See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/323465027

Palm Sap—Quality Profiles, Fermentation Chemistry, and Preservation

Methods

Article  in  Sugar Tech · February 2018

DOI: 10.1007/s12355-018-0597-z

CITATIONS READS

7 908

6 authors, including:

K. B. Hebbar Ravi Pandiselvam

Central Plantation Crops Research Institute Indian Council of Agricultural Research
67 PUBLICATIONS   439 CITATIONS    67 PUBLICATIONS   235 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Manikantan Ramarathinam Arivalagan Manivannan

Central Plantation Crops Research Institue, Kasaragod, Kerala, India Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
77 PUBLICATIONS   1,281 CITATIONS    27 PUBLICATIONS   148 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

working on ozone based storage systems View project

Coconut value addition View project

All content following this page was uploaded by K. B. Hebbar on 05 July 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Sugar Tech
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12355-018-0597-z

REVIEW ARTICLE

Palm Sap—Quality Profiles, Fermentation Chemistry,

and Preservation Methods
K. B. Hebbar1 • R. Pandiselvam1 • M. R. Manikantan1 • M. Arivalagan1 •

Shameena Beegum1 • P. Chowdappa1

Received: 23 November 2017 / Accepted: 25 January 2018

Ó Society for Sugar Research & Promotion 2018

Abstract Palm sap is quite nutritious and highly prone to Introduction

fermentation. The unfermented juice could be an ideal
health drink. Palm sap’s quality profile and fermentation Palm trees encompass perennial lianas, shrubs, and trees.
chemistry help to predict its shelf life and potential safety. They are part of the Arecaceae family and can be found
There is demand from farmer–producer companies and from the 44° northern latitude to the 44° southern latitude
food processing industries to develop bottling technology (Wood 2002). Nearly 2600 species of palm trees have been
and a transportation/distribution protocol for palm sap found in tropical and warm temperate zones. One of the
similar to common soft drinks. Different techniques were world’s oldest flowering plants is the palm (Redhead
followed for bottling palm sap, but none proved successful 1989). Many common products and foods originate from
at the pilot level or commercial scale. To develop a sys- palms. These include traditional fresh juices and fermented
temic preservation technique, it is crucial to understand the beverages such as toddy, wine, and arak, concentrated
biochemical composition, fermentation chemistry, and syrup such as honey, and brown sugar (jaggery powder).
existing preservation methods and their disadvantages. These are all produced by tapping sap from various palm
This review mainly focuses on the chemical, microbial, trees. In Table 1, some of the common palm trees used for
volatiles, and flavor changes of palm sap. In addition to a sap extraction, their habitat, and products are explained.
detailed discussion on contemporary sap preservation One of the fermented drinks enjoyed by the Asian and
techniques, this paper also addresses the effect of pas- African population is palm toddy (Jirovetz et al. 2001). The
teurization in combination with preservatives, such as annual production of palm juice and toddy was estimated at
nisin, sodium benzoate, chitosan, potassium sorbate, sorbic 9 9 106 L per annum (Davis and Johnson 1987).
acid, citric acid, and sodium metabisulfite, on the shelf life Arenga pinnata palm was believed to be the first source
of sap, challenges to preserving palm sap, and future of palm sugar used by humans. Borassus flabellifer palm
directions for preservation methods. sugar was used in India during the fourth century BC.
Similarly, in Sri Lanka, Caryota urens palm jaggery was
Keywords Palm sap  Inflorescence  Fermentation  used as sugar in the distant past. The palm sap is known as
Nisin  Pasteurization  Neera ‘Neera’ and is boiled for 3 to 4 h above 100 °C to produce
brown sugar with a sweet taste (Apriyantono et al. 2002;
Ho et al. 2007). These sugars are used for making choco-
late, cake, sweet soy sauce, food coating, ice cream, and
typical Bengali sweets. The results of earlier research
studies have confirmed that coconut and palm sugar consist
& R. Pandiselvam mainly of sugars (glucose, fructose, and sucrose) at
anbupandi1989@yahoo.co.in amounts of 91.4 and 89.2%, respectively (Apriyantono
1 et al. 2002). Due to the presence of sugars, palm sap is
Physiology, Biochemistry and Post Harvest Technology
Division, ICAR—Central Plantation Crops Research subjected to the Maillard reaction and caramelization while
Institute, Kasaragod 671 124, India heating. Pyrazines, furans, ketones, fatty acids, and organic

123
 Table 1 Scientific and common name of palm trees, their habitat, products, and other information
Scientific and Native distribution Major products Minor products Comments and selected references
common name and habitat

123
Amiga pinnata S. and SE Asia south Sap used to make sugar, wine, alcohol, and Leaf sheath fiber; edible heart; etc. Solitary, terminal flowering feather palm; traditional
sugar palm tropical rain forest vinegar. Sap yield 3–6 L/tree/day, starch from multipurpose palm with a history of cultivation;
into dry forest, to stem yield 75 kg/tree strong candidate for domestication; agroforestry
1200 m potential (Mogea et al. 1991)
Borassus S. and SE. Asia; Sap to make sugar, wine, alcohol, vinegar, sap Leaf stalk fiber; leaves for thatching and basketry; Solitary fan palms; multipurpose species of major
flabellifer, R. Africa tropical dry yield 11–20 L/tree/day edible immature fruit utility to local peoples: incipient management
aethiopum forest into already in practice in S. and SE. Asia: candidate for
palmyra, ron savanna, to 750 m domestication, agroforestry (Davis and Johnson
1987)
Caryota urens S. and SE. Asia Sap to make sugar, wine, alcohol, vinegar, sap Leaf sheath fiber; edible heart; etc. Solitary, terminal flowering feather palm; numerous
Fish tail palm tropical rain forest yield 20–27 L/tree/day; starch from stem, products; informal cultivation practiced;
to 1500 m yield 100–150 kg/tree domestication potential in agroforestry systems (De
Zoysa 1992)
Raphia spp. West Africa tropical Commercial leaf base fiber (African bass fiber) Petioles as poles, leaves for thatching and weaving; Suckering (most spp.) terminal flowering feather
raffia rain forest, for brushes and brooms; sap for wine. Alcohol etc. palm; R. hookeri and R. palma-pinus are main
seasonally flooded brush fiber sources. Also, tapped for sap; one or
lowland sites more spp could be managed for multiple products
(Tuley 1994)
Corypha S. and SE. Asia Sap to make sugar. wine alcohol, vinegar, sap Leaves for thatching and weaving various products, Solitary, terminal flowering fan palm multipurpose
umbraculifera tropical rain forest yield 20 L/tree/day for 3–4 months for C. edible heart; etc. palm with good mix of commercial and subsistence
C. utan to 600 m utan; starch from stem petiole to make hats; products; strong candidate for management or
leaf midrib used to make furniture domestication, also agroforestry potential (Madulid
Talipot buri 1991)
Phoenix S. Asia tropical rain Sap used to make sugar and wine. Sugar yield Leaves for weaving and to make brooms; stem wood Solitary feather palm; already under management and
sylvestris wild forest to dry forest, 40 kg/tree/year; edible fruit for fuel; etc. informal cultivation; good multipurpose palm with
date to 1500 m domestication potential within agroforestry systems
(Davis 1972)
Hyphaene spp. Africa semideserts Edible fruit; sap for wine and alcohol Leaves for thatching and weaving Solitary branched fan palm; management of wild
doum and deserts, to stands would provide sustainable sources of
600 m commercial and subsistence products in dry areas
(Tuley 1994)
Nypa fruticans S. and SE Asia Sap for sugar, alcohol, sugar yield 3000 kg/ha/ Edible fruit: etc. Suckering feather palm; incipient management in
nipa tropical rain forest, year; leaves for thatching (atap) practice. could benefit from improved practices and
brackish water broader utilization of products, especially in Papua,
swamps of tidal New Guinea (Hamilton and Murphy 1988)
rivers
Cocos nucifera Spread across much Every product is useful. Important product is nut, All parts are useful Inflorescence is used for tapping. Tapping coconut
(coconut) of the tropics and sap, and oil inflorescence for sap and its sale as health drink or
grown in 90 value-added products like coconut sugar would
countries improve the returns by at least 8–10-fold: (Hebbar
et al. 2015a)
Sugar Tech
Sugar Tech

