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HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PAPER

Preliminary Pages

Title
 Informative and specific
 Descriptive and concise
 Understandable
 All nouns are capitalized in the title
 Example: “Influence of Teacher Characteristics on Student’s Academic Achievement
among secondary schools.”
 The tile is on the cover page
 It is centered on the page
 Names of the researchers and date appears below the title

Acknowledgement

Dedication

Abstract

The abstract is the last part of the paper. This is the concise narrative or executive
summary of the research paper. An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 250
words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that include: (1)
the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) investigated. (2) the basic design
of the study; (3) major findings or trends found as a result of the analysis; and (4) a brief
summary of interpretation and conclusions

Writing the Abstract

- The abstract needs to be accurate with information reported, well organized, brief, and
self-contained.
- Make each sentence informative, especially the lead sentence.
- Use active voice when possible
- Write the Abstract using concise, but complete sentences.
- Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because the report is on research
that has been completed.

Table of Contents

 a simple table of contents matching the elements of the five (5) chapters of the research
will appear after the abstract.

List of Tables
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List of Figures

List of Appendices

Note: Each page must be numbered (including the first page and the Abstract).

Chapter 1. The Problem and Its Setting

Introduction

The Introduction serves the purpose of leading the reader from a general subject area to a
particular field of research. It establishes the context of the research being conducted by
summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the
purpose of the work in the form of the hypothesis, question, or research problem, briefly
explaining the rationale, methodological approach, highlighting the potential outcomes the
study can reveal, and describing the remaining structure of the paper

Structure and writing style

- Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these
four questions: (1) What was I studying? (2) Why was the topic important to investigate
(3) What did we know about the topic before I did this study? (4) How will this study
advance our knowledge?

- Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information, organize

the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the
introduction, then narrow toward the more specific topical information that provides
context, finally arriving at the statement of the purpose and rationale, and whenever
possible, the potential outcomes the study can reveal

Writing the Introduction (4basic elements)

Identify the subject area of interest

 A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from the title in the first few sentences of
the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic and ensure to get to
the primary subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is
too general

The purpose (sometimes called the objective)

 State the intent of the study or what the researcher expect the research to show
 Example: to learn more about teacher characteristics that influence student’s academic
performance
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The literature relevant to the subject

 Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published
literature that is available on the subject
 This background leads to a statement of the problem that is being addressed;
 The researcher is building on other researchers’ work
 This part of the introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review but
consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature (with
citation) that lays a foundation for understanding the study.

The rationale of the study

 Highlighting the importance of the topic

 Justify why there is a need to conduct the study
 Present gaps from past research
 Mention the contradictory findings
 Explain why the variables need further investigation

End the introduction deductively by mentioning what was done in the present study; stating the
main purpose or specific hypothesis

The Problem Statement

 The clarity in stating the problem will drive the rest of the research work.
 Statement of the Purpose (Main problem)
- Complete the statement “The purpose of the study was to…”
- A clear statement of the purpose of the study is the very foundation for the rest of
the paper
- Link the purpose directly to the problem. Only one or two sentences are required
here to explain the purpose
 Research Questions (Specific problems)
- Research questions are aligned with the problem statement.
- Generally, the researcher needs from three to five research questions. Each
research question requires an instrument and a source of data.
- Each research question will serve as the structure for this section and each research
question must be answered with findings in Chapter 4.

Hypothesis

• Hypothesis is a wise guess that is formulated and temporarily adopted to explain the
observed facts covered by the study
• The hypothesis is a re-statement of the research problem
• Example: “There is a significant relationship between teacher characteristics and
student’s academic performance”
Assumption/s

• Presumed to be true statement/s of facts related to the research problem

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• Gives the researchers/ readers a foundation to form conclusions

Sample Assumptions

• This study is assuming that all respondents of the surveys are responding accurately and
that the teachers who responded do not differ significantly from other districts.
• This study is assuming that all job satisfaction and burnout ratings are not the result of
any situational factors but are an accurate description of the teacher’s feelings.
• There is assumed to be no experimenter bias at work in this study, as the experimenter
was the only person testing all individuals.
• Also, as the surveys are anonymous, it is assumed that worries about confidentiality will
not affect the results of this study.

