CH 1 Electromagnetism

Introduction to Electrical Machine-Magnetics
Machine Magnetics
ELECTOR MAGNETISM
Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every electrical device used today in industry,
research, or the home. Generators, motors, transformers, circuit breakers, television, computers,
tape recorders, and telephones all employ magnetic effects to perform a variety of important
tasks
Electromagnetism is the study of magnetic fields set up by the passage of electric currents
through a system of conductors. Current produces a magnetic field, around a conductor.
The invisible lines of force of the magnetic field form a concentric circular pattern around the
conductor and are continuous along its length.
MAGNETIC FIELDS
In the region surrounding a permanent magnet there exists a magnetic field, which can be
represented by magnetic flux
lux lines similar to electric flux lines. Magnetic flux lines, however, do
not have origins or terminating points like electric flux lines but exists in continuous lops. The
symbol for magnetic flux is the Greek letter Φ(phi).
The magnetic Flux lines radiate
te from North Pole to the South Pole returning & the South Pole to
the North Pole through the metallic bar. The strength of a magnetic field in a particular region is
directly related to the density of flux lines in that region.
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Machine Magnetics
If unlike poles of two permanent

ermanent magnets are brought together, the magnets will attract, and the
flux distribution is shown below. If like poles are brought together, the magnets will repel, and
the flux distribution is also shown below.
Fig. Flux distribution for two opposite pole.

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Fig. Flux distribution for two like poles
If a nonmagnetic material, such as glass or copper, is placed in the flux paths surrounding a
permanent magnet, there will be an almost unnoticeable change in the flux distribution.
However, if a magneticc material, such as soft iron, is placed in the flux path, the flux lines will
pass through the soft iron rather than the surrounding air because flux lines pass with greater ease
through magnetic materials than through air. This principle is put to use in the shielding of
sensitive electrical elements and instruments that can be affected by stray magnetic fields.

Machine Magnetics
The unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (wb). One Weber equals 108 lines. In most practical
situations, the Weber is very large unit, thus micro Weber (μwb) is more common. One micro
Weber equals 100 lines of magnetic flux.
Magnetic Circuits
One of the most obvious properties of a magnet is its ability to attract to itself
itself other pieces of
iron or steel. Materials which can be attracted by a magnet are known as magnetic material. Such
other materials that cannot be attracted by a magnet are called non-magnetic
non magnetic materials
The most common magnetic materials are iron and steel while such materials as copper, brass,
paper and wood are nonmagnetic materials.
Magnetic effects of a magnet appear to emanate from poles which tend to point approximately in
North-South
South direction. The pole that points towards North Pole is generally called the North
seeking pole which the pole that points towards the south is referred to as the south seeking pole.
In essence, there are North and south poles.
It had been observed that when a piece of magnet is placed on one side of a sheet of paper, it can
attract a steel pin placed on the other side of the paper.
The area throughout which the influence of the magnetic effect extends is called the magnetic
field of the magnet.
Magnetic fields could be mapped by drawing lines which indicate the direction in which an
isolated north pole would move under the influence of the field as shown in the diagrams.
By studying the field produced by magnets, the following characteristics were noted of magnetic
lines of force(flux).
1. The magnetic field lines never intersect
2. Each field line forms a closed loop
3. The path of the field lines runs from North to South Pole

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1. Magnetic flux Density

The field set up by a magnet is permeated with magnetic flux (symbol Φ).
). A magnetic material is
said to be strong when it is capable of producing numerous lines of magnetic flux in a given area.
Magnetic flux is measured in Webers (abbreviated Wb). The strength of the magnetic field at any
point in the area of enclosure is a measure of the concentration of the magnetic flu
flux at that point.
The concentration of the lines of flux at any point is called flux density (Symbol B) at the point.
The unit of flux density is in Webers per meter squared (Wb/m2) or in Teslas (T).
2. Magnetomotive Force (mmf)

The force that producess the magnetic lines of flux in a magnetic circuit is called
magnetomotive force (abbreviated mmf). It’s unit is in Ampere-turns.
Ampere
mmf=F=NI
Where I= current in Amperes
N= No of turns of conducting material.
3. Magnetizing Force (H)
The description of the force of magnetism is referred to as the magnetizing force (symbol H). It
is the ratio of the mmf to the unit length of the conducting material.
4. Permeability
A graph of the flux density against the magnetizing (H), gives rise to the permeabil
permeability of any
conducting medium. For a vacuum, the ratio of the flux density to the magnetizing force is a
constant. This constant is called permeability of free space (symbol μ0). It is the ability of
material to induce flux in it.

