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LIBRARY
OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

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M
TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS

CLASSICAL SECTION
EDITED BY
JOHN HENRY WRIGHT, Harvard University
BERNADOTTE PERRIN, Yale University
ANDREW FLEMING WEST, Princeton University
 TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS

A SCHOOL GRAMMAR OF
ATTIC GREEK

BY
THOMAS DWIGHT GOODELL
PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN YALE UNIVERSITY

NEW YORK
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
I 902
 Copyright, 1902
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

GENERAL

PubUsJicd August, 1902

 TO
MY FORMER PUPILS IX THE
HARTFORD PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL
AND IX YALE COLLEGE
1881-1902
WHOSE DIFFICULTIES IX LEARXIXG GREEK
HAVE BEEX COXSTAXTLY BEFORE ME
IX THIS EXDEAYOR TO LIGHTEX THE TASK
OF THEIR SUCCESSORS

101923
 PEEFACE

The invitation to prepare a new Greek Grammar would

not have been accepted had I not believed that the time has
come for considerable changes in the presentation of the sub-
ject to young pupils. Greek studies are still holding their
own in this country, because of their intrinsic value in a
liberal education. But in order to preserve for them their
due place, great improvement must be made in teaching the
language, so that a reasonable amount of effort will advance
a serious student farther than it ordinarily does at present.
And such improvement is possible. Though nothing can
make Greek need not be so difficult as it has
really easy, it

been made. This volume is a sincere endeavor how far —

successful only the test of use will show —
to aid in meeting
the legitimate demand for better results from the time and
labor expended.
As the first change required, I have sought to simplify
grammatical statements to the utmost. Some technical terms
consecrated by long tradition have been thrown overboard
so far as have been used that are really
possible terms
descriptiveand will appear so to beginners. J^early all
changes in terminology are of this sort only one or two
;

seemed necessary in the other direction. Thus the potential

optative disappears, because experience has shown that the
term misleads nearly all pupils and some teachers the hypo- ;

thetical optative and indicative are made to support each

Vm GREEK GRAMMAR

other, and students who have begun geometry should find

the terms hypothetical and hypothesis mutually explanatory.
The phrase formative vowel, for variable vowel, is more dis-
tinctly descriptive than the old, and the symbol oie, which is
often employed in scientific works, is both more legible and
more readily extended to analogous cases than the symbol
introduced to our schools by the Hadley-Allen Grammar.
Secondly, I have sought to simplify by omission, so far sm
that could be done safely with due regard to later progress.
It isassumed that those who begin Greek have had at least a
year of Latin accordingly, whatever is so much like Latin
;

or English as to cause no diflSculty is omitted or barely men-

tioned. Only Attic Greek is included some confusion is
;

avoided by keeping Epic or other non- Attic forms out of sight

until they are needed —
that is, until one begins to read
Homer, Herodotos, and the lyric poets. And of Attic Greek
only those forms are included that are found in the works
commonly read in American schools and colleges up to the
end of sophomore year, or are quite regular. Rarer forms,
and in syntax rarer constructions, such as are naturally
explained in lexicon or notes, are also generally omitted.
Meantime, some things that other grammars pass over lightly
are here given more prominence, because they are things that
freshmen need to know and commonly do not know. Yet
by this twofold process of simplification the body of the
grammar is brought within three hundred pages, in spite of
large type and open printing and the greater space given to
examples.
But it seemed to me
change equally needed was a shift
a
in the point of view In learning the
as regards syntax.
inflection and vocabulary of any language we first learn the
foreign forms and their general meaning; afterward as —
soon as may be, but as the second step, not the first by —
turning English expressions into the foreign idiom we study
 PREFACE IX

from another standpoint the functions of the forms. (We

are not considering the mental process of young children
learning the language of people around them, but that of
those who already think in one language and are learning
another.) The second step is far more difficult than the first.
The facts of a language may look very different seen from
these two sides. But in learning Greek syntax our pupils
have been too often required to take both steps at once.
That is, syntactical phenomena are classified by function, and
then our grammatical statements try to combine both points
of view. This is less true as regards the syntax of cases.
There it has been usual to start with form and describe the
function and though rules mix the two points of view some-
;

—
what as when we teach that cause, manner, and means are
—
expressed by the dative still no great harm is done. Nearly
the same may be said of modes and tenses in simple sen-
tences but with subordinate clauses, the most difficult chap-
;

ter of all syntax, the matter becomes serious. The current

formulas are based on a classification by function, as clauses
of purpose, condition, and so on, and throw into one func-
tional category several distinct forms, while the student finds
before him on the Greek page one syntactical form at a
time, which he has to interpret. The endeavor to interpret
the clauses before him by such rules compels him to shift
constantly from one point of view to the other. The natural
result is a confusion of mind that greatly hinders progress
in understanding Greek. In this grammar I have sought to
carry through consistently the principle of classifying by
form. This has caused a complete recasting of the syntax of
subordinate clauses. Some may at first find the changes here
made somewhat disconcerting ; no one recognizes more fully
than I the difficulty of the task attempted. But being con-
vinced that the reform was imperatively required, I could
do nothing less than attack the problem. After my solu-
X GREEK GRAMMAR

tion was worked out it was submitted to several experienced

teachers, who warmly approved it. Subordinate clauses are
classified firstby the introductory word, next by the mode
and tense of the verb the description of each form is meant
;

to enable the student to interpret the Greek before him

directions for translating English into Greek are left to the
book on composition and to the teacher. The new system is
not only better scientifically, it is more concrete and intel-
ligible to beginners. But the system is really not new, since
it is the one which lexicons follow as a matter of course, and

this agreement between grammar and lexicon is a farther

advantage.
In the spelling of Greek names the stricter form of trans-
literation is followed, exceptwith names like Cyrus, which
are also English baptismal names, or those like Athens, which
have long ago received an English termination. Two reasons
led me to continue here my practice of twenty-five years.
First, though many leading Hellenists in England and Amer-
ica prefer the Latin spelling as being the traditional one, I
think the other is No tendency
likely to prevail in the end.
of classical studies throughout the last century was more
marked than the growing desire to approach Hellenic life and
thought directly, and remove every distorting medium both
in studyand in the presentation of results. Archaeology has
been one powerful influence in that direction. Accordingly
all our leading museums employ the direct method of trans-
literation and museums are perhaps the greatest populariz-
;

ing agency for Greek studies. It is not pedantry, but good

sense, to help on this tendency and shorten the period of
transition. Secondly, the stricter transliteration is simpler
to expect pupils to Latinize the names adds an unnecessary
difiiculty. But the introductory book in preparation to accom-
pany the grammar will give both forms and explain both
methods of transliteration.
 PREFACE XI

In writing the volume it was impossible to escape, had I

wished to, the influence of Hadley's Grammar, which has been
familiar to me from boyhood in the original form and since
1884 as revised by the late F. D. Allen. Nearly the same may
be said of Professor Goodwin's Grammar and of his Greek
Moods and Tenses, in their successive editions. My obliga-
tions to these works are very great, and not least in those
chapters where I have departed most widely from them.
He would be an ungrateful pupil who should forget his debt
to his masters, merely because he has by their aid finally
learned to look with independent judgment on some portion
of their doctrine. Also, like all American Hellenists, I have
learned much, and am still learning, from Professor Gilder-
sleeve, though I suspect he will think I ought to have learned
more. To such a thought on his part my first plea in defense
would be the elementary character of this grammar. For
young students a simple, clear, and brief statement is essen-
tial. (As an instance where the need of brevity has forced a
form of wording which is not true literally though true in
spirit, section 562 may be referred to. Some infinitives are
by origin locatives in form but in meaning no locative sense
;

can be traced, so that for the purposes of syntax the assertion

that all are originally for datives is not misleading.) Several
German grammars have been of much service, especially
also
those of Kaegi and of Koch, and the two volumes of Kiihner-
Blass.
Many friends have aided me directly at various stages of
my task, whom I wish to thank especially. Professor Wright,
of Harvard University, has read critically all the proofs
Mr. Morrison, of the Hartford High School, has freely placed
at my service his unusual skill in teaching and my colleagues,
;

Professors Morris, Perrin, and Oertel, have been very kind

and helpful, saving me from many errors and furnishing
many valuable suggestions. Frequent discussion of the prin-
XU GREEK GRAMMAR

ciples of syntax with Professor Morris has greatly influenced

the development of my views, and I am sure has much im-
proved the exposition in thisvolume without the constant
;

aid of Professor Oertel I might often have gone astray in

places where even the simplest statements need to be made
in the light of a wide knowledge of morphology and of lin-
guistic science. Others too numerous to name separately
have aided me with criticisms and suggestions at many points,
and my wife has in several ways contributed so much that
the fact calls for public acknowledgment.
Finally, it is probable that some infelicities, and perhaps
worse, will be revealed by class-room experience. I shall be
grateful for all corrections and suggestions for improvement;
and if the book is found useful enough to come to a second
edition, I shall hope to make it fill its place better.

T. D. G.
June, 1902.
CONTENTS
XIV GREEK GRAMMAR

VI. Consonant Declension

Adjectives of Two Endings
: Adjectives .... PAGE
44
45
Comparatives in -wj/ 45
Stems in -€(r 46
Adjectives of Three Endings : Stems in -av . . 47
Stems in -1/ 48
Stems in -avr 48
Adjective Stems in -evr 49
Participial Stems in -evr 50
Stems in -opt
Participial Stems .... 51

VII. Comparison of Adjectives

VIII. Numeral Adjectives
......
in -or (Perfects) 53
54
57

B. Pronouns 60
Personal Pronouns 60
Demonstrative Pronouns 63
Relative Pronouns 64
Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns . . . . 65
Correlative Pronouns 68

C. Adverbs 69
Correlative Adverbs 72

D. Verbs 73
A. Verbs of the n-Conjugation 75
I. Vowel Verbs, not contracting
The Present System
.... 76
83
The Aorist System
The Perfect Active System
Perfect Middle System
.... 90
91
94
The Passive System ©7j-Passive : ... 94
II. Vowel Verbs, Contracting in the Present . . 103
III. Liquid Verbs . 104
IV. Mute Verbs .110
B. Verbs of the Mi-Conjugation 115
I. Verbs in -vvfii 116
II. Verbs in -rjjui, with Stems in -arrj- . . . .118
III. AiSufMi, 125
Tie-nfjLi, "1-nfii

IV. Irregular and Defective Mt- Verbs

Middle and Passive Forms with Peculiar Meaning
.... 134
139
 CONTENTS XV

E. Word-Formation .... .... PAGE

141
I. Derivation 141
Verbals 143
Verbal Nouns 142
Verbal Adjectives . . . . . . . 145
Denominatives 148
Denominative Verbs 148
Denominative Adjectives 152
Denominative Nouns 154
II. Composition 158
Compound Verbs 159
Compound Nouns and Adjectives 160

III. Syntax :

I. Simple Sentences 168

Indicative Sentences 168
Subjunctive Sentences 177
Optative Sentences 180
Imperative Sentences 183
Negative Sentences 184
Undeveloped and Incomplete Sentences . . . 186
Verbs Agreement and Voice
: 188
Nouns : The Cases 191
The Nominative 192
The Genitive 192
The Dative 202
The Accusative 209
Adjectives 215
Special Idioms of Predication 216
The Article 218
Pronouns 222
Infinitives 224
Participles 236
Verbal Adjectives in -TE02 246
Prepositions 247
II. Compound Sentences 248
Parataxis and Hypotaxis 250
III. Complex Sentences 250
M^ Clauses 251
"Os and "Octtis Clauses 253
Other Relative Clauses 258
XVI GREEK GRAMMAR
PAGB
"Oti, Ai6ri and O'^veKa Clauses 260
Clauses with "Ore,
Clauses with "Eus,
'as Clauses
"Ecrre, Me'xpt, "Axpi ....
'OTrt^re, 'ETrei, 'Hj/i/ca, 'OTrr]vlKa , . 263
266
268
"Ottws Clauses 271
no-re Clauses 273
"Im Clauses 274
np^j/ Clauses 276
Et Clauses 277
El with the Indicative 278
'Edu with the Subjunctive 281
Elwith the Optative 281
Other Uses of Et' 283
Indirect Discourse 284
Particles 287
Word-Order 291
Abbreviations 298
Verb-List 299
Greek Index 315
English Index 330
 GREEK GRAMMAR

INTEODUCTION
Greek is tlie language of tlie ancient peoj^le who called

themselves Hellenes, and of their successors to the present

day. Their center of abode was, and still is, the country we
call Greece (Latin Graecia) and the neighboring islands ; but
from a very early period many Greeks were spread over parts
of western Asia Minor, and were settled in colonies around

other shores of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the
waters that unite them. The sea has always been their main
highway. In this language is preserved a large literature of
various dates, including the earliest in Europe, and perhaps

the greatest of the world.

Greek is one of the Indo-European family of languages, of

which other members are Sanskrit, Old Persian, Keltic (in-

cluding Welsh, Gaelic, Irish), Latin with its descendants

(Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Kumanian), the Teu-
tonic branch (as German, Scandinavian, English), and the
Slavic branch (as Russian, Lithuanian, Polish). All these
are descended from one parent speech.
Though really one when compared with other tongues,
1 1
2 GREEK GRAMMAR

Greek was spoken and written differently by different branches

of the people. Like all languages, too, it changed with

time, and its history has been very long. So we have to

distinguish different dialects or forms of Greek and differ-

ent periods.

In the ancient period the many spoken dialects are mostly

included under three general groups, not always easy to keep

apart —the Aiolic, Doric, and Ionic, corresponding to divisions

of the race. Important seats of the Aiolians were in north-

western Asia Minor, Lesbos, Thessaly, and Boiotia (northern

group) ; important seats of the Dorians were in Peloponnese,
Crete, southern Asia Minor, Sicily, and southern Italy (south-

ern group) ; of the lonians, in western Asia Minor and Attica

and certain islands between them (middle group). In the
literature the dialects were somewhat mingled ; but Sappho
(600 B. c.) -rei^resents fairly the Aiolic; Pindar (470 b. c.)

and Theokritos (270 b. c.) the Doric; Homer (before 800

B. c.) and Ilerodotos (440 b. c.) the Ionic.

The Attic was a branch of Ionic. But the literature of

Athens between 500 b. c. and 325 b. c. was so large, so

varied, and so great, that its language is better kno^vn than

any other dialect, and has especial importance for us. In it

are written the tragedies of Aischylos, Sophokles, and Euripi-

des, the comedies of Aristophanes, the histories of Thukydi-

des and Xenophon, the speeches of Demosthenes and the

other Attic orators, the philosophical works of Plato and

Aristotle.

The superiority of Athens was so marked, in art and gov-

 INTRODUCTION 3

ernment as well as in letters, that its' dialect became the com^

mon language of tlie educated over all the Mediterranean
world. The empire of Alexcmder and his successors, and
later that of Rome, aided the spread of this languao-e, and
established new literary centers in Alexandria, Antioch, Per-

gamon, Rhodes. Thus widely extended, largely among peo-

ple not of Greek blood, and more or less changed by time
and the use of foreigners, the Attic lost its national character

in the cosmopolitan, and became the Common dialect (say from

325 B. c. to 325 a. d,). Polybios, Plutarch, Lucian, and the

early Christian Fathers wrote in it ; the New Testament is in

a variety of it known as the Hellenistic.

Under the Byzantine ox Eastern Roman Empire (325 to

1453 A. D.) this Conmion dialect, always changing slowly, is

called Byzantine, with its center at the capital, Constanti-

nople. By degrees it developed into the forms now in

use by the Greeks, in Greece and the Greek islands, in

Asia Minor, Constantinople, and other parts of Turkey-in-

Europe. These forms are together known as Modern Greek,
w^hich has a large and interesting literature, especially in

popular poetry.
Unless one lives where Modern Greek is spoken, the study
of the language is best begun with Attic Greek, for two rea-

sons. Not only is it the best known of the old dialects and

the least difficult ; but farther, ancient Athens, by her litera-

ture, her art, and her thought, has had a more profound and
lasting influence on the world than all the rest of the Greek
race together —more, indeed, than any other people ; and the
4 GREEK GRAMMAR .

prime object of learning Greek is to gain a first-hand ac-

quaintance with a great force in civihzation.

This book is intended to contain what one must know of

grammar to read with intelhgence the best Athenian litera-

ture. One who can do that needs no other grammar for

reading the Common, Hellenistic, and Byzantine Greek.

 PRONUNCIATION 7

b. Much later tlie t in di, rji, col ceased to be pro-

nounced, and is not now usually pronounced. Hence
it commonly written under the long vowel, and
is

called L suhscri^jt a, 77, co. But with a capital this i

:

is still written on the line (adscript) HI AH I = :

'1218176 = w8|5? ai^d AIAHS = "AiSt;? = aSi]? Hades.

6 A breathing, not counted as a letter, is written with

every vowel or diphthong the rough breath-
initial ;

ing ( ) represents the sound of h preceding the vowel,

'

the smooth breathing ( ) merely denotes the ab- '

sence of the h sound. The breathing is now writ-

ten before a capital, but over a small letter. With a
diphthong it is written over the second vowel 'OS09 :

or oho^ (Jiodos) road; 'Ef or ef (ex) out of; Autos or

auTo? (autos) self
But if the second vowel of the diphthong is l sub-
script or adscript the breathing is put with the first

'HiSt; or cohrj song.

Also, initial p always takes the rough breathing
prjTOip vlietor^ orator. Double p within a word is by
some written pp : pivppa myrrh.
a. In Attic initial v always has the rough breath-
ing : vTTvo<; sleep.

