Group Dynamics and

Team Work
Learning Objectives
1. Define what is meant by a group and identify different types
of groups operating within organizations.
2. Describe the importance of norms, roles, status, and
cohesiveness within organizations.
3. Explain how individual performance in groups is affected
by the presence of others (social facilitation), the cultural
diversity of group membership, and the number of others
with whom one is working (social loafing).
4. Define what teams are and describe the various types of
teams that exist in organizations.
5. Understand the evidence regarding the effectiveness of
teams in organizations.
6. Explain the factors responsible for the failure of some
teams to operate as effectively as possible and identify
steps that can be taken to build successful teams.
Group Dynamics
The study of group dynamics
has a long History in the
social science field .Group
dynamics focuses on the
nature of groups – the factors
governing their formation and
development, the elements of
their structure, and their
interrelationships with
individuals, other groups, and
organizations within which
they exist
Meaning of a Group and Group Dynamics
⚫ No one definition of the term group
⚫ No universal agreement on what is meant by group
dynamics
⚫ Kurt Lewin father of group dynamics popularized the
term in the 1930’s
⚫ One normative view is that the group dynamics
describes how a group should be organized and
conducted
-Democratic leadership
-member participation
-and overall cooperation are stressed
Group
Social scientists
have formally
defined a group as
a collection of two
or more interacting
individuals who
maintain stable
patterns of
relationships, share
common goals, and
perceive themselves
as being a group.
Meaning of a Group and Group Dynamics
⚫ What is an effective Group?
⚫ A group is a collection of two or more people who
work with one another regularly to achieve common
goals.
⚫ In a true group members (1) are mutually dependent
on one another to achieve common goals (2) interact
regularly with one another to pursue those goals over
a sustained period of time.

⚫ Groups are important resources that are good for

both organizations and their members.
Meaning of a Group and Group Dynamics
⚫ Group help organizations to accomplish important
tasks.

⚫ They also help to main a high quality workforce by

satisfying needs of their members.

⚫ Consultant and management scholar Harold J.Leavitt

is a well-known advocate for power and usefulness of
groups.
⚫ Describes “ hot groups” –Macintosh team that thrive
in conditions of crisis and competition and whose
creativity and innovativeness generate extraordinary
returns.
Hot Group

⚫ A hot group is just what the name implies: a lively,

high-achieving, dedicated group, usually small, whose
members are turned on to an exciting and challenging
task. Hot groups, while they last, completely captivate
their members, occupying their hearts and minds to the
exclusion of almost everything else. They do great
things fast.

8
What is the nature of groups in
organizations?
⚫ Effective group
– one that achieves high levels of task
performance, member satisfaction, and
team viability
 What is the nature of groups in
organizations?
⚫ Effective groups achieve high levels of:
– Task performance
• Members attain performance goals regarding
quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results
– Members satisfaction
• Members believe that their participation and
experiences are positive and meet important
personal needs
– Team viability
• Members are sufficiently satisfied to continue
working together on an ongoing basis
 Dynamics of Group formation
Why do individuals form into groups?

Why people affiliate with one another?

The most basic theory explaining affiliation is

“propinquity”.
This interesting word means simply that individuals
affiliate with one another because of spatial or
geographical proximity.Research evidence is there.

Drawback is that it is not analytical and does not explain

some of the complexities of group formation and the modern
development of globalization and electronic,online
Networking and telecommuting(virtual teams that are linked in
Cyberspace rather than physical proximity)
 Dynamics of Group formation
Theories of group formation
⚫ More comprehensive theory of group formation than mere
propinquity is the Classic theory of George Homans based
on
⚫ Activities-Interactions and Sentiments
⚫ The major element is interaction
⚫ Persons in a group interact with one another not just in the
physical propinquity sense or increasingly
electronically,but to accomplish many group goals through
cooperation and problem solving
 Dynamics of Group formation
⚫ Theodore Newcomb’s classic balance theory of group
formation
⚫ Similar attitudes and common relevant objectives and
Goals