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The B-H graph for nonmagnetic materials is a straight line whereas that of the magnetic
materials is a curve.
For all materials other than free space (Vacuum):

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5. Reluctance(RC)
Reluctance is the magnetic resistance to the magnetic circuit to the presence of magnetic flux.
OR It is the property of the magnetic material which opposes the creation of magnetic flux in it.

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6.Series Magnetic Circuit

For series magnetic circuit having n number of paths the total reluctance Rt is given by;
Rt= R1+R2+R3+….+Rn
This is similar to resistors in series
Example 1
A closed magnetic circuit of cast iron consists of two magnetic circuit paths. One of the
paths is 12cm long while the other is 4cm long and of cross-sectional
cross sectional areas of 2cm2 and 1
cm2 respectively. A coil of 400 turns is wound round the 12cm length path of the magnetic

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circuit. If a current of 0.5A flows in the 12cm length path, determine the flux density in the
4cm path assuming µr of the iron to be 250.

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Example 2
A magnetic circuit with an air gap 2mm long and cross sectional area 4cm2 as shown below
has the following dimensions; L1 =16cm , L2= 10cm Area
A1= 4cm2 and A2=2cm2 A Coil of 1000 turns of wire is wound on the iron circuit and
carries a current of 1.5A. At the operating flux density, the permeability
permeability of L1 is 1800 and
that of L2 is 1000. Neglecting the effect of magnetic leakage, determine; a) the total
reluctance of the magnetic circuit
b) the magnitude of the flux in the air gap.
gap

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7. Magnetic Leakage and fringing

Not all the flux produced by the coil arrives at the intended destination which in many cases is as
a result of air gap in the magnetic material. The useful flux is that which passes directly across
the air gap to do useful work. Some of the flux fringes or bypasses the air gap at the edges of the
gap. Some of the flux never reach the air gap as typified by the leakage flux shown in figure 3.0.
Also some flux do not complete the cycle of the magnetic circuit and hence tend to leak into the
magnetic system. Such fluxes are referred to as leakage flux.

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The ratio of the total flux to the useful flux is called the magnetic leakage coefficient. That is;
8. Parallel Magnetic Circuit

The analysis here is analogous to that of the parallel electric circuit. That is to say, a magnetic
circuit which has more than one path for the flow of flux is called parallel magnetic circuit. Just
as one could also understand that an electric circuit which provides more than one path for the
flow of electric current is known
wn as parallel electric circuit.
circuit Figure
ure 3.01 (a) shows a parallel
connected magnetic circuit and (b) the equivalent circuit.

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In the circuit above a coil of N-turns

turns is wound on limb XC and it carries a current of I ampers.
The flux Φ1
1 produced by the coil divides at Y into two paths namely;
The magnetic path YB is parallel to the magnetic path YZAB, thus forming parallel magnetic
circuit. The mmf required for this parallel circuit (YB//YZAB) is equal to mmf required for any
one of the paths.
For instance;
Let R1= reluctance of path X YBC
R2= reluctance of path YB
R3= reluctance of path YZAB
Total mmf= mmf for XYBC + mmf for YB or mmf for YZAB
The effective reluctance of the parallel branches R2 and R3 is given by;
\ Total reluctance in the magnetic circuit is
It should be noted that the reluctance R1, R2 and R3 should be determined from a calculation of

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For those paths of the magnetic circuit in which Φ1, Φ2 and Φ3 exist respectively.
Example3
A magnetic core is made of iron which has dimensions as shown in the magnetic circuit.
The magnetic core has uniform cross-
cross sectional area of
20cm2. If the flux 4000µWb
Wb due to coil A passes through paths A and B with none through
C, determine;
a) the mmf for coil
b) the mmf for coil c due to the coil wound around path C.

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9. Ampere’s Circuital Law of Magnetic Circuit

The amperes circuital law of magnetic circuit states the algebraic sum of the rises and drops of
mmf around a closed loop of a magnetic circuit is equal to zero. This goes to say that the sum of
the mmf rises in a closed magnetic
agnetic circuit are equal to the sum of the drops around the magnetic
circuit loop.