Significance of the Study

• It states why the problem investigated is important

• States what significance the results have
• It should include statement on relevance to felt needs, the potential contribution to new
knowledge, and policy implications and other positive uses for its results
• It should be a discussion of the importance/ contributions of the study to the target
beneficiaries, institutions concerned, practitioners in the field, future researchers, etc.

Sample of significance or important contributions of the study:

• Solving the problem and need
• Bridging a knowledge gap
• Improving social, economic and health condition
• Enriching research instruments and methods
• Supporting government/institution thrusts

Definition of Terms

Two ways to define the key terms:

• Conceptual definition – definition based on concepts or hypothetic ones which are
usually taken from books/dictionary
• Operational definition – based on observable characteristics and how it is used in the
study; tells how the concept is to be measured in the study; express the data in
numbers or values

Notes

Writing the Notes

 Author (first name, family name) (Year). Title of literature/study.

 From books-Place: Publisher for books.
 From Journals-Title of article, Journal title, Volume number, date of publication
 From the internet: website, date accessed
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 Written in the order of appearance in the text

Chapter 2. Review of Related Literature and Studies

The Literature Review

A literature review surveys scholarly articles, books and Internet sources relevant to a particular
issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, providing a description, summary and
critical evaluation of these works. Literature review is designed to provide an overview of
sources explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate how the research fits
into the larger field of study.

The review of literature should contain a balanced list of significant influential sources such as
books, journal articles, and a limited number of reliable Internet resources. The sources should
be guided by the Problem Statement and Research Questions. What does the research say
about the problem statement?

A literature review combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a recap of the
important information of the source,

Structure and writing Style

The structure of a literature review should include the following:

 An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration along with the
objectives of the literature review
 Division of works under review into themes or categories (e.g., chronological, thematic,
methodological or by publication)
 An explanation of how each work is similar and/or how they vary from others

Synthesis-of-the-Sate of the Art

 a synthesis is a re-organization, or a re-shuffling, of the information in a way that

informs how the researcher is planning to investigate a research problem

Gap Bridged by the Study

 It is the conclusion of the literature review

 Identifies where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

Theoretical Framework
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 Theory/ model / principles: What phenomena the theory/model accounts for linkages to
empirical results
 The framework should directly point the proposed relationship (correlation, comparative,
causal) among the variables under the study
 Establishing the relationship of the variables under study would need a more specific
framework such as a theory, model or principles and explain the general premises of the
theory
 After the theory has been clarified, explain how the theory will be tested using the
specific connection of the variable of the present study
 Explain how the theory is used for the specific relationship of variables in the study

Conceptual Framework

 If there are several variables in the study with complex connections, a diagram should
help to illustrate the direction of the variables. Show only the figure of the variables
tested in the study
 The exploration of the specific connections of the variables in the study should directly
lead to the hypothesis

Notes

Chapter 3. Methods and Procedures

The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a study’s validity is
judged. The method section answers two main questions: 1) how was the data collected or
generated? 2) How was it analyzed?

The writing should be direct and precise and written in the past tense.

Structure and Writing Style

An effectively written methodology should:

 Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating the research problem
- Is the study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)?
 Indicate how the approach fits the overall design
- The methods should have a clear connection with the research problem
 Explain how the results were analyzed
- What statistical analyses were used?
- Address potential limitations. How will you attempt to control for potential compounding
of variables and errors?

Writing Chapter 3

Re-state the purpose statement and research questions at the beginning of this Chapter.
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The following headings are recommended:

Research Design

 Defines the blueprint of the research which guides the collection and analysis of data
 Describe the procedures (e.g., subject placement in conditions that were manipulated:
if multiple conditions were created – assignment of participants, random assignment or
some selection mechanism)

Participant / subject characteristics

 Provide a rationale for subject selection and sampling procedure.