Individual X Individual y

Z
Common Attitudes and Values
Religion
Politics
Lifestyle
Marriage-Work-Authority
Dynamics of Group formation
Another Theoretical approach to Group formation from
Social psychological theory
⚫ Exchange theory similar to its functioning as a work –
motivation theory
⚫ Based on reward –cost outcomes of
interaction(rewards greater than costs)
⚫ Rewards from interactions gratify needs
⚫ Costs incur anxiety –frustration-embarrassment-
fatigue
⚫ Propinquity-interaction –common attitudes all have
roles in exchange theory
Types of Groups
Formal Groups: Groups that are
created by the organization,
intentionally designed to direct its
members toward some organizational
goal. Officially designated for a specific
organizational purpose
Informal Groups: Groups that develop
naturally among people, without any
direction from the organization within
which they operate. Informal groups are
unofficial and emerge to serve special
interests.
Types of Groups
Formal Groups
Command Group: A group determined by the
connections between individuals who are a
formal part of the organization (i.e., those
who legitimately can give orders to others).
Task Group: A formal organizational group
formed around some specific task.
Standing Committees: Committees that are
permanent, existing over time.
Ad Hoc Committee: A temporary committee
formed for a special purpose.
Formal Groups
Virtual group- a group whose members
convene and work together electronically via
computers. In this electronic age, virtual
groups are increasingly common in
organizations.Facilitated by ever more
functional team oriented software,or
groupware, members of virtual groups can do
the same things as members of face to face
groups.They can share information,make
decisions,and complete tasks.
Informal Groups
❖ Interest Group: A
group of employees
who come together to
satisfy a common
interest.
❖ Friendship Groups:
Informal groups that
develop because their
members are friends,
often seeing each
other outside of the
organization.
T-groups

⚫ What is now known as the T-Group (or Training

Group) approach was pioneered by Lewin along with
his colleagues and associates from the Center of
Group Dynamics. They designed and implemented a
two-week programme that looked to encourage group
discussion and decision-making, and where
participants (including staff) could treat each other as
peers, using Jewish and Black communities in
Connecticut. Bringing such groups of people together
was, Lewin found, a powerful way to expose areas of
conflict, so that established behaviour patterns could
‘unfreeze’ prior to potentially changing and
‘refreezing’. He called these learning groups T-
Groups.
Why People Join Groups
How Groups are Formed
➢ Five-Stage Model: The conceptualization
claiming that groups develop in five
stages – forming, storming, norming,
performing, and adjourning.
➢ Punctuated Equilibrium Model: The
conceptualization of group development
claiming that groups generally plan their
activities during the first half of their time
together, and then revise and implement
their plans in the second half.
Dynamics of Group formation
⚫ Dr Bruce Tuckman published his Forming Storming
Norming Performing model in 1965. He added a fifth
stage, Adjourning, in the 1970s.

⚫ The Forming Storming Norming Performing theory is

an elegant and helpful explanation of team
development and behaviour.

⚫ Similarities can be seen with other models, such as

with Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership
model, The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum
model developed about the same time.
⚫
Five stages of group development
Five-Stage Model Tuckman(1977)
Dynamics of Group formation
⚫ Tuckman's model explains that as the team develops
maturity and ability, relationships establish, and the
leader changes leadership style.

⚫ Beginning with a directing style, moving through

coaching, then participating, finishing delegating and
almost detached. At this point the team may produce a
successor leader and the previous leader can move
on to develop a new team.
The Four Leadership Styles

© 2003 The Ken Blanchard Companies. All rights reserved.