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The most utilized equation for mmf drops in a magnetic circuit is expressed by
Applying ampere’s circuital law on a magnetic loop made of different ferromagnetic materials,
the equation will be expressed as;

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Example4
A piece of electromagnet consists of two sections made of cast iron and steel as shown in the
magnetic
agnetic circuit of figure below.
below. It has 500 turns of wire wound on the cast iron portion.
Determine the current I to establish the indicated flux in the core given that the
magnetizing force for steel and iron are 70At/m and 1600 At/m respectively. Its dimension
is 5cm uniform.
10. Electricall and Magnetic Circuits Compared

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11.Hysteresis
The concept and implication of hysteresis is better demonstrated and understood with the B
B-H
graph shown in figure below. It is assumed that a known magnetic material is completely
demagnetized. That is , no trace of magnetic effect in the material (or circuit).
If the magnetic field strength H increases, the flux density B also increases given by the curve 0a
in the graph. At a point ox of H, it becomes difficult to increase the flux density B. Under this
condition, the magnetic material is said to be saturated.
When H is reduced, it is observed that the flux density did not follow the increasing path back
but traced the curve ab. When H is reduced to zero, flux is shown remaining in the material and

Machine Magnetics
ented by ob in the graph. This is referred to as remanent flux density or residual

represented
magnetism.
As H is increased further in the negative (opposite) direction, the flux density decreases until at a
value shown by oc.. This indicates that the flux density has been reduced to zero. The magnetic
field strength H valued described by oc is called coercive force.
Further increase of H in the same negative direction causes the flux density to increase also in
the negative direction until a saturation point is reached as shown by cd. If H is varied backwards
from yo to ox,, the flux density traces the curve defa similar to abcd.
It is observed that the change in flux density B lag behind the changes in the magnetic field
strength H. This effect is called hysteresis. The figure traced by
abcdefa is referred to as hysteresis loop.
loop. The energy lost by the magnetic material in the cause of
these changes is called hysteresis loss. The larger the area of the loop, the larger the hysteresis
loss. For hard materials such as hard steel, the loop is large and for soft steel materials such as
silicon iron, cobalt steel, etc the loop is comparably small.
Hence, in making permanent magnets, transformer cores, relay cores, electric bell magnets, etc,
soft magnetic materials are utilized since the energy loss in hard materials is considerable.
12. Magnetic Field due to Electric Current
The magnetic field around any current –carrying
carrying conductor moved through lines of flux in a
magnetic field is demonstrated using the screw rule. The screw rule
rule states that if a right hand
thread screw is place along the axis of a solenoid and is screwed in the direction of the current, it
moves in the direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid. The direction of the magnetic
field inside the solenoid is from south to north.

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13. Force on Current – Carrying Conductor

When the current-carrying
carrying conductor is moved through the magnetic field, the field around the
conductor interacts with the field produced by the magnetic material. As a result, force is ex
exerted
on the conductor. This force F is proportional to;
1 the magnitude of current through the conductor.
2 the length in metres of the conductor and perpendicular to the magnetic field.
3 the flux density of the magnetic field.
4 the angle of movement of the conductor in the magnetic field.
Mathematically; this is expressed by;
At right angles (900) of conductor movement in the field; F=BLI

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14. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, a voltage is produced across the
conductor. This principle is known as electromagnetic induction, and the resulting voltage is an
induced voltage.
The principle of electromagnetic induction is widely applied in electrical circuits in the study and
operation of transformers, electrical motors
mo and generators.
When a wire is moved across a magnetic field, there is a relative motion between the wire and
the magnetic field. Likewise, when a magnetic field is moved past a stationary wire, there is also
relative motion. In either case, there is an induced voltage in the wire as a result of this motion.
The amount of the induced voltage depends on the rate at which the wire and the magnetic field
move with respect to each other: The faster the relative speed, the grater the induced voltage.