A graceful palm 10–16 m tall with a large crown and

inflorescence is a densely packed, spherical head of

Edible immature seed (fresh mesocarp of ripe fruit is Sweet sap (toddy, tuba, sugar) is obtained by tapping

tapped for 1–2 months, producing about 5–12 L of

feed. Sugar yields may be about 70 kg/day per ha or

acids constitute volatile components of coconut and palm

Fruiting spadix about 90-cm-long, bearing oblong-

lateral stalks below the female inflorescence. The

The yellow inflorescences are on long, sturdy stalks

sap per day. This sap can be used as beverage or

spike of closely arranged flowers emerging from

processed into vinegar, sugar, alcohol, or animal

the male inflorescences. An inflorescence can be
flowers. The male inflorescence is a club-shaped
sugar, and they are responsible for their sweet, toasty, and

rough trunk covered with persistent leaf bases.

arising from the base of the plant. The female

large spherical fruiting body is 30–45 cm in

nutty caramel-like aroma (Sohn and Ho 1995). Pyrazines
are released when palm sap is heated above 110 °C (Bar-

25 t/ha per year (Bonde et al. 1990)

bara and Michael 2004; Ho et al. 2007). The initial quality
ellipsoid berries (Madulid 1981)
Comments and selected references

of palm sap, boiling temperature, and heating time affects

diameter (Bonde et al. 1990)

the volatile components of palm sap (Martins et al. 2001).
The quality or nutrition and flavor of palm sap are
appealing features for consumers. The appearance and
flavor of palm sap indicate its stage of fermentation. Due to
the development of convenient packaging and preservation
techniques, the demand for palm sap is high. In this report,
the tapping, collection, and quality profile of palm sap are
reviewed and the present scientific status of fermentation
from stem; edible palm heart; leaf base fiber for fish chemistry and preservation methods of palm sap is
Multipurpose palm: sap from stem as beverage Edible fruit: leaves made into brooms or woven into

nets, etc., leaflets for weaving baskets, etc., stem outlined.

filled with irritant needle crystals); edible starch
Leaves for thatching, mature seeds suitable for

Palm Sap Tapping and Collection Process

baskets and mats; stem wood for fuel

Palm sap is tapped from the matured unopened inflores-

cence of the palm. The palm sap is collected by cutting the
head of the inflorescence. In rural area, palm sap is tradi-
wood for various uses

tionally collected from palmyra and coconut tree by

vegetable ivory

organized practice for its local consumers (Nathanael

Minor products

1966). The inflorescence of matured stage is tapped

(Redhead 1989; Borse et al. 2007). The development of
swelling at the base of the inflorescence is considered as
the appropriate tapping stage. The identified coconut
inflorescence is beaten uniformly and gently by traditional
Sap from inflorescence for beverage or sugar

tools (bones/wooden sticks) during morning and evening

Multipurpose palmi sap for sugar and other

for 7 days to simulate the sap flow. The selected spathe

should be tied with a strong coconut fiber or coir rope in
order to arrest bursting or opening of inflorescence. Then,
7–10 cm front portion of inflorescence is removed by sharp
sickle. In the traditional method, the inflorescence to be
tapped is inserted into an earthenware pot for sap collec-
and to make sugar

tion. As the sap oozes drop by drop and over a period of

Major products

time, it undergoes fermentation in the open container. It

products

also gets contaminated by pollen, ants, insects, and other

pollutants.
Thus, freshly collected sap is oyster white in color,
sweet in taste, and has opaque appearance with acidic pH
Bengal. Andaman

Andaman Islands
India: Orissa, West
Native distribution

Bangladesh; Sri

Bangladesh, Sri

(Gupta et al. 1980). In India, to prevent fermentation of

India (common)

Arenga pinnata India : Eastern

coconut inflorescence sap the inner surface of earthen pot is

and habitat

islands;

coated with lime. This practice prevents fermentation only

Lanka

Lanka

to a certain extent. In Thailand, Kiam wood (Cotylelolbium

Nepal

melanoxylon Pierse) is added in the bamboo tube during

Table 1 continued

the collecting process to slow down the growth of the

Gomuti (sugar
thakil (sugar
common name

Nypa fruticans
(monotypic)
Scientific and

microorganisms (Naknean et al. 2014).

date palm)
sylvestris

golpata

palm)
Phoenix

123
 Sugar Tech

Hygienic and Unfermented Collection of Palm Sap As the sap that the coco-sap chiller collects is non-al-
coholic and contaminant-free, the processing cost is mini-
ICAR-CPCRI (Central Plantation Crops Research Institute) mized. The sap thus collected can be stored for 1–2 h under
developed the coco-sap chiller to collect the hygienic ambient condition, 1–2 days under refrigerated conditions
(contaminant-free) and unfermented (non-alcoholic) sap. It (5–8 °C), and any length of time under deep freezer or sub-
is made of a hollow PVC pipe, weighs 2.6 kg, and is, thus, zero temperature. One way of marketing sap as fresh juice
portable and economically feasible to farmers (Rs. 2000/-). in small outlets entails using refrigerated dispensers.
Top opening of the device is enlarged to insert a collection Efforts are on to develop tetra-pack or retort-pack tech-
bag and receive the collected sap. The lateral opening is nology to facilitate the long-distance transportation of the
used for the insertion of a cut inflorescence (Fig. 1). The sap. Studies conducted on kalparasa using the ‘coco-sap
collection bag is usually a 100-micron-thick low-density chiller’ and on neera using traditional methods showed
polyethylene (LDPE) film that can hold two to three of distinct variations in physical and biochemical properties
liters of sap. Along with ice cubes, the collection box (Tables 2, 3). Kalparasa is slightly alkaline (pH 7–8),
maintains the inside temperature at 2–3 °C for 10–12 h to golden brown in color, sweet, and delicious, while neera is
prevent the sap from fermenting. Thus, the collected sap is oyster white, has a pH of 6 or below, and has an astringent
fresh, unfermented, hygienic, sweet in taste, and delicious. smell. Kalparasa in addition to high sugar also contains
It is called KalparasaTM and registered the Trademarks amino acids, total phenols, flavonoids, and antioxidants
Registry as class 32 ‘‘Mineral and aerated waters and non- which is 2.5, 1.5, 4.6, and 1.8 times, respectively, higher
alcoholic beverages; fruit beverages and fruit juices; syrups than Neera. Kalparasa is also rich in ascorbic acids, vita-
and other preparations for making beverages.’’ It can be mins, and niacin. Further, the products of Kalparasa like
marketed as a fresh, ready-to-serve, and nutritious cold sap concentrate and sugar were also found to be rich in
beverage. It can also be converted into different value- amino acids, polyphenols, flavonoids, vitamins, and
added products such as syrup, squash, concentrate, jaggery, antioxidants (Hebbar et al. 2015a).
and sugar.

