International Journal on Architectural Science, Volume 4, Number 1, p.

14-23, 2003

DESIGN ANALYSIS OF A REFRIGERATED WAREHOUSE USING LNG

COLD ENERGY
K.H. Yang and S.C. Wu
Mechanical Engineering Department, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan 80424

(Received 27 September 2002; Accepted 9 January 2003)

ABSTRACT

An innovative design approach has been performed using latent heat of the Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) during
evaporation to provide cooling for 500 USRT cold storage warehouse. In compared with the conventional,
mechanical cooling designs, tremendous energy savings can be experienced and is discussed in detail in the
paper.

1. INTRODUCTION This open heat exchanger loop is not only a waste

of huge “cold energy” or cooling capacity, but will
During the energy crisis in the 1970s, oil prices cause thermal pollution to the coastal fishery area
hiked to a record high of 42 USD per barrel, which also when cold water was re-injected into the sea.
imposed a lot of pressure economically on oil In this project, an innovative design has been
importing countries such as Taiwan. To diversify performed to reclaim the cold energy for a -35oC
energy resources as a counter-measure, it was cold warehouse. Conventionally, this was done by
decided to import LNG from ASEAN countries installing mechanical refrigeration systems,
such as Indonesia and Malaysia, so that most of the necessitating tremendous electrical power to drive
fossil-fueled power plants, which were burning the refrigerant compressor working in such a low
coal and oil, would switch into natural gas (NG). temperature. In this study, a closed loop LNG heat
Natural gas is a more environmentally friendly fuel, exchanger system will be designed to replace the
which contains over 92% of methane, depending mechanical, or vapor-compression refrigeration
on the source of product. When LNG is vaporized (VCR) cycle, with a technical and economical
into NG, tremendous cooling capacity will be feasibility study to justify its application.
generated during this phase-changing process.
Conventionally, this was done by pumping
seawater through the open rack vaporizer (ORV), 2. EVALUATION OF LNG COLD
such that heat was transferred from seawater to ENERGY RECLAIM POTENTIAL
LNG, and vaporized it into a gaseous state, for
industrial and household usage. The chilled water LNG imported to Taiwan has a chemical
was normally dumped into sea again. Fig. 1 shows composition of 90.5% CH4, 6.2% C2H4, and 2.33%
the conventional process. LNG was pumped from C3H8 in molar fractions. Its thermal properties can
the tanker A to the storage tank B. In order to be calculated by the Redlich-Kwang-Soave (RKS)
maintain a steady flow condition, the boil-off gas State equation [1]. However, to meet the demand
(BOG) from the tank at point C was extracted and side higher pressure at the local power utilities, it is
cooled by the cooler D and recharged into the necessary to pressurize LNG from -162oC at 100
tanker at point E to form a circulation loop. Part of kpa atmospheric pressure, to around 8 Mpa, or 80
the BOG at point F was re-compressed at the BOG atm. Therefore, a calculation model with much
compressor or point G, condensed and re-charged broader range of temperature and pressure should
into the LNG supply loop at point J. While, part of be adapted, such as the Peng-Robinson (PR) state
the boil-off gas shown at point H, was incinerated equations [2]. Both calculation models have
at the burning tower. On the other hand, pump 1 similar accuracy on light hydrocarbons, but the
located inside the storage tank transports LNG RKS tends to over-estimate on density calculations,
from the tank, through point I and J, boosted by the so the PR model is used in this study.
pump 2 to a higher pressure at point K, and
vaporized at the ORV by the sea water loop shown PR state equations:
by point M and N and supply to the customers at
the gaseous state, denoted by the point L. During
P = RT −a (1)
this process, only a few part of the LNG cold (V − b) (V(V + b) + b(v − b))
energy was recovered by re-condensing BOG.

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where P is the pressure of LNG, kPa; T is the The pressurization process will change the LNG
temperature of LNG, K; V is the volume of LNG, boiling point, which in turn, will change the cold
M3; and R is the gas constant, kPa.m3kg-1.K-1. energy amount that can be reclaimed. The cold
energy potential can be calculated from the
n n enthalpy change of LNG across the ORV, or:
a= ∑∑ x i x j (a i a j ) 0.5
i i
E = H Pin −162 C − H Pout t
°
(2)
n
where the subscripts stand for the enthalpy H at
b = ∑ x i bi different temperature and pressure Pin, Pout. The
i temperature of LNG at liquid state is around -162
o
C, while the temperature of NG at gaseous state is
a i = a ci α i about 20oC in maximum. And the reclaimed energy
potential is expressed in E.