7 The pronunciation above described (1-6) is recommended as

the nearest approach practicable, for our schools, to that of
Athens about 400 B. c. To c, ^, <^, x are given the sounds
now current in Greece, because the ancient sounds for these
letters (27 a, 38 b) would increase the difficulties of pupils too
much. Otherwise (except for t subscript) the sounds described
are nearly those of the Athenians at the time named.
 8 SOUNDS AND WRITING

8 Each vowel or diphthong, alone or with one or more

consonants, makes a separate syllable.

It is customary in writing to join a single consonant, or any

group of consonants that may begin a Greek word, with the
if there be one
following vowel, other combinations of con-
;

sonants between vowels are divided {'-yt-et-a, KT^-/xa, Ke-Kro^-zxat,

:

yt-yi/w-o-Ko), aX-Aos, o-xpo-jxai. But compound words are divided

between the members : Trpoa--d-7rTw.

ACCENT
9 The accented syllable is marked with one of three
signs, called accents. These are
The acute accent ( ) ' : 6S6<?.

The circumflex accent (

"
) : ttJ? oSov.
The grave accent (^ ) : ttjp 6S6p,

These indicate changes of pitch, or speech-tune, not of

a.

the ancient pronunciation. But now, both in Greece

stress, in
and elsewhere, all alike are pronounced as a simple increase of
stress, like the accent in English.

10 The accent mark is put over the vowel o£ the ac-

cented syllable ; with a diphthong it is put over the

second vowel, unless that is t subscript or adscript.
If the vowel has a breathing too, the acute or grave
isput at the right of the breathing, the circumflex
above the breathing e \jjl\6v, at, w. :

With an initial capital the accent and breathing

are placed before it : ''O/xt^/oo?, '^n /xeya, "A 18779.

11 The acute can stand only on one of the last three

syllables the circumflex on one of the last two only,
;

and only on a long vowel or diphthong.

 ACCENT 9

a. If, then, a vowel has the circumflex accent, it must be

long, and no separate mark of length is added.

12 If the ultima is long, the acute can not stand on

the antepenult, nor the circumflex on the penult.

For exceptions see 93 b.

13 In the penult an accented long vowel or diphthong

takes the circumflex, unless that is forbidden by 12.

14 But final at and ot, though long, affect the accent

of penult and antepenult as if short ; dpdpcoTroL men,
oIkol houses.

a. Yet not in oikol at liome, nor in optative verb forms

iravoL.

15 An acute on the ultima changes to the grave when

closely followed by another word : ayaOoq dvijp a
good mem.
a. This change is not made in tl<;, tI interrogative (217)

nor before an enclitic (19) before a comma usage varies.

;

16 A few common words have no accent of their own, but

seem to rest on the word before or after. Those which
thus look forward are called proclitics {irpo-KXivu) lecm for-
luard) those which look backward are called enclitics (ey-
;

kXivih lean on).

17 The proclitics are

a. The article forms 6, tj, olj at
b. The prepositions et? (e?), ef (e/c), cV
0. The conjunction el ;

d. 'n? in all uses, excej)t as a demonstrative (thus) ;

e. The negative adverb ov {ovk, ovx)-

 10 SOUNDS AND WRITING

18 When no companion word follows, on whicli it

would lean, a proclitic takes the acute eyw fiep ov :

not /, deos m
as a godj KaK0)v e^ out of evils.
a. When 6, ot, or at is a pronoun (205) many editors print
17,

it with an acute, which becomes grave by 15.

19 The enclitics are

a. The personal pronouns /xou, /xoi, /xe ; crou, croi,

ere ] ov, ot, e ]

b. The indefinite pronoun rts in all forms (except

oLTTo) ;

c. The indefinite adverbs ttou, ttoOi, ttyi, ttoi, iroOevj

TTore, TTw, TT(xi%. (Thc corresponding interrogatives are

all accented ; see 236.)
d. The present indicative of et/xt and <^T7/xt, except
the second singular el and (^179.

e. The particles ye, re, roij Trep, the inseparable -8e.

f. To these add some poetic forms and words, like /xtv, vlv,

20 An enclitic takes an accent

a. If emphatic : dXka ae KaXcj Ws you Tm calling.
b. If it begins a clause (being then always em-
phatic) : (^y-qcrl fxep lie says, indeed.
c. If the syllable next before is elided : javr Icrrl

for TavToi icm.

d. Also, a disyllabic enclitic takes the acute on the
ultima, if the word before it has an acute on the pe-
nult : \6yov<; TLvd^.
e. "EaTL is written thus if it begins a clause, if it

means exists or is possible^ and if it follows ovk, fxij, et,

ct)9, or /cat.
 ENCLITICS 11

21 The word before an enclitic

a. Keeps its own accent without change : eVet rt?
Slcjkol.

b. Adds an acute on the ultima, if an acute stands

on the antepenult or a circumflex on the penult

c. If it be a proclitic or enclitic, takes an acute : ei

(j)rj(TL, el 8e tl^ (jyrjcn.

d. The above rules apply also when a word and a

following enclitic are printed as one : ovtlvo^, atrti^es,
wore. In like manner eWe and j^at)(t from et and i^at.

22 Punctuation. —The comma and period are used as in

English. The colon is a point above the line ( •
),

taking the place of our colon and semicolon. The

mark of a direct question is ( ; ), like oui^ semicolon.

SOUND CHANGES
23 Many changes of sound, and therefore of writing,
occur in the formation and inflection of words. Va-
rious causes combine in various ways to produce
them ;
them one must observe the ac-
to understand
tion of the mouth and throat in making speech sounds.
The most important relations and changes of Greek
sounds are briefly stated in the following sections
(24-56).

VOWELS
24 Vowels are called open or close according as the moutli in
speaking them is more open or less open. The most open
vowel is a in speaking it both tongue and lips are as much
;
12 SOUNDS AND WRITING

as possible out of the way. In I the tongue narrows the open-

ing ; its edges lie close to the teeth, the breath issuing along
the middle. In ov the rounded so as to narrow the
lips are
opening, while the tongue drawn back. In v the opening
is

is narrowed by the tongue as for I and by the lips as for ov.

Thus I, V, and ov are the closest vowel sounds. Between a and

I are >/, c, and « between d and ov are w and o.
; These rela-
tions are suggested in the following table :

Open
 VOWELS 13

In observing sound changes the original diphthong ct

a.

(from € -|- t) must be distinguished from the digraph et, which

represents the simple sound € (anciently French e) length- =

ened. So also the original diphthong ov (from o original v) +
must be distinguished from the digraph ov, which represents
the simple long sound of original v. The rule in 27 applies to
the true diphthongs, before they coalesced in pronunciation
with the simple et and ov.

28 a. Long and short vowels are sometimes interchanged. The

corresponding forms are commonly
Short a, €, I, o, V,

Long 7} or d, 77, r, w, v.

Tragic poets in lyric parts often use Doric d where prose

uses 7).

b. But when vowel-lengthening results from the loss of one

or more following consonants (and sometimes in other cases),
a, e, o become

—
29 Contraction. Two syllables of the same word, not separated by
a consonant (especially if the first ends in a short open vowel),
are often united into one. The general rules observed in con-
traction are
a. Two like vowels unite into their long, ee becoming ct and
00 becoming ov (that is, the simple digraphs; cp. 27 a).

b. A
short vowel disappears in a following diphthong that
begins with the same vowel or with the corresponding long.
c. An o-sound (o, w, ov, ot) prevails over an a- or e-sound
(a, d, e, r;, and eo becoming ov.
a), o€
d. Of a-and e-sounds the one that precedes prevails.
e. An open vowel and a close vowel make a diphthong.

30 a. The accent is unchanged by contraction, unless one of the

syllables contracted was accented.
b. was on the first of these, the contract
If the accent syl-

lable has the circumflex if on the second, the acute.

;
 14 SOUNDS AND WRITING

31 Hiatus is the pronunciation of an initial vowel immediately

after a final vowel. This was avoided, especially in poetry, by
care in choosingand arranging words and by v movable (41),
and was evaded or softened by elision and crasis.
32 Elision dropping or slighting a final short vowel before
is

an initial vowel. The slighted vowel is replaced in writing by

an apostrophe ( ) dAA' eyw for dAXa eyw. '
:

But between the parts of a compound word no apostrophe

is written.
For consonant changes see 42.
Verse inscriptions show that the ancients did not much
a.

care whether they wrote or omitted the elided vowel.

33 a. Elision is most common in prepositions, conjunctions, and

particles, as 8e, dAXd, ye, tc, IttL
b. Never elided are a and o in monosyllables, i in Trept, d^^t,

/Aex/ot, TL^ TL, and oTL also v. ; "Or must therefore be for ore.

34 An accent on the elided vowel

a. Is lost in prepositions and conjunctions : fier avTov, a\X*
iy(x) cfjrjiJiL.

b. On other words goes back to the penult : Oavixda-r lAe^as

(Oavfiaa-To.) a wo7idrous tale I

35 Crasis (/cpdo-is mingling) is like contraction (29) except that

it occurs between separate words, which are then written as
one. If the first syllable had the rough breathing, that is re-
tained over the mingled syllable otherwise the smooth breath-
;

ing is written : iywfJLat for eyw oT/xat, av for d di/, wyaOe for w
dya^€, TdfJid for tol ifxai.

36 a. Final t of a diphthong disappears in crasis : ovv for ot iv

or 6 €1/

b. Initial a absorbs the vowel or diphthong of a preceding

article and of tol ; most vowels and diphthongs absorb the at
of Kttt:

di/77/3, rdi/Spds, avSpes, avros, rdv, k€l^

for 6 dvrjp^ Tov dvSpos, ol dvSpeSj 6 avros, tol av, kul et.
 ELISION AND CRASIS 15

But note Kas, Kara, kov,

for KCLL 69, Kttt etTO, Kttt Iv.

c. "Ercpos is treated as are/aos, probably the older form :

drcpo^ for 6 erepos.

d. Xote also applications of 42 :

Oarepov, xVi X®^» Ool^ariov,

for TO IrepoVy kol rj, Koi oi, to i/xdriov.

37 The accent of the first word is lost in crasis, that of the sec-
ond retained ; see examples in 35 and 36.

CONSONANTS
38 Consonants are classified according as the different organs of
speech are active in pronouncing them.
Those are sonant (voiced) in which the vocal cords are
a.

active, as in the vowels. (The vibration may be felt by placing

the finger on the throat at the " Adam's apple.") These are
A, p, fx, V, y nasal f3,
S,
y (middle mutes) and ^
;
;

Those are surd (voiceless) in which the vocal cords are at

rest. These are o- (sibilant, spirant) tt, t, k (smooth mutes) ;

(f),0, X (rough mutes) and and ^.

; \j/

b. Mutes (stopped sounds), as the ancients pronounced

them, require complete closure of the mouth passage, by

lips or tongue, a brief pressure of the breath behind the bar-
passage being also closed by the soft palate)
rier (the nasal
and then a quick opening of the barrier. Thus the breath
finds an explosive exit the sound can be but slightly pro-
;

longed, and is not easily pronounced alone. These are

TT /3 labial (or 7r-mutes)
<f>
closure by the lips ;

T 8 6 dental (or T-mutes) closure by the tongue just ;

back of the front upper teeth

K y X guttural (or /c-mutes) closure by the back of the ;

tongue against the soft palate.

c. Of these, tt, t, k are smooth mutes, in contrast with <^,

6, X- The latter are rough mutes or aspirates in them the ;

opening is more explosive, a tt-, t-, or K-sound followed by

 16 SOUNDS AND WRITING

a distinct A-sound, as in top-heavy^ liot-liead^ pacTc-Jiorse. In

the sonants y the breath is checked by the vibrating
p, 8,

vocal cords, so that less breath gathers for explosive exit than
in the aspirates. The Greeks called these middle mutes, mid-
way between the smooth mutes and the aspirates in the force
of the final element.
d. In the nasals, /x, v, y nasal, the nasal passage is open,

the soft palate being lowered ; thus the breath, after passing
between the vibrating vocal cords, finds exit through the
nose ; the oral passage is closed, in /x, by the lips, in v by the
flattened tongue against the front teeth (the lips being open),
in 7 nasal by the back of the tongue against the soft palate
(the lips being open).
e. i/a for TTO", ^ for So- (o- being probably made sonant), and
^ for K<T are called double consonants.

39 These relations are shown in the following table :

Voiced Voiceless
*-'
^ -^^ -^
Liquids Double Mutes Double
_ -^ -^ Conso- ^ — ^ Sibi- Conso-
Nasals nant Middle Rough Smooth lant nants
Labials ft (3 (}> tt i/^

Dentals X p v ^ 8 6 to-
Gutturals y nasal 7 X '^
^
40 At the end of a word no consonant could stand but -i/, -p^
or -9, and no consonantal group but -i/^, -^, or -y$. Any other
single consonant at the end was dropt any other group at the ;

end caused some change.

a. Final -Xs occurs in -aX<s salt, sea final -vs in Ttpws ;

Tiry7is. The proclitics Ik out of and ov/c, ov^ not are almost
a part of the following word, and so are hardly exceptions.

41 A final -v (v movable) was added at will to some words.

These are (1) words in -o-t (-i/^t, -^t), (2) verbs in -c in the third
singular, (3) icm is, (4) sometimes the irregular rju went and
ySeLknew.
a.Poetry and inscriptions alike show that v movable was
freely added before vowels and consonants ; before vowels it
 CONSONANTS 17

could be omitted and elision used instead. The writer chose

whichever treatment best pleased his ear.

42 Before the rough breathing a smooth mute (tt, t, k) is aspi-

rated, becoming <^, 0, or x- This occurs in composition, eli-
sion, and crasis also in ovk ; :

£7ri -|- 68o?, OLTTO WVj TTtttS T€ j^Sc, KOL Ot, OVK bCCOmG
^<fioSos, a<j> (ov, Trats 0* ^8e, ;;(ot, ov;^.

a. This change is merely another way of writing the same

sounds (38 c). It is better in such cases (unless perhaps in

compounds), and also easier, to keep the ancient sound of
</), ^, X and so avoid distorting common words.
43 Before a dental mute (r, 8, 6)
a. A labial or guttural mute must agree in aspiration, as
smooth, middle, or rough the only combinations are
; ttt, )88,

<^^, KT^ y8, x^- (But cK in composition is unchanged.)

b. Another dental mute changes to a-.

44 Before /x

a. A labial mute (tt, /8, <^) becomes /a,

b. A guttural mute (k, y, x) becomes y,
c. A dental mute (t, 8, ^) becomes o-.
45 a.With a following o- a labial mute forms j/^, a guttural
mute forms ^.
b. A dental mute before o- disappears.

46 Before t a r often becomes o-. t and o- sometimes inter-

change in other situations especially the older (T(t became
;

TT as early as 450 b. c.

47 Two successive syllables are seldom allowed to begin with a

rough mute. Accordingly
a. In reduplication a rough mute is changed to the smooth.
b. In the ^77-passive the aorist imperative ending -6l is

changed to -tl.

c. The verb-stems Oe- put and 6v- sacrifice become re- and
TV- in the ^r/'passive.
2
 18 SOUNDS AND WRITING

d. Several stems that originally began with one rough mute

and ended with another have lost the aspiration at the begin-
ning of most forms, but retain the aspiration there whenever
the final mute loses it.

LIQUIDS
48 Initial p commonly stands for an older fp or ap. When, by
inflection or otherwise, a vowel precedes, the f or o- usually
appears as p instead of the aspiration. Hence the rule
Initial p is doubled after the augment and reduplication,
and in compounds after a short vowel.

49 After a nasal in a few words, by unconsciously closing the

nasal passage too soon, a mute is developed. English exam-
ples are Thom(p)son, num{h)er (Latin numerus). In Greek
we find
After fi Si
P'. ya/AjSpos for ya/x-pos (root ya/x-),
fxeo-Tj/JL^ptd for fJi€(rrjix[€)pid [rj/Jiipd)

After v a 8 : dvSpos for dv(€)pos.

60 The nasal v
a. Before a labial mute or p. becomes p,.

b. Before a guttural mute becomes y nasal.

c. Before A or p may be assimilated, becoming X or p.

(But see e.)
d. But vp. becomes o-p. in forms of <^atVw and from some

other verb-stems in -v.

e. iv remains unchanged before p : h-pvOp.o^.

51 N before o- within a simple word disappears with length-

ening of the vowel before it « becomes ct, o becomes
; ov

(27 a and 28 b),—

a. In some derivatives.
b. In the accusative plural of o stems (62 a).
c. In the verb-ending -(i/)cn (older -vtl) (263 a).
d. But in the dative plural v before -o-t disappears with-
out vowel-lengthening.
 CONSONANTS 19

52 '^vv in composition
a. Changes v to a- before a simple a-.

b. Loses V before a- followed by a consonant, and before ^.

53 The group vt, v8, or v$ before o- disappears, with lengthen-

ing of the vowel before it (28 b).

SIGMA
64 Initial o- followed by a vowel is often weakened to the rough
breathing. Compare
Greek wo, VTrcp, aAs, cpTro), LO-rrjfxi^ aAAo/xai,
Latin sub, super, sal, serpo, sisto, salio.

55 a. Between vowels o- is apt to disappear.

b. Between consonants o- disappears.

c. When inflection brings two sigmas together, one dis-

appears.

CONSONANTS WITH IOTA

56 x\fter a consonant t often causes changes. Thus ;

a. Xl becomes AA : aAAos, Latin alius.

b. After v or p, 6 is transposed and contracts with the
stem vowel.
c. Kt, yt,or xt, sometimes n, becomes <t(t, later rr.

d. 8i, sometimes yt (also yyt), becomes ^.

 II. WORDS

A. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

57 In nouns and adjectives Greek distinguishes more or
less fully
—
Three Genders Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter.
—
Three Numbers Singular and Plural, and some-
times a Dual for two objects only.
—
Five Cases Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accu-
sative, and Vocative.