Fig. 1 Coco-sap chiller

123
Sugar Tech

Table 2 Quality attributes of kalparasa and neera respiratory system, cardiovascular, and reduction of
Attribute Kalparasa Neera
inflammation. It also aids in electrolyte balance and acid/
alkaline ratio (Hebbar et al. 2015a). The biochemical
Total soluble solids (8Brix) 15.5–18 13–14 parameters and inorganic constituents of fresh coconut
pH 7–8 6 or below inflorescence sap are given in Table 4.
Color Golden brown or Oyster
honey white
Flavor Sweet and delicious Fetid smell Carbohydrate
Chemicals and extraneous Absent Present
matter
Generally, palm sap contains mostly sucrose, followed by
Alcohol (%) 0 2.32
glucose and fructose. The Ben Thabet et al. (2009) found
95.27% sucrose, 2.51% glucose, and 1.61% fructose in one
Table 3 Biochemical constituents and minerals of sap collected by of the palm species Phoenix dactylifera. Many studies have
coco-sap chiller and traditional method found that sugars with high sucrose content are known to
Constituents Sap collected by
be good for health. Among the carbohydrate, sucrose
causes less fattening effect than glucose or starch (Jentjens
Coco-sap chiller Traditional method and Jeukendrup 2005). Ruzzin et al. (2005) also reported
pH 7.5 5.0 15% increase in energy consumption by sucrose without
Total phenols (mg/100 g) 21.99 14.1 increase in weight gain. The total sugar content of coconut
Total flavonoids (mg/100 g) 0.96 0.17 sap is high (16.19 g/100 mL), compared to its reducing
Free amino acids (mg/100 g) 901 350 sugar content (0.68). Further, sucrose- and fructose-rich
Total sugars (g/100 g) 15.96 6.52 sugars have low glycemic index (GI) and thus the coconut
Alcohol % Nil 4.7 sap is reported to contain low GI (Trinidad et al. 2010). The
Vitamins (mg/100 g)
extent of the sap’s freshness can be easily measured by the
Vitamin C 13.45 4.73
composition of total and reducing sugars. If the sap is fresh
and unfermented, the reducing sugar content should be less
Niacin 14.86 1.98
than 1.0 g/100 mL (Hebbar et al. 2013).
Vitamin E 7.9 2.95
Minerals
Potassium (mg/100 mL) 168 –
Proteins and Amino Acids
Sodium 90.6 –
Iron 53 –
Fresh palm sap is rich in amino acids; it is mainly com-
Zinc 20 –
posed of asparagine and glutamine, which are polar side-
chain amino acids. It is found that coconut sap contain
about 17 amino acids which are the building blocks of
Quality Profiles of Sap proteins and also helps to maintain proper acid/alkaline
balance (neutral pH) (Xia et al. 2011). Amino acid content
Palm sap is the phloem sap and known to be very rich in of fresh sap is reported as 2.6 g kg-1. The reduction in
nutrients. The composition and quality of sap are varying amino acid of sap was observed on first day due to the
with the place and duration of tapping (Borse et al. 2007). production of microorganism. But, the reason for decrease
The nutritious sap secreted from the unopened inflores- in amino acid during second day might be due to degrade in
cences before they converted into fruits is utilized in the protein content of sap. The significant decreases in amino
preparation of typical, ethnic, and nutritious food products. acid was also observed on third day, but later it was
The sap has been found with low glycemic index of 35 as insignificant reduction which may be due to the less
compared to refined white sugars with glycemic index of amount of amino acid by death or autolysis of part of the
65 (Trinidad et al. 2010). The fresh sap is rich source of yeast (Jolly et al. 2006).
phenolics, vitamins (B and ascorbic acid), protein, essential The polar side-chain amino acids are considered as
elements (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and magne- essential precursors to the formation of volatiles during the
sium), and micronutrients (zinc, iron, and copper). It helps production of sugar from palm sap, especially in the
in regulating high blood pressure and sugar metabolism Maillard reaction, by releasing free amino acid groups
due to the presence of potassium. It also acts as a potential (Sohn and Ho 1995). The released amino acid substrate
antioxidant for overall production of immune system, catalyzes sucrose into monosaccharides or undergoes retro-

123
 Sugar Tech

Table 4 Major biochemical and inorganic constituents of coconut N’guessan et al. (2015) reported that inflorescence sap
inflorescence sap. Source: Hebbar et al. (2015b) produced from various coconuts (Cocos nucifera L.) cul-
Biochemical constituents Rangea tivated in Côte d’Ivoire is rich in minerals and showed the
varietal difference. Ash contents ranged between 0.18 and
pH 6.57–7.50
0.27% (w/w). Saps of MYD (0.26%) and PB113? (0.27%)
Total sugar (g) 10.08–16.50 were richer in ash compared to WAT and PB121?. Thir-
Reducing sugar (g) 0.439–0.647 teen minerals comprising eight microelements (K, Cl, Si,
Amino acids (g) 0.123–0.338 Na, Mg, P, S, and Ca) and five oligoelements (Fe, Cu, Mn,
Protein (g) 0.150–0.177 Zn, and Br) were found in the coconut inflorescence sap.
Phenolics (mg GAE) 4.80–5.40 Macroelements in the sap ranged between 1.25 and
b
Antioxidant activity (mM TE) 0.299–0.355 90.65 mg/100 g, and oligoelements varied from few traces
Sodium (mg) 69.4–117.5 to 0.70 mg/100 g (P \ .05). Coconut sap collected from
Potassium (mg) 146.1–182.4 MYD correlated with greatest mineral properties, with a
Phosphorus (mg) 2.0–6.4 large presence of P, K, Si, Fe, Na, Mg, and S. PB113?
Manganese (mg) 0.009–0.014 hybrid also revealed highly significant sap minerals. Con-
Copper (mg) 0.028–0.035 versely, the sap of WAT resulted in lower mineral contents.
Zinc (mg) 0.018–0.026
Iron (mg) 0.049–0.058
GAE gallic acid equivalent, TE Trolox equivalent Vitamins
a
Composition indicated is per 100 mL
b
Antioxidant activity was measured by cupric ion reducing antioxi-
Palm sap contains a wide range of vitamins such as vitamin
dant capacity (CUPRAC method) C and B. It is found that in palmyrah sweet sap (Borassus
flabellifer), vitamin C content is as high as 13.25 mg/
100 cc, while for fresh coconut sap, it is 12.86 mg/100 cc.
aldol reactions to produce C2–C5 dicarbonyl compounds, The vitamin C was observed to be decreased during first
depending on cooking temperature and heating time day of storage, but it increased to 20.7 mg/L during third
(Martins et al. 2001; Carline and Van Boekel 2003). All day due to the activities of yeast during fermentation
these dicarbonyl compounds can react with amino acids to (Bremus et al. 2006).
form a-aminoketones and aldehydes. Subsequently, in the
later stage the chain reactions take place including dehy-
drations, cyclization, isomerizations, and retro-aldoliza- Phenolics and Flavonoids
tions, which ultimately lead to the formation of volatile
compounds. These volatile substances are responsible for Phenolic compounds influence the color, sensory, nutri-
the characteristic aroma of palm sugar (Ho et al. 2007). tional, and antioxidant properties of foods. Free radical
scavenging activity of the phenol moiety (hydroxyl sub-
stituent on the aromatic ring) is responsible for antioxidant
Minerals property of phenolics. Generally, flavonoids constitute two-
third of dietary phenols and phenolic acid occupy remains
Mineral elements are investigated in the sap originating one-third. These simple phenolic acids have aroused
from various palm species and reported about the pre- awareness and demand due to the potential antioxidant
dominant presence of potassium and some of the nature and health advantage. They also have other bio-
micronutrients. Mineral nutrients have importance in logical activities, such as blocking the biosynthesis of
numerous metabolic functions. Indeed, zinc has a funda- leukotrienes by caffeic acid (one of the most prominent
mental role in the brain, whereas calcium, iron, magne- naturally occurring cinnamic acids) which are involved in
sium, etc., have physiological actions in muscular immunoregulation diseases, asthma, and allergic reactions
contraction, blood oxygenation, and coagulation, nervous (Koshihara et al. 1984).
impulses conduction, blood acid–base balance ensuring, The total phenolic content of fresh sap is about 0.33 g/L.
and appropriate immune and heart functions. Some min- During fermentation, the phenolic content starts increasing
erals, such as calcium, support the building of bone, teeth, and reached the peak level of 1.24 g/L at 58 h and then
or muscle tissues, while others are main components or there was no significant change (Xia et al. 2011). The
activators of enzymes and hormone molecules. Mineral reason for increased phenolic content may be due to
elements represent 4% human body weight and are pro- binding of plant polyphenols with protein, sugar, starch,
vided by the food. and cellulose, and formation of glucosidic bonds. The acids