Do not duplicate • V080103
What are the stages of group
development?
⚫ Forming stage
– Initial entry of members to a group
– Member challenges
• Getting to know each other
• Discovering what is considered acceptable
behavior
• Determining the group’s real task
• Defining group rules
Forming stage
⚫ High dependence on leader for guidance and
direction.
⚫ Little agreement on team aims other than received
from leader.
⚫ Individual roles and responsibilities are unclear.
⚫ Leader must be prepared to answer lots of questions
about the team's purpose, objectives and external
relationships. Processes are often ignored. Members
test tolerance of system and leader. Leader directs
(similar to Situational Leadership 'Telling' mode).
What are the stages of group
development?
⚫ Storming stage
– A period of high emotionality and
tension among group members
– Member challenges
• Hostility and infighting
• Formation of coalitions and cliques
• Clarification of members’ expectations
Storming
⚫ Decisions don't come easily within group.
⚫ Team members vie for position as they attempt to
establish themselves in relation to other team
members and the leader, who might receive
challenges from team members.
⚫ Clarity of purpose increases but plenty of
uncertainties persist. Cliques and factions form and
there may be power struggles.
⚫ The team needs to be focused on its goals to avoid
becoming distracted by relationships and emotional
issues. Compromises may be required to enable
progress. Leader coaches (similar to Situational
Leadership'Selling' mode).
What are the stages of group
development?
⚫ Norming stage
– Sometimes called initial integration
– The point at which the group really
begins to come together as a
coordinated unit
 Norming
⚫ Agreement and consensus is largely forms among
team, who respond well to facilitation by leader.
⚫ Roles and responsibilities are clear and accepted.
⚫ Big decisions are made by group agreement. Smaller
decisions may be delegated to individuals or small
teams within group.
⚫ Commitment and unity is strong. The team may
engage in fun and social activities.
⚫ The team discusses and develops its processes and
working style. There is general respect for the leader
and some of leadership is more shared by the team.
Leader facilitates and enables (similar to the
Situational Leadership‘ Participating' mode).
What are the stages of group
development?
⚫ Performing stage
– Marks the emergence of a mature,
organized, and well-functioning group
– Structure is stable
– Members are motivated by group goals
 Performing
⚫ The team is more strategically aware; the team knows clearly why
it is doing what it is doing.
⚫ The team has a shared vision and is able to stand on its own feet
with no interference or participation from the leader. There is a
focus on over-achieving goals, and the team makes most of the
decisions against criteria agreed with the leader.
⚫ The team has a high degree of autonomy. Disagreements occur
but now they are resolved within the team positively and
necessary changes to processes and structure are made by the
team.
⚫ The team is able to work towards achieving the goal, and also to
attend to relationship, style and process issues along the way.
team members look after each other. The team requires
delegated tasks and projects from the leader. The team does not
need to be instructed or assisted. Team members might ask for
assistance from the leader with personal and interpersonal
development. Leader delegates and oversees (similar to the
Situational Leadership'Delegating' mode).
What are the stages of group
development?
⚫ Adjourning stage
– A well-integrated group is:
• Able to disband when its work is finished
• Willing to work together in the future
– Particularly important for temporary
groups
What are the stages of group
development?
⚫ Tuckman's fifth stage, Adjourning, is the break-up of the
group, hopefully when the task is completed successfully,
its purpose fulfilled; everyone can move on to new things,
feeling good about what's been achieved.
⚫ From an organizational perspective, recognition of and
sensitivity to people's vulnerabilities in Tuckman's fifth
stage is helpful, particularly if members of the group have
been closely bonded and feel a sense of insecurity or threat
from this change.
⚫ Feelings of insecurity would be natural for people with high
'steadiness' attributes (as regards the 'four temperaments'
or DISC model –distinctive personality styles:-
drive,influence ,steadiness ,and compliance)
Ten criteria for measuring the maturity of a
group
Johari Window and Group Dynamics

⚫ A model known as the Johari Window illustrates the

process of giving and receiving feedback.
Psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham
developed the window for their group process
program.

