Electronic Configuration and the Periodic Table

What is Periodic table?

The periodic table is an organizational chart that shows the arrangement of elements in order of their increasing
atomic number.

What is an atomic number?

Atomic number is the number of proton present in the atomic nucleus of an element. The number of proton in a
neutral atom is the same as the number of electron.

The periodic table may also be said to classify atoms by electronic configuration which is the process whereby
electrons are arranged in the shells of the element. The maximum number of electrons in a given shell can be
obtained by using the formula, 2n2, where n represents the shell number. The maximum electron populations
for the first five shells are given in the table below.

Maximum number of electrons in shells

Shell Shell number (n) Maximum number of electrons (2n2)
K 1 2 x 12 = 2
L 2 2 x 22 = 8
M 3 2 x 32 = 18
N 4 2 x 42 = 32
O 5 2 x 52 = 50

Electronic Configuration of the first twenty elements in the periodic table.

Elements protons K L M N
electrons
Hydrogen 1
Helium 2 2
Lithium 3 2 1
Berylium 4 2 2
Boron 5 2 3
Carbon 6 2 4
Nitrogen 7 2 5
Oxygen 8 2 6
Fluorine 9 2 7
Neon 10 2 8
Sodium 11 2 8 1
Magnesium 12 2 8 2
Aluminium 13 2 8 3

Silicon 14 2 8 4
Phosphorus 15 2 8 5
Sulphur 16 2 8 6
Chlorine 17 2 8 7
 Argon 18 2 8 8
Potassium 19 2 8 8 1
Calcium 20 2 8 8 2

Period 2:
What is chemical combination?
Chemical combination is the process whereby atoms react by being sharing or exchanging electrons on their
outermost shell of the atoms.
Chemical bonding deals with the various attractive forces joining chemical species (atoms, ions, molecules)
together.
Types of Chemical combination
1. Electrovalent (ionic) bond
2. Covalent bond
3. Coordinate (dative) covalent bond
4. Hydrogen bond
5. Metallic bond
6. Vander Waals bond

Electrovalent (Ionic) Bond: Electrovalent bond is characterized by transfer of electrons from metallic atoms to
non-metallic atoms during a chemical reaction, i.e., donor-acceptor principle.
The metallic atoms, after donating their valence electrons, become positively charged, while the non-metallic
atoms become negatively charged after acquiring extra electrons. Both ions now possess stable outer duplet or
octet structure of noble gases.

Formation of sodium chloride (Na+ Cl-)

Before After combination
combination
Sodium atom Chlorine atom Sodium atom Chlorine atom
Proton 11 17 11 17
Electron 2,8,1 2,8,7 2,8 2,8,8

Equation of reaction Na → Na+ + e-

Cl + e- → Cl-
Na + Cl → NaCl
Other examples of electrovalent compounds include MgO, MgCl2, CaO, etc.

Properties of Electrovalent (Ionic) Compound

1. Ionic compounds do not contain molecules, instead, they consists of aggregates of oppositely charged ions.
2. They are solides at room temperature and not vaporize easily.
3. They have high melting and boiling points because of the strong electrovalent bonds between the ions.
4. Ionic compounds readily dissolve in water and other polar solvents.
5. they are good conductors of electricity when in molten state or in solutions.
6. They do not dissolve in non polar solvents such as toluene, benzene, ether, trichloromethane etc.

Period 3:
Covalent Bond: Covalent bond consists of a pair of electrons shared by two atoms. The shared electrons are
each contributed by the reacting atoms.
Note: In covalent bonding, electrons are not transferred but are shared.
Formation of Hydrogen Chloride
In the molecule of hydrogen chloride, one atom of hydrogen is covalently bound to one atom of chlorine. Both
hydrogen and chlorine atoms have each contributed one electron for sharing.
Other examples of molecule and compound having covalent bonds are CO2, NH3, CH4, C2H2, N2O2, H2, C2H2,
etc.