123
Sugar Tech

produced during fermentation degrade these glucosidic fermenting organisms such as the gourds, tapping imple-
bonds and resulted in the production of phenolic compo- ments, and air were reported (Odunfa 1985). Yeasts, par-
nents (Landbo and Meyer 2004). Phenolic components are ticularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the initial stages
also produced due to the metabolism of some microor- dominates the fermentation process (Sanni 1993).
ganism. Xia et al. (2011) reported the presence of caffeic
acid, gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, protocatechuic acid, and
galangin in coconut sap. Fresh sap was reported to have Chemical Changes
less amount of these five phenolic compounds than fer-
mented sap. Gallic acid was dominant phenolic compound The chemical or microbiological compounds of fresh
in fresh sap, and its content was 350 lg/L, whereas caffeic coconut inflorescence sap (FCIS) and naturally fermented
acid content (730 lg/L) was higher in fermented sap. coconut inflorescence sap (NCIS) have been studied by
many researchers. About 21 compounds representing more
than 98% of the volatiles in FCIS and 12 compounds
Volatiles representing more than 95% of the volatiles in NCIS were
characterized during fermentation at 30 ± 2 °C for 24 h
Fresh palm sap contains a non-objectionable odor and it (Borse et al. 2007). Xia et al. (2011) studied changes on
changed into harsh odor, unpalatable in spite of nutritious total sugar, ethanol, volatile acid, reducing sugar, amino
during fermentation. Acids and volatiles present in the sap acid, total phenolic contents, total acidity, and vitamin C of
are believed to cause the astringency and harsh odor of coconut inflorescence sap during fermentation. Increase in
fermented sap. Due to the abundant presence of polar side- volatile acid, total acid, and total phenolic contents and
chain amino acids such as glutamine and asparagine and decrease in total sugar contents were observed during
sucrose, volatile compounds are formed and more number natural fermentation. There was a reduction in amino acid
of free amino acid groups are released during Maillard for first three days, and then no significant change was
reaction in heating palm sap for sugar production (Sohn recorded. The reduction in vitamin C content was observed
and Ho 1995). The major flavors such as ethyl lactate, ethyl on first day and increased to 20 mg/L on third day, and
lactate, 3-hydroxy-2-pentanone, farnesol, phenylethyl then apparent reduction was observed. NCIS exhibited
alcohol, 2-methyl tetrahydrofuran, and tetradecanone were more amounts of five types of phenolic compounds
found in fresh sap. But fermented sap contained 12 volatile detected by HPLC than FCIS. Other types of phenolic
compounds which represents more than 95% of the vola- compounds were also observed in both NCIS and FCIS.
tiles. Ethyl lactate, phenylethyl alcohol, and farnesol were Hebbar et al. (2015a) observed a good relationship
among the seven compounds which are present in both between sugar content of sap and pH during fermentation
fresh and fermented sap. The increased amounts of acids (Figs. 2, 3). During ambient storage, fresh sap is subjected
such as palmitoleic acid and dodecanoic acid (19.0 mg/L) to lactic acid fermentation initially followed by alcoholic
and higher concentrations of ethyl alcohol and ethyl esters fermentation and finally acetic acid fermentation due to the
cause to astringency and harsh note to fermented sap action of microorganism. As the sap gets fermented, it
(Borse et al. 2007).

CPCRI method and

8
kept in refrigerator
Fermentation
7

Palm sap trickles from the cut end of the spadix in a drop 6
CPCRI method, kept
by drop fashion. Hence, during a long collection period, the 5 at room temperature
sap becomes deteriorated. Due to the sugar content
pH

4
(10–15%) and unhygienic open tapping practice, the sap Neera collected from
undergoes fermentation and sugar is converted into alcohol 3 traditional method
(5–8%) (Iwuoha and Eke 1996). Instantaneous fermenta- 2
tion initially leads to alcoholic and acidic fermentation
1
(Iwuoha and Eke 1996; Odunfa 1985). Rapid fermentation
is observed under sunlight and other unhygienic environ- 0
0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 15 18 24 30 32
mental conditions. The fermented sap is known as ‘‘toddy’’
Time (Hrs)
in India and Sri Lanka, ‘‘tuba’’ in the Philippines, and
‘‘tuak’’ in Indonesia and is a popular beverage (alcoholic Fig. 2 pH of overnight sap collected by traditional method and
drink) in most Southeastern Asian countries. Sources of the CPCRI method

123
 Sugar Tech

Bassir (1971) recorded the active presence of Lactobacillus

spp. and Leuconostoc spp. during the initial stages of fer-
mentation. According to Okafor (1975), the domination of
lactic acid bacteria L. plantarum formed important com-
ponents of the bacterial populations, while L. mesenteri-
odes acidified the sap after first day of tapping. On third
day, after the increase in alcohol concentration, population
of Acetobacter and Gluconobacter species of acetic acid
bacteria were increased. This increase was associated with
increase in acetic acid concentration from 0.42 to 0.48%
between third and fourth day and then increased to
acceptable level of 0.6%. Two strains of A. tropicalis and
Fig. 3 Relation between the pH and total sugar and reducing sugar A. pasteurianus with the ability to grow at temperature
content of sap around 40 °C were isolated by Ndoye et al. (2006). The
following flowchart explains the complete sequence of
events during fermentation by the microorganisms in palm
becomes acidic and the pH reduces. The freshly collected sap (Fig. 4). However, there was no consistent pattern in
sap starts fermenting within 2–3 h under ambient temper- the species of microorganisms and it was found to vary
ature and the pH starts declining. At the end of fermenta- with palm sap, storage, season, geographical location.
tion, pH of sap is normally about 3.5. During refrigerated Thus, while the prominent presence of lactic acid bacteria
storage at - 1 to - 3 °C, no significant change in pH was was found in palm sap, the simultaneous growth of other
observed and the sap maintained its freshness. Freshly different genus was not observed in the sample (Okafor
tapped sap of pH 7.5 contained 15% sugars and reduced to 1975). Sap sample was not having any single genus. For
about 6% at pH 4 during fermentation (Fig. 3). Meanwhile, example, one sample had streptococci throughout the 7
the increase in reducing sugar to the level of 5% was days of incubation period along with the other sample
observed. lactobacilli which had persisted during the first 3 days of
During fermentation, there was an initialization of sugar fermentation. Conversely, another sample had lactic acid
inversion. Initial 3 days of fermentation showed reduction bacteria Leuconostoc spp. after 2 days of incubation.
in total sugar and increase in reducing sugar by conversion Similarly, on the first day of fermentation, palm sap had
of sucrose. Then there was a decrease in reducing sugar wine flora groups of Streptococcus species by other than
content of sap due to its consumption by microorganism lactic acid bacteria. Serratia and Aerobacter (Klebsiella)
(Xia et al. 2011). Ethanol content was gradually increased species also developed for short period and contributed to
to 90 g/kg during 7 days of fermentation, and then it acid fermentation, and later they were suppressed by bac-
reduced considerably (Atputharajah et al. 1986). teria which are surviving under acid atmosphere. Devel-
opment of Acetobacter was also observed during third day
of fermentation. This may be after the formation of suffi-
Microbial Changes cient alcohol which assumes as substrate for the synthesis
of acetic acid by Acetobacter (Amoa-Awua et al. 2007).
Various types of microorganism’s particularly large num-
ber of aerobic mesophils were supported by palm sap due
to its sugar content. During tapping, fermentation and Role of Enzymes
storage of palm sap, lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, and acetic
acid bacteria were predominantly found (Nwachukwu et al. During ambient storage and fermentation, the yeasts pre-
2006; Ogbulie et al. 2007). sent in palm sap produced invertase enzyme which broken
Amoa-Awua et al. (2007) observed multiplication of down the important sugar of palm sap, i.e., sucrose into
yeasts dominated by S. Cerevisiae immediately after tap- monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose. These
ping, and there was a substantial increase in alcohol con- monosaccharides were subjected by glycolysis process and
tent after third day of fermentation. The presence of converted into pyruvate. This process was accompanied by
different types of microorganisms and quality changes a conversion of two ADP molecules into two ATP and
during natural fermentation were investigated by water molecules due to the difference in size of two
Atputharajah et al. (1986). They isolated 166 isolates of molecules, namely NAD? and NADH. With the help of an
yeasts, identified 39 isolates of bacteria, and reported 17 enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase and cofactor thiamine
species of yeasts belonging to eight genera. Faparusi and diphosphate, pyruvate was then converted to acetaldehyde