39
Johari window
⚫ Known by self Ask unknown by self

known
OPEN FREE
To others BLIND AREA
AREA(Arena) Feedback

A B
Tell
Self SHARED
OTHERS

disclosure DISCOVERY OBSERVATION

UNKNOWN
HIDDEN AREA(DARK)
SELF
Unknown AREA(CLOSED) DISCO
VERY D
By others C
 An Alternative Model:
Temporary Groups with
Deadlines
Punctuated-Equilibrium
Model
Temporary groups Sequence of actions:
under time constrained 1. Setting group direction
deadlines go through 2. First phase of inertia
transitions between 3. Half-way point transition
inertia and activity---at
4. Major changes
the half-way point,
5. Second phase of inertia
they experience an
6. Accelerated activity
increase in productivity.
The Punctuated –Equilibrium Model

⚫ Not all Scientists agree that groups develop in the

order identified in the five stage model.

⚫ Argued that they may not be a universal

sequence of stages,there are some remarkable
consistencies in the ways groups form and
change.
⚫ These patterns are described in the punctuated –
equilibrium model.
The Punctuated –Equilibrium Model
The conceptualization of group development claiming that
groups generally plan their activities during the first half of
their time together, and then revise and implement their plans
in the second half.

During the first half of time ,Phase 1 group define their

task,setting a mission that is likely to change until the second
half of the group’s life.
Midlife crises
Phase 2 of the their existence- a time when groups drop old
ways of thinking and adopt new perspectives. Groups than
carry out their missions until they reach the end of
phase 2.Show bursts of activity needed to complete .Groups
develop inertia which keeps them going (i.e an
equilibrium)until halfway point the deadline looms.This
stimulates them to confront important issues to initiate
changes(I,e punctuating)a new equilibrium
Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
The Punctuated-Equilibrium
Model
Structural Dynamics
Group structure
The pattern of interrelationships between the individuals
constituting a group; the guidelines of group behavior that
make group functioning orderly and predictable.
Four different aspects of group structure: the various parts
played by group members
Roles: The hats we wear
Norms: A group’s unspoken rules
Status: The prestige of group membership
Cohesiveness: Getting the team spirit
Role Concepts
▪ Role: The typical behavior that
characterizes a person in a specific social
context.
▪ In organizations many roles are assigned
by virtue of an individual’s position within
the organization.
▪ Role Incumbent: A person holding a
particular role.
▪ Role Expectations: The behaviors
expected of someone in a particular role.
▪ Role Ambiguity: Confusion arising from
not knowing what one is expected to do as
the holder of a role.
Role Concepts
▪ Role Differentiation: The tendency for various
specialized roles to emerge as groups develop.
▪ Task-Oriented Role: The activities of an
individual in a group who, more than anyone else,
helps the group reach its goal.
▪ Socioemotional Role: The activities of an
individual in a group who is supportive and
nurturant of other group members, and who helps
them feel good.
▪ Self-Oriented Role: The activities of an individual
in a group who focuses on his or her own good,
often at the expense of others.
Common Group Roles
Norms
Generally agreed on informal rules that guide
group members’ behavior.
One feature of groups that enhances their orderly
functioning is the existence of group norms
Norms differ from organizational rules.
Honesty and loyalty to the company-establishing
appropriate ways to dress etc.

Prescriptive Norms: Expectations within groups

regarding what is supposed to be done.
Proscriptive Norms: Expectations within groups
regarding behaviors in which members are not
supposed to engage.
Norm Development
Status
✓ The relative prestige, social position, or rank
given to groups or individuals by others.
✓ Formal Status: The prestige one has by
virtue of his or her official position in an
organization.
– Status Symbols: Objects reflecting the position of
any individual within an organization’s hierarchy of
power.
✓ Informal Status: The prestige accorded
individuals with certain characteristics that
are not formally recognized by the
organization.
Group Cohesiveness
Group cohesiveness
The strength of group members’ desires to
remain a part of the group.
Influencing factors:
– Severity of initiation
– Conditions of high external
threat or competition
– Time spent together
– Group size
– History of success
Group Cohesiveness
Implications from research on group dynamics
It can be concluded from research over the years
that groups have a positive impact on both
individual employee effectiveness ( help learn
about the organization and one’s self ,gain new
skills,obtain rewards not available to individuals
and fulfill social needs) and organizational
effectiveness(strength in numbers of ideas and
skills ,improved decision making and control,and
facilitating change as well as organizational
stability)
Group Cohesiveness
Meta analysis of number of studies over the years
found that group cohesiveness has a highly
significant positive effect on performance
Leadership is important to group performance.

