Lecture 

Note for Open Channel Hydraulics 

Chapter –one
Introduction to Open Channel Hydraulics
1.1 Definition and differences between pipe flow and open channel flow

Simply stated, Open channel flow is a flow of liquid in a conduit with free space. Open channel
flow is particularly applied to understand the flow of a liquid in artificial (flumes, spillways,
canals, weirs, drainage ditch, culverts) and natural (streams, rivers, flood plains). The two kinds of
flow are similar in many ways but differ in one important respect. Open-channel flow must have a
free surface, whereas pipe flow has none.

A free surface is subject to atmospheric pressure. In Pipe flow there exists no direct atmospheric
flow but hydraulic pressure only.

Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult to solve problems
of flow in open channels than in pipes. Flow conditions in open channels are complicated by the
position of the free surface which will change with time and space. And also by the fact that depth
of flow, the discharge, and the slopes of the channel bottom and of the free surface are all inter
dependent.

Physical conditions in open-channels vary much more than in pipes – the cross-section of pipes is
usually round – but for open channel it can be any shape. Treatment of roughness also poses a
greater problem in open channels than in pipes. Although there may be a great range of roughness

By Belete B.       AAiT Department of Civil Engineering         October 2010 

 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics 

in a pipe from polished metal to highly corroded iron, open channels may be of polished metal to
natural channels with long grass and roughness that may also depend on depth of flow. And also
Open channel flows are found in large and small scale. Open channel flow is driven by gravity
rather than by pressure work as in pipes.

Pipe flow Open Channel flow

Flow driven by Pressure work Gravity (potential energy)
Flow cross section Known, fixed Unknown in advance because the flow
depth is unknown
Characteristics flow velocity deduced Flow depth deduced simultaneously from
parameters from continuity solving both continuity and momentum
equations
Specific boundary Atmospheric pressure at conditions
the free surface

1.2 Types of open channel flow

The following classifications are made according to change in flow depth with respect to time and
space.

Figure of the types of flow that may occur in open channels  
 

Steady and Unsteady: Time is the criterion.

Flow is said to be steady if the depth of flow at a particular point does not change or can be
considered constant for the time interval under consideration. The flow is unsteady if depth
changes with time.

By Belete B.       AAiT Department of Civil Engineering         October 2010 

 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics 

Uniform Flow: Space as the criterion.

Open Channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth and velocity of flow are the same at every
section of the channel. Hence it follows that uniform flow can only occur in prismatic channels.
For steady uniform flow, depth and velocity is constant with both time and distance. This
constitutes the fundamental type of flow in an open channel. It occurs when gravity forces are in
equilibrium with resistance forces.

Steady non-uniform flow.

Depth varies with distance but not with time. This type of flow may be either (a) gradually varied
or (b) rapidly varied. Type (a) requires the application of the energy and frictional resistance
equations while type (b) requires the energy and momentum equations.

Unsteady flow
The depth varies with both time and space. This is the most common type of flow and requires the
solution of the energy momentum and friction equations with time. In many practical cases the
flow is sufficiently close to steady flow therefore it can be analysed as gradually varied steady
flow.

1.3 Kinds of Open Channels

Artificial channels
These are channels made by man. They include irrigation canals, navigation canals, spillways,
sewers, culverts and drainage ditches. They are usually constructed in a regular cross-section
shape throughout – and are thus prismatic channels (they don’t widen or get narrower along the
channel. In the field they are commonly constructed of concrete, steel or earth and have the
surface roughnesses reasonably well defined (although this may change with age – particularly
grass lined channels.) Analysis of flow in such well defined channels will give reasonably
accurate results.

Natural channels
Natural channels can be very different. They are neither regular nor prismatic and their materials
of construction can vary widely (although they are mainly of earth this can possess many different
properties.) The surface roughness will often change with time distance and even elevation.
Consequently it becomes more difficult to accurately analyse and obtain satisfactory results for
natural channels than is does for manmade ones. The situation may be further complicated if the
boundary is not fixed i.e. erosion and deposition of sediments.

By Belete B.       AAiT Department of Civil Engineering         October 2010 

 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics 

1.4 Geometric Properties Necessary for Analysis

For analysis various geometric properties of the channel cross-sections are required. For artificial
channels these can usually be defined using simple algebraic equations given y the depth of flow.

