An Introduction to Brushless DC Motor

Control
By Steven Keeping

Contributed By Electronic Products

2013-03-27

The brushless DC (BLDC) motor is becoming increasingly popular in sectors such as automotive
(particularly electric vehicles (EV)), HVAC, white goods and industrial because it does away
with the mechanical commutator used in traditional motors, replacing it with an electronic device
that improves the reliability and durability of the unit.

Another advantage of a BLDC motor is that it can be made smaller and lighter than a brush type
with the same power output, making the former suitable for applications where space is tight.

The downside is that BLDC motors do need electronic management to run. For example, a
microcontroller – using input from sensors indicating the position of the rotor – is needed to
energize the stator coils at the correct moment. Precise timing allows for accurate speed and
torque control, as well as ensuring the motor runs at peak efficiency.

This article explains the fundamentals of BLDC motor operation and describes typical control
circuit for the operation of a three-phase unit. The article also considers some of the integrated
modules – that the designer can select to ease the circuit design – which are specifically designed
for BLDC motor control.

The advantages of brushless operation

The brushes of a conventional motor transmit power to the rotor windings which, when
energized, turn in a fixed magnetic field. Friction between the stationary brushes and a rotating
metal contact on the spinning rotor causes wear. In addition, power can be lost due to poor brush
to metal contact and arcing.

Because a BLDC motor dispenses with the brushes – instead employing an “electronic
commutator” – the motor’s reliability and efficiency is improved by eliminating this source of
wear and power loss. In addition, BLDC motors boast a number of other advantages over brush
DC motors and induction motors, including better speed versus torque characteristics; faster
dynamic response; noiseless operation; and higher speed ranges. 1

Moreover, the ratio of torque delivered relative to the motor’s size is higher, making it a good
choice for applications such as washing machines and EVs, where high power is needed but
compactness and lightness are critical factors. (However, it should be noted that brush-type DC
motors do have a higher starting torque.)

A BLDC motor is known as a “synchronous” type because the magnetic field generated by the
stator and the rotor revolve at the same frequency. One benefit of this arrangement is that BLDC
motors do not experience the “slip” typical of induction motors.

While the motors can come in one-, two-, or three-phase types, the latter is the most common
type and is the version that will be discussed here.

The stator of a BLDC motor comprises steel laminations, slotted axially to accommodate an even
number of windings along the inner periphery (Figure 1). While the BLDC motor stator
resembles that of an induction motor, the windings are distributed differently.

Figure 1: The stator of a BLDC motor showing slotted steel ring with axial windings. (Courtesy
of Microchip.)

The rotor is constructed from permanent magnets with two-to-eight N-S pole pairs. More magnet
pairs increase torque and smooth out so-called torque ripple, evening the power delivery from
the motor. The downside is a more complex control system, increased cost, and lower maximum
speed.

Traditionally, ferrite magnets were used to make the permanent magnets, but contemporary units
tend to use rare earth magnets. While these magnets are more expensive, they generate greater
flux density, allowing the rotor to be made smaller for a given torque. The use of these powerful
magnets is a key reason why BLDC motors deliver higher power than a brush-type DC motor of
the same size.
Detailed information about the construction and operation of BLDC motors can be found in an
interesting application note (AN885) released by Microchip Technology. 2

Fundamentals of operation

The BLDC motor’s electronic commutator sequentially energizes the stator coils generating a
rotating electric field that ‘drags’ the rotor around with it. N “electrical revolutions” equates to
one mechanical revolution, where N is the number of magnet pairs.

For a three-phase motor, three Hall-effect sensors are embedded in the stator to indicate the
relative positions of stator and rotor to the controller so that it can energize the windings in the
correct sequence and at the correct time. The Hall sensors are usually mounted on the non-
driving end of the unit (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Hall sensors are embedded in the stator of a BLDC motor to determine the winding
energizing sequence. (Courtesy of Microchip.)

When the rotor magnetic poles pass the Hall sensors, a high (for one pole) or low (for the
opposite pole) signal is generated. As discussed in detail below, the exact sequence of
commutation can be determined by combining the signals from the three sensors.

All electric motors generate a voltage potential due to the movement of the windings through the
associated magnetic field. This potential is known as an electromotive force (EMF) and,
according to Lenz’s law, it gives rise to a current in the windings with a magnetic field that
opposes the original change in magnetic flux. In simpler terms, this means the EMF tends to
resist the rotation of the motor and is therefore referred to as “back” EMF. For a given motor of
fixed magnetic flux and number of windings, the EMF is proportional to the angular velocity of
the rotor.