Highly cohesive group that is given positive

leadership may have the highest productivity

Highly cohesive group if given poor leadership

have lowest productivity
To maximize productivity organizations must
built cohesive group and give it proper leadership
The highly cohesive group may become self –
managing
Group Cohesiveness
Richard Hackman group expert concludes in his
research that that there is no magical solution for
group effectivenes but the leader can create the
conditions that promote effectiveness.

(1) setting a compelling direction for group’s

work(2) designing and enabling group
structure(3) ensuring that the group works within
a supportive context(4) providing expert coaching
Historical Hawthorn studies-relay room operaters
and bank wires were highly cohesive groups

Adapted from Fred Luthans,organizational

Behavior ,11th edition
Group Cohesiveness
Factors that increase group cohesiveness(adapted from
Andrew D. Szilagyij Jr,Organizational Behavior and
performance 5th ed

Factors that increase Group Factors that Decrease Group

Cohesiveness Cohesiveness
Agreement on group goals Disagreement on goals

Frequency of interaction Large group size

Personal attractiveness Unpleasant experiences

Intergroup competition In tragroup competition

Favorable evaluation Domination by one or more

members
Group Cohesiveness
Positive consequences:
– Increased group member satisfaction
– Increased participation in group activities
– Increased acceptance of group goals
– Potentially high productivity
– Decreased absenteeism and turnover
Negative consequences:
– May be counterproductive if group’s goals are
contrary to organization’s goals
– Cohesiveness is a double –edged sword
Individual Performance in group

– We have reviewed the basic nature of groups

– Understand the group dynamics most relevant
to the field of OB-the effects of groups on
individual performance .Two different issues in
this connection.
1. How people’s work performance is affected
by the presence of others
2. How performance is affected by the group
size.
Social Facilitation
The tendency for the presence of others sometimes to
enhance an individual’s performance and at other times to
impair it.
Drive Theory of Social Facilitation: The theory according to
which the presence of others increases arousal, which
increases people’s tendencies to perform the dominant
response.
– If that response is well learned, performance will improve.
– But, if it is novel, performance will be impaired.
Evaluation Apprehension: The fear of being evaluated or
judged by another person.
Computerized Performance Monitoring: The process of
using computers to monitor job performance.Observe
others indirectly by computer-an electronic presence
Social Facilitation
The tendency for the presence of others sometimes to
enhance an individual’s performance and at other times to
impair it.

Social facilitation : working in the presence of others.

What impact will the presence of the audience have on your
behavior?
Social scientists found that the answer to this question is
not straightforward. Sometimes people were found to
perform better in the presence of others than alone and
sometimes they were found to perform better alone than in
the presence of others.
This tendency for the presence of others to enhance an
individual’s performance at times and to impair it at other
times is known as social facilitation.
Social Facilitation
Social Loafing: “Free riding” when working
with others-Ringlemann effect
The tendency for group members to exert less
individual effort on an additive task as the size of the
group increases.
– Additive task: A type of group task in which the
coordinated efforts of several people are added together
to form the group’s product.

The phenomenon of social loafing has been explained by

social impact theory.

63
Social Loafing: “Free riding” when working
with others-Ringlemann effect
Social Impact Theory: The theory that explains social
loafing in terms of the diffused responsibility for doing
what is expected of each member of a group. The
larger the size of a group, the less each member is
influenced by the social forces acting on the group.
According to the theory the impact of any social force acting
on a group is divided among its members.The larger the
size of the group,the lower is the impact of its force on any
one member.As a result the more people who might
contribute to a group’s product,the less pressure each
person faces to perform well-that is ,the responsibility for
doing the job is diffused over more people.As a result each
member feels less responsible for behaving appropriately ,and
social loafing occurs.