R 2 Tc2 The calculation result of the LNG cold energy

a c = 0.45724
Pc potential under various temperature and pressure
was shown in Fig. 2. It is noticed that the cold
energy potential decreased while LNG was
α i 0.5 = 1 + (0.37646 + 1.54226ωi + 0.26992ωi 2 )(1 − Tri ) pressurized. For example, at 8 Mpa, LNG would
have an enthalpy of 786 kjkg-1, only amounts to
88% of its value at atmospheric pressure.
R Tci
b i = 0.07748
Pci Based on statistics from September 1, 1998 to
August 31, 1999, the annual LNG consumption rate
where x is the mole fraction of each substance, ω is in Taiwan is around 396.52 million metric tons,
the acentric factor, Tri = Ti/Tci. The subscript c equivalent to a daily average of 10864.31 metric
means critical state. tons, or 452.67 tons.h-1.

Fig. 1: A schematic diagram showing the conventional LNG transporting process using ORV
for evaporation

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LNG pressure=1atm
1000
LNG pressure=30atm
LNG pressure=50atm
LNG pressure=80atm
800

600
energy (kj/kg)

400

200

-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50

LNG temperature(C)

Fig. 2: Calculation result of the LNG cold energy potential under various temperature and pressure

When LNG was imported from ASEAN countries, be reclaimed is beyond doubt and waiting to be
it was pumped from the tanker and stored in explored.
the 60 m-diameter storage tank at -162 oC liquid
state. Pumped out at -148 oC, it was pressurized in
two stages, from atmospheric pressure to 3 atm, 3. SYSTEM DESIGN FOR COLD
and then to 83 atm while entering the ORV. It WAREHOUSE USING LNG RE-
leaves ORV at 15 oC with a pressure drop of CLAIMED COLD ENERGY
around 20 atm, and stays at 63 atm. Therefore, the
calculation yields a total heat exchange capacity of In order to reclaim cold energy during LNG
743Mj per ton of LNG across the ORV. evaporation process, it is necessary to construct a
Combining with the daily LNG utilization rate in closed heat exchange (HX) loop using secondary
our study, which is around 10,864 ton/day, then it refrigerant, as shown in Fig. 5. In addition, the
accounts for 1932 Gcal cold energy wasted per day, ORVs are still needed as a means for adjusting the
or equivalent to 26,662 Refrigeration Tons (USRT) appropriate portion of heat to be reclaimed without
cooling capacity, enough to provide residential interrupting the normal NG supply to the power
cooling for around 8800 families during the utilities. In other words, either the closed-loop heat
summer. This has been validated by an exchanger or the ORV, each will provide a certain
experimental investigation through measuring the percentage of evaporation heat needed to vaporizer
sea water loop with flow rate and temperature LNG into NG, and can be adjusted subject to the
differences entering and leaving the ORV. As cooling load of the warehouse. On the ORV side,
shown in Fig. 3, T1 and T2 denote the measuring residual LNG was evaporated accordingly so that
points of the sea water inlet and outlet temperatures NG at its outlet still maintains the normal
at the ORV, resulting at 27.3oC and 23.5oC temperature and pressure needed for the power
respectively. The point F denotes the sea water utilities.
flow rate measuring location, resulting at 2123.8
ton.h-1. The accumulated heat exchange capacity is In this project, LNG cold energy will be utilized to
26682 USRT. Compared with our estimation, the supply cooling to a 110 RT cold storage warehouse
deviation is within 3%. operating at -35 oC, another 390 RT warehouse at
-20oC, and to provide 146 RT cooling capacity for
Furthermore, Fig. 4 shows a statistics and air-conditioning in preparative rooms at around 15
prediction of the LNG import to Taiwan. o
C. Fig. 6 shows a flow chart of the complete
Following the completion of the second phase of warehouse system using cold energy reclaimed
LNG storage extension project in 1996, the annual from LNG, named the LNGCW system, with major
import rises from 150 metric tons to 450 metric design parameters indicated.
tons, and expected to reach 900 metric tons at the
year of 2020. The huge amount of cold energy to

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Computer simulation has been performed following storage tanks were connected according to the
the first law of thermodynamics along the flow system flow chart. After an iterative design and
process. Heat and mass balance of the system was simulation process, the system schematics has been
calculated as shown in Fig. 7 where each finalized. Fig. 8 gives an outlook of the completed
component, including heat exchangers, pumps, and LNG cold warehouse architectural design.