68 The genders are grammatical, as in Latin. For the

most part they agree with the sex, but not always,
in the case of creatures that have sex ; and names
of many sexless things are masculine or feminine.
Gender must be learned by reading and practice.

59 The nominative, accusative, and vocative are used

nearly as in Latin. The genitive is used nearly as in
Latin, but has also some uses of the Latin ablative, as
a from case. The dative is used nearly as in Latin,
but has also some uses of the Latin ablative, as a
with^ hy^ atj or in case.

60 The stem of a noun or adjective is that part to

which the case-endings are added. The character of
the stem affects the ending and the way of uniting
20
 CASES AND DECLENSIONS 21

one to the other. Nouns and adjectives are declined

in three ways, named from the last letter of the stem :

The O Declension, for stems in -o

•
;

The A Declension, for stems in -d

•
;

The Consonant Declension, for stems that end in a

consonant or in l or v.

The O- and A- Declensions are so much alike that

they are together called the Vowel Declension.

61 The article 6 rj to the may be used with any noun,

and is a convenient mark of gender. It is declined
thus

Sing.
22 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

Stem . . .
 VOWEL DECLEXSIOX: NOUNS 23

II. A Declension
- : Nouns
65 Feminine noun-stems in -d may be classed in two
groups those of the first group retain -d or -a
;

throughout the singular, those of the second group

change -a to -tj in all, or in some, singular forms.

66 Feminines : First Group

Stem
 24 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

c. If the nominative has -a, the accusative and

vocative have the same ; the genitive and dative
have 'd after a vowel or />, otherwise -rj.

68 The rules of accent in 63 a-c apply to all declen-

sions. But
a. The genitive plural in the a-declension always
has the ultima circumflexed, because -cov is contracted
from -a-oji^ (29 c and 30 b).

69 a. Poets retain the older a in some words where short a

appears in prose.
b. The dramatists in lyric parts use freely the Doric forms
that retain the older d in place of Attic rj; so, too, in the

70 Feminines: Second Group

Stem ....
 A-DECLEXSION : NOUNS 25

genitive plural, -av for -wv ; likewise in the article and in ad-
jectives and pronouns of this declension.
c. In the dative plural the poets use freely the older ending
-ato-t ; so, too, in the article and in adjectives and pronouns

(cp. 64).
71 Masculines

Stem .....
 26 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

III. Adjectives of the Vowel Declej^sion

73 Many adjectives follow the o-declension, the mas-

culine and feminine being alike, as with nouns. Here
belong nearly all compound stems in -o.

74 Stem
Meaning . . .
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 27

77 a. The feminine singular lias -d after e, t, or p, other-

wise -7/.

b. In the nominative and genitive plural the femi-

nine is accented like the masculine, not as it would
be in a noun : StVatat and SiKaiajv.

78 Some adjectives are declined now with, now with-

out, a separate feminine. Especially in poetry the
forms vary.

IV. Contracted Vowel Stems

79 Stems in -eoand -oo are contracted (29 a, b, and c.

But -ea becomes -d.)

80 Stem .
 28 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

82 Stem ....
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 29

88 Stem ....
 30 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

fi-DECLEN-SION

91 A few noun and adjective stems have changed -o

(generally -do) to-a> (-eco), and are declined as fol-

lows (w-declension) :

92 Stem
 CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 31

96 Instead of the regular forms of o-Cjos, a-wd, a-wov safe, iin-

liarmed, Attic writers more often use
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Sing. N. (rm (Twv PI. N. o-o) era

A. (ru)V A. crcu? era

97 Sometimes, especially in poetry, the regular forms from

stems in -do are used vdovs, MeveXdo?, iXdot.
:

V. Consonant Declension : Xouns

98 To the consonant declension belong, among nouns,
Liquid stems ending in -A, -v, -p.
Guttural stems ending in -k, -y -x,
Labial and dental stems ending in -tt, -/?, and in -r, -8, -0,

Xeuter stems ending in -r,

Masculine stems ending in -vt,
Stems ending in -eo-, -ao-,
Stems ending in -l, -v,
Stems ending in -cv, -av, -ov,
Stems ending in -a>, -o,
Some irregular nouns.

99 Liquid Stems in -X, -v

Stem
Me AXING . . .
 32 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

100 In aAs (see 40 a) both stem and case-endings are unchanged

throughout.

101 Monosyllabic stems of this declension accent the

ending in the genitive and dative ; -wz^ and -oIp take
the circumflex.
a. Xot so, however, the genitive plural (and dual) of
o, Tj, Trat?, 7rat8-os cMlcl,

6 Tpcus, T/oco-os Troja7i,

TO ovs, (ir-os ear,
6 8/xco?, 8/xa>-os s/«z;e (poetic).

Thus TratS-i', 7rai-(rt, but TratS-wv, iraih-oiv.

102 Liquid Stems {continued) in -v, -p

Stem .....
 CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 33

b. But note 6 BeX(t>L<s dolphin for 8eA<^tv-s and ^ ^^aXa/xU

Salamis for 5aAa/xIi/-s.

c. As a vocative singular they use the nominative if the

ultima is accented otherwise the simple stem.

;

d. For Xt/x€-o-t, Sat/jto-o-t, see 51 d.

104 'k-TroXXoiv Apollo has in the accusative singular 'ATroAAwva, but

of tener 'AttoAAw ; the vocative is "KiroXXov^ with recessive ac-
cent (cp. ScWora, 72 d).

105 A few common stems in -ep make a class by them-

selves. They accent the ending in the genitive and
dative singular as if monosyllabic, reject e in those
cases, change ep to pa in the dative plural, and in
the vocative singular have recessive accent (cp.
" KttoWovj
104).

106 Stems in -fp

Stem .
 34 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

107 In dvrj/o after e was lost 8 was developed between v and p

(49). Thus the stem becomes avSp- in most forms hence the ;

accent of dvSpoJi/, avSpolv (101).

108 a. Like Trarrjp is declined 6 yao-Trjp (yao-rep-) Z'C//?/.

b. [N^early like fjirjrrjp except in accent is Arj/xrjTTjp Deineter, G.

ArJiJLY)Tpo<Sy D. A-^fxrjTpL, A. Arj/xr/rpa, V. AyfjLrjTep.

109 Guttural Stems in -k, -y

Stem
Meaning . . .
 CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 35

112 Labial and Dental Stems in -tt, -^, -r

Stem
Meaning . . .
 36 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

they were stems in -t or -v (130) : rj Kopv^ K6pv6-o<;

helmet ace. Kopvv.

116 The vocative of Trat?, 7ratS-os child is ttoI. The stem was origi-
nally 7rat8- hence the irregular accent
; irat?, TratSwi', irathoiv

(101 and a).

117 The nominative singular is irregular in 6 ttoi;?, ttoS-os foot.

118 Neuter Stems in -t

Stem
Meaning
 CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 37

121 Masculine Stems in -vt

Stem
Meaning ....
 38 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

125 a. In neuter stems -ea becomes -09 in the nomina-

tive, accusative, and vocative singular (25) else- ;

where (T is lost (55 a and c), and concurrent vowels

are contracted (29). But the genitive plural -eojv is

often left uncontracted. The dual is rare.

b. Stems in -ao- likewise lose o- and contract.

126 TO Kepas Jiorn, wmg (of an army), has the inflection of two
stems, K€paT- and Kcpaa--.
 CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 39

129 The one stem in -otr, atSoo-- respect^ shame^ is declined in the
sing, only : tj atSw?, atSov?, aiSoi, atSw.

130 Stems in -l and -v

Stem
 40 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

132 Stems in -v, -v

Stem
Meaning. . . .
 CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 41

136 Stems in -ev, -au, -ov

Stem
Meaning. . . .
 42 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

141 Stems in -o> and -o

Stem ....
Meaning . .
 CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 43

7. The adjective Trpea-pvs old is in the plural masculine the

regular word for envoy, ambassador. In poetry the singular
also has the same meaning, as well as that of old, but the prose
singular is Trpeo-^evrri?, a noun of the agent (406) from the
verb 7rp€(T^€vu). Thus
S. irpecr^evT-^s, -tov, -ry, -Tiijv, -tol,

PI. Trpco-ySctS, Trpeo-ySewv, irpea^ea-t, TrpeV^ct?.

The prose word for old man is irp^a-^vriq^ (or yepwi/).

8. (ro) TTvp-, TTvp- fire makes its plural of the o-declension

S. TTVp, TTVp-O'i, TTVp-L,

PI. TTvpa, TTvpuiv, TTupots camp-fives, beacons.

9. Besides 6 vl6<s son, regular, forms are made from the

stem vlv-

S. (vtos) vUo<s, vUl, vUa, (vivs and vlvv, inscriptions),

PI. vUts, vtcwv, vlecTL, vicTs,

Du. vice, vleoLv.

Forms also occur with v for vl : v6<;, vov, veo?.

10. (ri) x"p-? X^P- ^i^ci'i^d:

PI. X"P-^5? X^'-P-^^i X^P-^h X^V«^5

Du. x'^lp-e, x€.p-o7.v.

a. Poets use also x^P"^^5 X^P'^'? X^P""? X^P'^'^i X^P"^^? X^P'"-^'

143 In poetry the following also are found :

1. Besides SaKpvov tear, regular, also to SaKpv and rots

SaKpv-a-L.

2. From (t6) Sop- spear : G. Sop-6s, D. Sop-i and Sopet. For

Sopu- and Sopar- see 120.

3. From (to) Kapd- head: X. A. Kapa, D. Kapa. But G. Kpar-

OS, D. KpoLT-L', also X. A. TO Kpara.

4. Besides opm (115), forms from the stem opvt-

Si. N. opvi-9, A. PL N. A. 6pv€L<;, G.
6pvL-v, 6pv€-(Dv.

5. Besides 6 XP^^? XP^'''^^ skin, regular, also G. XP^"^^> -^*

Xpo-i and xp^'

 44 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

144 In some nouns the plural may be of different gender from

the singular : 6 o-tros grain, food, pi. ra a-lra ; to o-raStov stade^
race-course, pi. a-rdhoi or a-ToZia.

VI. Consonant Declension : Adjectives

145 Some nouns of classes already described were origi-

nally adjectives and continued to be used as such,
masculine and feminine alike (neuter, too, when there
is one) of one ending :

^vyd<;, (^vyctS-o? exiled (like cXtti?, 114),

yvyivriq, yvyivrjT-o^ light-armed
TreVry?, 7r€pr)T-o<; poor.

With these belong some other adjectives, as

fxaKap, fJLOLKap-o^ hlessed (cp. 102),

dpTra$, dpiray-o^ rapacious (cp. 109),
dyvm, dyva>T-o<s unknown (cp. 112),
diraLS, a7rat8-09 childless (cp. 114).

146 Many adjectives are of two endings ; the neuter dif-

fers from the masculine in the nominative and accu-

sative only. Here are many adjectives compounded
of nouns of this declension :

M. P.
eveXiTLf; G. eueXTTtS-o? of good hope,
G. dxdpLT-o<; lacking grace,
G. evSaifxov-o(; fortunate,
G, evij6ov<; simple-minded.

Here belong also comparative adjectives in -cjv

(stem in -ov) : fieXnoDv better.

 CONSONANT DECLENSION: ADJECTIVES 45

147 Adjectives of Two Endings

 46 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

150 The contracted forms are from a stem in -oa-, the o- disap-
pearing between vowels yScA.Tio((r)a, /3cA.Tt(o (56 a).
: The
accusative plural in -ovs is borrowed from the nominative.
The accent is recessive.

161 Stems in -eo-

 CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES 47

154 Names like ^wK/oaTi^s, IIcpiKX^?, AtoyevT^s (127) were origi-

nally adjectives of this class. So, too, the noun rpcrjpyjs
trireme.

155 Many adjectives whose masculine and neuter are of

the consonant declension have a separate feminine
in the a-declension. The feminine singular always
has short -a in the nominative, accusative, and voca-
tive singular. (If the masculine and neuter are of
the o-declension, the feminine always has d or y^:

see 77 a.)

156 Adjectives of Three Endings : Stems in -au

 48 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

158 Stems in -v
 CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES 49

161 a. For sound-changes see ytyds (121, 122 a) ; but d in ttSi/ is

irregular.
b. The accent of Trds is irregular, (1) in that Trd? and Trav

take the circumflex, (2) in that Travrwv and Traa-t do not fol-

low 101, while TravTos and -n-avTi do.

162 a. Compounds of ttci? are regular : aVd?, aVdcra,

airav and crv/xTrd?, crvixTrdcraj av^Trav.
b. Like these are declined participial stems in -avT :

Tracer dg, Travcrdcra, Travcrai/,

7Tav(Tavr-o<^j 7Tavad(n]<;, etc,

terra?, icrrdcra, laravy

IcndvT-o^^ IcTTdo'rjSj etc.

ards, crrdcra, crravj

(TTavr-o^, crracTTys, etc.

163 Adjective Stems in -ei/r

 50 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

184 a. For xap^ets from xapt€(vT)-s see 63 and 28 b; but

x^P^^^^
from x^/3te(T)o-t and ;\a/3tWo-a from x^^ptena show a shorter
stem form without v.
b. But participial stems in -^vt make -cts, -eto-a, -eV, and in

the dative plural -Cia-i^ for -e(vT)9, -c(vT)o-a, -cv(t), and -c(vT)o-t.
Thus:

165 Participial Stems in -ei/r

 CONSONANT DECLENSIONS; ADJECTIVES 51

167 Stems in -ovt

 62 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

adding the neuter forms in -6v and -ovto. and also

the feminine : StSov?, StSoucra, StSoz^ giving,

170 Participles in -wt- (of the ^t-form) are like

Set/ci^us, h^iKvva-a^ heiKvvv pointing out,

SeLKvvvT'0<;j BeLKvvcrr]<;, h€LKPvvT-o<;, etc.

a. For ScLKvvs from B€lkvv{vt)s and the dat. plu. SetKvvo-t

see 63.

171 Most perfect active participles are declined like etSw?

Jmowing (172). The stem ends in -ot, which be-
comes -w9 and -OS in the nominative singular the ;

feminine stem ends in -via. : TreiravKcoSy TreTravKvla,

TrenavKos having stopt.

172 Participial Stems in -ot (Perfects)

 CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES 53

173 A few perfect active participles (of ftt-verbs) in -aws are con-
tracted and form the feminine irregularly :

€(TT(D<ra, eo-Tos standing,

€(TTOiTO<Sy €OTWTOS, etc.

The neuter cotos retains the characteristic final syllable

-OS instead of becoming ia-ru)^. More irregular is

Te6v€w<Sy Tc^j/cwo-a, tc^vcos dead,

TiOvcwToSi TiOveuxrr]';, reOvewro^j etc.

174 Two common adjectives, />ceya? and ttoXv?, have a

shorter stem and irregular form in the nominative
and accusative singular masculine and neuter only,
but are otherwise regular in the vowel declension.
Thus:

175
 54 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

176 Trpaov mild follows the o-declension in masculine

7r/oao9, TT/adeta,

and neuter, but makes the entire feminine, and sometimes

other forms, from a stem in -v, like ra^v? (158).

VII. Comparison of Adjectives

177 Most adjectives form the comparative by adding

-Te/)09 {-T€pdy -repov), tlie superlative by adding -raro?
(-raTT7, -7arov)j to tbe masculine stem. Stems in -o

with a short penult lengthen o to w :

rOSITTVE COMPARATTA'E SUPERLATIVE

SiVato? (St/cato-) justy St/caid-repo?, St/cato-raro?,

IJLlKp6<; (^yLiKpo-) small, p.lKp6-T€po<;j p.lKpO-TaTO'sj

TTLKpof; (iTiKpo-^ hittei% TTLKpo-repo^j TTLKpO-TaTO^;,

TTovrjpo^; (iTovrjpo-^ had, TTovrjpo-Tepof;, 7^o^'^7/^o-raT09,

(ra(f)TJ<; (crac^ecr-) plain, crac^eV-repo?, (Ta(f)€cr-TaTO<;,

€vK\ey]<; (^evKkeecr-) famous, evK\eea-Tepo<;, evKXeecr-rarof;,

/xeXct? (/xeXa^'-) hlack, p.e\dp-Tepo^y fxeXdv-TaTo^,

y\vKv<; (yXvfCv-) sweet, yXvKv-repo^, yXvKv-Taro^,
(^irpecrfivf;) (7r/3€cr/3u-) old, TrpecT^v-Tepo^, Trpeo-ySu-raro?.

But o-stems with a short penult

afto9 (afto-) tvorthy, d^Lco^epo*;, d^L(t>-TaTo<;,

v€o<; (^'€0-) new, young, peai-Tepo<;, vecjrrato'^,

ao(j)6<^ (^ao(j)o-^ wise, (TO<^(xy-Tepo<;, (TO(f)a>-TaTO<s,

178 A few stems drop -o before -rc/oo? and -raro? :

yep a id- 9 aged, yepaL-Tepo<;, yepai-Taro^,

7raXatd-9 6>?(i, ancient, 7ra\aL-T€po<;, 7raXat-TaT09,
cr;(oXaro-9 leisurely, a\o\ai-T€pof;, a^okai-Taro'^,
<^lXo-9 6/6<af7', (<f)L\-T€pOS poet.), <^lX-TaT09.
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 55

7raXato9 makes also 7raXatdTepo9, TraXatorarog. For

<^tXr€/)09 prose writers use fiaWov (^tXo? (180).