Properties of Covalent Compound

1. Covalent compounds consist of molecules which have a definite shape.
2. They are gases or volatile liquids because their molecules being electrically neutral are not bound by strong
attractive forces.
3. They have low melting and boiling points.
4. They are readily dissolve in non polar organic solvents such as benzene, toluene and carbon disulphide.
5. They do not conduct electricity, (this is because they do not contain charged particles).

Evaluation: Teacher evaluates the lesson by asking the learners to explain covalent bond and state their
properties one after the other.
Conclusion: Teacher concludes the lesson by checking the learners’ notebooks for marking and does correction
where necessary.
Assignment: Revision objective questions number 1 to 10, page 100 in Essential chemistry for S. S. Schools by
Odesina I.A.

H.O.D’s Comment:
Date: 08/01/2024

Class: S. S. 2

Topic: Water, Solution and Solubility

Sub-topic: Water, hardness of water; types of hardness; properties of water; water polution

Period: 3 Periods

Duration: 105 minutes

Behavioural objective(s): By the end of the lesson, learner should be able to:
i. explain water
ii. explain the hardness of water and its types
iii. explain the permanent hardness of water.
iv. explain purification of water for municipal supply
v. state the causes and effects of the types of hardness of water

Previous knowledge: Learners can stste and explain the various sources of water. They can discuss the
properties and uses of water.

Reference:
(i) New school chemistry by Osei Yaw A.
(ii) Essential chemistry for Senior classes by Odesina I.A.
iii. internet
Instructional materials: Charts and Video clips explaining the pH and contact process.

Presentation: Teacher presents the lesson in a systematic order.

Step1:
Teacher’s Activity: Teacher introduces the lesson by showing learners the video clips
Learner’s Activities: Learners are to mention what they see on the video clips one after the other

Step2:
Teacher’s Activity: Teacher asks the learners to say what they understand about the topic ‘Water’.
Learners’ Activities: Learners are allowed to give their opinion on the concept ‘Water’ in their own way and
also listen to the teacher when correcting them.

Step 3:
Teacher’s Activity: Teacher explain the topic extensively and writes on the board for the learners to copy
down
Learners’ Activities: Learners listen and write down in their note, then ask questions when necessary

Period 1 & 2:
WATER
Water is regarded as the universal solvent. It is a good solvent for many substances.
SOURCES OF WATER
The following are the sources of water:
1. Natural water: Rainwater, Well water, Spring water and Sea water
2. Treated water: Distilled water, Pipe – borne water and chlorinated water.

TYPES OF WATER
Water is of two types namely: soft water and hard water. Soft water forms lather with soap easily while hard
water does not form lather readily with soap since it contains some dissolved salt in it.
STRUCTURE OF WATER
In a molecule of water, H2O, the central atom is Oxygen. Oxygen has the following electronic configuration: 1s 2
2s2 2p4.

The valence shell of oxygen has two lone pairs of electrons (2s 22p2) and two unpaired electrons (2py12pz1). Each
unpaired electron forms a covalent bond with an electron from a hydrogen atom. The water molecule has two
lone pairs and two bond pairs of electrons in the valence shell of its central atom, thereby satisfying the octet
rule for stability.

Ideally, the four electron pairs should be directed towards corners of a tetrahedron. However, when lone pairs of
electrons is located near another lone pair, the repulsion between them is so great that they squeeze the other
two bond pairs of electrons closer together. As a result, the bond angle in water is compressed to approximately
105o, such that the structure of the water molecule is V-shaped or angular shape.
O

H H

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF WATER

To prepare water in laboratory, dry hydrogen gas is ignited in air. It burns with a faint blue flame to give steam,
which will condense on contact with any cold surface to form water.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

1. Water boils at 100oC and freezes at 0oC
2. It has a maximum density of 1gcm-3 at 4oC
3. It is neutral to litmus.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Water reacts with electropositive metals to form alkali and liberate hydrogen gas. E.g
Na(s) + H2O(aq) NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Mg & Zn react with steam
Cu, Au, Ag, Hg do not react with water to form alkaline solution
2. Non-metal like chlorine reacts with water to form acid solution.
H20(aq) + Cl2(g) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)

TEST FOR WATER

When few drops of water are added to
1. White anhydrous copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI), it turns blue.
2. Blue cobalt (II) chloride, it turns pink.
NOTE: These two tests are not specific for water. They only indicate the presence of water. Any aqueous
solution or substance containing water will give a positive test for water.