• denotes the measuring point,

T for temperature, F for mass
flow rate of sea water

Fig. 3: The schematic diagram of the full-scale experiment in measuring the LNG cold energy
released by ORV through sea water

11 The Import of LNG

10

8
1x10 ton

7
6

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

year

Fig. 4: Prediction of LNG import quantity from ASEAN countries to Taiwan in next decades

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Fig. 5: A schematic diagram indicating cold energy reclaimed from LNG evaporation process
for cold warehouse application

Fig. 6: A schematic diagram showing the LNGCW system flow

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Fig. 7: An energy and mass balance simulation result of the LNGCW system

Fig. 8: An outlook of the completed LNGCW architectural design

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4. ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY STUDY indicated that the APCL ranged from 91% during
the summer and down to 76% in the winter.
Based on the design analysis shown above, major Assuming 330 operation days a year, the LNG
components were sized accordingly enabling an consumption rate of the LNGCW system can be
economic feasibility evaluation of the LNGCW calculated as shown in Fig. 10, where the daily
systems vs. a conventional mechanical refrigeration average flow rate is 11.2 ton.h-1 and reached its
(CMR) system. peak of 12.3 ton.h-1 in July. Steady state energy
estimation method is used for the cooling load
The LNGCW system necessitates 3 specially calculation, energy analysis and the power
designed close-loop heat changers and storage consumption of refrigeration system in this project.
tanks etc., introducing higher initial investment at It can be calculated for different values of outdoor
the cost of 12.8 million USD. On the other hand, temperature and multiplied by the corresponding
the CMR system consists of huge refrigerant numbers of hours. This method can be accurate if
compressors and condensers, etc. at a cost of the indoor temperature and internal gains are
around 8.3 million USD. In this way, the operation relatively constant and if the systems are to operate
cost plays a key role in justifying economic for a complete season as recommended by the
feasibility. The CMR system suffers from operating ASHRAE Handbook [3]. The calculated power
in low evaporator temperature causing reduced consumption and energy savings of the LNGCW
refrigerant mass flow rate and smaller cooling system was plotted in Fig. 11, indicating a monthly
capacity. In addition, the high compression ratio energy savings of 1,050 MWh on the average.
between condenser and evaporator demands higher
power consumption which worsens the case. The Economic assessment is performed using the life
operation power demand is around 2321 kW. On cycle cost (LCC) method by calculating the present
the other hand, the LNGCW system, with an worth during each period of time.
inherent low evaporative temperature of -162 oC,
can easily provide cooling capacity at a “higher” (1 + i) n − 1
temperature of -30 oC by way of a simple heat Pv = A × (3)
i × (1 + i) n
exchanging process. The operation power demand
is 379 kw, or 16% of that of the conventional CMR
system. where Pv is the present worth, A is the annual
money saving by reduce electricity consumption, i
Based on the outdoor design temperature of 34 oC, is the effective discount rate, and n is the total
the average partial cooling load (APCL) of the cold number of years.
warehouse was calculated as shown in Fig. 9. It

95

90
average partial cooling load %

85

80

75

70

65
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
month

Fig. 9: Annual cooling load estimation of the cold warehouse in this study

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average LNG flow rate for LNGCW(ton/h) 12.5

12

11.5

11

10.5

10

9.5

9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
month

Fig. 10: Annual LNG consumption rate of the LNGCW system

1200
LNGCW power saving per month(MWh)

1150

1100

1050

1000

950

900

850
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
month

Fig. 11: Annual operational power savings estimation of the LNGCW system

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The input parameters include annual inflation rate 5. CONCLUSIONS

at 1%, rediscount rate at 4%, assuming an double
declining depreciation rate for 15 years of major During its vaporization process, tremendous
equipment and no residual value left after that. cooling capacity can be reclaimed. In this study,
Local power tariff was inputted at 6.5 cents per the feasibility to design and construct a refrigerated
kwh. Fig. 12 indicated that the monthly average warehouse by using LNG cold energy has been
operation cost savings is about 70,000 USD. Fig. demonstrated both technically and economically.
13 furthers shows the simulation result, indicating The payback of the 500 USRT cold warehouse is
that the payback is at around 3.5 years. This expected to be within 3.5 years, which is now
represents a promising project with both technical funded by the Chinese Petroleum Corporation of
and economical feasibility. Taiwan for construction.

78
76
saving electricity cost 1000 USD

74
72
70
68
66
64
62
60
58
56
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
month

Fig. 12: Annual operational cost savings estimation of the LNGCW system

8000
US dollars)

6000
3

4000
Net Present Value( 10

Payback Year
2000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
year
-2000

Fig. 13: The life cycle cost analysis of the LNGCW system in this study

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REFERENCES

1. H.T. Liu and L.X. You, “Characteristics and

applications of the cold heat exergy of liquefied
natural gas”, Energy Conversion & Management,
Vol. 40, pp. 1515-1525 (1999).
2. W.C. Edmister, Applied hydrocarbon
thermodynamics, Vol. 1, Gulf Publish Company
(1984).
3. ASHRAE Handbook - fundamentals, Chapter 28,
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, USA (2001).

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