But the back EMF, while adding some “drag” to the motor, can be used for an advantage. By
monitoring the back EMF, a microcontroller can determine the relative positions of stator and
rotor without the need for Hall-effect sensors. This simplifies motor construction, reducing its
cost as well as eliminating the additional wiring and connections to the motor that would
otherwise be needed to support the sensors. This improves reliability when dirt and humidity are
present.

However, a stationary motor generates no back EMF, making it impossible for the
microcontroller to determine the position of the motor parts at start-up. The solution is to start
the motor in an open loop configuration until sufficient EMF is generated for the microcontroller
to take over motor supervision. These so-called “sensorless” BLDC motors are gaining in
popularity.

Controlling a BLDC motor

While BLDC motors are mechanically relatively simple, they do require sophisticated control
electronics and regulated power supplies. The designer is faced with the challenge of dealing
with a three-phase high-power system that demands precise control to run efficiently.

Figure 3 shows a typical arrangement for driving a BLDC motor with Hall-effect sensors. (The
control of a sensorless BLDC motor using back EMF measurement will be covered in a future
article.) This system shows the three coils of the motor arranged in a “Y” formation, a Microchip
PIC18F2431 microcontroller, an insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) driver, and a three-
phase inverter comprising six IGBTs (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors
(MOSFETs) can also be used for the high-power switching). The output from the microcontroller
(mirrored by the IGBT driver) comprises pulse width modulated (PWM) signals that determine
the average voltage and average current to the coils (and hence motor speed and torque). The
motor uses three Hall-effect sensors (A, B, and C) to indicate rotor position. The rotor itself uses
two pairs of permanent magnets to generate the magnetic flux.

Figure 3: BDLC power supply control system using an 8-bit microcontroller. (Courtesy of
Microchip.)
The system employs a six-step commutation sequence for each electrical revolution. Because the
motor has two pairs of magnets, two electrical revolutions are required to spin the motor once.

Figure 4 shows the current flow in an identical arrangement of coils to the motor in Figure 3 (this
time labeled U, V, and W) for each of the six steps, and Figure 5 shows the subsequent Hall-
effect sensor outputs and coil voltages.

Figure 4: Coil-energizing sequence for one electrical revolution of a three-phase BLDC motor.
(Courtesy of Atmel.)

Figure 5: The state of the Hall-effect sensors determines when and how the coils are energized.
A pair of Hall-effect sensors is linked to each coil. (Courtesy of Atmel.)
A pair of Hall-effect sensors determines when the microcontroller energizes a coil. In this
example, sensors H1 and H2 determine the switching of coil U. When H2 detects a N magnet
pole, coil U is positively energized; when H1 detects a N magnet pole, coil U is switched open;
when H2 detects a S magnet pole coil U is switched negative, and finally, when H1 detects a S
magnet pole, coil U is again switched open. Similarly, sensors H2 and H3 determine the
energizing of coil V, with H1 and H3 looking after coil W.

At each step, two phases are on with one phase feeding current to the motor, and the other
providing a current return path. The other phase is open. The microcontroller controls which two
of the switches in the three-phase inverter must be closed to positively or negatively energize the
two active coils. For example, switching Q1 in Figure 3 positively energizes coil A and
switching Q2 negatively energizes coil B to provide the return path. Coil C remains open.

Designers can experiment with 8-bit microcontroller-based development kits to try out control
regimes before committing on the design of a full-size motor. For example, Atmel has produced
an inexpensive starter kit, the ATAVRMC323, for BLDC motor control based on the
ATxmega128A1 8-bit microcontroller. Several other vendors offer similar kits.
4

Driving a BLDC motor

While an 8-bit microcontroller allied to a three-phase inverter is a good start, it is not enough for
a complete BLDC motor control system. To complete the job requires a regulated power supply
to drive the IGBT or MOSFETs (the “IGBT Driver” shown in Figure 3). Fortunately, the job is
made easier because several major semiconductor vendors have specially designed integrated
driver chips for the job.

These devices typically comprise a step-down (“buck”) converter (to power the microcontroller
and other system power requirements), gate driver control and fault handling, plus some timing
and control logic. The DRV8301 three-phase pre-driver from Texas Instruments is a good
example (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Texas Instruments’ DRV8301 motor driver integrates a buck regulator, gate driver,
and control logic in a single package.

This pre-driver supports up to 2.3 A sink and 1.7 A source peak current capability, and requires a
single power supply with an input voltage of 8 to 60 V. The device uses automatic hand shaking
when high-side or low-side IGBTs or MOSFETs are switching to prevent current shoot through.

ON Semiconductor offers a similar chip, the LB11696V. In this case, a motor driver circuit with
the desired output power (voltage and current) can be implemented by adding discrete transistors
in the output circuits. The chip also provides a full complement of protection circuits, making it
suitable for applications that must exhibit high reliability. This device is designed for large
BLDC motors such as those used in air conditioners and on-demand water heaters.

In summary

BLDC motors offer a number of advantages over conventional motors. The removal of brushes
from a motor eliminates a mechanical part that otherwise reduces efficiency, wears out, or can
fail catastrophically. In addition, the development of powerful rare earth magnets has allowed the
production of BLDC motors that can produce the same power as brush type motors while fitting
into a smaller space.

One perceived disadvantage is that BLDC motors, unlike the brush type, require an electronic
system to supervise the energizing sequence of the coils and provide other control functions.
Without the electronics, the motors cannot operate.

However, the proliferation of inexpensive, robust electronic devices specially designed for motor
control means that designing a circuit is relatively simple and inexpensive. In fact, a BLDC
motor can be set up to run in a basic configuration without even using a microcontroller by
employing a modest three-phase sine- or square-wave generator. Fairchild Semiconductor, for
example, offers its FCM8201 chip for this application, and has published an application note on
how to set things up.5

Similarly, ON Semiconductor’s MC33033 BLDC motor controller integrates a rotor position

decoder on the chip, so there is no need for microcontroller to complete the system. The device
can be used to control a three-phase or four-phase BLDC motor.

However, employing an 8-bit microcontroller (programmed with factory-supplied code or the

developer’s own software) adds very little cost to the control system, yet offers the user much
greater control over the motor to ensure it runs with optimum efficiency, in addition to offering
more precise positional-, speed-, or torque-output.

References:
1. “Brushless DC Motor Primer,” Muhammad Mubeen, July 2008.
2. “Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor Fundamentals,” Padmaraja Yedamale, Microchip
Technology application note AN885, 2003.
3. “Using the PIC18F2431 for Sensorless BLDC Motor Control,” Padmaraja Yedamale,
Microchip Technology application note AN970, 2005.
4. “AVR1607: Brushless DC Motor (BLDC) Control in Sensor mode using ATxmega128A1
and ATAVRMC323,” Atmel application note, 2010.
5. “FCM8201 Three-Phase Sine-Wave BLDC Motor Controller,” Fairchild Semiconductor
application note AN-8201, 2011.

1-3-2 Brushless DC Motor

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The brushless DC motor has removed the brush and commutator, which used to be a
shortcoming of the DC motor. The features of brushless DC motors are as follows:
<1> Permanent-magnet type: The permanent magnet for a field (on the stator side) and the
armature winding (on the rotor side) of the permanent-magnet DC motor are exchanged with
each other so that the permanent magnet is on the rotor side and the armature winding is on the
stator side.

<2> Instead of power switching using the brush that works as the commutator position changes,
Hall elements are used to detect the rotor position signal and feed the data back to the inverter in
order to control energization.

This is a brushless DC motor. Fig. 1.7 shows the system configuration of a brushless DC motor.

Since drive voltage sent from the inverter is alternating current, there is a train of thought to
classify this motor under AC motors as an AC-driven permanent-magnet synchronous motor.
However, in this book, the brushless DC motor will be treated as a brushless DC motor of an
independent field.

As the principle of rotation of this motor is similar to that of the DC motor, the relationship
between the rotative force (torque) and speed is almost identical to that of the DC motor.

Inheriting the superb controllability of a DC motor as it is plus being brushless compared with
the DC motor, this motor has a range of characteristics including its advantages in the areas of
electromagnetic noise and product life cycle, high efficiency and energy-saving ability, high
freedom of design and the ease of designing machine incorporation, etc. By fully exploiting these
advantages, the DC brushless motor is widely applied to HDDs (Hard Disk Drives), CD-ROM
drives and other information-processing equipment, refrigerators, washing machines, and other
home appliances.

In the early stage of development of brushless DC motors, distributed winding was used for the
stator winding. Today, concentrated winding is most commonly used. For the distributed and
concentrated windings, please refer to the column titled "Distributed winding and concentrated
winding".

This motor is also classified into the following according to the difference in the method used to
install permanent magnets to the rotor:

 (1) SPM (Surface Permanent Magnet)

 (2) IPM (Interior Permanent Magnet)

Surface permanent magnet: The SPM type has permanent magnets attached to the circumference
of the rotor (see Fig. 1.8).

Interior permanent magnet: Fig. 1.8 (Right) shows a cross-sectional structure of an IPM type
motor. For the IPM type, various methods of embedding permanent magnets are applicable. The
purpose of the IPM structure is to reduce the risk of a magnet being peeled off by centrifugal
force, and to take advantage of reluctance torque (read the later section on the switched
reluctance motor).
Another classification method focuses on whether the motor uses a sensor such as a Hall element
or rotary encoder to detect the SPM or IPM pole position, or whether it omits such detection
(sensorless drive).

When the brushless DC motor is installed as an actuator, the main motor, drive inverter, and the
control circuit, etc. are packaged in a very compact manner. An actual example is shown in Fig.
1.9.

Fig.
1.7 Configuration diagram of a brushless DC motor using an inverter
Microprocessor/Dedicated logic circuit

Fig. 1.8 Example of cross-sectional structure of

SPM (Left) and IPM (Right)
The IPM type is adopted in order to prevent the magnet from being peeled off by the centrifugal force,
and to take advantage of reluctance torque.
 Fig. 1.9 Brushless motor (Manufactured by Nidec)
incorporated in the PC card of a notebook computer
The thickness of the motor itself is 2 mm.

Converter and inverter

◎Converter

There is a device that converts single-phase or three-phase alternating current into direct
current. It is manufactured by using a semiconductor device called a diode, thyristor, or
transistor.

Such a device is called a commutator or converter.

Large DC motors that can output, for example 30 kW, are generally rotated by using a converter,
which can also be used for rotating a small DC motor.

◎Inverter

Conversely, there is a device that converts direct current into three-phase alternating current.
This device is called an inverter.

The latest refrigerators and room air-conditioners have motors containing an inverter, and the
motor in turn drives the compressor.

The inverter for home air-conditioners converts single-phase alternating current into direct
current using a converter. Then, it converts direct current into three-phase alternating current
using the inverter to rotate the motor. This may sound troublesome but the resulting
advantages are worth the process.

Distributed winding and concentrated winding

Fig. 1.10 shows a case where a 24-slot stator has (a) four poles and (b) eight poles. This method
of changing the number of poles by switching the coil connection is not commonly used today
due to low performance resulting from its complicated operation methods.

Meanwhile, as Fig. 1.11 shows, in the case of a six-coil concentrated winding stator, it can be
converted to (a) two-pole, (b) four-pole, or (c) eight-pole motor by changing the wire connection
despite the smaller number of slots.

Fig. 1.10
Distributed winding stator and the number of poles
In the case of a 24-slot stator, various numbers of poles are possible. However, this book shows the
cases of (a) four-pole winding and (b) eight-pole winding.

Fig. 1.11 Six-coil

concentrated winding stator and the number of poles
Despite the smaller number of slots, it can be converted into (a) two-pole, (b) four-pole, or (c) eight-pole
motor by changing the wire connection.
The figure shows a case where the current is applied only to two coils in the U-phase. Although (b) and
(c) are of the same wire connection, the figure shows that it can be a four- or an eight-pole motor
according to the number of poles of the rotor. However, it is difficult to convert the stator into a six-pole
motor.

1-3-6 Ultrasonic Motor

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Ultrasonic motor (USM) is an actuator that converts characteristic vibration (resonance) of

several μm in amplitude generated in the metallic elastic body (transducer, stator) into rotation or
translational movement of motive elements (rotor, slider) with friction. It was invented by Mr.
Toshiiku Sashida in 1980. This motor is called an ultrasonic motor because the characteristic
vibration number (resonance frequency) of the elastic body is in the ultrasonic range (21.0 kHz
and over).

The characteristic vibration is generated by the PZT (piezoelectric ceramic) inside the
transducer.

Compared with electromagnetic motors in general, the ultrasonic motor has the following
characteristics:

 <1> No speed reducing mechanism required due to low-speed and high-torque characteristics.
 <2> Exhibits low noise characteristics as no reduction gear is needed.

 <3> Retains holding torque when not energized.

 <4> Unaffected by magnetism and does not emit any electromagnetic waves.

 <5> Compact and lightweight

Shortcomings are as follows:

 <1> Poor durability due to high wear

 <2> Difficult to operate at high speed.

 <3> Requires high-frequency power supply and complex drive circuits.

By optimizing the above-mentioned advantages <1> to <5>, the ultrasonic motor is applied to
the auto-focusing mechanism of a single-lens reflex camera and precision positioning devices in
a scanning electron microscope, semiconductor making equipment, micro machine
manufacturing equipment, and so forth.
In addition, it is used to raise/lower the roll-screen curtain and position the headrest by taking
advantage of the low-speed/high-torque features and the torque-holding characteristic during
non-energized periods.

Moreover, as the motor is not affected by magnetic fields, it can be used on the main body and
peripherals of MRI scanners, which use magnetic fields for medical diagnosis, etc.

<Short column> AC and DC

AC is an abbreviation of Alternating Current (Koryu in Japanese) and DC for Direct Current

(Chokuryu in Japanese).

Incidentally, AC and DC are translated into German as:

 AC: Wechselstrom
 DC: Gleichstrom

<Short column> Overload

For example, if a mechanical load mounted on the shaft (output shaft) of a DC motor is small,
the flow of current will be small. But if the load is heavy, the current increases if the applied
voltage remains constant. An increasing current will cause the motor to overheat. Overload refers
to a condition where a level of current greater than the appropriate load limit flows to the motor
occasionally or for long periods.

1-3-5 Stepping Motor

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The original form of the stepping motor is a combination of a six-coil concentrated winding
stator (Fig. 1.21) and a salient-poled lamination rotor (Fig. 1.22). It was adopted as the actuator
for indicating the launching directions of torpedoes from British navy warships during the 1920s
as shown in Fig.1.23.

A rotary switch was used in this motor for switching the current between the windings.

Functions of these switches are indicated by S1, S2, and S3 on the right-hand side in Fig. 1.23.
 Fig.
1.23 Stepping motor (VR type) used on board British warships.

The stepping motor was once called a step-by-step motor. However, before long it became more
popularly known as a stepping motor or step motor.

It is also called a stepper motor.

Fig. 1.24 shows that the rotor position rotates in step with the switching of the current to the
stator winding.

Fig.
1.24 Operation principles of a stepping motor (VR type)

[5]-(1) VR Stepping Motor

The rotor of a stepping motor is required to hold its position upon stopping after rotating by a
certain number of degrees.

To achieve this, a principle is applied in which the poles (large teeth or pole teeth) excited by
electric current are arranged by the rotor teeth and magnetic force.

In cases where the ratio of the number of stator gear teeth to that of the rotor gear teeth is 6:4, the
positioning resolution under this principle will be 12 per rotation. In other words, positioning can
be made at intervals of 30 degrees.

As a means of creating high resolution, a pole with fine-notched teeth as shown in Fig. 1.25 and
a rotor with similarly fine teeth as shown in Fig. 1.26 are used.
This type of stepping motor that does not use permanent magnets is called a VR (Variable
Reluctance) stepping motor.

Looking back in history, various types of VR motors were manufactured for use in machine tools
and computer device peripherals.

One of the advantages of the VR stepping motor is that it can create high resolution by
machining fine teeth and reducing the size of the gap between the stator and rotor.

A disadvantage is that it is difficult to satisfy the needs for both downsizing and creating larger
torque at the same time. For this reason, the VR type draws more attention today as an SRM
(switched reluctance motor), which is a kind of brushless motor, rather than as a stepping motor.

Fig. 1.25 Resolution (division number of 360

degrees) increases by adding notched teeth to the pole
 Fig. 1.26 Soft-steel rotor with finely notched teeth
Configuring VR stepping motor

[5]-(2) PM Stepping Motor

Separate from the VR type, the PM (Permanent Magnet) stepping motor was developed.
Basically, this motor used a permanent-magnet rotor as shown in Fig. 1.27. For a typical
example, a combination of a four-coil stator and a bipolar magnet rotor as shown in Fig. 1.28 can
be mentioned. This motor evolved in the field of stepping motors used in wristwatches. One
characteristic of these stepping motors is that they have a low level of power consumption if they
are made more compact due to the powerful permanent magnets they contain. A single battery
can keep driving the three hands, including the second pointer, for several years.

Fig. 1.27 Permanent-magnet

rotor (two-, four- and eight-pole)
 Fig. 1.28
Stepping motor using a cylindrical permanent magnet (PM type)
[5]-(3) Hybrid Stepping Motor

Fig. 1.29 Structure of hybrid stepping motor

Today's hybrid stepping motors, which have a wide range of applications, are a compound type
that combines the advantages of both VR and PM types. Production is concentrated on the so-
called claw pole type, but in a wider sense it is regarded as one of the hybrid stepping motors.

Originally, "hybrid" is a biological term. Here, hybrid refers to the VR structure that has a finely
notched stepping angle, and its use of permanent magnets increases torque.
Its construction is shown in Fig. 1.29. Basically speaking, as seen in the rotor structure in Fig.
1.30, two strips of the tooth-notched core sandwich the disc, which is a permanent magnet.

Fig 1.30 Inductor rotor

A ferrite permanent magnet is sandwiched between two strips of tooth-notched core. One side of this
magnet is the N-pole while the other side is the S-pole. Only one magnetic pole, N or S, appears in the
section vertical in the axial direction. This is a unipolar. Since a magnetic pole is induced in the teeth of
the silicon steel on both sides, they are called inductors. When viewed from an axial direction, it looks
like a multipolar permanent-magnet rotor. It is used in a hybrid stepping motor.

[5]-(4) Claw-pole PM Stepping Motor

The stepping motor used in a wide range of office equipment is this claw-pole PM stepping
motor.

1-3-4 Switched Reluctance

Motor
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The switched reluctance motor (hereinafter referred to as the SRM) uses a stator of concentrated
winding (Fig. 1.21) and a salient-poled lamination rotor (Fig. 1.22).

SRMs are variable speed motors that have a simple and robust structure.
 Fig. 1.21 Stator of concentrated winding

Fig. 1.22 Salient-poled lamination rotor

This motor is used as a VR stepping motor or a switched reluctance motor.

1-3-1 DC Motor
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The term "direct-current motor" is often abbreviated to "DC motor". Therefore, this book uses
"DC motor" to refer to a direct-current motor.

The rotative force (torque) of a DC motor is proportional to the product of the strength of the
magnetic field generated by the stator and the electric current flowing through the rotor.
Magnetic flux of the field generated by the stator is called field flux.

On the other hand, the rotor is also called an armature, and the electric current flowing through it
is referred to as armature current. The term "armature" refers to a device used to apply current to
generate torque. It is not an "amateur", although the spelling may be confusing with that of
"armature".

DC motors are roughly classified into two types, namely, permanent-magnet motors that use
permanent magnets, and winding-field motors that do not use permanent magnets.
 Fig. 1.3 Motor classification
table

[1]-(1) Permanent-magnet DC motor

Permanent-magnet DC motors use permanent magnets and are most commonly used for models,
automobile auxiliary devices, and other applications all over the world.

Fig. 1.4 Permanent-magnet motor and DC motor

Permanent-magnet DC motors are classified into the following three types by armature (rotor)
type:

 <1> Slotted type

 <2> Slotless type

 <3> Coreless type

The coreless type of <3> is also called the moving-coil type.

Details of these types and the relationship between the type of the permanent magnet and the
characteristics will be discussed in Chapter 2.

[1] - (2) Winding-field DC Motor

Fig. 1.5 Disassembly photography of winding-field

motor

Fig. 1.5 shows a motor that generates field flux using electromagnets. Winding-field DC motors
used to be primarily adopted for medium to large motors with up to about 1 horsepower
(approximately 750 W) of output.
This type of motor is further classified into the following three types according to the difference
in the method of connecting the field winding and armature winding (see Fig. 1.6).

[1]-(2)-<1> Shunt Motor

The shunt motor is composed of a concentrated winding stator and a commutator rotor as shown
in Fig. 1.5, and the field (stator) winding and armature (rotor) winding are connected in parallel
(Fig. 1.6<1>).

A feature of this motor is that the rotating speed does not change significantly if the load (on the
motor shaft) varies. Such a feature is generally called shunt characteristics.

[1]-(2)-<2> Series Motor

Fig. 1.6 Three types of winding-field motor

In the series motor, the field winding and armature winding are connected in series. (Fig.
1.6<2>).

A feature of this motor is that the rotating speed changes significantly with load variation. It
generates a large torque at startup or low speeds. When the load is reduced, the motor runs at a
high speed.
Such a feature is generally called series characteristics. Utilizing this feature, this type of motor
has been used in specific applications such as cranes, electric trains, and elevators.

At present, series motors are replaced with induction motors or synchronous motors containing
inverters for variable speed control.

This motor also rotates on alternating current, which will be introduced later in connection with
the commutator motor. However, rotating a motor designed as a DC motor on alternating current
increases core loss and other types of loss, causing abnormal heat generation.

Incidentally, is it possible to change a shunt motor to a series motor and vice versa by switching
the connection of the field winding and armature winding?

To put is simply, the aforementioned change is not possible from a practical standpoint. This is
because the shunt motor winds a fine wire a large number of turns to configure a field winding
(that has large resistance), while the series motor has a field winding consisting of a thick wire
turned a small number of times (that has small resistance).

If the field winding and armature winding of a series motor are shunt-connected, it causes the
field current to surge, which can burn the field winding out. Also, series-winding to connect the
field winding and armature winding of a shunt motor will reduce the flow of field current (=
armature current), preventing the motor from operating at the designed level of performance.

[1]-(3)-<3> Separate-field Motor

The separate-field motor has its field and armature windings connected to a separate power
supply. (Fig. 1.6<3>).

A wide range of speed control is possible by separately controlling the current for both windings.

1-3-3 AC Motor
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The term "alternating-current motor" is often described as "AC motor" in short. Therefore, we
will follow this convention in this book.

AC motors are roughly classified into commutator motors, synchronous motors, and induction
motors.
Synchronous and induction motors are both AC motors whose rotating speed is determined by
the rotating magnetic field.

Here, the rotating magnetic field refers to a phenomenon where the magnetic field that is
generated by applying three-phase, two-phase, or other multi-phase alternating current to the
stator winding rotates at a speed determined by the frequency of the multiple-phase alternating
current (= synchronous speed). The rotating magnetic field attracts the rotor, causing it to rotate.
AC motors are classified according to the difference in rotation method.

Rotating magnetic field AC motors (generic term for synchronous and induction motors) are
roughly classified into motors that run on the 100 VAC (the power supplied to households via
two-wire service lines), and motors that use 210 VAC power (distributed to factories, etc. via
three-wire lines).

The former is called a single-phase motor and the latter a three-phase motor.

Of late, three-phase motors are more frequently driven by the power inverter circuit using a
semiconductor device called an inverter. The objective of this driver configuration is to operate
the motor at a rotating speed and torque intended for the application by controlling the voltage
and frequency through use of the inverter.

[3]-(1) Commutator Motor

Commutator motor is a generic description for motors using a commutator rotor as shown in Fig.
1.12. The type currently still in use in large numbers is what is called a universal motor (also
called an AC series motor or an AC series wound motor).

The main application of this motor is vacuum cleaners, power tools, and juicers. In other words,
it is used in areas where the motor is required to rotate at high speeds through the use of a single-
phase AC power supply.

The word "universal" here implies that the motor rotates on AC or DC power supply (that is, an
AC/DC motor).

In principle, it has the same structure as DC series motors, but the following points need to be
considered when using alternating current:
 Skew type/straight flute type
Fig. 1.12 Commutator rotor
It has a winding and a commutator configured with multiple copper plates.

<1> In the case of DC, the stator flux is constant, but in the case of AC, it changes. Therefore, it
is necessary to reduce any eddy current generated by the changing flux with insulated core
lamination.

<2> Drops in voltage were only caused by resistance in the case of DC, but with AC, in addition
to drops in voltage caused by resistance, output is also reduced by the deteriorated power factor
due to the phase shift resulting from electromagnetic induction.

[3]-(2) Synchronous Motor

The synchronous motor refers to motors whose rotating speed is equal to the synchronous speed.
They include the following three types:

[3]-(2)-<1> Reluctance Motor

The reluctance motor uses a stator of distributed winding (Fig. 1.13 Left) and a salient pole
squirrel-cage rotor (Fig. 1.14 Right).

At the start, it rotates as an induction motor, and then rotates in sync with the power supply
frequency while operating. Its rotating speed differs between 50 Hz and 60 Hz areas. This motor
has a comparatively large startup torque. It is also called a reaction motor.
 Fig. 1.13 Stator of distributed winding (Left) and
six-coil concentrated winding stator (Right)

Fig. 1.14 (Left) Squirrel-cage rotor (for squirrel-

cage rotor type induction motor)
(Right) Salient pole squirrel-cage rotor (for reluctance motor)
Copper, brass, and aluminum are used as conductors.

[3]-(2)-<2> Hysteresis Motor

Fig. 1.15 Semi-hard steel rotor

Weak permanent magnet steel that does not cause magnetization

The hysteresis motor uses a stator of distributed winding (Fig. 1.13 Left) and a semi-hard steel
rotor (Fig. 1.15).
Since this motor rotates using the hysteresis characteristics, it has little rotational irregularities or
vibrations. In addition, because there is no difference between the startup and stop torques, it
should ideally be operated under a constant load condition. This motor can only be produced by
manufacturers that have a special hysteresis ring.

[3]-(2)-<3> Inductor-type Motor

The principle of operation of inductor-type synchronous motors is synchronization of the rotor

movement with the frequency of the current applied to the stator coil (electromagnet) and
conversion of the input power into rotary motion through repeated attraction and repulsion.

In other words, the revolution speed of the rotor will be the inverse of the integer of the rotating
speed (synchronous speed) determined uniquely by the frequency of the current. The motors can
be classified into two types depending on the rotor structure.

 ・Claw-pole motors
 ・Hybrid stepping motors (slow-synchronous motors).

Claw-pole motors with various rated speeds are available by combining the motor structure and
gear head.

Claw-pole motors are used in various applications including game machines (pinball machines),
copy machines, security camera drivers, recording meters, automated curtains, and valve
opening/closing devices. Hybrid stepping motors are mainly used for manufacturing machinery.

Synchronous and asynchronous

In discussions of rotating magnetic field-type motors, the words synchronous and asynchronous
are often used. These terms are associated with the engineering factor of "whether or not the
motor rotates in sync with the frequency of alternating current". The following are important
terminology:

◎Synchronous speed N0

Synchronous speed is a significant parameter used in relation to rotating magnetic field-type AC

motors. It is determined by the frequency and the number of magnetic poles.

Motors rotating at a synchronous speed are called synchronous motors.

Motors that rotate slower than the synchronous speed are called asynchronous motors.

[3]-(3) Induction Motor

This is usually called an induction motor but it is occasionally called an asynchronous motor.

It is a generic name for motors whose rotating speed is slightly slower than the synchronous
speed. The following three types exist. In either case, a stator of distributed winding (Fig. 1.13
Left) is used.

[3]-(3)-<1> Squirrel-cage Rotor Type Induction Motor

Fig. 1.16 When iron is dissolved in nitric acid, only

the aluminum cage remains
To the left is the rotor of a squirrel-cage rotor type induction motor, and to the right is the rotor of a
reluctance motor.

The squirrel-cage rotor (Fig. 1.14 Left) is used for the squirrel-cage rotor type induction motor.

General purpose power motors for industrial use are of this type. When a squirrel-cage rotor is
dipped in nitric acid to dissolve the iron content, only the aluminum "cage" remains as shown in
Fig. 1.16. It is possible to adjust the characteristic curve delicately by adjusting the shape and
material of the cage-type conductor of the rotor.
[3]-(3)-<2> Eddy-current Motor

Fig. 1.17 Soft-steel rotor

The main material is a cylindrical mass of iron. For eddy-current motors

Soft-steel rotor (Fig. 1.17) is used for the rotors of eddy-current motors. It generates a large
torque at the start of operation, which drops as the speed increases.

[3]-(3)-<3> Wound-rotor Type Induction Motor

Fig. 1.18 Winding rotor

It is equipped with three slip rings to energize the rotor with the brush.

Winding rotors (Fig. 1.18) are used in the wound-rotor type induction motors. The motor
characteristics can be changed using a variable resistor connected through the slip rings. This
rotor is specifically used in large motors.

[3]-(3)-<4> Single-phase Induction Motor

We have described multi-phase (three-phase) induction motors in <1> through <3> above.

In our daily lives, the power supply most people are familiar with is the single-phase AC power
supply. Therefore, practical motors that operate on single-phase alternating current would be
convenient. The single-phase induction motor meets this requirement. Small motors of this type,
with an output range of several Watts to several hundred Watts, are widely used in household,
small-scale industrial, and agricultural applications. Capacitor motors and shaded-pole type
single-phase induction motors are typical single-phase induction motors.

[3]-(3)-<4>-a) Capacitor Motor

Fig. 1.19 Phase relationship of the capacitor motor

Fig. 1.20 Capacitor motor for industrial use

As Fig. 1.19 shows, capacitor motors are configured by inserting a capacitor into the A-phase so
that VA becomes a leading phase to VM.

Capacitor motors are classified into capacitor-starting motors where capacitor C is inserted only
at startup, capacitor run motors where constant capacitor C is kept inserted from the startup time
onward, and binary capacitor motors that reduce the capacitance by switching the capacitor when
the motor enters a steady operation status.

Besides being used preferably in home appliances that have comparatively smaller starting
torques, in industry, the capacitor motor is used in small belt conveyor drivers and FA (factory
automation) machines due to its ease of use and high cost effectiveness.
[3]-(3)-<4>-b) Shaded-pole Type Single-phase Induction Motor

The shaded-pole type single-phase induction motor is an induction motor that has a short-
circuited auxiliary winding located at a position shifted from the master winding by an electric
angle of less than 90°.

The auxiliary winding induces voltage using the transformer effect of the master winding to
apply short-circuited current, and generates a rotating magnetic field using the magnetomotive
force of the auxiliary and master windings.

Being less efficient due to the loss generated on the shaded coil, this motor is used in the fan and
other small capacity appliances due to its simple structure.