HARDNESS OF WATER
Hard water is the water that does not form lather readily with soap.
Water acquired hardness when insoluble salts of CaSO 4, MgSO4 and Ca(HCO3)2 dissolves in it from the soil
which it flows through.

TYPES OF HARDNESS OF WATER

1. Temporary hard water
2. Permanent hard water

TEMPORARY HARDNESS: This is caused by the presences of Ca 2+ and Mg2+ in the form of hydrogen
trioxocarbonate IV i.e. Ca(HCO3)2

REMOVAL OF TEMPORARY HARDNESS

1. Physical method: By boiling
Ca(HCO3)2(aq)heat CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2. Chemical method: By using of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide solution)
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) 2CaCO3(s)+ 2H2O(l)

EFFECTS OF TEMPORARY HARDNESS: It causes

1. Furring of kettles and boilers.
2. Stalagmite and stalactites in caves.

Evaluation: Teacher evaluates the lesson by asking the learners different questions one after the other on the
topic taught.
Class work: i. Mention TWO compounds that can cause temporary hardness of water.
ii. Write two equations to show the removal of temporary hardness of water.

Period 3:

Sub-topics: Hardness of water; purification of water for municipal supply.

Duration: 35 minutes

Behavioural objective(s): By the end of the lesson, learner should be able to:
i. explain the permanent hardness of water.
ii. explain purification of water for municipal supply

PERMANENT HARDNESS
Permanent hardness in water is caused by the presence of Calcium and Magnesium ions in the form of soluble
tetraoxosulphate (VI) and chlorides (i.e. CaSO4, MgSO4, MgCl2, CaCl2)
Removal of permanent hardness: By chemical method only
1. Addition of washing soda
Na2CO3(aq) + CaSO4(aq) CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
2. Addition of caustic soda
2NaOH(aq) + CaSO4(aq) Ca(OH)2(s ) + Na2SO4(aq)
3. Ion exchange resin
CaSO4(aq) + Sodium zeolite Calcium zeolite + NaSO4(aq)

ADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER

1. It has better taste than soft water.
2. Calcium salts in it helps to build strong teeth and bones.
3. It provides CaCO3, that crab and snail use to build their shells.
4. It does not dissolve lead, hence it can be supplied in lead pipes.

DISADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER

1. It causes furring of kettles and boilers.
2. It wastes soap.
3. It cannot be used in dying and tanning.

TREATMENT OF WATER FOR MUNICIPAL SUPPLY

The following are the processes of treating river water for town supply
1. Coagulation:Chemicals like potash alum, KAl(SO4)2, or sodium aluminate III, NaAlO2 is added to water
in a large settling tank.
2. Sedimentation: The coagulated solid particles or flocs are allowed to settle in the settling tank to form
sediments at the bottom of the tank.
3. Filtration: The water above the sediment still contains some suspended particles. The water is passed
through a filter bed to remove the remaining fine dirt particles.
4. Chlorination (Disinfection): Chemicals like chlorine is then added to the water to kill germs. Iodine and
fluorine are also added as food supplements to prevent goiter and tooth decay respectively. The treated
water is then stored in a reservoir and distributed to the town.

EVALUATION
1. Describe the structure of water.
2. How will you identify a give solution to be water?