179 The endings -ea-repo^j -ea-Taro^ (in imitation of words

like (ra(l)(i(T-Tepo<;) are added to stems in -ov :

evhaiixo)v fortunateJ €.vhaip.ov-iaTepo^^ euSat^oj^-ecTTaTo?,

crco(j)pa)v discreet^ aoic^pov-iaTepo^;, aojc^pov-idTaTO^,

a. Some contracting stems in -oo are compared as if

-T6/309 and -raro? were added to the nom. sing. mas.

a7rXou9 (aTrXoo-) single, a7r\ova--T€po<;, aTrXoucr-raro?,
evpov<; (eui^oo-) kind, evvova-repo^j ^vvova-raro^.

b. Xote also ippiofxivo-s strong^ ipp<sifxev-€(rT€po<i, tppw/xev-tcTTaro?,

with loss of -o, and ;(a/3i'a?, )(a.pu(r-T€pos, xapUcr-TaTo<;, from the

stem xapicT-. (Cp. 164 a.)

180 Comparatives and superlatives are often made by the

adverbs jxaXXov more and /xaXto-ra most or r\TTov less
and with the positive fxaWop <^tXo?,
T]KL(TTa least, :

moi^e dear, dearer, ixaXiara ^i\o<;, most dear, dearest,

riTTov (J)lXo<; less dear.

Participles are compared only in this way.

181 A few common adjectives form the comparative by

adding -tcji' (stem -loi', 149), the suj^erlative by add-
ing -icrro? (-io-T-q, -LcrTov), to the root of the positive,

or to a different form of the stem :

Ka/co9 had KaK-i(ov ivorse, KaK-Lo-Toq iDorst

oX(j\p6% unseemly, aXa-yj^io^v, ola-yjicno^,
(Cp. ro oLcrx-o's unseemliness^ ala-x-ivm sliamc)

ixOpo^ hateful, hostile, lx6-ia)v, exO'LcrTo<;,

(Cp. exOdi Jiate, TO exOo<: hatred)
 56 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

/caXo9 beautifulj KaW-icjv, KaXX-tcrro?,

(Cp. TO KciAAos beauty)

^Sv^ agreeable, rj8-icDj/j t^'S-ict-to?,

(Cp. -^So/xat be pleased)

Tax^^ swift, Odaaaiv (BaTTcov), rdx-^o'To^;,

{6daa(i)v is for Taxioiv : see 56 c and 47 d)

For the declension of these comparatives see 149.

182 Several common adjectives are irregular, because of

sound changes, or because words quite different have
come to be grouped together :

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

1. dya96^ good, dfieLPcov, apicTTo^ hrave, excel-

lent, able,

^eXricop, ^eXtlctto^ virtuous,

Kpeia-aoiv (56 c), Kpdri(TTo<; strong,
superior,
(Cp. TO Kpa.To<i strength)

(\(pa)v, poetic), (X(o(TTo<;, poetic).

2. KaKos bad, KaKicov, KdKicrTo*;,

yeipoiv, yeipio-To^;,

Tjcro-oiv (56 c), (rjKKTTa, adv., least),

3. /xeya? tall, fiei^^cDV (for p.4yi(TT0^.

large, fieylajv),

4. 6Xtyo9 little, iXdo-crcov (56 c), eXa;(tcrro9,

pi. few, jjLeLOJv,

5. 7roXu9 much, TrXeicop, irXiov, TrXel(TTo<;.

many, (Cp. TrXews, to TrXrj6o<s)

6. pdhios easy pdcov, paaro^;.

 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 67

183 The following adjectives lack the positive

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

(77/30 hefore) TTp6repo<; former, Trpairo? first

(ynep over, beyond) virepTepof; higher, vnepraTo^, high-
supeinor, est, supreme.
vaT€po<; later, vcrraro? latest.

184 Two superlatives, co-xaros farthest^ extreme^ and vTraros liigJi-

est^ and a few others in poetry, contain an old ending -aros.

TrpwTos is contracted from Trpd-aros.

VIII. NuMEKAL Adjectives

185 The cardinal and ordinal numbers are given in the
•
table (188).

The notation in the second column is Byzantine, and now

less used, r (abbreviation for (tt) takes the place of p (27)
for six\ o (koppa)
this purpose only.
and ^ (sampi)
The symbols
are old letters retained for
are combined by addition,
the larger sum being written at the left : a^l^= 1902.

186 The ordinal numbers, and the cardinal numbers from

^LaKocrioi on, are adjectives of three endings. The
other cardinals are indeclinable, except the first four,

which are as follows :

187 IN".
58 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 59

189 From ouSe eh and /Ar^Se eh not even one are formed
the general negatives ovSeh, fxrjSeh no one, declined

Sing. N.
 60 PRONOUNS

194
 PRONOUNS 61

198 Auro9, avTT], avT6(v) is declined like o-o(l)6<; (76), ex-

cept that there is no vocative and the neuter singular
nominative and accusative drops -p. Only the phrase
TO avToiv) often retains -v.

199 Autos bas three meanings ;

a. Standing alone in the oblique cases, liinij her, it,

them, etc. (197).

b. Standing after the .article, same, Lat. idem.
c. Without the article, agreeing in case with a noun
or pronoun, or standing alone in the nominative, self,

Lat. ipse,

200 Reflexive pronouns (refen-ing back to the subject) are

made by adding aurd? to the personal pronouns
they are needed only in oblique cases. (See 203.)

201 The indefinite aXXos, aXXo other (Lat. alius,

aXX^^,
alia, aliud), used both adjectively and substantively,
is declined like avros (198).

202 The reciprocal pronoun, meaning one another, each

other, is formed from aXXo? by doubling the stem.
It is not needed in the singular nor in the nomina-
tive :
 62 PRONOUNS

203
 PRONOUNS 63

205 Demonstrative Pronouns

In early Greek 6, 97, ro, the later article (61), was

a demonstrative pronoun, this^ that, he, it, etc. ; in
Attic this force is retained in a few phrases (see 549).
When thus used, some print o, tj, ot, at with the
acute — which then always becomes grave (15).
a. In poetry 6, 17, ro is also used as a relative pronoun.

206 "OSe, iJSe, rdSe this (Lat. hie) is 6, 17, rd with the en-
clitic syllable -8e. For declension see 209. For the
accent of o8e, tJSc, otSe, atSe see 21 c and d.

207 Ouro9, avT-r)^ tovto this, that (Lat. is, ille) is also formed

from 6, 17, TO, and hence begins with r or the rough

breathing in the same places (209).

208 'E/ceti^o?, eKeivr), eKelvo that yonder (in poetry also

/cetfo?, K^vT], Kelvo) is declined like avros (198).

209 Sing.
 64 PRONOUNS

210 To forms of oSe and ovtos the syllable -i is often

all

added, sometimes also to other demonstratives, to

point to something still more clearly as near at hand.
This -i always takes the accent ; before it -e, -o, and
-a are lost : 6St, ovroai this 7nan here. So tovtovI,
TavTTjaij TOVTL^ ravrt^ roSi, ovrodj toiovtovL

211 With oSe go

TotocrSe, TotaSe, Toiovhe such, Lat. talis (of quality) ;

Too-ocrSe, roo-T^Se, Toaovhe SO much^ SO great (Lat.

tantuSj pi. SO many, Lat. tot] of this size or
number ;

TTyXtfcocrSe, TrjXiKTJ^e, TrjXLKovhe SO great, SO old,

a. Poets often use the simpler forms without -Se : rotos, -a,

-OV ; TOO-OS, -17, -OV ; TTjXlKO'S, -rj, -OV.

212 With o5ro9 go

TOLOVTO<;, Toiavrrfy toiovto(v) talis]
ToaovTo^j TocravTr), too'ovto(v) tantus, pi. tot]

Tr)\LK0VT0<;y rrjXLKavrr], Tr)\iKovTo(y) SO great or old.

Relative Pronouns

213 In early Greek was demonstrative, like 6, rj,

09, rj,

TO (205) ; in Attic retains this force in a few phrases

it

(560), but is commonly relative, meaning who, which,

that. The forms are

214 Sing. IS".

G.
D.
A.
 PRONOUNS 65

215 To the demonstratives in 211, 212 correspond the rela-

tives
ofo9, olay olov of which hind^ [sucTi] as, qualis (of
quality) ;

ocro9, 00-17, 6(Tov of which size or number [as great ,

or many'] as, quantus or quot (of quantity) ;

r}\LKo<;, rfKiKT), tjXlkov of which age or value.

216 The enclitic particle -Trcp added to a relative pronoun (or
adverb; see 236) makes more distinct the reference to the
antecedent, which is thereby emphasized oTrep which very :

thing^ the very thing which^ wo-n-ep just as : OiXo) airep a-v I wish
the very things that you do (E. it. 991).

Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

217 The interrogative pronoun Tiq, tl who? what? and

the indefinite pronounrt?, some rt one, something,
any one, anything, are spelt alike but differ in accent

(219).
Interrogativ^e ti% never changes the acute to the
grave (15 and a) ; forms of two syllables accent the
first.

Indefinite 719 is enclitic (19 b) ;

disyllabic forms
that require an accent (20 d) have it on the ultima.
a. The poetic form arra is not enclitic.

218 The enclitic rt? added to 09 makes the indefinite or

general relative pronoun 00-719, 17719, 071 any one
who, anything which, whoever, etc. (220). For the
accent see 21 a, d.

In a similar way 719 following other relatives (215,

222) makes their reference more general or inclusive.

66 PRONOUNS
 PRONOUNS 67

o, TL to distinguisli from the conjunction Stl tlia%

it

because, which is merely a special use of the same

word.
c. The addition of ovv makes the most inclusive
general pronoun, with loss of all relative or interroga-
tive force : oaTiaovv any one ivhatever, otlovv any-
thing whatever ; ace. ovtivovv^ y]vTivovv, etc.

222 Other interrogative pronouns, and the corresponding

indefinite or general relatives (made by prefixing
the relative stem 6-), are :

INTERROGATIVES GENERAL RELATIVES

77076/309 ivhich (of two) ? oTTOTepo^; tvhichever (of

two),
TToto? of what sort f ottoIo^ of whatever sort,
TToa-o^i how large ? ^\, how oiroo-o^s of wlmtever size
many? (number),
TTTyXt/co? hovj great f how ottt^Xi/co? of whatever age
old? or size.

223 All indefinite or general relative words (sometimes

also the simple relatives) are used as indirect inter-

rogatives.

224 The general negative pronouns ovSet? and fxyj^eis have

been given in 189.
So from ovS' (/xT/S*) €T€po<; we have ouSerepo? and
fxr]heTepos neither of the two.
a. Poets use ovrts and /ArJTtg for ou8et5 and /xrySei's the ;

neuter forms ovtl and /xrJTt are used also in prose as a dverb s
(230), not at all

UNIVERSITY
 68 PRONOUNS

225 The indefinite 6 (17, to) Seli/a so-and-so^ wliaf s-Ms-

name, is used as indeclinable, and is also declined :

Sing. N. 6 helva Plu. N. ol heLV€<;

G. Tov Setz^o? G. T(t)v Beivcov

A. TOV SeLva A. Tov<; Setz^a?

226 The form and meaning between the cor-

relations of
relative pronouns are shown in the table (227) forms ;

in parenthesis are poetic or rare.

227 Correlative Pronouns

DE3I0NSTRATIVE
 ADVERBS 69

C. ADVERBS
Several endings denoting place are mucli like case-
endings some words formed witli tliem may be taken
;

either as adverbs or as nouns. The endings are

-t, -01, -at at or in, for the place where (locative)

-Oev from, for tke place whence (ablative) ;

-8e, -ae, -^e to or toward, for the place ivhither.

The ending added to the accusative (cp.

-§€ is

accusative of limit, 533) -^€ seems to be for -crSe, -Se

;

being added to the accusative plural -i may be re- ;

garded as forming a locative singular, -cri a locative

plural.

oIkoi (14 a) at oLKoOev from oLKaSe homeward,

\ome. home,
aXkoOi elsewhere, aWoOev from aXXocre else-

elsewhere, whither,
^AOTjvrjo-L in ^KOriv'r]Oevfrom 'Adijvdi^e to

Athens, Athens, Athens,

^EXevalvL at '"EiXevcrlpoOev 'EXevalvoiSe to
J^levsis, from IlJleiisis, Eleusis,
iT€pa)9i on the eripojOev from erepojcre to the

other side, the other side, other side,

irdvToOev from TrdpToae in all
every side, directions,

Ovpacri at the dv pad ^v from 6vpd^€ out of

doors^ without, doors,
ivSo0L, ivSov evhoOev from
within, ivithin,
 TO ADVERBS

XdjJ^cLL on the ^a^xadev from ;(a/xa^€ to the

ground^ the ground^ ground,

a. Several adverbs of the place lohere end in -ov :

TTavTCLyov every- iravraxoOev from iravTaxocre in all

where, everywhere, directions,
avTov in the very avToOev from the avrocre to the very
place, very place, place.

229 Adverbs of manner in -a>9 are made from many adjec-

tivesand some participles and pronouns they are like ;

the genitive plural masculine, with -9 in place of -v:

(T0(j)6^ wise, gen. pi. (rocj)^^, (ro(j)a)<; wisely,

SLKaLO<; just, hiKai(i)v, hiKaioj^ justly,
aXr)9y]^ time, dXrjOcjv, dXr]9o)<; truly,
7)hv<; pleasant, rjSeojv, 7jSea)<; pleasantly,
elKcj<s like, elKOTojv, elKOToj^ naturally,
r€Tayii€vo<; reTayixivoiv, reray/AeVw? in an
arranged, orderly way.

230 For many adjectives the neuter accusative, singular or

plural, is used as an adverb : irokv much, ttoXXcc many
times, ixLKpov a little, fxeya and ixeydXa greatly, Trpcorov
and TrpojTa first.

231 Some common adverbs do not readily fall into classes. Thus
the adverb for dya^o? is cv well-^ from raxv'i the old adverb
rdxa quicMy means in prose perhaps, while Ta^cws or raxv
means quichly from several prepositions are made adverbs in
;

-w: aj/o) above, upward, /carw below, co-w within, c^w outside,
Trpoa-oi forward, iroppu), TTopa-u) farther on, afar. Other adverbial
endings are -B6v, -Srjv, -a-ri, -et: €vSov ivithin, a-Toixq^ov in rows,
KpvpSrjv secretly, vewo-Tt lately, IXk-qvia-Ti in Greek, d/xaxet with-
out fighting, iravh-qixu with full levy.
 ADVERBS 71

232 Adverbs of number for the first three cardinal num-

bers are aVaf once^ St? twice Tpi% thrice. ^ For higher
numbers the adverbs end in -a/ct? : rerpa/ct?four
timeSj TrevTOLKL^; five times^ o/cra/ct? eight times, ipdKL<;

nine times, elKO(TdKL<; twenty times, kKaTovT(XKi<;, etc.

On the same model are made others, like TroXXa/ct?
often from ttoXu?, oXtya/ct? a few times, seldom, irXeov-
dKL<; more times, oadKi<; as often as.
233 Other adverbs of number, commonly denoting division, are
fjiovaxr} (fjiovo?, fiovaxos) singly^ in one way only, Sixa and 81x17
in two parts, doubly, rpixa and rpixxi in three parts, triply,
TToXXaxlj in many ivays, Travraxfj iyi every ivay.

234 Adverbs derived from adjectives, and some others,

are compared like adjectives for the comparative the ;

neuter accusative singular is used, for the superlative

the neuter accusative plural
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

(T0(j)aj(; wisely, cro(f)(oT€poi', ao(f)(jJTaTa,

o-a(j)(t)<; clearly, aa(j)4(Trepov, crac^ecrraTa,

TjSeojf; pleasa7ltly, rjSjov, rj^LCTTa,

TToXv much, 7r\4ov, TrXeto-ra,

Ta^fw? quicMy, Odrrov, rd^icTTa,

ev ivell, afxeLvov, better, apicrra, best,

fjidXa vei^y, fxdWop more, rather, /xaXto-ra most.

235 Some adverbs of place have the comparative and

superlative in -co :

dv(o above, dvcorepco, dvcoTdro),

iyyvs near, iyyvrepco, iyyvrdTco.

iyyvTepov,
 ADVERBS

236 COKRELATIVE AdVERBS

Demonstrative
 VERBS 73

237 In the table (236) the common adverbs from pro-

nominal stems, and some others of like significance,
are arrano-ed so as to show their relations of form and
meaning. Those in parenthesis are poetic or much
less usual.

238 In prose €v6a and evOev are mostly relative but they are de- ;

monstrative with /xeV 8e, and in the phrases evOa koL tvOa

here and there^ hither and thither^ tvO^v koX tvBiv from this
nde and that^ and often in poetry.

239 Like os (214) ws was originally demonstrative; poets often

so use it (accented ws or ws), and prose writers in a few
phrases : /cat w? even so, ov8* <Ss not even thus.

240 a. With interrogatives ttotc adds an emotional tone : tl irore

ivhat, pray? irov ttotc tvJiere in the world?

b. Several compounds are made with ttotc, as ovttotc, /itJttotc,

ovSeVore never, ovttwttotc never yet.

c. On the same model are formed oAAotc at another time,
eK(x(TTOTe each time.
d. Tori is used only in the phrase totI ixlv . . . totc 8c at

one time . . . at another time.

241 All the relatives and indirect interrogatives become subordi-

nating conjunctions their meaning is then much influenced
;

by the mode of the verb.

D. VERBS
242 The forms of the verb ai'e classed under

Three Voices —Active, Middle, Passive ;

Four Finite Modes —Indicative, Subjunctive, Op-

tative, Imperative —besides the Infinitive, or verbal
noun, and the Participle, or verbal adjective
 74: VERBS

—Present, Imperfect, Future, Aorist,

Seven Tenses
Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect
Three Numbers — Singular, Plural, Dual
Three Persons, as in English and Latin.

243 Two Conjugations, the Mt-conjugation and the XI-

conjugation (from the final syllable of the present

indicative active) are distinguished in the present and
imperfect only ; elsewhere they are alike.

244 The active and passive voices are used about as in Latin the ;

middle indicates that the subject acts on itself or with some

reference to self. (See 600.) The passive and middle have
the same form, except in the future and aorist.

245 The indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, with the infini-

tive and participle, are used nearly as in Latin ; the optative
is the mode of wishing, and of hypothetical and softened

statement. (See 476, 479.)

246 The tenses of the indicative are classed as

Primary the— Present, Future, Perfect, Future
Perfect ;and
Secondary, or Historical —the Imperfect, Aorist,
Pluperfect.

247 The tenses are used (in the indicative) nearly as in Latin or
English. The aorist {a-6pL(TTo<s undefined) in the indicative
has for its leading use that of the English simple past tense.

248 The verb-stem is the part that appears in all the

forms and stands for the general or fundamental
meaning, which the other elements modify by add-
ing a specific setting. Verbs are called vowel verbs,
liquid verbs, mute verbs, from the last letter of
 VERBS 75

the verb-stem. Thus Trauo) is a vowel verb of the

w-conjugation, the verb-stem being nav- stop ; Travco

J stop (transitive), Travo^ai I stop myself or cease

(middle), or am stopt (passive).

a. But the terms o>-verb and /xi-verb are used to denote the

conjugation to which the present and imperfect belong.

249 The accent of verbs is recessive. For exceptions see

285, 296 a, 297, 300 d, (165), 349 and a.

250 Verb forms will be described in the following order

A. VeEBS of the O - Cois'JUGATIOli

I. Vowel verbs, not contracting.
II. Vowel verbs contracting in the present system.
III. Liquid verbs.
IV. Mute verbs.

B. Verbs of the Mt- Conjugation^

I. Verbs in -vi5/x6.

II. Verbs in -r;/xt, with stem in -a-.r}-.

III. At8a)/xt, TiOrjfJLL, irjfiL.

IV. Irregular and defective fti-verbs.

251 Verb-forms, while by meaning they fall into voices,

modes, tenses, group themselves by forma-

etc., also
tion in tense-systems, each system having one tense-
stem throughout. These tense-systems, and with
them all the formative elements of regular verbs, are
described in the following sections. Travco is an ex-
ample of regular vowel verbs, with verb-stem ending
in a long vowel or diphthong (252-254).
 7e 12 -VERBS

252
 VOWEL VERBS T7

iravo) (irav-) stop

 78 12 -VERBS

253
 VOWEL VERBS 79

-iravb) (irav-) stop

80 fl- VERBS
 VOWEL VERBS 81

travoi (irau-) stop

 82 fl- VERBS

A. Verbs of the O- Conjugation

I. Vowel Verbs, not Contracting

The Present System

255 The present system includes the indicative present

and imperfect, with the subjunctive, optative, impera-
and participle, active and middle (pas-
tive, infinitive,

sive). All regular w-verbs are conjugated in the

present system like iravoi (252-254).

256 The present stem (indicative) is made from the verb-

stem in several ways, and verbs are classed (in the
present system) accordingly.

For convenience in later use (since all w-presents are in-

flected alike), themodes of forming the present stem in all

classes of (o-presents are here described together (257-262).

257 (1) Formative-Towel Class. —The suffix -o:e- (25),

called the formative vowel, is added. Verbs that
have a stronger and weaker form of the root take in
this system the stronger :

VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND,

TTav- stop, TTavo'.e- (i. e. iravo-y Traue-), irava),

Xltt-j XeuTT- leave, XeLiro'.e-, Xcittw,

(^vy-, ^evy- flee, (^evyo\e-, <^euyw.

a. In hecome, for yi-yev-o-fxai, the verb-stem is re-

ytyvo/Attt

duplicated. This present reduplication consists in prefixing

the initial consonant with t. So also in
TTtTTTO) fall, for TTt-ircr-a),

lo-xo) hold, for o-t-ccx-w (54),

TtKTo) Iring forth, for Tt-reK-w.
 VOWEL VERBS 83

b. Verb-stems in -v-, -ev- lose v between vowels (27)

7rA.eu) sail, for TrAev-w (ttXv-, ttAcv-) ;
pew jlow, for peu-o) (pv-, pcv-) ;

TTi/ew J?0?^, for Trvev-o) (ttvi;-, ttvcv-).

258 (2) Tau Class.— The suffix -To\e- is added. The verb-
stem always ends in a labial mute, which becomes it
before r (38 b, 43 a) :

VERB-STEM
 84 fi- VERBS

VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND.

d. (jypaS- tell, <^pa^o:e-, (^pa^oi,

ikmS- hope, iXm^ole-y ikirit^d),

olfJLOjy- lament, olfjuojl^o'.e-, olfxa)(,a),

Kkayy- cry out, Kkat^o'.e-, KXd^o),

(TakiTiyy- blow trumpet, aakint^o'.e-, aoKiTit.o),

e. The verb-stems Kav- hum and KXav- iveep give Katw and
KAatw, with loss of V (27), farther shortened in prose to Kaw
and /cAaco.

260 (4) Inceptive Class. —The suffix -aKo:e- or -LaKo'.e- is

added
VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IxND.

ape- please, dpecrKole-, dpeo-Kco,

evp- find, evpLCTKo'.e-, evpicKO},

a. The class is so named because some verbs in it imply

beginning or becoming, as yrjpda-Koi grow old, (yypd-), ytyi/wo-Kw
come to know, perceive (yvo:o>-, 28 a).
b. Several presents take a reduplication (257 a), as yt-yvw-
a-Kixi recognize (yvo:o)-). -n-aa-x^ {iraO-, pres. stem iraa-xoie-) stiffer

is irregular for TraO-crKia, 8t8ao-Ko> (StSa^-) teach is for StSax-o-Kw.

261 (5) Nasal Class. —A suffix containing v is added.

a. The suffix -vo\e- is added :

VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND.

r€/x- cut, refjLvo'.e-, refjivco,

b. The suffix -avoie- is added

dfjLapT- err, dfxapTapo'.e-, dixapTavco.

c. The suffix -avo'.e- is added, witli an inserted

nasal in the verb-stem :
 VOWEL VERBS 85

VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IXD.

\a^- take^ Xaix/Savo'.e-j

fjiad- learn, fjLavOavo'.e-j fiavOdvco,

Xa^- ff^i % lot, Xay)(^avo:e-, \ay^dv(xi.

d. The suffix -vvoie- is added

eXa- drive, iXavvo'.e-, i\ avi/o).

e. The suffix -veo:e- is added

LK- come, LKV€o:e LKveojJLai.

262 Sometimes a verb-stem is in the present tense-system (or in

some other) longer by an added crj or o-m. Thus :

Pres. SoKco) (8o/c€-) seem, fut. S6^(d (Sok-) sJuiU seem,

Pres. aXLo-KOfmL (oA-) fl!m taketi, fut. dAwo-o/xat (dAw-) ^A^Z/ Z'e

Pres. ixavOdvoi {fjLa6-) learn perf. fjicfjidOrjKa (fMaOrj-) have

learned.

263 The personal endings of the indicative are partially

different in the primary and secondary tenses they ;

also distinguish the active and middle (passive) voices.

 86 fi- VERBS

The formative vowel is o before ft or v of the ending,

a.

elsewhere e. But in combination with the primary active

endings we have
-o) instead of -o-fxi,

-€tS " " -C-S,

-a " " -€-tn,

'OVa-L
" " -o{v)(TL (51 C).

The endings -do-t and -o-av never go with the formative

vowel (see 355).
b. In the middle (passive)

-c-o-at becomes -y (55 a and 29 d), later -et,

-€-(ro becomes -ov (56 a and 29 c).

c. Poets often use the ending -fiea-Oa for -fieOa. For -arai
and -aro in place of -vrat and -vto see 270 a, 345 c. For -s
a few verbs have -a-Oa (381, 384, 385, 386).

264 The imperfect (also tlie other secondary tenses in the

indicative) takes the augment, the sign of past time.
a. In poetry the augment is sometimes omitted.

265 The augment has two forms :

a. The syllabic augment is e-, prefixed to a stem

beginning with a consonant.
Initial p is doubled (48) : piirToi iliroWj impf.
eppliTTov.
b. The temporal augment is the lengthening of an
vowel a-, d-, and e- become t;-, ov- is un-
initial :

changed in later Greek ev- and et- are unchanged

; :

ayoi lead, impf. rjyovj

ikTTL^O) hope, rjkTTL^^OV,

eLKoii^o) make like^ rjKat,ov, eiKat^ov,

OTrXLt^o) arm, wTrXt^or,

OLOfjLai thinkJ cpofjiTjv,
 VOWEL VERBS 87

i/cerevoi entreaty iKerevovj

alcrOdvoixai percewe, i^crOavofJuriVj

aSco sing, Ti^ov,

eVpLCTKOJ findj rjVpLCTKOV, evpicTKov.

266 PovXo/uLi ivisli^ Svvafxat can, fiiWoi iiitend take either e- or rj-

as augment : rj/SovXojxrjv, i^Swa/xryv, ^/xeAAov, or i^ovXofjL-qv, etc.

267 Some verbs that have lost an initial consonant still take the
syllabic augment ; cc- then becomes a-. Among the most fre-
quent are

cxcu Jiave (ex- for o-cx-, 54), impf. cTxov,

eTTOfiai foUoiV (cTT- for creTr-), eiTrojxrjv,

cpTTO) creep {ep-n-- for a-epir-, Lat. serpo), elp-n-ov,

ido) let, permit, etwv,

lOi^in accustom, €l6l^ov,

opdoi see, koipiiiv,

oiOioi p)Usll, i(l)6ovv.

a. €u)po)v and some others have a double augment, syllabic

and temporal.

268 A verb compounded with a preposition augments the

simple form ; a preposition ending in a consonant
then recovers its original form :

ava-/3aLP0) go up, impf. av-i^aivov,

elcr-dyo) lead in, elcr-rjyov,

(TvX-Xeyoj collect, (Tvv-eXeyov,

av-o-Kevdi^o) pach up, avv-eaKevai^ov,
ifjL-pdX\(o throw in, iv-e/SaXXov,

iy-ypd(l)0) write in, iv-eypacjyov,

eK-^dXXo) throw out, i^-e/SaXXov.

For elision see 32, 33.

 88 fl- VERBS

a. The accent never stands before the augment syllable

ela^yov (not cto-Tyyov).

Verbs derived from words that begin with a preposition

b.

generally take theaugment as if the verb itself were a com-

pound but there are exceptions
; :

viroTTTtvoi suspect {yTT-OTTTO'i suspicious), VTr-uyiTTevov,

i-TTLopKia) perjure oneself {iTriopKos perjured), eTn-wpKow,

ivOvfieoixau lay to heart {ivOvpaos taken to heart), iv-cOvp.ovpii]v.

But
ivavTioopLat Oppose (ivavTLO<s Opposite), rjvavTLOvpLTjv.

c. A few compounds put the augment before the prepo-

sition :

KaOi'CopLai sit clown lKa6^1^6p,r]v,

KaOi^iD seat, €.K(x6it,ov,

KaOivSoi sleep iKdOevSov or KaOrjvSov.

d. A double augment is found in r)p,<f>€yv6ovv from dp,<f>iyvo€(x),

and r]V€LxopL7)v from dv-€\op,ai. (So in the aorist yvecrxop-fji'')

269 The subjunctive takes tlie primary endings ; -oie- be-

comes 0) before fx or v, elsewhere rj. Thus -(o'.rj- is

the mode-suffix, appearing throughout the subjunc-

tive, vs^hich is otherwise like the indicative.

270 The optative takes the secondary endings, but with

'fiL instead of -v. The formative vowel is o, which
makes a diphthong with the mode-suffix -i- (or -te- in
the third plural active).

In the middle -^ro loses o- (55 a).

a. Poets not infrequently use the ending -aro for -vto in

the present and aorist optative (cp. 344 c).

 VOWEL VERBS 89

271 The imperative endings are

 90 ft -VERBS

278 The future stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the

suffix -o-o'.e- {sigmatic future).
The inflection is like that of the present system.

The Aorist System

279 This includes an indicative, subjunctive, optative, im-

perative, with infinitive and participle, active and
middle. (For the passive see 302-309.)

280 The aorist stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the suf-
fix -(ra:€-, which becomes -a-oi-.-q- in the subjunctive {sigmatic

or a-a-aorist).

281 The indicative takes the augment (264, 265) and the second-
ary endings (263) in the third singular active the tense-
;

suffix is -0-C-.

In the middle -o-a-o-o becomes -o-w (55 a and 29 c).

282 The subjunctive has the combined tense- and mode-suffix

-a-oi'.r)-, and is inflected like the subjunctive present.

283 The optative contracts the tense-suffix -o-a- with the mode-
suffix -I- (-te- in the third plural active). But in the active
the forms with -o-e- and -ta- (2d sing, and 3d plu.) or -tc- (3d
sing.) are more common.
In the middle -o-at-o-o becomes -o-aio.

284 The imperative takes the tense-suffix -o-a-; but -crov in the
active second singular and -o-at in the middle second singular
stand irregularly for the combined tense-suffix and ending.

285 The infinitive takes -o-at in the active (irregularly) for com-
bined tense-suffix and ending, and always accents the penult
(contrary to 249) : TratSeOo-at from TratSevw educate.

286 The participles take the tense-suffix -ora- the active participle ;

is declined like aTrds (162), the middle is regular in the vowel

declension.
 VOWEL VERBS 91

The Perfect Active System

287 This includes a perfect and pluperfect indicative and

a perfect subjunctive, optative, infinitive, and par-
ticiple, in the active.

288 The perfect stem (active) takes a reduplication (289) and

adds the tense-suffix -Ka-, which becomes -/cry-, -Ket-, or -kc- in
the pluperfect, -Kia-.r]- in the subjunctive, -ko- in the optative,
-Kc- in the infinitive, -kot-^ -kws, -kvlo. in the participle, (xa-

perfect.)

289 The perfect reduplication is formed as follows

a. If the verb-stem begins with a single consonant
(except /)), that consonant with e is prefixt, a rough

mute changing to the smooth (47 a) :

KeKevo) (^KeXev-) bid^ /ce-KeXeu-zca,

KcoXvo) (fcojXu-) hinderj Ke-KcoXv-Ka,

^opevcx) (j(opev^ dance, Ke-^opev-Ka,
^vrevo) (</)VT€v-) plant, 7r€-(f)VT€v-Ka,

07]pev(i) {Otjp^v-^ hunt, re-drjpev-Ka.

b. If the verb-stem begins with a mute and liquid

(39) the mute with e is prefixt

TrXeiw (ttXu-, ttXcu-) sail, TTe-irXev-Ka.

c. Otherwise the reduplication is like the augment

(265) :

(TTpaTevo) ((TTparev-) serve in the army, i-a-rpdrev-Ka,

C^jTeo) (^r]Te:r)-) seek, i-^TJTrj-Ka,

piiTTO) {pl(f)-) throio, ip-pl(f)a (48),

dSt/ceo) (^dSiKe'.T)-^ icrong, -q-SiKrjKa*

 92 fi- VERBS

d. But yiyviaa-KU) (yvo-.o)-) come to Tcnow makes l-yvwKa ; also

KTaofxaL (KTa:r}-) acquire makes Ki-KTrj/xaL,

TriTTTO) (tTCT-, TTTO)-) fall makcS Tre-TTTWKa,

fiifjLVT^a-Koi (fivrj-) remind makes ixi-^v-qixai.

290 A verb compounded with a preposition reduplicates

the simple form :

(Tvy-)(op€V(o dance with, crvy-Kc^opevKaj

dva-^aLvo) go up, dva-^e/SrjKa^
ela-dyco lead in, elcr-rj^a (^ee a).

a. The accent never stands before the reduplication.

291 Irregular reduplication is found in the following verbs, some

of which are rather frequent
a. The verbs described in 267 (if they have a perfect

stem) make the reduplication like the augment

caw letf impf. €LO)Vf pf. ctaKa,
ipyd^ofxaL WOrJc, elpya^ofjirjv, ct/oya(r/xai,

uiOeo) push, i-wOovv, twc/xai,

wveo/Attt iuy, iiovovfirjv, iiovrjjjiai.

With double reduplication :

opdu) see, i(i)p(i)v, koipaKa,

dv-otyio open, dv-€<oyov, dv-eioxa.

So too the root lk-, clk-, makes the perfect cotAca «w like,
plup. i(OK€LV.

b. Several verbs beginning with a liquid take ct- as re-

duplication :

Xafxpdviii talce, pf. €t-\rj(f>a, eL-Xr}pfiaL,

Xayxdvd) get by lot, €L-\y)xa,

root pe:r}- speak, €L-pr]Ka, €L-pr)fJLai,

root ficp; flap- divide, iL-fjcaprai it is fated,

Sta-XiyofiaL converse, St-ei-Acy/xai,

crv\-\iy(ii gather, o-w-ctXoxa, (Tvv-ei-XeyfJtAxi.

Similarly the defective etioOa a7n wont.

 VOWEL VERBS 93

c. Some verbs beginning with a, e, o reduplicate by pre-

fixing the vowel and the following consonant, lengthening the

vowel of the second syllable {Attic redujjHcatiofi) :

OLKOvo) heaVy pf. aK-rjKoa^

iXavvio dr^ive, i\-rj\aKa,

eAeyxw test, eA-T^Acy/xat,

opvTTOi dig, op-wpvxa..

Also cyetpoj tvake, iyp-rjyopa (332).

The pluperfect of these verbs augments only initial a and o.

d.The verbs described in 268 b take the reduplication in
the same place as the augment.

292 The perfect active indicative takes the primary endings but ;

in the sing, -pa and -o-t are omitted, the tense-suffix becom-
ing -K€- in the third person -Ka-(v)trt becomes -Kdo-t (51 c).
;

293 The pluperfect augments the reduplicated stem if the re- ;

duplication is like the augment of the imperfect (289 c), no

change is made. The tense-suffix is -ktj-, -/cei-, or -/ce- as in the
paradigm in the plural and dual both -k€- and -Kct- are found.
;

The secondary endings are used, with -o-av in the third plural
the older form in -kyj omits -v in the first person singular.

294 The subjunctive adds the combined suffix -Kwirj- to the re-
duplicated stem, and is inflected like the present active subjv.
In place of these forms are used also compound forms, the
perfect active participle wdth the subjunctive of ct/xt am (384).

295 The optative adds to the reduplicated stem the combined suf-
fix -Kot-, and is inflected like the present active optative.

Compound forms, the perfect active participle with the

present optative of ci/xt am, are also used.

296 The infinitive adds -Ke-vat to the reduplicated stem.

a. All infinitives in -vat accent the penult.

297 The participle adds to the reduplicated stem the combined

suffix -Ka)9, -KVLd, -K09, -KOT; aud Is decHncd like etSws (172).
 94 n- VERBS

Perfect Middle System

298 This includes an indicative perfect and pluperfect, a

subjunctive, optative, infinitive, and participle ; also
a future perfect passive indicative, optative, infinitive,
and participle.

299 The tense-stem is the reduplicated verb-stem, with no tense-

suffix.

300 a. The indicative takes the primary endings in the perfect,

the secondary endings in the pluperfect.
b. The subjunctive and optative are compound forms — the
perfect middle participle with the present subjunctive and
optative of et/xt a7n (384).
c. The imperative takes the regular imperative endings.
d. The infinitive takes the ending -o-^at, the participle the
ending -/xeVos (-fjiivrj, -/xeVov) ; both always accent the penult.

301 The future perfect passive adds to the reduplicated stem the
future suffix (278) with the middle endings. Thus :

Ind. 7re-7rau-o-o-/Aat, etc., I sliall licive been stopt.

Opt. Tre-Trav-a-OL-fxrjv, Ctc.
Inf. Tre-Tvav-cre-arOaL.

Ptc. 7r€-Trav-(r6-fjL€Vos, etc.

The Passive System : &7} - Passive

302 This includes an aorist and a future. The passive

stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the passive
suffix, which is -9r)- before a single consonant, -0e-

before two consonants or a vowel. {®r}-passive.^

303 The aorist passive takes the active endings throughout.

304 The indicative takes the augment (265) and the secondary
endings, with -o-av in the third plural.
 VOWEL VERBS 95

305 The subjunctive adds to the passive-stem the mode-suffix -o):r)-;

-Oioi-.-q- contracts to -6oi- or -^?}-, and the inflection, except for

accent, is like any active subjunctive.

306 Tlie optative adds to the passive stem the mode-suffix -i-q-,

in the plural and dual -t- or -lyj- (-te- in the third plural)
-6e-L- contracts to -^et-, and hence the accent can not pre-
cede -^et-.

307 The imperative adds to the passive-stem the imperative end-

ings, with -Tt for -Ol (47 and b).

308 The infinitive adds -vat to the passive-stem, and accents the
penult (296 a).

309 The participle adds -vt- to the passive stem, and is declined
as in 165.

310 The future passive adds to the passive stem the future suffix
-a-o:^- with the middle endings, in the indicative, optative, in-

finitive, and participle.

311 The principal parts of a verb are the first form of

every system used in it ; thus they indicate the entire
conjugation :

Verb-stem, TTav- stop, Koikv- ]dnde)\

Present system, TTavo) KCoXvO)

Future system, Travcro) KcoXvcro)

Aorist system, enavcTa iKcoXvcra

Perfect act. syst.. TrenavKa KEKCoXvKa
Perfect mid. syst.. TreTTavjJLaL

Passive system. iTravOrjv

312 Two common verb-stems, 6v- sacrifice and A.i;- loose^ have v in

the present, future, and o-a-aorist, elsewhere v : Ovoi, Ovo-m,

Wvaa, re^VKa, TeOvfxaL, IrvQ-qv (47 c).

A few others are irregular or variable. (See, in the Verb-

list, dvi^O), SvCO, TtOJ.)
96 fi- VERBS

Tljjtdw (Ti(j[.a:Ti-) honor

Active
 CONTRACT VERBS 97

Tipidw (TifAaiT]-) honor

Voice
 98 fi- VERBS

314 TTOiib) (iroi€:T]-) make, do

Active
 CONTEACT VERBS 99

iroUo) (iroi€:T]-) make, do

Voice
100 n- VERBS

SovXod) (8ovXo:(i>-) enslave

Active
 CONTRACT VERBS 101

SovXoo) (8ov\o:«-) enslave

Voice
 102 fl- VERBS

II. Vowel Verbs, Contracting in the Present

316 Verbs in contract the stem-vowel a, e, o

-do), -ew, -oo)

in the presentsystem with the succeeding vowel, in

accordance with 29 and 30. (Paradigms, 313-315.)

a. Note also that l in the second syllable is re-

tained (on the line or subscript), and that o with an

t-diphthong (et, ot, rj) gives ot. But
b. In the infinitive, -eiv (from -e-ev, 274) was no
true diphthong (27 a) hence -d-eup gives -av and
;

-o-eLv gives -ovT/j without i.

317 Outside of the present system the stem-vowel a, e, o

is lengthened (28 a) a becomes d after e,
; t, or p,
otherwise rj Orjpdoj liunt^ fut. Orjpdo-co, etc.
: ; tdojjiaL

heal, fut. ida-ofxai, etc. ; rlfjudo) honor, fut. TLfjujao), etc.

a. But xpao/xat use and d>cpoao/xat Uste7i are irregular

XpdojxaL^ Xpi^ao/xaL, ixpr)(rdijir)v, K(.)(p'q^aL^

d/cpoao/xat, aKpoctcro/xai, r)Kpod(rd]JL7]v, yKpod/JLai.

318 In the paradigms (313-315) the uncontracted vowels are in

parenthesis, the contract syllable follows next for the uncon- ;

tracted form read the parenthesis and omit the contract sylla-
ble, for the contract form omit the parenthesis.

319 In the present optative active the mode suffix -ltj- is more
common in the singular, but rare elsewhere.

320 Seven verbs in -dw contract to rj instead of d. The most fre-

quent are ^dw live, xpdop.ai use, SuiJ/do) thirst, Treivdw hunger :
 CONTRACT VERBS 103

321 Monosyllabic stems in -e contract only in the forms that give

€t. Thus irXc- (see 257 b) sail makes ttAci?, TrAet, €7rXct9, hrXci,
ttXuv^ but TrXeo), TrXiofxev, irXirj^, TrAcoi/xt, etc.

a. 8ew Mud sometimes contracts throughout, but Sew lack

and Seo/xat ask follow the rule.

322 A few verb-stems in -a and -e, with still fewer in -o,

do not lengthen that vowel in any system some of ;

these assume a in the perfect middle or in the

passive system or both :

Verb-stems yeXa- laugJij cnra- draw, reXe-Jinish,

Present yeXao) cnraoj reXeo)

Future yeXacro) cnrdcrco TeXecro)

Aorist iyeXaaa icnraaa ireXecra

Perf. Act. ecnraKa rereXe/ca
Perf. Mid. ^(TTTacTjiai rereXecTfJiaL

Aor. Pass. iyeXdcrOrjv icr7rda6r]v ireXeaOrjp

The stem alpe- ajpp'ove neither lengthens e in

Attic nor takes cr ; two compounds, eV-ati/ew praise
and TTttp-ati^ecj advise, are frequent. (But rjvrjjjiai is

found.)

a. In some verbs (as reXc-, cp. to t€Xo<s end) the o- clearly

belonged to the original stem, and has been lost except before
and T others appear to have imitated these by inserting a-
fjL ;

before fx and r.

b. The perfect and pluperfect indicative middle have in

the third plural a compound form ; the whole inflection
(showing also the form of the participle) is as follows :
 LIQUID VERBS 105

327 Liquid verbs usually form tlie aorist stem (indicative)

by adding to tlie verb-stem the suffix -a:e- and length-
enino; the stem- vowel ; a in the stem leno^thens to d
after i or p, otherwise to 17 e lengthens to et.
; (^Li-

quid aorist.^

a. But KcpSatVo) (KcpSai/-) gain makes iKcpSdva.

328 The inflection throughout is like that of the o-a-aorist, omit-

ting o- (331).

329 The present stem of these verbs may be of the forma-

tive-vowel class (257), the t-class (259), or the nasal
class (261), as shown by the principal parts. (See
Verb-list.) Thus oreXXw (crreX-, o-raX-, 259 a) se?idj
fut. areXo), aor. ecrretXa, pf. act. ecrraX/ca, pf. mid. e-

o-raX/xat (338, 339), aor. pass. iaToXiqv (334-337).

330 Other frequent combinations are shown in the follow

ino; verbs : for other tenses of these verbs see Verb-
list.
PRESENT FUTURE AORIST

atpo) (dp-, 259 b) raise, dpco (dp-eote-), ^pa (dp-are-),

(^atVco ((f)av-, 259 b) shotv, (j)av(o, effirjvaj

KaOaipcx) (fca^ap-, 259 b) Kadapoj, eKciOrjpaj

cleanse,
KTELvo) (^KTev-j 259 b) Mil, KTevcj, €KTeiva,

Kpivoi (^Kpiv-, 259 b) decide, Kpivco, eKplva,

dfjivpo) (d/xui^-, 259 b) diivvco, 7)fxvpa,

ward off,
/xeVo) (/xei/-, 257) remain, jxevco, e/xetj/a.

a. Kot all liquid verbs follow these formations ; especially

several form the aorist according to 347.
 106 fi- VERBS

331
 LIQUID VERBS 107

(TTcXXft) (o-TcX-, o-raX-) send

Optative
 108 fl- VERBS

332 A - Perfect. —Some liquid and mute verbs make a per-

fect active system without k, with the tense-suftix
-a- (indicative), generally with a change of vowel
or consonant in the stem, often with intransitive or
present meaning. Thus (/)aiVw (<^az^-) show, besides
the Aca-perfect ire-^ay-Ka have shown^ makes ire-cfirjv-a

have appeared', KTeiPco (kt€v-, ktov-) hill makes

-4-KTov-a have hilled (in prose always d-n-eKTova) ;

iyeipo) (iyep-^ waken, makes iyp-yjyop-a am awake

(Attic reduplication, 291 c) ; so also olkovco (olkov-)
hear, aK-yJKo-a (for aK-rjKof-a, 27) have heard,

333 The inflection is like that of the /ca-perfect (synopsis, 336).

334 H- Passive. — Some liquid and mute verbs take -rj-.e-

instead of -Orjie- as passive suffix ; an e in the verb-

stem usually becomes a : as crreXXw (crreX-, o-raX-)
send, i-ardX-rjv.

335 The inflection is like that of the ^77-passive, except that the
imperative ending -Ol is not changed (synopsis, 336).

336 Synopsis of (f)aipco (<^aj/-) sJiow, in

Liquid Aorist a -Perfect H- Passive

Indie.
 LIQUID VERBS 109

b. H-passives are also formed from some mute verbs ; see

in the Verb-list ySAaTrroj, ypa^w, pcTrrco, crrpit^oi.

337 Most verbs have only one of these passives if both ;

are made, some difference of meaning may appear as ;

from (f)aLvoj {(^av-) show, icjidvOrji' was shown (pas-

sive), icfxiv-qv ajypeared (intransitive).

338 In the perfect middle system the final consonant in

the stem caused certain changes (paradigms, 339).

339 Perfect Middle System, Liquid Verbs

 110 12 -VERBS

a. The endings -vrat, -vto after a consonant being almost

unpronounceable, compound forms are used.

b. In the subjunctive and optative compound forms are used.

c. Forms in -vo-at and -vo-o do not occur compound forms

;

may have been used.

d. See also 50 d and 65 b 7re-<5f)ao--/xat for 7r€-^av-/xat, i-o-rdX-
:

6ai for i-crraX-crOaL.

IV. Mute Verbs

340 The present system of mute verbs may be of the
formative vowel class (257), the r-class (258), the
-

t-class (259), the inceptive class (260), or the nasal

class (26l). In other systems many sound-changes

occur where consonants come together.
341 The formation of the various tense-stems is illustrated
in the following:

(ypacj)-) iDvite {plj>-, pi4>-) throw

Present ypdfjyo) (257) piiTToj (258)
Future ypdxjjo) (45 a)
Aorist eypaxfja (45 a) epplxfja (48)
Pf Act.
. yeypa<j)a (332) €ppl(f)a
Pf. Mid. yiypafxyiai (44 a) epplfJifiaL

Aor. Pass. iypd^7]v (334) ippL(l>Or)v and

ippL(f)rjv

(fi\a/3-) injure (Tre/xTT-) send

Present ^XdirTO) (258) TTEfJiTrCO

Future /3Xaxjj(o TrepA^foi

Aorist e^Xaxjja €7TefjLxjja

Pf. Act. /5e^Xa^a (342 b) 7T€7TOfji(j)a (342 b)

Pf. Mid. /3€/3\aiJLfjLaL TTeTTefifjiai (344 a)
Aor. Pass. e^\d(^er)v (43 a) inefjicj^Orjv

i^\d/3r]v
112 fi- VERBS

Perfect Middle System, Mute Verbs

 MUTE VERBS 113

346 a. Futures in -co. —Verbs in -i^oj (verb-stems in -tS-)

commoDly make tlie future in -tw, dropping S and

taking the suffix -eoie-, which then contracts as in
the liquid future (324) /co/xt^cu (/co/xt8-) carry
: ^ /co/xtw.

In later Greek the forms in -icro) occur.

b. A few verbs in -a^o> (stems in -aS-) drop o- in the future
and contract, like presents in -aw (316) : pipd^o) (/8ty8a8-) make
go, pL/Sda-o), contracted to /St/Sw, ^t/3a5, etc.

347 Formative- Vowel or Thematic Aorist. —Many mute

verbs and some liquid verbs make the aorist active
and middle by adding the suffix -o:e- to the verb-
stem, in the weak form if it has one.
The inflection is like that of a present system ; in
meaning this aorist does not differ from the aa-
aorist : XetVw (Xenr-, Xltt-) leave^ IXnrov (348).

348 Formative-Vowel Aorist

 114 fi- VERBS

a. Five verbs also accent the formative vowel in the impv.

second sing, active elire say, ikOe come, evpi find, iSi see, XaySe
:

take. But in compounds their accent is recessive.

360 Verbs that make a formative- vowel aorist are very fre-
quent, and are often irregular. Among the commonest
^ ^ •
Present Aorist

1. Xaji/Bdvo) (Xa/B-j Xtj/S-) eXa^ov, Xd/3a), Xd^oLfjiL, Xa/Be

take, (349 a), Xafielv, Xa^cov.

2. (j)evyo) {<^evy-j (f)vy-j e(l)vyoi', (f)vya), (j>vyoLiJii, (j^vye,

flee, ^vyeiVj (j)vy(6p.

3. Trdo'xoj (jraO-y 260 b) iiTaOov, TrdOco, TrdOoLfjn, rrdOe,

suffer, TTaOelv, TTa6a)v.

4. pdXXo) (^aX-j /3Xrj-^ e^aXov, ^dXco, /BdXoiixL^/BdXe,
throw J
*
/SaXeuv, /BaXcov.
5. ytyvofxaL {y^v-, yov-, iyepofjirjv, yei^ojixau, yevoi-
yevrj-) become, fjLTjv, yevov^ yeveaOat, ye-

6. exoi (o-ex; e'x-, ct^-, eVxoz^, ax^y o-xoLrjv, crxe?

(txt) ^Ci'^e, hold, (271), crxetJ^, ax^^v.
(In compounds the subjunctive and imperative have reces-
sive accent : Tra/oao-xw, Trapao-xe?.)

7. opdoi {opa-, 18- ; 391) elSoi^ (^67), tSoj, Ihoiixi, tSe

see, (349 a), Ihelv, IScot/.
8. (j)r]iJiL (^(j)a'.7]-, f^TT-, eiTTOv, eiTro), eiiroiiJiL, elne
391) say, (349 a), elTrelv, enTd)v.

9. alpeo) (alpe.r]-, eX-) elXov, iXco, iXoLfJn, eXe, iXeli;

seize, kXojv.

10. dyo} (ay-^ lead, drive, rjyayov (with reduplica-

tion), dydyo), dydyoLfJH,
ay aye, dyayelv, dyayoiv.
 MI -VERBS 115

351 Besides the formative-vowel aorists etTrov said (<^r7/xt) and

^vcyKoi/ hore (<^€p(o) are found forms of an aorist in a : ciTra,

ctTTtt?, etc., and •^veyKa, •^veyKtt?, etc.

352 Verbal Adjectives are formed by adding -t6<; {-nj, -^ov)

and -Teo<; (-d, -ov) to the verb-stem as it appears in
the aorist passive (observing the rule in 43) ; some-
times an extra a- appears before the r.
353 Most verbals in -to<; either (1) denote the capability
or possibility of the action of the verb (cp. Latin
-MUsy English -able)y or (2) have the force of a per-
fect passive participle (Latin -tus) : i,r]\o)T6<^ enviaUe
or envied from {T^Xdw, por]-T6<^ tliinlcable from z^oeo),
TTOLTj-Tos made from iroiio}.

a. Some verbals in -tos have an active meaning : pv-ro^

flowing from pew.

b. Compound verbals in -to^ in the first meaning accent
the ultima and have three endings ; in the second meaning
they have recessive accent and two endings 8ta/?aTos (->/, -oV) :

fordable from 8ta/?atVw, aypain-os (-ov) unicritten from ypa<^w.