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If a load is connected across the terminals of the moving conductor in magnetic field, the
induced voltage courses a current through the load which is known as induced current.
15. FARADAY’S LAW
Michael Faraday discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction
induction in 1831. He found that
moving a magnet through a coil of wire induced a voltage across the coil and that when a
complete path was provided; the induced voltage caused an induced current, as you have seen.
Faraday’s observations are as follows:
1. The amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic field with respect to the coil (dΦ/dt)
(d
2. the amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly proportional to the number of turns of wire
in the coil (N).

Machine Magnetics
Faraday’s law is expressed in equation form as follows:
Eg. Apply Faraday’s law to find the induced voltage across a coil with 100 turns that is located
in a magnetic field that is changing at a rate of 5 wb/s
So
When the current carrying conductor is moved at right angles to the magnetic field, emf is
induced in the conductor. This emf induced causes current to flow in the conductor. By this
understanding it holds that the emf is produced and hence the current flow
flow in the conductor as a
result of the conductor moving across the magnetic field. This effect is known as electromagnetic
induction.
16. Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
The laws of electromagnetic induction were long stated by Michael Faraday.

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These laws can be established using a centre-zero

centre zero ammeter connected with a coil of wire and
abar magnet as shown in figure below.
1. When the bar magnet was moved towards the coil of wire, the centre-zero
centre zero ammeter deflected
to the right.
2. When the bar magnet was moved away from the coil, there was also a deflection on the
ammeter but in the opposite direction.
3. When the number of turns of the wire was increased, the deflection recorded was greater.
4. When the bar magnet was made stronger, the deflection was also
also observed to be greater.
5. When the bar magnet was kept steady near the coil of wire, no deflection was recorded on the
ammeter.
6. When the motion of the bar magnet was relatively doubled/increased, the deflection on the
ammeter was also observed to have
hav doubled.
7. The bar magnet was kept steady and the coil was moved at the same speed as the magnet was
first moved, the same deflection was recorded on the ammeter.
8. It was also observed that when the bar magnet was moved towards the coil, the magnetic lines
of flux from the bar magnet linked with the coils of the wire.
By these experimental observations, faraday concluded that it is the relative movement of the
coil and the magnetic flux that causes the emf to be induced and hence the current induced in the
coil. This phenomenon is referred to as electromagnetic induction. Summarily, faraday states
that;

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1. Emf is induced whenever magnetic field linking that circuit changes.

2. The magnitude of the induced emf in any circuit is proportional to the rate oof change of the
flux linking the circuit.
Mathematically, this law is expressed by;
In a generator action, if a conductor is caused to move at a certain speed V in between two

permanent magnets through a magnetic field, emf is induced in the conductor. IIn machines
(generators) the conductors are the armature windings.
The magnitude of the emf so induced is determined by;
where l= length of the conductor

v= Velocity of movement at 900 to the field
B= flux density
At any other angle of movement through the
th field;
Where q= angle of movement through the field.

field
17. Electromagnetic Devices
The solenoid:: Generally, the solenoid is a type of electro-
electro magnet that has a movable iron core
whose movement depends on both an electromagnetic field and a mechanical spring force. The
mechanical movement is used for many applications, such us opening and closing valves,
automobile door locks, and so on.
The Relay:: Relays differ from solenoids in that the electromagnetic action is used to open or
close electrical contacts
ts rather than to provide mechanical movement.


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Introduction to Electrical Machine-Magnetics

Woldia University ECEg. Prepared by:-

If unlike poles of two permanent

Fig. Flux distribution for two opposite pole.

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Fig. Flux distribution for two like poles

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1. Magnetic flux Density

2. Magnetomotive Force (mmf)

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For all materials other than free space (Vacuum):

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6.Series Magnetic Circuit

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7. Magnetic Leakage and fringing

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8. Parallel Magnetic Circuit

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In the circuit above a coil of N-turns

The effective reluctance of the parallel branches R2 and R3 is given by;

\ Total reluctance in the magnetic circuit is

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9. Ampere’s Circuital Law of Magnetic Circuit

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10. Electricall and Magnetic Circuits Compared

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ented by ob in the graph. This is referred to as remanent flux density or residual

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13. Force on Current – Carrying Conductor

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14. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

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Faraday’s law is expressed in equation form as follows:

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These laws can be established using a centre-zero

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1. Emf is induced whenever magnetic field linking that circuit changes.

In a generator action, if a conductor is caused to move at a certain speed V in between two

where l= length of the conductor

Where q= angle of movement through the field.

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