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION
1. Mention two compounds that causes permanent hardness in water
2. State two ways of removing permanent hardness in water
3. List two advantages of hard water
4. State Faraday’s second law of electrolysis
5. Using electron dot-cross representation, show the formation of carbon (IV) oxide and name the type of
bond formed

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
SECTION A:Write the correct option ONLY
1. Treated town water undergoes the following steps except A. co-agulationB. precipitation C. sedimentation
D. chlorination
2. Water is temporarily hard because it contains A. CaSO4B. MgSO4C. chlorine D.Ca(HCO3)2
3. Temporary hardness of water is removed by the use of one of the following A. boiling B. use of use of
Ca(OH)2C. use of Na2CO3D. use of alum
4. A substance that turns white anhydrous CuSO 4 blue is A. water B.liquid ammonia C. hydrochloric acid D.
molten sulphur
5. Distilled water is different from deionized water because A. distilled water is a product of condensed
steam while deionized water is filtered laboratory water B. distilled water is always pure and sold in packs
while deionized is not packaged for consumption C. distilled water is condensed steam but deionized
water is produced using ion-exchange resins which absorbs undesired ions. D. distilled water is man-made
while deionized water is both natural and artificial

SECTION B
1. State the steps involved in the treatment of river water for town supply.
2. Write two equations to show the removal of permanent hardness of water.
Conclusion: Teacher concludes the lesson by checking the learners note and mark.

H.O.D’s Comment:
Date: 08/01/2024

Class: S. S. 2

Topic: Organic Chemistry

Sub-topic: Alkanoic (Carboxylic acid) and Alkanoate (Esters)

Period: 3 Periods

Duration: 105 minutes

Behavioural objective(s): By the end of the lesson, learner should be able to:
i. identify alkanoic acid as homologous series and state their classification
ii. state the properties of

Previous knowledge: Learners already understand some sub-topics under chemical equilibrium such as factors
affecting chemical equilibrium, equilibrium constant and haber process

Reference: (i) New school chemistry by Osei Yaw A. (ii) Essential chemistry for Senior classes by Odesina
I.A.

Instructional materials: Charts and Video clips explaining the pH and contact process.

Presentation: Teacher presents the lesson in a systematic order.

Step1:
Teacher’s Activity: Teacher introduces the lesson by showing learners the video clips
Learner’s Activities: Learners are to mention what they see on the video clips one after the other

Step2:
Teacher’s Activity: Teacher asks the learners to say what they understand about the topic ‘Heat Energy’.
Learners’ Activities: Learners are allowed to give their opinion on the concept ‘Heat transfer’ in their own
way and also listen to the teacher when correcting them.

Step 3:
Teacher’s Activity: Teacher explain the topic extensively and writes on the board for the learners to copy
down
Learners’ Activities: Learners listen and write down in their note, then ask questions when necessary

Period 1 & 2:
Equilibrium Constant
The equilibrium constant, K, may be derived by the use of law of mass action. This law by Guldberg and
Waage states that at constant temperature, the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the active
mass of the reacting substances.
Equilibrium constant is a measure of the ratio of the equilibrium concentration of the product of a reaction, to
the equilibrium concentration of the reactants; with each concentration raised to the power corresponding to the
coefficientin the balanced equation of the reaction.

aA + bB → cC + dD
The equilibrium constant K = [C]c [D]d / [A]a [B]b

[ ] = equilibrium concentration
Kc = equilibrium constant for liquids, solids or solutions.
Kp = equilibrium constant for gaseous reaction.
If Kc is positive it means products are favoured at equilibrium.
If Kc is negative it means reactants are favoured at equilibrium

Calculations Based on Equilibrium Constant; K

Example 1: The following results were obtained during the analysis of a reaction
CO2(s) + H2(g) → H2O(g) + CO(g)
[CO2] = 0.75M [H2] = 0.32M [H2O] = 0.30M [CO] = 0.55M
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction.

Solution
K = [H2O] [CO] / [H2][CO2] = (0.30 x 0.55) / (0.32 x 0.75) = 0.688

Equilibrium Constant, Free Energy and Electrode Potential.