64
Social Loafing
Social Loafing a Universal Phenomena?

Is social loafing a Universal Phenomena?

Social loafing is that it occurs because people are
more interested in themselves(getting the most
for themselves while doing the least)than their
fellow group members(who are forced to do their
work for them)
Social Loafing and Culture
❖ Individualistic Cultures:
National groups whose
members place a high
value on individual
accomplishments and
personal success.
❖ Collectivistic Cultures:
National groups whose
members place a high
value on shared
responsibility and the
collective good of all.
Overcoming Social Loafing
✓ Make each performer
identifiable
✓ Make work tasks more
important and interesting
✓ Reward individuals for
contributing to their group’s
performance
✓ Use punishment threats
What are the foundations of group
performance?
What goes on within Groups
⚫ Workgroup behaviors
⚫ George Homans classic model of group involves two
sets of behaviors
– Required behaviors — those that are formally
defined and expected by the organization-
punctuality, respect for customers, assistance for
co-workers
– Emergent behaviors — those that group members
display in addition to what the organization asks of
them(email message sent to a absent group
member to keep her informed about what happened
in the meeting)
What are the foundations of group
performance?
⚫ What goes on between groups
⚫ Intergroup dynamics
⚫ The dynamics that take place between two or
more groups
– Competition
– Intergroup problems(sales and manufacturing
don’t get along)Negative
 What are the foundations of group
performance?
Ways to achieve positive intergroup dynamics

⚫ Refocusing members on a common enemy or goal

⚫ Negotiating directly
⚫ Training members to work more cooperatively
⚫ Refocusing rewards on contributions to the total
organization and how much groups help each other
 How do groups make decisions?
⚫ Decision by lack of response
– One idea after another is suggested without any
discussion-taking place

⚫ Decision by authority rule

– The chairperson, manager, or leader makes a
decision for the group

⚫ Decision by minority rule

– Two or three people are able to dominate or
“railroad” the group into making a decision to which
they agree
 How do groups make decisions?
⚫ Decision by majority rule
– Formal voting may take place, or members may be
polled to find the majority viewpoint
⚫ Decision by consensus
– Discussion leads to one alternative being favored by
most members and the other members agree to
support it
⚫ Decision by unanimity
– All group members agree totally on the course of
action to be taken
How do groups make decisions?
Assets and Liabilities of Group Decision making
⚫ Potential advantages of group decision making
• Information-More knowledge and expertise is
applied to solve the problem

• Alternatives-A greater number of alternatives are

examined

• Understanding and acceptance-The final decision is

better understood and accepted by all group
members

• Commitment-More commitment among all group

members to make the final decision work
 How do groups make decisions?
⚫ Potential disadvantages of group decision making
• Social pressure to conform-Individuals may feel
compelled to conform to the apparent wishes of the
group

• Minority domination-The group’s decision may be

dominated by one individual or a small coalition

• Time delays-Group decisions usually take longer to

make
How do groups make decisions?
⚫ An Important potential problem when groups make
decisions was identified by social psychologist Irving
Janis and called Groupthink ,
⚫ A dysfunction of highly cohesive groups and teams
⚫ Irving Janis defines it as “a deterioration of mental
efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment that
results from in-group pressure.”
– the tendency of members in highly cohesive groups
to lose their critical evaluative capabilities
– Members unwilling to criticize one another’s ideas
and suggestions
– Avoid unpleasant disagreement
– The possible result is poor decision
How do groups make decisions?

• Group leaders and members should be alert to the

symptoms and take necessary action to prevent
occurrence
• Janis has concluded that a number of historic
fiascos by government policy –making groups (for
example, Britain’s do nothing policy towards Hitler
prior to World War II, the unpreparedness of U.S
forces at Pearl Harbour,the Bay of Pigs invasion of
Cuba,and the escalation of the Vietnam war)
How do groups make decisions?