The commonly needed geometric properties are shown in the figure below and defined as:
Depth ( y ) – the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel section to the free
surface.
Stage ( z ) – the vertical distance from the free surface to an arbitrary datum
Area ( A ) – the cross-sectional area of flow, normal to the direction of flow
Wetted perimeter ( P ) – the length of the wetted surface measured normal to the direction of
flow.
Surface width ( B ) – width of the channel section at the free surface
Hydraulic radius ( R ) – the ratio of area to wetted perimeter ( A/P )
Hydraulic mean depth ( D ) – the ratio of area to surface width ( A/B )

By Belete B.       AAiT Department of Civil Engineering         October 2010 

 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics 

1.5 Velocity distribution in open channels

The measured velocity in an open channel will always vary across the channel section because of
friction along the boundary. Neither is this velocity distribution usually ax symmetric (as it is in
pipe flow) due to the existence of the free surface. It might be expected to find the maximum
velocity at the free surface where the sheer force is zero but this is not the case. The maximum
Velocity is usually found just below the surface. The explanation for this is the presence of
secondary currents which are circulating from the boundaries towards the section centre and
resistance at the air/water interface. These have been found in both laboratory measurements and
3d numerical simulation of turbulence.

1.6 Fundamental equations

The equations which describe the flow of fluid are derived from three fundamental laws of
physics:
1. Conservation of matter (or mass)
2. Conservation of energy
3. Conservation of momentum

Although first developed for solid bodies they are equally applicable to fluids. Brief descriptions
of the concepts are given below.

Conservation of matter
This says that matter cannot be created nor destroyed, but it may be converted (e.g. by a chemical
process.) In fluid mechanics we do not consider chemical activity so the law reduces to one of
conservation of mass.

Conservation of energy
This says that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but may be converted form one type to
another (e.g. potential may be converted to kinetic energy). When engineers talk about energy
"losses" they are referring to energy converted from mechanical (potential or kinetic) to some
other form such as heat. A friction loss, for example, is a conversion of mechanical energy to heat.
The basic equations can be obtained from the First Law of Thermodynamics but a simplified
derivation will be given below.

Conservation of momentum
The law of conservation of momentum says that a moving body cannot gain or lose momentum
unless acted upon by an external force. This is a statement of Newton's Second Law of Motion:
Force = rate of change of momentum

By Belete B.       AAiT Department of Civil Engineering         October 2010 

 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics 

In solid mechanics these laws may be applied to an object which is has a fixed shape and is
clearly defined. In fluid mechanics the object is not clearly defined and as it may change shape
constantly. To get over this we use the idea of control volume. These are imaginary volumes of
fluid within the body of the fluid. To derive the basic equation the above conservation laws are
applied by considering the forces applied to the edges of a control volume within the fluid.

The Continuity Equation (conservation of mass)

For any control volume during the small time interval dt the principle of conservation of mass
implies that the mass of flow entering the control volume minus the mass of flow leaving the
control volume equals the change of mass within the control volume. If the flow is steady and the
fluid incompressible the mass entering is equal to the mass leaving, so there is no change of mass
within the control volume.

Massflowentering = massflowleaving
y1  Qentering = Qleaving
d1 
V1 A1 = V2 A2 = Q
Z1  Z2  Y2 
θ 

Energy equation (conservation of energy)

Consider the forms of energy available for the above control volume. If the fluid moves from the
upstream face 1, to the downstream face 2 in time d t over the length L.

TotalEnegy = Workdone + KE + PE
1
T energy 1 = P1 A 1 L + ρ 1 LV 1
2
+ ρ 1 A 1 Lgz 1
2
P1 v 12
TEnergyper unitweight = + + z1 ,
ρ1g 2g
Similarly the total energy per unit weight of section two also computed and consider no energy is
supplied between the inlet and outlet of the control volume, energy leaving equal to energy
entering.
Therefore the energy equation defined as

By Belete B.       AAiT Department of Civil Engineering         October 2010 

 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics 

P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z 2 = H = cons tan t
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g

The momentum equation (momentum principle)

MomentumEntering = ρδQ1δtV1
MomentumLeaving = ρδQ2δtV2

By continuity equation δQ1 = δQ2 = δQ

By the Newton’s second law, Force = Rate of change of momentum ⇒ δF = ρδQ(V2 x − V1x )

Integrating over a volume gives the total force in the X-direction as, Fx = ρQ(V2 x − V1x )

Energy and Momentum coefficients

In deriving the above momentum and energy (Bernoulli) equations it was noted that the velocity
must be constant (equal to V) over the whole cross-section or constant along a stream-line.
Clearly this will not occur in practice. Fortunately both these equation may still be used even for
situations of quite non-uniform velocity distribution over a section. This is possible by the
introduction of coefficients of energy and momentum, a and ß respectively. These coefficients
defined as
∫ ρu 3 dA ρu 2 dA
α= β=
ρV 3 A ρV 2 A
Where V is the mean Velocity , the Bernoulli equation can be rewrite in terms of this mean
velocity

P αV 2
+ + z = Cons tan t
ρg 2 g

And the momentum equation becomes Fx = ρQβ (V2 x − V1x )

The values of α and ß must be derived from the velocity distributions across a cross-section. They
will always be greater than 1, but only by a small amount consequently they can often be
confidently omitted – but not always and their existence should always be remembered.

By Belete B.       AAiT Department of Civil Engineering         October 2010