123
Sugar Tech

Fig. 4 Flowchart showing the

microbial fermentation of palm Y
sap into various products E
Sucrose
A
S
T
Invertase

G
L Glucose + Fructose
Y
C
O
L Pyruvic acid
Y
S
I
S

F Lactic acid fermentation Alcohol fermentation

E
(Aspergillus, Lactobacillus) Saccharomyces (yeast)
R
M
E
N Ehtanol + Co2 (Beer & Bread)
Lactic acid
T
A Ethanol (wine)
T
I
O Acetic acid fermentation
N
(Acetobacter, Gluconobacter)

and carbon dioxide. Then conversion of acetaldehyde into Disadvantages of Fermentation

ethanol took place by the action of alcohol dehydrogenase
(ADH) enzyme (Dioha et al. 2009). The whole conversion Tiepma et al. (2013) and Ukhum et al. (2005) noticed
of monosaccharide into ethanol occurred through complex nutrient degradation, loss of sensory qualities, and devel-
reaction process and catalyzed by collection of enzymes opment of sour taste due to the production of acid during
called zymase. The sequences of reactions are shown the fermentation process of palm sap which may be due to
below. On the other hand, pyruvic acid from the glycolysis the action of microorganisms. It is also found that vitamins
is converted to lactic acid either by pyruvate de carboxy- C, E, and B complex decreased in fermented sap (Hebbar
lase or in some cases by the enzyme lactic acid et al. 2015b). Coconut sap is nutritious and aids in diges-
dehydrogenase. tion (Devdas et al. 1969; Lata and Kamala 1966). Freshly
Invertase tapped sap possessed tolerable odor and became unpalat-
C12 H22 O11 þ H2 O ! C6 H12 O6 þ C6 H12 O6 able with harsh odor during fermentation process. This may
ðGlucoseÞ ðFructoseÞ
be due to the product of palmitoleic acid, dodecanoic acid,
Zymase
C6 H12 O6 ! 2C2 H5 OH þ2CO2 ethyl alcohol, and ethyl esters during fermentation of palm
ðAlcoholÞ sap. If the sap is fermented, the quality and quantity of
CH3 COCOO þ Hþ ! CH3 CHO þ CO2 sugar and other nutrients decline and become difficult to
crystallize the sugar without the use of chemicals (Hebbar
CH3 CHO þ NADH ! C2 H5 OH þ NADþ et al. 2015b).

123
 Sugar Tech

Efforts to Improve the Shelf Life of Palm Sap normally done by heating at boiling temperature (60 or
70 °C) for 60 min (Naknean et al. 2015b). Table 5 shows
Many preservation techniques have been developed for the effect of pasteurization and preservatives on the shelf
enhancing the shelf life of palm sap. However, they were life of sap. Pasteurization of sap above 85 or 87 °C for
experimented on the sap collected by a traditional method 4–5 min imparted a cooked flavor (Baliga and Ivy 1961). It
which is unhygienic and partially fermented. Ogbulie et al. has been reported that conventional thermal processing of
(2007) used an extract from the bark of different trees such palm sap influenced the nutritional, color, and flavor
as Saccoglottis gabonensis, Vernonia amygdalina, Eupho- characteristic of palm sap. The thermochemical reactions
bia sp., Nauclea sp., and Rubiacae species for the preser- such as Maillard reaction, inversion reaction, and
vation of sap. In Nigeria, the water extract from the bark of caramelization affected the quality of palm sap (Ho et al.
Sucoglottis gabonemis was used to inhibit the yeasts and 2007). The time and temperature factor needs to be opti-
bacteria of palm sap. But Okafor (1975) reported that it mized to decrease the thermal degradation of palm sap.
only inhibited the growth of Sarcina lutea at 10% con- Natural preservatives or antimicrobial agents could also be
centration and no other organism was affected by using this used as a part of hurdle technology so that heating time and
extract. temperature could be reduced in order to reduce the effect
Thermal processes such as pasteurization and steriliza- of thermal degradation (Potter and Hotchkiss 2012).
tion are also normally applied to extend the shelf life of Concerted efforts have been made by CPCRI to improve
palm sap. In India, palm sap was pasteurized by heating at the shelf life of kalparasa and thus help to transportation of
90–95 °C for 3–7 min, and in Thailand, pasteurization was distant places for marketing. Simple pasteurization of the

Table 5 Effect of different preservatives and pasteurization on shelf life of palm sap/wine
Sl. Preservatives Optimized treatment Shelf life References
no.

1. Sodium benzoate and citric acid Pretreatment with 0.05% sodium benzoate and 0.15% – Baliga and Ivy
citric acid and pasteurization at 170–175° F (1961)
2. – Pasteurization at 170–175° F 4–5 days under Baliga and Ivy
refrigeration (1961)
temperature
3. – Heat sterilization at 80 °C for 25 min or at 90 °C for 6 months Mohanadas
20 min (1974)
4. Diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC), Pasteurization at 70 °C for 30 min combined with – Okafor (1975)
sodium metabisulfite, and sorbic sorbic acid (1%)
acid
5. Potassium sorbate and sodium Pasteurization (60 °C for 30 min) of supernatant of 6 months Okafor (1977)
metabisulfate centrifuged palm wine with 0.05% sodium bisulfite.
6. Sodium metabisulfite (SM), sodium 0.024 g/L sodium benzoate 3 months Iwuagwu and
benzoate (SB) and propionate (P) Izuagbe (1985)
7. Sodium benzoate and potassium Sodium benzoate (0.08% w/v) with pasteurization 4 days stored at ambient Efiuvwevwere
sorbate (70 °C for 30 min temperature and Akoma
(27–33 °C) (1997)
8. Saccoglottis gabonensis (pulverized Treatment with [ 0.6% 4 days stored at ambient Ojimelukwe
dust of the bitter bark tree) S. gabonensis temperature (2000)
(27–29 °C)
9. Sulfur dioxide and 10 mg/L sulfur dioxide ? 50 mg/L 60 days (stored at 20 °C) Threlfall and
dimethyldicarbonate dimethyldicarbonate Morris (2002)
10. – Pasteurized at 60 °C for 1 h 6 months Dioha et al.
(2009)
11. Nisin Pasteurization at 75 °C for 10 min with the addition of 10 weeks under low- Naknean (2013)
nisin (30 IU/mL) temperature storage
(4 °C)
12. Bentonite, polyvinylpolypyrrolidone Addition of chitosan (0.1%), agitation for 1 h and 25 days (stored under Naknean et al.
(PVPP), gelatin, and chitosan pasteurization at 80 °C for 10 min 10 °C) (2014)
13. Chitosan Addition of 0.50 g/L chitosan, homogenization at 6 weeks Naknean et al.
5 min and pasteurization at 80 °C for 10 min (2015)

