Dealloying is a rare form of corrosion found in copper alloys, tube removed from a ship. Stagnant seawater is so corrosive
gray cast iron, and some other alloys. Dealloying occurs when that even this normally corrosion-resistant alloy has corroded.
the alloy loses the active component of the metal and retains Virtually all copper alloys are subject to dealloying in some
the more corrosion resistant component in a porous "sponge"
environments.
on the metal surface. It can also occur by redeposition of the
noble component of the alloy on the metal surface.
Control is by the use of more resistant alloys-inhibited brasses

and malleable or nodular cast iron.
Fig. 11(a) Dealloying corrosion
Fig. 11 Dealloying corrosion
The brass on the left dezincified leaving a porous copper plug

on the surface. The gray cast iron water pipe shown on the right
photo has graphitized and left graphitic surface plugs which
canbe seen on the cut surface. The rust tubercules or bubbles
are also an indication of pitting corrosion.

6.3 - 15 Mar 2014
Microbial Corrosion (MIC)
Microbial corrosion (also called microbiologically-influenced

corrosion or MIC) is corrosion that is caused by the presence
and activities of microbes. This corrosion can take many forms
and can be controlled by biocides or by conventional corrosion
control methods.
There are a number of mechanisms associated with this form of

corrosion, and detailed explanations are available at the web
sites listed at the bottom of this section. Most MIC takes theform
of pits that form underneath colonies of living organic Fig. 12 (a)Microbial corrosion
matter and mineral and biodeposits. This biofilm creates a
protective environment whereconditions can become quite corrosive chemicals to collect within and under the films. Thus
corrosive and corrosion is accelerated. the corrosive conditions under a biofilm can be very aggressive,
even in locations where the bulk environment is noncorrosive.
The picture below shows a biofilm on a metallic condenser
surface. These biofilms can allow
Fig. 12 (b) Microbial corrosion

6.3 - 16 Mar 2014
MIC can be a serious problem in stagnant water systems such Much microbial corrosion involves anaerobic or stagnant
as the fire-protection system that produced the pits shown conditions, but it can also be found on structures exposed to air.
above. The use of biocides and mechanical cleaning methods The pictures below show a spillwaygate from a hydroelectric
can reduce MIC, but anywhere where stagnant water is likely to dam on the Columbia River. The stress corrosion cracks were
collect is a location where MIC can occur. caused by pigeon droppings which produced ammonia-a
chemical that causes stress corrosioncracking on copper alloys
Corrosion (oxidation of metal) can only occur if some other like the washers used on this structure. Since it's impossible to
chemical is present to be reduced. In most environments, the potty train pigeons, a new alloy resistant to ammonia was
chemical that is reduced is either dissolved oxygen or hydrogen necessary.
ions in acids. In anaerobic conditions (no oxygen or air present),
some bacteria (anaerobic bacteria) can thrive. These bacteria
can provide the reducible chemicals that allow corrosion to
occur. That's how the limited corrosion that was found on the
hull of the Titanic occurred. The picture below shows a "rusticle"
removed from the hull of Titanic. This combination of rust and
organic debris clearly shows the location of rivet holes
andwhere two steel plates overlapped.
Fig. 12 (d) Microbial corrosion
Fig. 12 (c) Microbial corrosion

6.3 - 17 Mar 2014
In addition to the use of corrosion resistant alloys, control of

MIC involves the use of biocides and cleaning methods that
remove deposits from metal surfaces. Bacteria are very small,
and it is often very difficult to get a metal system smooth
enough and clean enough to prevent MIC.