 State how sample size was determined (analysis of power or precision)
 Indicate who and how many participated in the study
 Explain how the participants were selected (Eligibility and exclusion criteria,
restrictions)
 Describe the sampling procedures used
 Give major demographic characteristics (e.g., age, sex, ethnic/racial group, level of
education; socioeconomic / generational / immigrant status; disability status; language
preference

Instrumentation

 If the researcher developed a survey questionnaire, include a description of how it was

developed, who reviewed it as an expert panel, who piloted it.
 Describe the source of the instrument.
 Indicate what the instrument measures and its factors or subscales;
 Report numerical scaling used and the total number of items;
 Report the validity and reliability of the instrument
 Place the survey itself in the appendix.

Data Collection Procedures

 Describe the methods to collect data (e.g., questionnaires, interview, observation)

 Describe the methods used to enhance quality of the measurements (training and
reliability of assessors or use of multiple observations
 Describe how the data were collected using each instrument.
 Describe how it was administered and to whom

Data Analysis

 Describe what was done to analyze the data to answer the research questions (manual
or electronic)
 Align the statistics used for each research question
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 Indicate the descriptive statistics used

 Indicate the inferential statistics used (statistical power (alpha level, effect size)
 For inferential statistics: magnitude, value, degrees of freedom, p value, size and
direction of the effect, confidence interval
 Justify the use of each statistical test used.
 Describe how it was organized and displayed it (charts, graphs, tables).

Use past tense in your Chapter 3

Notes

Chapter 4. Analysis and Interpretation

Chapter 4 of the research paper report the findings of the study based upon the information
gathered as a result of the methodology applied. This also includes the discussion or
interpretation of the results. This section should always be written in the past tense. Be
concise, using non-textual elements such as tables, figures, if appropriate, to present results
more effectively

The content should include the following elements:

1. An introduction context for understanding the results by restating the research problem
that underpins the purpose of the study
2. A summary of the key findings arranged in a logical sequence that generally follows the
methodology section
3. Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to
further illustrate the findings, if appropriate
4. In the text, a systematic description of the results, highlighting for the reader
observation that are most relevant to the topic under investigation
5. Focus only on findings that are important and related to address the research problem
6. Tables and Figures must first be introduced, inserted into the paper, and described in
the narrative. Where appropriate, include references to the literature review

Use non-textual elements

1. Either place figures, tables, charts, etc. within the context of the result, or include them
in the back of the report
2. In the text, refer to each non-textual element in numbered order [e.g., Table 1, Table 2,
Chart 1, Chart 2, etc.
3. Each non-textual element at the end of the report must be numbered and complete
with caption
4. Each non-textual element must be titled, numbered consecutively, and complete with a
heading [title with description above the figure, table, or chart]
5. Be sure that each non-textual element is sufficiently complete so that it could stand on
its own, separate from the text.
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6. Figures

i. 'Figures' is the technical term for graphs, charts, drawings, and pictures.
ii. Figures (other than pictures) may be drawn in black and white only (using a ruler
and preferably on graph paper) or they may be generated with a computer
graphics program (keeping it in two dimensions).
iii. Center each figure on the page vertically as well as horizontally and arrange for
the figure to use the bulk of the page if needed.
iv. If the figure is a chart or graph, verbally label the axes (do not use "X" and "Y")
and provide a key if necessary (e.g., explaining what open vs. filled circles are).
v. Do not put the figure caption on the figure, since that is what the figure captions
page is for.

Discussion

The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe the significance of the findings in the
light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated and to explain
any new understanding or fresh insights about the problem after you have taken the findings
into consideration. The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the
research questions or hypotheses posed and the literature reviewed.

The discussion/interpretation:

 Systematically explain the meaning of the findings and why you believe they are
important
 Compare the results with the findings fro m other studies or use the studies to support
claim; this can include re-visiting key sources already cited in the literature review
section
 Consider alternative explanation of the findings; when writing this section, carefully
consider all possible explanations for the study results, rather than just those that fit
your prior assumptions or biases
 Acknowledge the study’s limitations; Describe in detail the problem you encountered in
the method(s) you used to gather information. Note any unanswered questions or issues
your study did not address

Chapter 5. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

Summary

 Briefly reiterate the purpose of the study, the research questions, and methodology
used in the research

Conclusion
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 A conclusion is a synthesis of key point

 Tell the reader what the facts really mean. Help the reader understand what is most
important in the investigation and how it relates to the research problem.
 The key idea here is subjective judgment based upon factual information, not opinion
drawn only from the researcher’s feelings.
 This discussion is the capstone of the research report.