123
Sugar Tech

unfermented sap in polypropylene bottles could extend the 1.03 9 102 cells/mL from initial level of 1.06 9 108 cells/
shelf life of kalparasa up to 45 days at 4–6 °C. The pas- mL was observed using pasteurization along with propi-
teurized and bottled sap maintained all the qualities of onate and sodium benzoate treatments, respectively, during
fresh kalparasa (Hebbar et al. 2015a). Pasteurization with one month storage of fresh beer (Iwuagwu and Izuagbe
zero additives was found to extend the shelf life of Raphia 1985).
palm sap without much change in taste (Dioha et al. 2009). Chitosan and nisin are recognized as safe preservatives
Sulfite, propionic acid, and benzoate were also used for for food (Naknean et al. 2015b). They can be applied as
preservation of palm sap (Levi and Oruchec 1957). food additive in packaging material to retard the growth of
Iwuagwu and Izuagbe (1985) could preserve the oyokpo microorganism in food (Leceta et al. 2013). Nisin proved to
beer using sodium benzoate or combinations of pasteur- inhibit the growth of gram-positive bacteria and their spore
ization and chemical preservatives. But this attempt forms (Sanlibaba et al. 2009). Naknean (2013) exhibited
resulted in change of taste due to the action of fermenting the application of nisin for extension of shelf life of pas-
microbes. teurized sap. He reported that pasteurization at 75 °C for
Baliga and Ivy (1961) reported that 12–15 min (125° and 10 min along with 30 IU/mL nisin and low-temperature
130 °F) pasteurization resulted in the reduction of storage at 4 °C achieved 10 weeks of shelf life of sap as
microorganism. Most of the yeasts were killed in the sap by against 2 weeks shelf life for control sample. Concentra-
heating at 68° and 70 °C for 25–30 min. The pasteurization tion of nisin beyond 40 IU/mL proved unacceptable during
process had no significant effect on the concentration of sensory evaluation due to the development of sourness
riboflavin, thiamine, and ascorbic acid. Mohanadas (1974) (Koiso 2010).
described the method for preserving and bottling of coconut Naknaen and Meenune (2015a, b) treated the palm sap
sap. He found that sterilization at 80 °C for 25 min and with different clarifying agents [gelatin, chitosan, ben-
90 °C for 20 min in Lanka Glass Co. bottles was most sat- tonite, and polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (PVPP)] and then
isfactory for preservation and their characteristics were concentrated by open pan and vacuum evaporator to yield
similar to the original coconut sap. The treated samples sugar syrup. They observed that syrups produced by open
could be kept for 6 months without a change of flavor pan developed more browning and antioxidant activities.
characteristics. He observed that a yellowish discoloration They suggested that combination of clarified palm sap and
appeared which darkened to a brownish tint after 6 months the vacuum evaporation could produce improved palm
of storage. Okafor (1975) produced a clear liquid without syrup with respect to clarity and browning reaction.
change in flavor by centrifuging palm sap-based beverages Naknean et al. (2015b) investigated the influence of chi-
which was unacceptable by consumer due to the lack of tosan on pasteurized sap quality. It was observed that
characteristic white color. Suppression of non-ethanol pro- chitosan lowered the activity of PPO and invertase activity
ducing microorganisms was observed in coconut inflores- minimized the loss of sucrose along with increase in glu-
cence sap by the addition of 200 mg L-1 sodium cose and fructose content of sap during storage. Chitosan
metabisulfite (Samarajeewa et al. 1985). But Faparusi also ensured the increase in DPPH radial scavenging
(1969) reported the failure of sulfite in preserving palm sap activity. Hence, the combination of pasteurization, chitosan
due to the presence of higher population of microorganisms (0.50 g/L), and low-temperature storage was recommended
and an unfavorable pH. Sodium metabisulfite (SMS) treat- for 6-week shelf life of palm sap. Further addition of chi-
ment contributed in the production of undesirable odor. tosan (1.00 g/L) may extend the shelf life of pasteurized
Okafor (1977) reported the reduction of bacterial load by palm sap which may end with more sedimentation, bitter
addition of 0.05% sodium metabisulfite before pasteurizing taste, and consumer unacceptability.
the supernatant from 200 to 5/mL and no reduction of bac- Kapilan (2015) investigated with the different fermen-
teria load was observed by using 0.05% potassium sorbate. tation inhibitor (Vateria copallifera, Careya arborea,
Pasteurization of fruit juice resulted in 50% more Azadirachta indica, and lime) for the preservation of
reduction of bacterial population than control (Frazier coconut sap. They observed that lime at optimized con-
1967). Okafor (1975) studied the effect of preservatives centration of 3 g L-1 sap proved to inhibit fermentation of
(sorbic acid and sodium metabisulfite) and pasteurization sap more effectively. They also found the presence of
on palm wine. He reported that palm sap could be more significant lower concentration of alcohol due to the
effectively preserved by pasteurization of palm sap at addition of lime in the sap. A membrane technique
70 °C for 30 min than preservatives in reducing the developed by National Chemical Laboratory (NCL), Pune,
microbial population. He also suggested that combination claims to extend the shelf life of 45 days under refrigerated
of sorbic acid (1%) and pasteurization treatment may prove storage condition (4–8 °C) by removing the microorganism
useful for preserving the palm sap. A sharp reduction of present in palm sap without compromise in nutritional
bacterial population to 2.63 9 104 cells/mL and quality.

123
 Sugar Tech

Integrated Approach that tapping the sap and selling is eight- to tenfold more
profitable than selling matured nuts. However, the shelf life
Defence Food Research Laboratory (DFRL) Mysore, of the sap for long-distance transport is a major issue.
Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI) Concerted efforts are needed to improve the shelf life
Mysore, Defence Research and Development Organisation without affecting the natural aroma and taste of the sap. A
(DRDO), Kerala Agricultural University (KAU), Coconut combination of heat and chemical preservatives and low-
Development Board (CDB), and others made concerted temperature storage affect the nutritional and sensory
efforts to improve the shelf life and palatability of the sap qualities of sap which may also be uneconomical. The food
collected by traditional methods. Different techniques like industries need to fulfill the consumers demand for con-
filtration, treatment with clarifying agents and deodorizing venient, fresh, healthy products without any synthetic
using activated carbon/bentonite, centrifugation, pasteur- preservatives. As an alternative, non-thermal processing
ization at 95 °C, the addition of preservatives, carbonation methods such as ozonation, high-pressure processing,
were employed before bottling of sap. All the mentioned pulsed electric field, cold plasma technique, UV light
techniques yielded a pasteurized sap with change in taste treatment, and pulsed light could be used for the preser-
and had not been able to retard the growth of fermenting vation of palm sap. Use of non-thermal and minimum use
microbial population. Ozone technology, pulsed light, of chemical preservatives for microbial control in palm sap
pulsed electric field, and high-pressure processing have a may result into enhanced accessibility to reach the cus-
broad antimicrobial property (Pandiselvam et al. 2017) that tomers of non-traditional areas and attain its commercial
may meet the requirements of palm sap processing potential.
industries.