Space Shuttle Challenger disaster when it began

entering the Earth on February 1,2003,through the
years the decision process by which NASA launched
Challenger on its fateful mission has been analyzed
in terms of the characteristics of group think.
Group Decision Making (cont’d)
Groupthink
Phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic
appraisal of alternative course of action.

Group shift
.(Group shift is the phenomena in which individual decisions make
way for exaggerated group decisions. Group shift can be seen as a
special case of groupthink. ... Whether the shift in the
group's decision is towards greater deliberation or more risk depends
on the dominant pre-discussion norm.(A change in decision risk
between the group’s decision and the individual decision that member
within the group would make; can be either toward conservatism or
greater risk)
How do groups make decisions?
Symptoms of Groupthink.Source :adapted from Irving L.
Janis,Groupthink,2nd ed,Houghton Miffin,Boston,1982,pp,174-175
1.There is the illusion of invulnerabiity. There is excessive optimism and risk
taking
2.There are rationalizations by the members of the group to discount
warnings.
3.There is an unquestioned belief in the group’s inherent mortality.The group
ignores questionable ethical or moral issues or stances.
4.Those who oppose the group are stereotyped as evil,weak ,or stupid.

5.There is direct pressure on any member who questions the

stereotypes,Loyal members don’t question the direction in which the group
seems to be heading.

6.There is self –censorship of any deviation from the apparent group

consensus.
7.There is the illusion of unanimity.Silence is interpreted as consent.
8.There are self appointed mind guards who protect the group from adverse
information.
How do groups make decisions?
Group Polarization
Group polarization: The tendency of
teams to make more extreme decisions
than individuals working alone.
Three reasons why group polarization occurs
First-Team members become comfortable
with more extreme positions when they
realize that co-workers also generally
support the same position
Second-Persuasive arguments convinces doubtful
members.
Third-individuals feel less personally responsible.
Social support , persuasion, and shifting
responsibility leads teams to make extreme decision
How do groups make decisions?

⚫ Ways to avoid groupthink

– Assign the role of critical evaluator to each
group member
– Have the leader avoid seeming partial to one
course of action
– Create subgroups that each work on the same
problem
– Have group members discuss issues with
outsiders and report back
How do groups make decisions?

⚫ Ways to avoid groupthink

– Invite outside experts to observe and react to
group processes
– Assign someone to be a “devil’s advocate” at
each meeting
– Write alternative scenarios for the intentions of
competing groups
– Hold “second-chance” meetings after
consensus is apparently achieved
 How do groups make decisions?
How to improve Group Decisions
⚫ Brainstorming
– Group members actively generate as many ideas
and alternatives as possible
– Four rules govern the brainstorming process
⚫ All criticism is ruled out(judge and evaluate idea)
⚫ “Freewheeling” is welcomed(emphasis on creativity
and imagination)Wilder and more radical the idea -the
better
⚫ Quantity is wanted(number of ideas)
⚫ “Piggy-backing” is welcomed(Every one is
encouraged to suggest-others ideas turned to new
ideas-two or more ideas joined into still another new
idea)
 How do groups make decisions?
⚫ Nominal group technique
– Puts people in small groups of six to seven
members and asks everyone to respond
individually and in writing to a “nominal” question
(What should be done to improve the effectiveness
of this work team ?)
– List alternative ideas
– Read aloud in Round Robin fashion
Clarify-no evaluation-structured voting procedure to
prioritize responses
This procedure allows ideas to be evaluated without
risking the inhibitions-hostilities and distortion
which may occur in a open meeting
How do groups make decisions?

⚫ Delphi technique
– Involves generating decision-making
alternatives through a series of survey
questionnaires
⚫ Computer-mediated decision making
– Group decision making takes place across
great distances with the aid of group decision
support systems