Writing the Conclusion

1. When writing the conclusion, follow these general rules:

 State the conclusions in clear, simple language
 Do not simply reiterate your results of the discussion
 Read into the facts. Dig under them. Speculate about the meaning of the facts.
 State the conclusions in relationship to the research problems.
 Indicate opportunities for future research
2. Summarize your thoughts and conveying the larger implications of your study.
- The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly answer the “so what?” question by
placing the study within the context of past research about the topic you have
investigated
3. Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem
4. To offer new insight and creative approaches for framing/contextualizing the research
problem based on the results of the study

Recommendations

 From the findings and conclusions, make recommendations that might help someone
else improve practice/situation.
 Recommend action/intervention to people concerned who can act on the
recommendations (in a school setting: educators, the board of trustees, the
superintendent, or the school principal).
 Describe how they might improve the district, school, or classroom based on the study.
Although recommendations may be visionary, they must be doable if the research is to
be taken seriously.
 Recommendations can include suggestions for future research studies. Include at least
three or four ideas in this discussion.
 If Research Findings were not conclusive, the recommendations should include what one
still needs to do to make the findings more conclusive.

Citing Sources

A citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source consulted and obtained

information from while writing the research paper

Importance of citing the source

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1. Proper citation allows others to locate the materials used.

2. Citing other people’s words and ideas indicate that you have a thorough review of the
literature on the topic, and therefore, you are operating from an informed perspective
3. Other researcher’s ideas can be used to reinforce your arguments or, if you disagree
with them, can act as positions from which to argue an alternative viewpoints
4. Other’s ideas are considered intellectual property and there can be serious repercussions
if you fail to cite where you got an idea from; can result in legal action

Bibliography

 Follow the prescribed format carefully. All sources should be referenced in this section.
 Heading: uppercase, lowercase, centered
 Hanging indent format
 Alphabetized
 Include only those cited in the text

Appendix

 The appendix is the last section of the research project.

 All appendices should be referred to in the appropriate location in the text of the paper.
 Appendixes are listed alphabetically: Appendix A, Appendix B….

Other writing tips

The research paper has

one inch margins all around; one and a half inch at the left side
no first person references
no colon (:) after headings
chapters identified as Chapter 1, Chapter 2, etc.
usually – has numerals 0 through 9 spelled out; numerals 10 and larger are written as
numerals
sentences that begin with words, not numerals – if I use a numeral, I have spelled it out
(no matter how large it is)
commas before conjunctions – example: students, parents, and teachers…..
no bold type, no underlines
no contractions
had homonyms checked (its/it’s, to/too, their/there)
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Writing the Bibliography

 Author (family name, first name). Year. Title of literature/study. From books-Place:
Publisher for books. From Journals-Title of article, Journal title, Volume number
 Clustered and arranged alphabetically

Cluster: Books, Journals. Unpublished materials, Seminar notes/handouts, articles from the
internet

Writing the Notes

 Author (first name, family name). Year. Title of literature/study.

 From books-Place: Publisher for books.
 From Journals-Title of article, Journal title, Volume number
 From the internet: website, date accessed
 Written in the order of appearance in the text


Example

Cleveland, W.S. (1985). The Elements of Graphing Data. Monterey, C.A. Wadsworth

Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (1977). Rudiments of Numeracy. Journal of the Royal Statistical

Society.140, 277-297

Ferry, Natalie, M.(2006). Factors Influencing Career Choices of Adolescents and Young Adults in
rural Pennsylvania. Journal of Extension, Pennsylvania. Retrieved September 10, 2012

Appendices

Appendix A

Letter to the Principal