Funding The authors declare that this study was not funded by any
outside funding agency/institution.
Conclusions and Future Directions
Compliance with Ethical Standards
This review paper discussed various techniques for the
improvement in quality and safety aspects of palm sap Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
without affecting its natural flavor. Nevertheless, the main
aims of fermentation chemistry are the identification of
potent microbes responsible for pleasant as well as the off- References
flavors. Such scientific knowledge is required for the
quality and safety of palm juice, through technological Amoa-Awua, W.K., E. Sampson, and Debrah K. Tano. 2007. Growth
processes. The quality of palm sap depends on the place of yeasts, lactic and acetic bacteria in palm wine during tapping
and tapping duration poses a preservation problem leading and fermentation from felled oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) in
Ghana. Journal of Applied Microbiology 102: 599–606.
to oyster white color, harsh flavor, and taste, due to the Apriyantono, A., A. Aristyani, Y. Nurhayati, S.Budiyanto Lidya, and
fermentable nature of the sap. This necessitated for the S.T. Soekarto. 2002. Rate of browning reaction during prepa-
development of processing of palm sap for its shelf life ration of coconut and palm sugar. International Congress Series
improvement. The major challenge of collecting hygienic 1245: 275–278.
Atputharajah, J.D., S. Widanapathirana, and U. Samarajeewa. 1986.
and unfermented sap from the palms has been to a certain Microbiology and biochemistry of natural fermentation of
extent resolved with the development of coco-sap chiller coconut palm sap. Food Microbiology 3: 273–280.
technology at ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Baliga, B.P., and A.C. Ivy. 1961. Beverage preservation, pasteuriza-
Institute (CPCRI). The sap thus collected is very healthy tion of palm sap (Neera). Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry 9(2): 149–151.
and nutritious, and hence, it can be directly sold as fresh Barbara, S., and M. Michael. 2004. Changes in chemical composition
juice under the refrigerated condition in the local market or of pumpkin seeds during the roasting process for production of
converted into different diversified products such as pumpkin seed oil (part 2: Volatile compounds). Food Chemistry
coconut sugar, jaggery, nectar, or syrup without the addi- 84: 367–374.
Ben Thabet, I., S. Besbes, H. Attia, C. Deroanne, F. Francis, N.D.
tion of any chemicals/preservatives/additives. Drira, and C. Blecker. 2009. Physicochemical characteristics of
The future directions of studies including flavor profile date sap (lagmi) from deglet Nour palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.).
changes of kalparasa during honey/sugar production and International Journal of Food Properties XII: 659–670.
comparison of quality profile of honey/sugar produced Bonde, S.D., V.V. Agate, and D.K. Kulkarni. 1990. Nutritional
composition of the fruits of doum palms (Hyphaene) from the
from kalparasa by different processing methods (open west coast of India. Principes 34(1): 21–23.
evaporation and vacuum evaporation) could be useful to Borse, B.B., L.J.M. Rao, K. Ramalakshmi, and B. Raghavan. 2007.
produce quality jaggery products. The experience suggests Chemical composition of volatiles from coconut sap (Neera) and
effect of processing. Food Chemistry 101(3): 877–880.

123
Sugar Tech

Bremus, C., U. Herrmann, S. Bringer-Meyer, and H. Sahm. 2006. The Jolly, N.P., O.P.H. Augustyn, and I.S. Pretorius. 2006. The role and
use of microorganisms in L-ascorbic acid production. Journal of use of non-Saccharomyces yeasts in wine production. South
Biotechnology 124(1): 196–205. African Journal of Enology and Viticulture 27(1): 15–39.
Carline, M.J.B., and M.A.J.S. Van Boekel. 2003. Kinetic modeling of Kapilan, R. 2015. Determination of efficient fermentation inhibitor of
reactions in heated disaccharide–Casein systems. Food Chem- the tapped inflorescence sap of Caryota urens in Sri lanka.
istry 83: 13–26. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied
Davis, T.A. 1972. Tapping the wild date. Principes 16(1): 12–15. Science 4(10): 487–496.
Davis, T.A., and D.V. Johnson. 1987. Current utilization and further Koiso, H. 2010. The use of nisin as a food additive. Foods Food
development of the palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer L., Ingredients Journal 215: 1–13.
Arecaceae) in Tamil Nadu State, India. Economic Botany 41(2): Koshihara, Y., T. Neichi, S.I. Murota, A.N. Lao, Y. Fujimoto, and T.
247–266. Tatsuno. 1984. Caffeic acid is a selective inhibitor for
Devdas, R.P., K. Sundari, and A. Susheela. 1969. Effects of leukotriene biosynthesis. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta
supplementation of two school lunch programmes with Neera 792(1): 92–97.
on the nutritional status of children. Journal of Nutrition and Landbo, A.K., and A.S. Meyer. 2004. Effects of different enzymatic
Dietetics 6: 29–36. maceration treatments on enhancement of anthocyanins and
De Zoysa, N. 1992. Tapping patterns of the kitul palm (Carota urens) other phenolics in black currant juice. Innovative Food Science
in the Sinharaja area, Sri Lanka. Principes 36(1): 28. and Emerging Technologies 5(4): 503–513.
Dioha, I.J., O. Olugbemi, E.M. Odin, and M.A. Eneji. 2009. Zero Lata, M., and S. Kamala. 1966. Palm gur in nutrition. Indian Journal
additives preservation of Raphia palm wine. International of Nutrition and Dietetics 3: 18–22.
Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 3(6): 1258–1264. Leceta, I., P. Guerrero, I. Ibarburu, M.T. Dueñas, and K. De la Caba.
Efiuvwevwere, B.J.O., and O. Akoma. 1997. The effects of chemical 2013. Characterization and antimicrobial analysis of chitosan-
preservatives and pasteurization on the microbial spoilage and based films. Journal of Food Engineering 116(4): 889–899.
shelf-life of kunun-zaki. Journal of Food Safety 17(3): 203–213. Levi, S.S., and B. Oruchec. 1957. The preservation and bottling of
Faparusi, S.I. 1969. Effect of pH on the preservation of palm wine by palm wine. Research Report 1: 5.
sulfite. Applied Microbiology 18(1): 122–123. Madulid, D.A. 1981. A monograph of Plectocomia (Palmae:Lepido-
Faparusi, S.I., and O. Bassir. 1971. Microbiology of fermenting palm caryoideae). Kalikasan the Philippine Journal of Biology 10(1):
wine. Journal of Food Science and Technology 8: 206. 1–94.
Frazier, W.C. 1967. Food microbiology, 201–251. New York: Madulid, D.A. 1991. The Philippines: Palm utilization and conser-
McGraw-Hill. vation. In Palms for human needs in Asia, ed. Johnson, 181–225.
Gupta, R.C., V.K. Jain, and G. Shanker. 1980. Palm sap as a potential Rotterdam: AA Balkema.
starting material for vinegar production. Research and industry Martins, S.I.F.S., W.M.F. Jongen, and M.A.J.S. van Boekel. 2001. A
25: 5–7. review of Maillard reaction in food and implications to kinetic
Hamilton, L.S., and D.H. Murphy. 1988. Use and management of nipa modeling. Trends in Food Science & Technology 11: 364–373.
palm (Nypa fruticans, Arecaceae): A review. Economic Botany Mogea, J., B. Seibert, and W. Smits. 1991. Multipurpose palms: The
42(2): 206–213. sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.). Agroforestry
Hebbar, K.B., A.C. Mathew, M. Arivalagan, K. Samsudeen, and G.V. Systems 13: 111–129.
Thomas. 2013. Value added products from Neera. Indian Mohanadas, S. 1974. Preservation bottling and keeping qualities of
Coconut Journal 4: 28–33. fresh coconut sap (Sweet toddy). Ceylon Coconut Quarterly 25:
Hebbar, K. B., M. Arivalagan, M. R. Manikantan, A. C. Mathew, and 109–115.
P. Chowdappa. 2015a. Kalparasa collection and value addition. Naknean, P. 2013. Improvement in shelf life and safety of pasteurized
In Technical bulletin no. 92, ICAR-CPCRI, Kasaragod, Kerala. palm sap (Borassus flabellifer Linn.) by the addition of nisin.
Hebbar, K.B., M. Arivalagan, M.R. Manikantan, A.C. Mathew, C. Journal of Food Safety 33(4): 515–525.
Thamban, G.V. Thomas, and P. Chowdappa. 2015b. Coconut Naknean, P., N. Juntorn, and T. Yimyuan. 2014. Influence of
inflorescence sap and its value addition as sugar—Collection clarifying agents on the quality of pasteurised palmyra palm sap
techniques, yield, properties and market perspective. Current (Borassus flabellifer Linn.). International Journal of Food
Science 109(8): 1–7. Science & Technology 49(4): 1175–1183.
Ho, C.W., W.W. Aida, M.Y. Maskat, and H. Osman. 2007. Changes Naknaen, P., and M. Meenune. 2015a. Quality profiles of pasteurized
in volatile compounds of palm sap (Arenga pinnata) during the palm sap (Borassus flabellifer Linn.) collected from different
heating process for production of palm sugar. Food Chemistry regions in thailand. Walailak Journal of Science and Technology
102(4): 1156–1162. (WJST) 13(3): 165–176.
Iwuoha, C.I., and O.S. Eke. 1996. Nigerian indigenous foods: Their Naknean, P., and M. Meenune. 2015b. Impact of clarification of palm
Food traditional operation-inherent problems, improvements and sap and processing method on the quality of palm sugar syrup
current status. Food Research International 29: 527–540. (Borassus Flabellifer Linn.). Sugar Tech 17(2): 195–203.
Iwuagwu, Y.O.U., and Y.S. Izuagbe. 1985. Studies on the preserva- Naknean, P., K. Jutasukosol, and T. Mankit. 2015. Utilization of
tion and bottling of oyokpo-a Nigerian beer from millet chitosan as an antimicrobial agent for pasteurized palm sap
(Pennisetum typhoideum). Journal of Applied Microbiology (Borassus flabellifer Linn.) during storage. Journal of Food
59(6): 487–492. Science and Technology 52(2): 731–741.
Jentjens, R.L., and A.E. Jeukendrup. 2005. High rates of exogenous Nathanael, W.R.N. 1966. ‘‘A Tapping’’ technique for the coconut
carbohydrate oxidation from a mixture of glucose and fructose palm. Ceylon Coconut Planters’ Review IV 4: 87–99.
ingested during prolonged cycling exercise. British Journal of Ndoye, B., S. Lebecque, R. Dubois-Dauphin, L. Tounkara, A.T.
Nutrition 93(4): 485–492. Guiro, C. Kere, B. Diawara, and P. Thonart. 2006. Thermore-
Jirovetz, L., G. Buchbauer, W. Fleischhacker, and M.B. Ngassoum. sistant properties of acetic acids bacteria isolated from tropical
2001. Analysis of the aroma compounds of two different palm products of Sub-Saharan Africa and destined to industrial
wine species (Matango and Raffia) from Cameroon using vinegar. Enzyme and Microbial Technology 39: 916–923.
SPMEGC-FID, SPME-GC-MS and olfactometry. Ernahrung/ N’guessan, Y.K., K.K. Jean-Louis, K.B. Roger, A.R. Rachel, O.D.
Nutrition 25: 67–71. Joelle, M.I.A. Emmanuel, and B.G.H. Marius. 2015. Changes