6.3 - 18 Mar 2014
CAUSES OF CORROSION; MATERIAL TYPES, All chemical actions occur faster at high temperature. The worst
SUSCEPTIBILITY TO CORROSION condition is hot, wet and maritime environment.
There are certain factors which affect cause, speed, type and Heat Treatment
depth of metal corrosion, among them certain are controllable
and others beyond the will. Incorrect heat treatment may lower the corrosion resistance of
the material treated, thus it is essential that all heat treatment
 Climatic, Temperature should be applied strictly in accordance with approved
 Heat treatment specifications. The corrosion resistance of high-strength
 Stress aluminium alloys is affected by their cooling rate; if this is rapid
 Size & type of metal parts their susceptibility to intergranular corrosion is reduced,
provided that locked-up quenching stresses are afterwards
The environment condition under which the aircraft is operated relieved.
and maintained cannot be controlled normally. Following are the
factors which affect the rate of corrosion. Stress
 Moisture laden atmosphere as against a dry Metals under stress generally corrode more rapidly than
atmosphere. The US of America store hundreds of unstressed metals. Corrosion that is continuing on parts under
aircraft in a desert (dry) atmosphere for emergency war repeated stress is very much more harmful than corrosion for
use. the same length of time without stress, and can lead to rapid
failure of the part from fatigue. In many cases, stress corrosion
 Marine environment will increase rate of corrosion. cracks have resulted from initial pits in the surface.
 Temperature considerations .i.e. hot climate against cold Size and Type of Metal
climate. (high temperature will increase the rate of
corrosion) The nature of corrosion extremely depends upon the size
andtype of the metal in way that some metals corrode easily
and quickly compare to others. Like Magnesium corrode
easilywhilst titanium and gold are extremely corrosion
resistance, like wise thick structures are more susceptible than
thin sections because variations in physical characteristics.

6.3 - 19 Mar 2014
One of the problems involved in corrosion control, is the Superficial corrosion can be removed by scouring, light abrasive
recognition of corrosion products whenever they occur. The blasting, or by chemical methods.
following brief descriptions are of typical corrosion products,
common to materials used in aircraft construction. In general, pure aluminium sheet and ‘alclad’ surfaces have
good corrosion resistance, except in marine environments. In
Iron and Steel these areas, aluminium and its alloys need protection and high-
strength aluminium alloys are always given a substantial
The most common, and easily-recognisable, form of corrosion is protective treatment.
red rust. The initial oxide film, formed on freshly exposed steel,
is very thin and invisible. In the presence of water, or in a damp Magnesium Alloys
atmosphere, especially if sulphur dioxide (industrial
atmosphere) or salt (marine environment) is present, thick Magnesium corrosion products are white and voluminous,
layers of hydrated oxide develop. These layers vary in colour compared to the base metal. When the failure of protective
from brown to black. Rust promotes further corrosion by coatings on magnesium alloys occurs, the corrosive attack
retaining salts and water. Mill scale (a type of oxide formed at tends to be severe in the exposed areas, and may penetrate
high temperatures), also promotes rusting, by forming an totally through a magnesium structure in a very short time. Any
electrolytic cell with the underlying steel. Heavy deposits of rust corrosion, on magnesium alloys, therefore requires prompt
can be removed only by abrasive blasting or by immersion in attention. In contrast to high-strength aluminium alloys, the
rust-removing solutions. strong magnesium alloys, used in aircraft, do not suffer
intergranular attack. Corrosion is readily visible on the surfaces
Surface rust can develop on steel nuts, bolts and other of Magnesium Alloys.
fasteners and may not adversely affect the operational integrity
of the equipment. Its appearance is an indication that adequate
maintenance procedures have not been followed.
Aluminium Alloys
The corrosion of aluminium and its alloys, takes a number of