The relationship between the standard free energy change and the equilibrium constant at a particular
temperature is represented in an equation called Van’t Hoff Isotherm Equation:

∆G0 = - RTlnK
Note; lnK = -2.303 log10K
Therefore, ∆G0 = -2.303 RTlog10K
Where ∆G0 is the standard free energy change
K is the equilibrium constant
R is the molar gas constant and
T is the temperature of the system in Kelvin.
The relationship between standard electrode potentiak, E0, and equilibrium constant is given by

E0 = RTlnK / nF

Also, the relationshipbetween electrode potential and free energy change of an electrochemical cell can be
expressed by the following equation.
G0 = - nFE
Where n is the number of moles of electrons
E0 is the standard electrode potential
F is the faraday’s constant

Example: Calculate the standard free energy change at 25oC and the equilibrium constant for the reaction
PCl5(l) → PCl(l) + Cl2(g)
Given that the free energy values of formation of PCl5, PCl, and Cl2(g) at 25oC are – 305, 268, and 0.00kJ mol-1
respectively (Molar gas constant = 8.314 J K-1 mol-1).

Solution:
∆G0 = ∆Gp 0 - ∆Gr0 = (∆G0 PCl3 - ∆G0Cl2) - ∆Go PCl5
 = (-268 + 0.00) - (-305)
= -268 + 305 = +37 KJ mol-1 or 3700 J
T = 25oC + 273 = 298k
∆G0 = -2.303 RTlog10K
log10K = ∆G0 / 2.303RT
= -37000 / 2.303 x 8.314 x 298
log10K = - 6.4846
K = 10 -6.4846
K = 0.3276 x 10-6
K = 3.276 x 10-7
Evaluation: Teacher evaluates the lesson by asking the learners different questions one after the other on the
topic taught.

Period 3:
The Haber Process
The Haber process uses the reaction
3H2(g) + N2(g) ↔ 2NH3(g) ∆H = -46.1KJmol-1
3moles 1mole 2moles
The forward reaction is exothermic while the reverse reaction is endothermic.
Temperature 450oC
Pressure 200atm
Catalyst Small pellets of iron
Yield 15%

The table above sum up the usual operating conditions and yield of the Haber process. In an effort to minimize
cost and time; the operating conditions only give a yield of 15%. However, there is no wastage of material as
the un-reacted gases are recycled.

Evaluation: Teacher evaluate the lesson by asking the learners to discuss the Haber process.
Assignment: (i) Explain the Haber process (ii) State the relationship between ∆G, E and K.
Conclusion: Teacher concludes the lesson by asking the learners notebooks for marking and does correction
wherever required
Assignment: (i) Differentiate between heat and temperature (ii) State the methods of heat transfer

Conclusion: Teacher concludes the lesson by checking the learners note and mark.

H.O.D’s Comment:

V.P Academics Comment:

Date: 08/01/2024

Class: S. S. 2

Topic: Chemical Equilibrum

Sub-topic: Contact process, acid-base equilibrium, pH and buffer solution

Period: 3 Periods

Duration: 105 minutes

Behavioural objective(s): By the end of the lesson, learner should be able to:
i. discuss the contact process. ii. explain buffer solution iii. solve calculations on pH

Previous knowledge: Learners already understand some sub-topics under chemical equilibrium such as factors
affecting chemical equilibrium, equilibrium constant and haber process

Reference: (i) New school chemistry by Osei Yaw A. (ii) Essential chemistry for Senior classes by Odesina
I.A.

Instructional materials: Charts and Video clips explaining the pH and contact process.

Presentation: Teacher presents the lesson in a systematic order.

Step1:
Teacher’s Activity: Teacher introduces the lesson by showing learners the video clips
Learner’s Activities: Learners are to mention what they see on the video clips one after the other

Step2:
Teacher’s Activity: Teacher asks the learners to say what they understand about the topic ‘Heat Energy’.
Learners’ Activities: Learners are allowed to give their opinion on the concept ‘Heat transfer’ in their own
way and also listen to the teacher when correcting them.