123
 Sugar Tech

in physicochemical parameters during storage of the inflores- Samarajeewa, U., D.T. Mathes, M.C.P. Wijeratne, and T. Warnakula.
cence sap derived from four coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) 1985. Effect of sodium metabisulphide on ethanol production in
varieties. American Journal of Experimental Agriculture 5(4): coconut inflorescence sap. Food Microbiology 2(1): 11–17.
352–365. Sanlibaba, P., N. Akkoc, and M. Akcelik. 2009. Identification and
Nwachukwu, I.N., V.I. Ibekwe, R.N. Nwabueze, and B.N. Anyanwu. characterisation of antimicrobial activity of nisin a produced by
2006. Characterisation of palm wine yeast isolates for industrial lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis LL27. Czech. Journal of Food
utilization. African Journal Biotechnology 5: 1725–1728. Science 27(1): 55–64.
Odunfa, S.A. 1985. African fermented foods. In Microbiology of Sanni, A.I. 1993. The need for process optimization of African
fermented foods, vol. 2, ed. B.J.B. Wood. London: Elsevier fermented foods and beverages. International Journal of Food
Applied Science. Microbiology 18: 85–95.
Ogbulie, T.E., J.N. Ogbulie, and H.O. Njoku. 2007. Comparative Sohn, M., and C.T. Ho. 1995. Ammonia generation during thermal
study on the microbiology and shelf life stability of palm wine degradation of amino acids. Journal of Agricultural and Food
from Elaeis guineensis and Raphia hookeri obtained from Chemistry 43(12): 3001–3003.
Okigwe, Nigeria. African Journal Biotechnology 6: 914–922. Tiepma, N.E.F., E.E. Zambou, E. Agbor, and M.F. Tchouanguep.
Ojimelukwe, P.C. 2000. Effect of preservation with Sacoglottis 2013. Physicochemical changes of raffia sap (Raphia mambil-
gabonensis on the biochemistry and sensory attributes of palm lensis) contents during spontaneous fermentation. African Jour-
wine. Journal of Food Biochemistry 25: 411–424. nal of Biotechnology 12(41): 6013–6018.
Okafor, N. 1975. Microbiology of Nigerian palm wine with particular Threlfall, R.T., and J.R. Morris. 2002. Using dimethyldicarbonate to
reference to bacteria. Journal of Applied Microbiology 38(2): minimize sulfur dioxide for prevention of fermentation from
81–88. excessive yeast contamination in juice and semi sweet wine.
Okafor, N. 1977. The microbiological basis of a method for palm Journal of Food Science 67(7): 2758–2762.
wine preservation. Journal of Applied Microbiology 43(1): Trinidad, T.P., A.C. Mallillin, R.S. Sagum, and R.R. Encabo. 2010.
159–161. Glycemic index of commonly consumed carbohydrate foods in
Pandiselvam, R., S. Sunoj, M.R. Manikantan, A. Kothakota, and K.B. the Philippines. Journal of Functional Foods 2: 271–274.
Hebbar. 2017. Application and kinetics of ozone in food Tuley, P. 1994. African bass/piassava—A historical perspective.
preservation. Ozone Science and Engineering 39(2): 115–126. Principes 38(1): 36–46.
Potter, N.N., and J.H. Hotchkiss. 2012. Food science, 5th ed. Berlin: Ukhum, M.E., N.P. Okolie, and A.O. Oyerinde. 2005. Some mineral
Springer. profile of fresh and bottles palm wine—A comparative study.
Redhead. J. 1989. Utilization of tropical foods: trees, In FAO food African Journal Biotechnology 4: 829–832.
and nutrition paper no 47: 3. FAO, Rome, p. 52. Wood, B. J. 2002. Insects on palms: FW Howard, D. Moore, RM Giblin-
Ruzzin, J., Y. Lai, and J. Jensen. 2005. Consumption of carbohydrate Davies, RG Abad; CABI Publishing, ISBN 0-85-199326-5.
solutions enhances energy intake without increased body weight Xia, Q., R. Li, S. Zhao, W. Chen, H. Chen, B. Xin, Y. Huang, and M.
and impaired insulin action in rat skeletal muscles. Fructose and Tang. 2011. Chemical composition changes of post-harvest
sucrose solutions enhanced energy intake but did not increase coconut inflorescence sap during natural fermentation. African
body weight. Diabetes & Metabolism 31: 178–188. Journal of Biotechnology 10(66): 14999–15005.

123

View publication stats