different forms. It may vary from general etching of the surface,
to the localised, intergranular-attack, characteristics of some
strong alloys in certain states of heat-treatment. The corrosion
products are white to grey and are powdery when dry.
6.3 - 20 Mar 2014
Titanium Cadmium and Zinc
Titanium is highly corrosion-resistant, but should be insulated Cadmium and zinc are used as coatings, to protect the parts to
from other metals to avoid dissimilar metal corrosion of the which they are applied. Both confer sacrificial protection on the
adjacent material. Titanium alloys can suffer stress corrosion at underlying metal. Cadmium is normally chosen for use in the
temperatures above 300C when in the presence of salt and aircraft industry, as it is more durable under severe corrosive
fatigue cracks can develop more quickly in a saline atmosphere. conditions such as in marine and tropical environments. Both
metals produce whitecorrosion products.
Cadmium can penetrate the surface of titanium alloys and
embrittle them at all temperatures above ambient (as can Lead,
Tin and Zinc at temperatures higher than approximately Nickel and Chromium
120°C)). Embrittlement can occur if the cadmium is plated onto
the titanium or if cadmium-plated steel parts (and cadmium- Electroplated nickel is used as a heat-resistant coating, while
contaminated spanners) are used with titanium. Great care chromium is used for its wear-resistance. Both metals protect
must be taken to ensure that these conditions never occur if at steel only by excluding the corrosive atmosphere. The degree of
all possible. protection is proportional to the thickness of the coating. Once
the underlying steel is exposed (through loss of the coating, due
Copper Alloys to abrasion or other damage), then the coatings actually
accelerate the rusting, due to the fact that the steel is more
Copper and its alloys are relatively resistant to corrosion. anodic than the protective coating.
Tarnishing has no serious consequences in most applications.
Long-term exposure to industrial or marine atmospheres gives Chromium is also highly resistant to corrosion, whilst Nickel
rise to the formation of the blue-green patina(aerugo or corrodes slowly in industrial and marine atmospheres, to give a
verdigris) on copper surfaces, while brasses can suffer selective blue-greencorrosion product.
removal of zinc (de-zincification). In aircraft construction,
copper-based alloys are frequently cadmium-plated, to prevent
dissimilar metal corrosion.

6.3 - 21 Mar 2014
Corrosion Prone Areas Corrosion on Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
 Exhaust tail area Aluminium alloy is corrosion resistance but due to the very
 Battery compartment nature of the environment and punishment it is also subjected to
 Bilge area corrosion threat. The corrosion on the aluminium can be
 Wheel well & landing gear identified as a white and voluminous substance. In the presence
of dissolve salt the corrosion activity speed up and spread very
 Water entrapment area
quickly. In particular there are three forms of corrosion which
 Engine frontal area & cooling air vents
are very serious.
 Wing flaps & spoiler areas
 External skin  Penetrating pit type corrosion through walls of tubing.
 Miscellaneous areas
 Fuel tanks  Stress corrosion cracking under sustained stress.
 Intergranular attack characteristics of certain improperly
Corrosion Removal heat treated alloys.
It is very much important in the aviation industry that always Corrosion removal treatment involves chemical or mechanical.
follow the recommended steps for any actions, never attempt Any action must be accompanied by restoring the permanent
unprofessional ways. Every manufacture has published and surface coating.
developed its own techniques but in general there are certain
steps for removing corrosion. ALCLAD
1. Cleaning and strip protective coating on the corroded Pure Aluminium has more corrosion resistance than the
area. stronger aluminium alloys. To take the advantage, a thin sheet
2. Remove as much of the corrosive product possible. of pure aluminium is laminated to both sides of the aluminium
alloy. The AlClad surface offer good protection and can be
3. Neutralize the remaining residue.
maintained in a polished condition. Care should be taken not to
4. Check if damage is within the limits. remove too much of the aluminium layer by mechanical
5. Restore protective surface films. methods as the core may be exposed.
6. Apply Temporary or permanent coating.

6.3 - 22 Mar 2014
PERMANENT ANTI-CORROSION TREATMENT Electro-Plating
There are two types of electro-plating