Step 3:
Teacher’s Activity: Teacher explain the topic extensively and writes on the board for the learners to copy
down
Learners’ Activities: Learners listen and write down in their note, then ask questions when necessary

Period 1 & 2:
Equilibrium Constant
The equilibrium constant, K, may be derived by the use of law of mass action. This law by Guldberg and
Waage states that at constant temperature, the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the active
mass of the reacting substances.
Equilibrium constant is a measure of the ratio of the equilibrium concentration of the product of a reaction, to
the equilibrium concentration of the reactants; with each concentration raised to the power corresponding to the
coefficientin the balanced equation of the reaction.

aA + bB → cC + dD
The equilibrium constant K = [C]c [D]d / [A]a [B]b

[ ] = equilibrium concentration
Kc = equilibrium constant for liquids, solids or solutions.
Kp = equilibrium constant for gaseous reaction.
If Kc is positive it means products are favoured at equilibrium.
If Kc is negative it means reactants are favoured at equilibrium

Calculations Based on Equilibrium Constant; K

Example 1: The following results were obtained during the analysis of a reaction
CO2(s) + H2(g) → H2O(g) + CO(g)
[CO2] = 0.75M [H2] = 0.32M [H2O] = 0.30M [CO] = 0.55M
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction.

Solution
K = [H2O] [CO] / [H2][CO2] = (0.30 x 0.55) / (0.32 x 0.75) = 0.688

Equilibrium Constant, Free Energy and Electrode Potential.

The relationship between the standard free energy change and the equilibrium constant at a particular
temperature is represented in an equation called Van’t Hoff Isotherm Equation:

∆G0 = - RTlnK
Note; lnK = -2.303 log10K
Therefore, ∆G0 = -2.303 RTlog10K
Where ∆G0 is the standard free energy change
K is the equilibrium constant
R is the molar gas constant and
T is the temperature of the system in Kelvin.
The relationship between standard electrode potentiak, E0, and equilibrium constant is given by

E0 = RTlnK / nF

Also, the relationshipbetween electrode potential and free energy change of an electrochemical cell can be
expressed by the following equation.
G0 = - nFE
Where n is the number of moles of electrons
E0 is the standard electrode potential
F is the faraday’s constant

Example: Calculate the standard free energy change at 25oC and the equilibrium constant for the reaction
PCl5(l) → PCl(l) + Cl2(g)
Given that the free energy values of formation of PCl5, PCl, and Cl2(g) at 25oC are – 305, 268, and 0.00kJ mol-1
respectively (Molar gas constant = 8.314 J K-1 mol-1).

Solution:
∆G0 = ∆Gp 0 - ∆Gr0 = (∆G0 PCl3 - ∆G0Cl2) - ∆Go PCl5
 = (-268 + 0.00) - (-305)
= -268 + 305 = +37 KJ mol-1 or 3700 J
T = 25oC + 273 = 298k
∆G0 = -2.303 RTlog10K
log10K = ∆G0 / 2.303RT
= -37000 / 2.303 x 8.314 x 298
log10K = - 6.4846
K = 10 -6.4846
K = 0.3276 x 10-6
K = 3.276 x 10-7
Evaluation: Teacher evaluates the lesson by asking the learners different questions one after the other on the
topic taught.

Period 3:
The Haber Process
The Haber process uses the reaction
3H2(g) + N2(g) ↔ 2NH3(g) ∆H = -46.1KJmol-1
3moles 1mole 2moles
The forward reaction is exothermic while the reverse reaction is endothermic.
Temperature 450oC
Pressure 200atm
Catalyst Small pellets of iron
Yield 15%

The table above sum up the usual operating conditions and yield of the Haber process. In an effort to minimize
cost and time; the operating conditions only give a yield of 15%. However, there is no wastage of material as
the un-reacted gases are recycled.

Evaluation: Teacher evaluate the lesson by asking the learners to discuss the Haber process.
Assignment: (i) Explain the Haber process (ii) State the relationship between ∆G, E and K.
Conclusion: Teacher concludes the lesson by asking the learners notebooks for marking and does correction
wherever required
Assignment: (i) Differentiate between heat and temperature (ii) State the methods of heat transfer

Conclusion: Teacher concludes the lesson by checking the learners note and mark.

H.O.D’s Comment:

V.P Academics Comment: