Lesson 2 – Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura

Starting Accurately

New researches in the field of learning brought about the formulation of new theories which
maintained some of the earlier behaviorist concepts but excluded others and added new ideas
associated with the cognitive views of learning. The neo behaviorists, then, were a transitional group,
bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning.

Learning Outcomes

In this module challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:

 explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism.
 Explain Bandura’s social learning theory.
 Give specific applications of each theory in teaching.
Advance Organizer

Neo Behaviorism

Tolman’s Purposive Bandura’s Social

Behaviorism Learning Theory

Goal-Directedness
Principles

Cognitive Maps
Modeling

Latent Learning
Four Conditions for
Effective Modeling

Intervening
Variables

Stimulating Learning: Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

1. Use a pencil; Solve maze A. Enter on the top left side and exit the lower right side.
Solve maze B. Enter on the lower right side and exit at the top left side.
 Maze A Maze B

Analysis (You may answer this but you need not submit this to me)
1. How did you solve maze A? (e.g. trial and error, examined the maze before proceeding, etc…)
________________________________________________________________________
2. Was it easier to solve maze B? Why? ________________________________________
If your answer to the no.2 question was a “yes” it is because the two mazes were identical
except the entry and exit points. Your experience in doing maze A helped you answer with ease maze B.
People create mental maps of things they perceived and these mental maps help them respond to other
things or tasks later especially if they see the similarity. At the start you may respond with trial and error
but later your responses become more internally driven (cognitive perspective-your mind works). This is
what neobehaviourism is about. Two theories stand out: Edward Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. Both theories were influenced by behaviorism (which is
focused on external element in learning) but their principles are also reflective of cognitive perspective
(focused on internal elements)—that learning is a function not only of the environment, the world of
stimuli to which people automatically respond but also the function of the mind—perceiving,
processing, storing and recall of information from the environment.
Inculcating Concepts
A. Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
This theory is also referred to as sign learning and is founded on two psychological views: those
of Gestalt psychologists and those of Watson’s, the behaviorist. Tolman believed that an organism
learns by pursuing signs to a goal. He stressed that learning involves obtaining knowledge of the
environment (cognitive mapping) and it is this cognitive map which indicates routes and paths and
environmental relationships which finally determines what responses the learner will take. For example,
as a student you pass by the same route/several routes everyday/some other days. Consequently, you
acquire a cognitive map of the location of your school, taking into account important landmarks. So even
if there is a re-routing, you can still figure out what turns to make to get to school the shortest and the
easiest way. Tolman’s behaviorism stressed the importance of relationships between stimuli rather
than stimulus-response. The new stimuli (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful
stimulus (the significate) through a series of pairings, there is no need for reinforcement in order to
establish learning. (recall your activity on maze A and maze B).
 The following are the key concepts of Tolman’s leaning theory:
1. Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He believed that individuals do more than
merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive toward
goals. Behavior is purposive, holistic (seeing the whole thing) and cognitive.
2. Cognitive maps. In his maze experiments with rats, one group of rats was placed at random
starting locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group had the food
placed at different locations which always required the same pattern of turns from their starting
location. The group that had the food in the same location performed better than the other group,
demonstrating that they learned the location rather than a specific sequence of turns. This tendency to
learn location signified that rats somehow formed cognitive maps that help them perform well on the
maze. He also found out that organisms will select the shortest and easiest path to achieve the goal.
Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route going to school every day, he
acquires a cognitive map of the location of his school so when there is re-routing he can still figure out
what turns to make to get to school the shortest way possible.
3. Latent learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual
until it is needed. It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. For example, a two-year old
child always see her operates a t.v. remote control and observes how the t.v. is tuned off and on and
how channels are changed, and volume adjusted. After sometime, you will be surprised that on the first
time she holds the remote control, she already knows what button to press for what function.
4. The concept of intervening variables. Intervening variables are those factors that are not
readily seen but serves a determinant of behavior. Examples are needs, perceptions, and other internal
or external variables that influence behavior. In his experiments in rats, Tolman found out that hunger
was the interning variable. Human learning is influenced by a variety of internal and external
variables. We learn more and effectively when the physical (e.g. room lighting and ventilation) and
social environments (e.g. classmates and teachers are supportive of one another) and personal
conditions (e.g. in good health) are favorable.
B. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Read the following news article (www.abs-cbn.go.com)and answer the questions that follow:
10-Year Old Boy in Texas Hangs Himself. . .
Police and family members said a 10-year old boy hangs himself from a bunk bed was
apparently mimicking the execution of former Iraqi leader, Saddam Hussein.
Sergio Pelico was found dead Sunday in his apartment bedroom in the Houston area, city of
Webster, said Webster police Lt. Tom Claunch. Polico’s mother told police he had previously watched
a news report on Saddam’s death.
“It appears to be accidental,” said Claunch. “Our gut reaction is that he was experimenting.”
Julio Gustavo, Sergio’s uncle, said that the boy was a happy and curious child and that he had
watched T.V. news with another uncle on Saturday and asked about Saddam’s death. He said further
that the boy was told that Saddam was executed because he was a real bad man. Sergio said “Ok.”
“And that was it.”
Sergio’s mother. Sara Pelico de Leon was at work Sunday while Sergio was left under the care of
an uncle, Gustavo said. One of the children found Sergio’ body in his bedroom.
 Police said, the boy tied a slipknot around his neck while on a bunk bed. Police investigators
learned that Sergio was upset for not getting a Christmas gift from his father. But don’t believe that
boy intentionally killed himself.