354 The verbal in -Tio<; has the general force (but not all

the uses) of the Latin gerundive or jDarticiple in

-ndus\ 7rpdK-Teo<; requiring to he donej faciendus.

B. Verbs of the Mt-CoxjuGATio^^"

355 The distinction between the w-conjugation and the
/xi-conjugation applies only to the present system. In
the /Ltt-conjugation the present stem does not end in
-o:€-, and the fuller endings -/xt, -9, -cjt, -acri, -crav

(263) are used. There are two classes :

356 (1) Nasal Class (cp. 281). —The suffix -w.v-, after a
vowel 'vvv'.v-, is added to the verb-stem
 116 MI -VERBS

VERB-STEM PRES, STEM PRES. IND.

8et/c- point at, heiKvv'.v-, SeLKvvfjn,

K€pa- mix, Kepavvv'.v-, Kepavvvfjn,

357 (2) Root Class. —The present stem is tlie verb-stem,

always a root, sometimes reduplicated :

VERB-STEM PRES. INDIC,

(j)a:r}- say, ^iq^jn (19 d),

aralrj- set up, lo-TrjfjLi (257 a, 64).

I. Verbs in -pvijii

358 Verbs in -vvixi show the simplest form of /^t-present

(paradigm, 360).
(1) The final stem-vowel
long in the singular of
is

the active indicative present and imperfect, and in

the second singular of the active imj)erative ; else-

where it is short.

(2) The endings are unchanged : -dcrt and -aai/

are used in the active third plural ; -Ol is omitted.
(3) The infinitive active takes -vau and accents
the penult (296 a).

(4) The active participle accents the final vowel

of the present stem (l70).
(5) The subjunctive and optative follow the co-con-
jugation. Sometimes the indicative also follows the
orconjugation.
359 The other verbs of this class are the following, which see in
the Verb-list
(a) Vowel verbs : Kcpavvvfjn mix, KpefjLdvvvfjLt hang, Treravvv/jLi

spread, a-KiSdwvfiL scatter, a-piwvixi quench, poivvvixi strengthen,

o-TpwvvvjxL spread.
 MI -VERBS 117

(b) Liquid verbs : oXXvfxi lose, destroy, ojxvv^i swear.

(c) Mute verbs, in -y : ^evyvvfjn join, /xetyvv/xt mix, Tn/jyvvfiL

fix, pT^yvvfjLL break.

360 Ae^KvvjjLi (SeiK-) point at

 118 MI -VERBS

II. Verbs in -r)fJiLy with Stem in -alrj-

361 Verbs of the root class (357) with present stem in

-aiT^- follow laTTjixL (362). They are like heLKvvfjLL

except as follows
(1) d-dcTL contracts to -ao-t.

Present System of

Active
 MI -VERBS 119

(2) The subjunctive contracts -doj- and -drj- to -w-

and -17-.

(3) The optative mode-suffix is -irj-, or in the plu-

raland dual more often -i- (-le- in the third plural),
added directly to the stem. The accent never stands
before the mode-suffix. (Cp. the passive aor. opt.)
to-Tiiixi (<rTa:ii-) set, stand

Voice
120 MI -VERBS

"lo-TT^/xt and its compounds are very common, and tlie

different tenses often require different translations.

The fundamental distinctions are shown in the follow-
ing table
 MI -VERBS 121

Likewise KaOia-T-qixL set down^ settle^ KaTao-Ttjcrco

shall settle (trans.), Kareo-Trjaa settled (trans.), Kare-
o-TTjj/ became settled^ KaOea-TrjKa am settled, KadeLa-TiJKr)

was settled.

364 A future perfect active ia-ri^ioi shall stand is formed by add-

ing ttie future suffix and endings to io-rr^K- as a perfect stem.
In like manner 6vycrK(a die forms TeOv^iw shall be dead from

365 The following verbs (which see in the Verb-list) are like
la-TrjfXL in the present system ovCvqiii henefit^ mid. le advan-
:

taged, TTLfnrXrjfXL fill, TTLfjLTrprjfiL set OH fire (more frequent in the

compound c/ATrtTrpiy/xi), aya/xai admire, SvvafJicu COn, iTTLO-TafjLaL

hnoic, %Lnder stand. c8vva(o-)o regularly becomes cSuVw.

a. The deponents in this list have recessive accent in the

subjv. and opt., herein differing from ttmy/u :

Subjv. Sww/Attt, Swry, SvvTTTai, etc.,

Opt. Swato, €7rio-TatTO, ayatvTO.

Likewise in the root-aorist (366) wv-qix-qv from SvLvrj/jiL :

ovato, ovaiTO, ovaivro, and from iTrpLafxrjv (pres. wvio/xai) ; Trptoi-

fiai, etc.

366 Root-Aorist. — Some

and /xi-verbs, all of them hav-
(&
ing vowel-stems, make an active aorist in w^hich the
endings are added directly to the root as tense stem
(root-aorist). In so far it is like the /xt-present and
imperfect. In meaning it is like other aorists but ;

if the verb has also a o-a-aorist, that is causative and

the root-aorist intransitive. Thus from 10-717 /xi, ecr-

TTjaa I set or caused to stand, icTrjv I placed myself
or took my place from yiyvcocrKco recognize, iyoiv ;
;

from Suoj enter, iSvp. (Paradigms, 367.)

 122 MI- VERBS

367 ROOT-AORISTS
 MI -VERBS 123

2<rTT]V, 'iiyvuiv, '<iSvv

biPERATIVE
 124: MI -VERBS

369 Eoot-aorist forms are also found, some of them frequently,

from
(a) paivtji iPaiT]-) go :

ejSrjv, Pio, ^curjv, PtjOl, prjvai, )8as. SuhJY. fiia, Pfj<s, ^y, etc.
-SiSpda-KOi (8pa:d-) run away, only in composition, esp. diro-
SiSpdo-KO)

eSpctj/, e8pa,9, etc, 8pw, Spas, etc, Spairjv, hpaOt, Spavai, Spa's.

KT€Lv<j) (kt€v-, KTaiTj-) Mil (root-aor. poetic) :

€KTdVf €/CTaS, €KTd ', ptC. KTttS, KTOL/JLeVO^.

6vLV7}fjiL (6va:7]-) benefit (root-aor. intr.)

u>vT^fJiy]v, 6vaLfX7)v (365 a), ovrjcro, ovaaOai, ovyfxevo^.
TrerofiaL (ttct-, TTTairj-)
fiy :

CTTTTyv, TTTat-qv^ TTTrjvai, TTTttS (act. poetic),

mid. cTTTtt/xT^v, irracr^at, tttci/acvoS.

Eoot (TXairj-) endure

erXr]v, tXw, rAairyv, tX^Ol, rXrjvaL, tAos.
Eoot (Trpia-) buy (present wveofiai) :

cTrpta/xryv, Trptto/iat (365 a), 7rptat//,7yi/, 7rptao"^at, Trpidfxevo'S.

<f>6dvoi {(f>Oa:r]-) get ahead of I

€<f)6rjv, (fiOio, <f>6aLr]v, tfiOyjvai, (f>6d^.

(b) a-pivvvixL (a-peiT]-) que7ich :

€0-^>yv went out, (T/3r]vaL,

{c) aXio-Ko/jiaL (oA-, dAo:o)-) 05m captured:

edX(DV or T^Awv, dAw, dAotiyi/, dAwi/at, oAoijS.

^100) (Plo'.io-) live :

(tZ) <^vo) (<3!)v:i5-) produce

€<f>vv was born, am, <f>v(o, <]>vvai, <j!)vs.

370 Root-Perfect. —A few verbs have some perfect active

forms without a tense-suffix, the endings being added
directly to the reduplicated verb-stem, always a root.
Thus
(1) From LCTTrjfjLL, besides the regular fca-perfect,
occur, in the intransitive sense, stand,
 MI -VERBS 125

Ind. €o-Ta-|Ji€v Subjv. €(rT(o Inf. €crTd-vai

CO-Ta-TC €0-Tci)fJL€V

eo-Tclcri co-Tcao-L Ptc. taTcos

ecTTa-TOV Opt. co-TaiTjv, etc. (173)
Plup. ccTTa-crav Impv. cVxa-Oi, etc.

(2) From /Batvajj besides ^€^r]Ka am gone, stand

fast, occur ind. 3d pi. ^ej^aaij subjv. 3d. pi. /Se/Bcjcriy
ptc. fief^m, like ecrrcrjg.

(3) From yiyvoyiai, besides yivovaj occurs yeycosj

like ecrrw?.

(4) From Ovrjo-Kco, besides riOviqKa am dead, occur

Ind. Te0va-}i€v Opt. T€0vaiT|v
T€0va-T€ Impv. T€6va-6i
T€0vd(ri Inf. T€0vd-vai
Te0va-Tov Ptc. T€0ve(os (173)
Plup. €T€0va-o-av

(5) Besides SeSot/ca (St-, Set-, Sot-) fear, and the

a-perfect SeSta, SeSte, SeSteVat, occur
Ind. 8€8l-jji€V Plup. cSeSi-aav
6e8L-T€ Subjv. SeSioi)

SeSi-do-i Ptc. ScSlws, SeSiuia, ScSids

(6) From eot/ca (Ik-, eU-j ot/c-) am like, appear,

plup. eotKif], occur
Ind. €0L7-|JL€V Inf. clKcvai
€L§dO-L Ptc. €lK(OS, €lKl)ia, CIKOS

in. AiScOfJLL, TL9r)fJLL, '^IrjlJLL

371 Three very common verbs — StSw/xt ^^^^, TiOiqixi put,

IrjfjLL send —are nearly like lariqixi, but agree in cer-

tain differences from IcrTrjiJiL in the present and root-
aorist systems, as also in forming a peculiar /ca-

aorist. (Paradigms, 372-374.)

126 MI -VERBS

8i8(0|xi (80 :a)-) give

 MI -VERBS 127

8iSwp.t (8o:<»-) give

Optative
 128 MI -VERBS

373 t£9t]|jli (0€:ti-) ptit

 MI -VERBS 129

Tf0Tini {Qe.r\-) put

Optative
130 MI -VERBS

frjut (6:tj-) send

 MI -VERBS 131

CTiiJii (l:<q-) send

 132 MI -VERBS

375 Tlie principal parts of tlie above verbs are

StSw/xt, Sajcrw, eScoKaj SeSw/ca, 8e8o/xat, iSoOrjVy

TLdrjjjiL, 07](ro), edrjKa, redrjKaj TeOefiaUy iTeOrjv (47 c),

trjfjLLj yjcrcoy '^Ka, -et/ca (for e-e-fca), -ef/iai, -eWr]!/.

a. Many forms of Irjfii are found only in compo-

sition. The reduplication syllable of 117 /xt is irregu-
lar in being generally long. (Cp. TriTrro).)

376 In the present system

(1) UdcTL is always contracted to tao-t.

(2) Forms of the w-conj Ligation, like those of contract

verbs in -ew and -ow (314, 316), are used
Often in the present indicatives rt^ets, rt^et, tets, tec,

Generally in the imperfects iTcOets, ItlOcl^

Always in the imperfects eSiSow, eStSov?, eStSov, and tetv,

tets,tet, and the imperatives StSov, rt^et, t"'ci.

377 Occasional forms like tlOoIto, avvOoiro, iTrtOoLiJLeOa, irpooiTO^ Trpo-

oti/ro, or (with changed accent) riO-qrai^ Trpoo-OrjraL, TrporjTaL, iiTL-

OwvTaL, tlOolto, (TvvOoiTO, TTpooiVTo, afx^LOLTe^ oifXffiLOLev , SiYQ due to

the same leaning toward the w-conjugation.

378 In the root-aorist the indicative active lacks the singular ; in-
—
stead are used forms of a Ka-aorist like the o-a-aorist, but
with K for 0-.
This Ktt-formation sometimes occurs in the plural and dual,
and occasionally in the middle WrjKav^ iSwKa/xev, TTpo^Kavro,
:

379 In the root-aorist, further,

(1) The stem remains short {ho-, Oe-, I-) throughout, except
in the infinitives SoWat, ^et-mt, el-vau (Perhaps the ending
here was -cvat instead of -vat.) e- takes the syllabic augment
(267) and contracts with it to et-.

The imperatives
(2) 80s, Bis, Is have -s for -Oi. (In like
manner o-xes, aor. impv. act. 2d sing, of cx^.)
 MI -VERBS 133

(3) The ending -a-o after a sJiort vowel generally drops tr

and contracts.
(4)Compounds of So?, Oh, h accent the penult : (xttoSo?.

Compounded with a monosyllabic preposition Sov, 6ov, ov

retain the circumflex ; but they throw the accent back on a

dissyllable : ivSov, acf>ov, KardOov.
The infinitives 800-^at, Oia-Oai, laOai in composition retain
the accent : Trpoa-Oea-OaL, Trpoea-Oai.

380 The various ways of forming the tenses of verbs have now
been shown, and are here grouped together.
1. Present System :

A. 12 -Conjugation
Formative-vowel class, sufiix -o:e- (257),
Tau class, sufiix -ro-.e- (258),
Iota class, suffix -to:e- (259),
Inceptive class, suffix -o-ko-.c-, -lo-ko-.c- (260),
Nasal class, suffix -vote-, -avo-.e- (with or without
inserted nasal), -woic-, -v€o:c- (261) ;

B. Mt- Conjugation
Nasal class, -w.v-, -vw-.v- (356),
Eoot class, no suffix (357).
2. Future System
Common or sigmatic future, suffix -a-o-.e- (278),
Liquid future, suffix -eo:e- (324; cp. 346),
"Doric future," suffix -(r€o:e- (326).
3. Aorist System :

Sa-aorist, suffix -o-a:c- (280),

Liquid aorist, suffix -a.e- with vowel-lengthening
(327),
Thematic or formative-vowel aorist, suffix -o:e- (347),
Root-aorist, no suffix (366).
4. Perfect Active System :

Ka-perfect, suffix with reduplication (288),

-Ka:e-

A-perfect, suffix with reduplication (332),

-a-.e-

Root perfect, no suffix, with reduplication (370).

 134 MI -VERBS

5. Perfect Middle System :

Ko suffix, with reduplication (299).

6. Passive System
0i;-passive, suffix -Oeirj- (302),
H-passive, suffix -eirj- (334).

IV. Irregular and Defective Ml -Verbs

381 A few verbs are quite common and more or less
irregular in tlie present system, but in other systems
are less common or never found. Some have a future
system which is nearly or quite regular (382-389).

382 <j)T]|jLi (<}>tt:ti-) say

Ind. Pres.
 MI- VERBS 135

e. ov (fyrj/jLL means nego : deny, refuse, say no.

f. Poets have a few middle forms, with no translatable
difference of meaning.

383 With (f>r]iJiL belong the three forms -^fxi (enclitic), yv, 5 (Lat.
aio), equivalent to ^-7/xt, ^cf>r)v, £(f>7].
The formulas ^v 8' cyw
said I, y 8* os said he, are much used in reporting conver-
sations.

384 €l|xt (co--) Slim, am, etc.

IxD. Pres.
 136 MI -VERBS

385 €ljii (1-, €l-) go, Lat. Ire (cp. Uer)

Ind. Pres.
 MI -VERBS 137

a. In the impf. are found also >5Se/xev, rjSiTc, rja-av, and (in

later writers) ySecv, ySeis, rySct/nev, ^Setre, yScLaav.

b. The root of oTSa (18-) is the same as that of elSov I saio

and Lat. video but the above forms never mean see.
;

c. The future eto-o/xat often means shall learn.

d. The ptc. etSws has the form of a perfect, though present

in meaning.
Also oT8a, ola-Oa^ oTSe are somewhat like an a-perfect, but are
always present in meaning; to-//ev, etc., the plural and dual,
are present in form as well. The imperfect is also in part
like a pluperfect in inflection ; but compare the imperfect of
cTfugo (385).
387 K€i(jLai (k€i-) lie, am laid

Ind. Present
 138 MI -VERBS

388 fjliai (vjor) sit

Ind. Pres.
 MI -VERBS 139

391 Two or more defective verbs may supplement one another

and so make up what serves as one complete verb. This has
happened with some of the commonest verbs, as in English
am, is, are, was, he, or go, went. So in Greek for the aorist
and perfect of ct/xt are used iyevofjirjv and yiyova from ytyvo-
fiat iecome the roots 6pa:d-, Sir-, and IS-, all meaning see, to-
;

gether make up opdw, oxj/ofiai, ctSov, iwpdKa, oTroiira, Icopa/xat,

wfjifiaty tL)cf)dr]v, See in the Yerb-list also alpio), tpxop'O.i, ia-Oto),

^dw, rpexo), cftipoi, Xcyo), wveoyu-at.

Middle and Passive Foems with Peculiar Meaning

392 In many verbs otherwise active the future active is

wanting and the future middle has the active mean-

ing. Especially common are

OLKOvw, aKova-ofxai hear, fxavOdvo), /-ta^iycroju-at learn,

dixapTavo), dfiapTT^croixaL fail, oTSa, ctcro/xat ]c7lOW,

d-n-o-Ovyja-Kiii, aTroOavov/xaL die, o/jlvv/xl, 6p.ovp.aL SWear,

paSiliii, /3aSiovpLaL walh, opdio, 6i}/op,aL see,

yiyvdxTKOi, yvwcro/xat recognize, Trd(rx<Ji, Trciorop.aL suffer,

StwKO), Siw^o/Attt pursue, TrtTTTCo, TTCo-ov/xat fall,
elp.L, ea-opxLi am, be, etc., uXeco, irXeva-ofxai sail,

CTraiveo), 67ratvco-o/>tat praise, Tpix,'^, Spap.ovp.ai run,

Kdpjvoi, Kap.ovp.aL am iveary, rvyxdvw, T€v^op.aL happen,
Xayxdvoi, X^^o/xat get hy lot or fate, <f>€vyoi, <p€v^op.aL flee.