There are a number of means of controlling corrosion. The
1. Coating more noble than basic metal
choice of a means of corrosion control depends on economics,
safety requirements, and a number of technical considerations. 2. Coating less noble than basic metal
On certain metals, due to their nature of job a permanent anti-
corrosion treatment is done. These are intended to intact with Coating more noble: Chromium or Nickel. These nobler metals
the component throughout the life cycle. do not corrode easily in air or water and are resistance to acid
attack. If the basic metal is exposed. It will corrode locally by
There are number of permanent anti-corrosion treatment types. electrolytic action. The attack may result in pitting corrosion of
the base metal or corrosion may spread beneath the coating
1. Cladding
2. Sprayed Metal Coating Coating less noble than basic metal.Coating less noble than
the basic metal. The coating is anodic and so if base metal is
3. Electro Platting exposed, the coating will corrode in preference to the base
metal. Cadmium plating or zinc on steel. Commonly called
Cladding sacrificial protection.
Hot rolling of pure aluminium on duralumin produces AlClad **Note. Special instruction must be followed if
which has good corrosion resistance and the high strength of mercury/acid/alkali is spilled.
the alloy. If the cladding becomes damaged, the material will
corrode easily. Identification of Metals
Sprayed Metal Coating In a condition when material is not known, it can be identified by
its reaction or lack of reaction to certain chemical.
In the aviation industry only aluminium and zinc are used on
aircraft for coating purposes. Aluminium sprayed on steel is Ferrous Metals:
frequently used for high temperature areas. The process
produces a film about 0.004” which prevents the oxidation of the Most of them are magnetic except austenitic steels and some
metal underneath the coating. stainless steels. Heating ferrous at or near boiling nitric acid
until a chemical reaction occurs and it produces;
6.3 - 23 Mar 2014
 A yellow or light brown solution if the particles are

carbon steel.
 A dark brown solution if the particles are cast iron.
Aluminum Alloys:
They are light grey in colour and light in weight they can react
by HCl, Sulphuric acid and alkalis.
Bronzes:
They are usually coppery or reddish in colour. Reacted by Nitric

acid to form a solution, which when boiled produces a white
precipitate.
Magnesium Alloys:
These are light in colour and light in weight and reacted by

saturated sulphuric acid solution.

6.3 - 24 Mar 2014

Module 6 (Materials & Hardware) SubModule 6.4 (Corrosion)

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PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE

Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.4 – Corrosion

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

(A) CHEMICAL FUNDAMENTAL -------------------------------------------- 1

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

CORROSION The corrosion process involves two concurrent changes. The

Metallic elements are usually compounded with other elements,

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELECTROCHEMICAL (GALVANIC) CORROSION

Alloying a metal with another metal sometimes improves the

The mechanism of electrochemical corrosion (on single metal

In its basic form, it consists of two dissimilar metals in the

When, for example, zinc and copper plates, are partially

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

hydrogen gas. The thermodynamic driving force of this cell is

Similar electrochemical corrosion processes, with balancing

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF CORROSION IN A

The onset of corrosion (and its severity) will depend upon

 Conductivity of the Solution: - Should the resistance of the

 Potential difference between the metals: - the galvanic

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

 Electrical Resistance: - As the corrosion products build up

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

Surface corrosion is a fairly uniform corrosion attack, which

Microbiological Hydrogen Embrittlement

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

This may be taking place out of sight and may result in

This corrosion is also known as intercrystallinecorrosion, and

Corrosion progresses from the metal surface, in narrow

Indications of the damage may not be visible to the naked eye.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

EXFOLIATION CORROSION STRESS CORROSION

Stress corrosion cracking has three distinct phases in that there

In highly stressed parts (e.g. landing gear components), cracks

Fig. 06 stress corrosion

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

Fig. 08(a) crevice corrosion

Fig. 08 crevice corrosion

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

Filiform corrosion occurs beneath thin, protective coatings, on

Pitting corrosion can occur on aircraft materials when the

Local rough spots, inclusions, contaminations and lack of

Aluminium and magnesium alloys, chromium-plated and

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

Corrosion fatigue is a special case of stress corrosion caused

The "beach marks" on the propeller shown below mark the

Fig. 10 Fatigue corrosion

Similar beach marks are shown on the aerospace part below

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

Fig. 10 (b) example of Fatige corrosion

An infamous example of corrosion fatigue occured in 1988 on Fig. 10 (c)Fatige corrosion

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

DEALLOYING The bottom photo shows a layer of copper on the surface of a

Control is by the use of more resistant alloys-inhibited brasses

Fig. 11(a) Dealloying corrosion

Fig. 11 Dealloying corrosion

The brass on the left dezincified leaving a porous copper plug

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

Microbial Corrosion (MIC)