Child psychologist Edward Bischaf of California said, children of Sergio’s age mimic risky
behaviors they see on TV such as wrestling or extreme sports without realizing the dangers. He said
the TV appeared to be a stimulant in Sergio’s case.
“I would think maybe this kid is trying something that he thinks fun to act out without having
the emotional and psychological maturity to think the thing through before he acts on it,” Bischaf
said.
Family members held a memorial service for the boy. . .
“I don’t think he thought it was real,” Gustavo said of Saddam’s hanging. “They showed them
putting the noose around his neck and everything, why show that on TV?”
Questions: (Group Activity)
1. What do authorities say might be the reason why Sergio hanged himself? What facts give them
this reason?
2. Comment on the opinion of the clinical psychologist.
3. What do you think is the effect of television on the behavior of young people (preschool to
college)? Cite examples.
B. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory focuses on learning within the social context. It considers that people learn
from one another. The key concepts of this theory are observational learning, imitation and modelling.
General principles of social learning Theory are:
 People can learn by observing the behavior of others.
 Learning can occur without a change in behavior in contrast to the behaviorists view that learning
has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior. Social learning theorists say that
because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be
shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change
 Cognition plays a role in learning. Awareness and expectations of future punishments or
reinforcements can have a major effect on the behavior that people exhibit.
 Social learning theory can be considered a bridge between behaviorist learning theories and
cognitive learning theories.
How does the environment punish and reinforce modelling?
People are often reinforced for modelling the behavior of others. The environment can reinforce
modelling in several possible ways:
 The observer is reinforced by the model. For example, a student who changes dress to fit in with a
certain group of students has the likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by the group.
 The observer is reinforced by a third party. For example, a student who is not very interested in
his lessons patterns is behavior after an outstanding student. The teacher notices this and
compliments and praises the student for modelling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior.
 The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors that we learn
from others produce satisfying or reinforcing consequences. For example, a student could
 observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This student in turn would do the same
extra work and also experience enjoyment.
 Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously. This is known as
vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a response and the observer
shows an increase in that response. For example, in a film a model hits an inflated clown doll. A
group of children who saw the model being praised for such action began to also hit the doll.
Social learning perspectives of reinforcement and punishment
 Both reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole or
main cause.
 Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior
that has been learned.
 The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote learning. Therefore
attention plays a critical role in learning and attention influenced by expectation of
reinforcement. For example, when a teacher tells a group of students that what they will study
next is not on the test, students will not pay attention because they do not expect to know the
information for a test.
Cognitive factors in social learning
Social learning has cognitive and behaviorist factors.
 Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning through
observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned.
 Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists contend that attention is a critical
factor in leaning.
 Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the consequences
that future behavior are likely to bring, that certain behaviors are reinforced and others are
punished.
 Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and
the person. In fact, each of these three factors- the person, the behavior, and the environment
can have an influence on each other.
 Modeling: There are these types of models: live model, the actual person demonstrating the
behavior; symbolic model, which can be a person or action portrayed in some other medium,
such as television, videotapes, computer program.
Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur
 Attention
 Retention/remembering
 Motor reproduction, ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated.
 Motivation, the learner must want to demonstrate the behavior.
(Note: Since these four conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the same
behavior differently)
Effects of modeling on behavior: Modeling a) teaches new behavior, b) may encourage previously
forbidden behavior, c) influences the frequency of previously learned behavior, d) increases the
frequency of similar behaviors. An example is a student might see a friend excel in basketball he tries to
excel in football because he is not tall enough for basketball.
Educational implications of social learning theory
  Students learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
 Describing the consequences of behaviors can effectively increase appropriate and decrease
inappropriate behaviors. This can involve discussing with learners about the
rewards/punishments of various behaviors.
 Modeling provides an alternative way to shaping behaviors but the teacher must make sure that
the four essential conditions for learning are present.
 Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors
 Teachers must exposed students to a variety of other models to break down traditional
stereotypes.
Application (Group Activity)
1. State a personal message derived from the key concepts of Tolman’s purposive behaviorism. An
example has been provided for you. Follow the format provided below: (8pts.)
Key Concepts of Tolman’s Theory of Personal Message
Purposive Behaviorism
1. Learning is always purposive and goal Example: To make my students do what I
directed require them to do, I should state the goal
clearly and specifically
Start here:
1.
2. Cognitive maps help students perform 2.
well. Organisms select the shortest or easiest
path to achieve a goal.
3. Latent learning stays with the individual 3.
until needed
4. Learning is influenced by expectations, 4.
perceptions, representations, needs and
other internal variables like hunger.

2. Choose three key concepts of Bandura’s social learning theory then state how you apply the
concepts when you teach. Use the format provided.
3 Key Concepts of Bandura’s Social Learning How I Apply it in My Teaching
Theory
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

References
1. Aquino, A. M. (2010). Facilitating human learning. Quezon City, Phil. Rex Book Store
2. Lucas, M.R. & Brenda Corpuz. (2014). Facilitating learning: A metacognitive approach. Quezon
City, Phil. Lorimar Publishing
3. Santrock, J. W. Educational Psychology (2001). Mass. USA. McGraw Hill
4. Schunk, D.H. (2002) Learning theories: An educational perspective, 6 th ed. Mass., USA.: Pearson