Xap.(3dv(o, X-^ij/opLaL talce,

393 The future middle of some verbs has the passive

meaning among the more common are
;

dSLKrja-opiaL shall he ivronged, oi^cXrj(Top.aL shall he benefited,

av^riarop.aL shall he increased, rapd^op.aL shall he disturbed,
olKrja-opiaL shall he administered, 6pe\J/op.aL shall he nurtured,
TToXLopKria-opLaL shall he besieged, c{ivXd^op.aL shall he guarded.

a. Some others have in the passive sense both middle and

passive forms:
 14:0 MI -VERBS

^7]fXL(o(rofjLaL and t,r]fiHi)67JorofjLaL shall he damaged^

d7ro-(TT€pyj(TOfx,aL and -crTeprjO-^a-ofjiat shall be deprived,
Tifirja-ojxaL and Tljx-qdrjcro^Lai shall he honored.

394 Of deponent verbs (middle or passive in form but

active in meaning; cp. 601) some have in the aorist
tense middle forms (middle deponents)^ others passive
forms (passive deponents). Among middle deponents
many have also the passive aorist with passive mean-
ing, as alndofJiaL accuse, rjria(rd^'Y]v accused, rJTLaOrjv
was accused. So also
Se;(o/xat accept, Xv/jLaLvo/xai injure,
SuypiofxaL present, fjL€/x(f>o/jiai hlame,
ipyd^ofxat ivorJc, jju/xeo/xai imitate,
aTTOKpivofjiaL answer, ^erairiixTrofxaL send for,
XoyL^ofiai rechon, IvriXXofiaL enjoin upon.

395 Most passive dej)onents have in the future the middle

forms
jSorXo/Atti luish, ^ovXrjcro[xai, i/SovXyOrjV,
Seo/xat want, ash, Sc^o-o/iat, i^erjOrjv,

SvvafJLai can, SvvT^crofjLaL, iSvvrjdyjv,

OLOfJLat thinh, olrjo-opLai, wrjOrjv.

a. But some passive deponents have in the future both

middle and passive forms :

atSeo/xat respect, atSecro/xai, and alSea-Orja-o/JiaL,

SiaXiyofJiaL converse, SiaXe^ojJiai, and BtaXexOi^a-oixaL.
b. The following have only passive forms in both aorist
and future :

€pafjLai love, rjpd(r$r)v, ipacOya-o/JiaL,

rjSofxai am pleased, yja-Orjv, rja-Orjcroixai,

rfTTaofxaL am WOrstcd, rjTTT^Orjv, TfTTrja-OycroixaL.

396 The perfect of some deponents has both active and passive
meanings
 WORD-FORMATION 141

cipyao-Tttt he has worked or it has heen worked,

i(ovr}fiat I have bought or have dee?i bought.

E. WORD-FORMATION
397 Words are formed from other words in two ways :

(1) By
adding a suffix to an existing stem, or by
slightly changing an ending so as to make a new one
(derivation the new word is derived from the old).
;

(2) By putting two words or stems together into

one (composition ; the new word is a compound of
the two).
a. Declension and conjugation are special forms of deriva-
marked in character that they properly receive
tion, so clearly
separate names. The formation of adverbs has been treated
in connection with declension (228-237), but might have been
treated here. So with the numeral adjectives, adverbs, and
nouns described in 191, 192.

398 Many Greek stems took their existing form so early that they
can not now be analyzed into their parts. For us these are
root words, of the original stock of the language. Often
their likeness to other Greek words, or to words in kindred
languages, throws light on their earlier history but the study ;

of such relations belongs to comparative philology. In the

following sections are treated only the most common types of
word-formation but these alone are enough to show how the
;

bulk of the copious Greek vocabulary has been made, and to

assist greatly in learning that vocabulary.

I. DERIVATION
399 Words formed from a verb-stem are called
directly
verbals ; those formed from a noun or adjective stem
are called denominatives.
 142 word-formatio:n"

400 a. The shifting of vowels described in 26 and 26 is frequent

in derivation, as in declension and conjugation.
b. As
in conjugation (cp. 322 and a) a o-, of uncertain
origin, sometimes added to a verb-stem before a suffix. So
is

also 6 in o-ra-O-fjios station from o-ra- stand, and in pv-O-fxos

rhythm from pew {pv-) fioiv.
c. A final stem-vowel and the vowel of a suffix often con-
tract.

d. A final vowel of a stem is sometimes dropt before a

vowel.
e. The consonant changes described in 45-65 are made, as
in conjugation (341, 346).
f. A final consonant is sometimes dropt before the ending.

VERBALS

401 A few verbals, nouns and adjectives, are made from verb-
stems without a suffix, by simply adding the case-endings of
the consonant declension :

7] 6iJ/ (oTT-) voice, from etTretv (cTT-) speaTc,

y] TTTV^ (tTTVX-) fold, 7rTV(T(T0i {tTTVX-) fold,

6 kXmij/ (kAodtt-) thief, KXiirroi (kXctt-) steal,

7} <f>k6$ (</)Aoy-) flame, c^Aeyw (<^A.ey-) bum,

apira^ (dpTray-) plundering, dpTrd^o) (dpiray-) seize^

rj ^Tv^ {(TTvy-) Styx, root seen in a-Tvy-io) hate.

Verbal Nouns
402 Nouns made from verb-stems by adding a variety
are
of suffixes.The meaning of the suffix is often vague,
made clear only by the nature of the verb, by the
gender of the noun, or by usage. But many verbal
nouns fall into fairly distinct classes, denoting the
agent or doer^ the action^ the result of the action, or
 VERBALS 143

the instrument. Again, many abstract nouns and

nouns of action have become concrete, so that the
original force is changed.
a. The accent sometimes varies on different nouns with
the same suffix. When the accent regularly falls on the suf-
fix, that will be indicated ; otherwise the accent must be
learned from the examples and in reading.

403 The suffix -o, nom. mas. and fem. -os, neut. -ov, is one of the
most common, of very various meaning; an e in the verb-
stem regularly changes to o (25) :

Aoy-os speech^ from A-eyw (Aey-) spealc^

<rT6X-o<s expedition^ o-reXXo) (a-TeX-) equip, send,
Spofji-os running, Spafieiv (8pa/x-) run,
^vy-6v yolce, ^evyvvfjn (C^y-, ^evy-) join,
vofjb-os custom, law, vifxo) (v^fx-) distribute,
<l)6p-o^ tribute, <l>ep(o (</>ep-) bring, bear,
dpx-6's ruler, "^PX^ ("PX") ^^^^^5
Tpo<fi-6s (6, 17) nurse, rpecfuD (rpecj)-) nourish.

a. The suffix is accented when it denotes the agent.

b. Many nouns whose origin is obscure, or can be traced
only by comparing other languages, plainly have this ending :

oTk-os house, x^p-os place.

404 The suffix -d, nom. -d or-t], forms many nouns. Most of
them denote the action, but many have taken on a concrete
meaning, so that the force of the suffix is very various :

apx-ri beginning, rule, ^px^ i^PX~) ci'^ first,

povX-rj will, plan, /3ovAo/xat {(3ovX-) wish,
xap-d jog, X^^P^ (x^P-) rejoice,
fJidx-ri battle, /jtaxo/xat (ftaX") fight,
dyopd marhet-place, dyeipoi (dyep-) gather,

o-TTovS-rj haste, eagerness, a-TrevSo) {a-n-evS-) hasten.

a. Most of these accent the suffix, but some common words

accent the penult.
 IM WORD-FORMATION

b. This ending also appears in many nouns whose origin is

uncertain or traceable only by comparing other languages

8iK-rj judgment (in law), right .^ x^P-^ land.

405 The agent or doer is denoted by the suffixes

Mas. -Tr7P, nom. -rrjp, Fem. -retpd, nom. -Tctpa,

-Top, -Twp, -Tpia, -rpia,

-Td, T7JS, -rptS, -rtS, -TptS, -TLS.

-cv. -€vs (cp. 430 a),

criiy-Trjp savior, fem. <To)-T€Lpa, (Tio^oi ((TO)-) save,

(TvX-Xrjir-TOip ?r, OT^A-XTJTr-rpta, crvWafjiPdvoi ((rvv-XrjIS-) take
2Vlt7l,

piq-Tijip spealcer, €L-p7]-Ka {pe-.r]-) have spohen,

la-Tiop (for Fi8-T0)p) one oTSa (18-, oi8-) hnoiv,
who hnoivs,
TTotTy-rrJs malcer, poet, iroLrj-rpia, TTotew (Troic.y]-) maTce,
avXrj-TTJ'S flute-player, avXrj-rpi'i, avXew (avXcrj-) play thefliite,
7rpo-<j>'q-Tr]<s prophet, Trpo-fftrj-TLS, 7rp6-(l>r)ixL [7rpo-(fia:r)-) spealcfor,
ypa<f>-€vs writer. ypdcfxji (ypacf>-) tvrite.

406 The action is denoted by the following suffixes, but in many

cases the meaning has become concrete :

-Tl, nom. -Tt5, -La, nom. -la,

-o-t, -fXO, "i^-o^j

-(TLOL, -fxd, -fMTJ.

TTtcr-Tts faith, TTCiOoi {ttlO-) ivin over, mid. trust,

KpL-(TLs decision, KptvdD (KpL-) decide,
7rpa$L<S actio7i, 7rpd(Tcr(D (Trpdy-) do,
8oKifxa-a-Ld scrutiny, 8oKiiJLdlo) (8oKi/xa8-) scrutinize,
TTcv-td poverty, irevo/JLaL (irev-) am pOOr,
7rat8-ta play, Tratlco (TratS-) play,
68vp-fi6^ availing, oSvpo/Attt [68vp-) wailf
ee-o-'/xos (400 b) bond, 8eo) (Sc-) dind,
(TTa-6-p.6<i (400 b) station, LcrTTjixL [crra-^ set,

rl-fjirj honor, Tidi (tI-) honor,

yv<a-fi7j opinion, yiyvoidKOi (yvo:a>-) Opine,
 VERBALS 145

a. From verb-stems in -ev (417 a) are formed many nouns

in -Ld. By loss of v (27) -ev-cd becomes -etd.

SovXeid slavery, SovXevo) (SovXcv-) am a slave,

/Sao-tXeta reign, kingdom, paa-tXevoi (/Jao-tXev-) am king.
407 The result of an action is denoted by the following suffixes
but many nouns formed with them have other meanings :

-/x-ar, nom. -/xa (neut.), -^o-, nom. -os (neut.).

Trpay-fia deed, thing, Trpda-aw {irpdy-) do,

TTOLTj-fjia thing made, poem, ttoUw (ttoict]-) make,
ofi-fia (poetic) ege, oKJ/o/jLai (ott-) shall see,
yeV-os race, ytyvo/>tai (yev-) am iom,
if/evS-o^ falsehood, if/evSofiaL {KJ/evS-) speaTc falsely,
aOiv-o^ strength, crOivo) {a-Ocv-) am strong.

—
408 The means or instrument and also other relations— are de-
noted by -rpo or -6po, nom. -rpov or -Opov.
(TKYJir-Tpov staff, a-KrjirTOi (crKr/7r-) prop,
Xov-Tpov Tjatli, Aovo) (Aov-) halite,
KXeZ-Opov fastening, kAcioo- {kX^i-) close,

dp-Opov joint, apaptaKw (ap-) ft,

pd-Opov basis, jSacvo} (pa-) step, stand firm.

a. A related suffix is -Tpd :

TraXai-a--Tpd icrestUng-place, TratXatw (TraXat-) icrestU,

'

6pxri-<T-Tpd dancingplace, opxeo/aat (opx^:^-) dance,

yy-Tpd (also yy-rpoi) pot, X^^ (x^") P02ir.

409 The various infinitives are a special class of verbal nouns (see
662).

Verbal Adjectives

410 With the suffix -o (cp. 403) are formed some words that may
be used as adjectives or nouns at will. As adjectives some
have a feminine in -d (cp. 404), others are of two endings.
Not a few such adjectives (or nouns) are used as the second
part of a compound (446 c), though not found separately :

10
 146 WORD-FORMATION

AotTT-os (^7, -6v) left, remaining, XetTTO) (ActTT-) leave,

ayoiy-6's (reduplicated) leading, ayo) drive, lead,

guide,
-^oL-os making (400 d), TTOiio) (ttolc-) malce,
-fidx-o^ fighting, fidxofxat (/i-ax-) fight,

-•>/y-os leading, dyoi (dy-) drive, lead,

<f)6p-os bearing, <}>€po} (<^e/3-) bear,

•^Ko-os (27) hearing, oLKovo) (aKov-) hear.

411 The verbals in -ro-s and -rco-s, made from most verbs, have
been briefly described (352-354). Those in -to-s have a wide
range of meaning, usually passive, sometimes active, in some
cases resembling a perfect active participle :

^wa-Tos aNe [sict.), possible Svva/jiaL (Svva-) can,

(pass.),
irXavrj'Tos ivandering, irXavdu) (TrXava:7]-) wander,
tXtj-to^ enduring or endurable, rXdo) (rXairj-) endure,
7rt(r-Tos trustivorthy, faithful, TTuOoi (ttlO-) win, trust,
Kporrj-Tos pounded or rattling, Kporiui [KpoTciT]-) pound,
v7r-o7r-To<s suspected or sus- vTr-oij/oixaL (vtt-ott-) shall eye
picious,^ stealthily,
a-7rpdK-ros (440) undone or irpdcra-iii {irpay-^ do.
having done nothing.

412 Many verbal adjectives, active, passive, or indeterminate, are

formed with the suffixes
-vo or -avo, nom. -(a)vos, -rj, -6v,

-Xo -eAo, -(e)Xos, -?;, -oV,

-po -^po, -(e)pos, -a, -6v.

oTvy-vos hateful, hated, root <TTvy-, arrvyid) (crruye-) /iOfi^e,

cre/x-vos (for (re^-vos) revered, (ri(3op.aL (crcp-) revere,

solemn,
ScL-vo's fearful, SeSoLKa (8t-, 8«-, Sot-) fear,

T€pir-v6<s delightful, TepTTo) (rcpTT-) delight.

* Cp. the two meanings of suspicious in a suspicioiis man and a s«5-

picious circumstance.
 VERBALS 147

t/c-ai/o5 sufficieyit, caimVle^ Uvco/Aat (ik-) arrive^

TTiO-avo's persuasive, ttglOu) {ttlO-, ttclO-) icin over,
Set-A-os timid (cp. Setvds), hihoiKa (8t-, Set-, 8ot-) /e«r,
<rTv<f>-€k6s compact, a-rvKJiu} {(TTv<f>-) draiu together,
ix0-p6? hateful, hating, Ix^w (e'x^-) hate,
Aa/xTT-pd? splendid, Xd/xTro) [Xa/jLir-) shine,
lx€X.€T7]-p6<i practising practised,
I) /xeAeraw (fxeXcTa-.r)-) practise,
i(r)(y-p6s strojig, la-xioi (tcrxv-) ^e strong,
^Xa^-ep6s harjnful, fSkdirrin {^Xap-) harm,
<f>av-ep6? plain, cfxuvw {(f>av-) shoiv,
a-Tvy-epo'S hateful, hated (cp. o-rvyvds).

a. Some nouns formed with like suffixes are closely related

to these, and may have been originally adjectives :

o-T€<^ai/d5 wreath, crown, (TT€<j>ui {(mcj>-) put around,

hperr-avov SCythe, hpeiria [8p€7r-) pluck, Cull,
a-rq-k-q column, monument, Iottjixl {a-ra-.-q-) set up,
tf>v-\ov, <j>v-Xrj trihe, cla?i, </>va) mal'e groic,
8(x)-pov gift, 8tSto/xt (8o:(o-) give.

413 Other suffixes that form verbal adjectives are

a. -V, nom. -vs, eta, -v.

r]^v<s 2^l6asing, ^So/xat (178-) am pleased.

(In rax-v? su'ift, ^ap-v? heavy, and others, the root does
not appear in Greek as a verb-stem.)

b. -eo", nom. -779, -€S.

\f/€vS-r]'S false, if/evSojJiaL (\f/€vS-) lie.

(Many adjectives in --79 are compounds ; see 446, 447.)

c. -fjiov, nom. -fx(j)v, -p.ov.

r\rj-fx(i)v enduring, icretched, rXaw (rAai-^-) endure,

fivq-pioiv mindful, fxiixvyja-KO) (p^vrj-) remind,
alS-q-pnov respectful, alSeopun respect,
hn-Xrja--iJHi)v forgetful, e7n-Xav6dvofJiaL (^XaO-, XrjO-)

forget.
 148 WORD-FORMATION

Here belong also some nouns in -fiMv :

rjy€-fx(i)v leader, r/yeo/xat {rjye-.r}-) lead.

d. -LKo, nom. -tKos, -ij, -6v, often suggesting 171-

clination to ov fitness for an action (cp. 425) :

apx-iKO'; fit to rule, apx^ (^PX") "^uU,

ypacfi-LKos suited to luritmg or ypa^fna (ypa<^-) ivrite or paint,
painting,

e. -TtKo, nom. -rt/co?, -•»;, -6v, developed from -iko^

by use with verbals in -tos :

TTpd/c-TtKos inclined to act, Trpda-a-o) (Trpdy-) do,

XoyL(r-TLK6<s skilled in reckoning, Xoyt^opat (AoytS-) reckon,
yvpvacr-TiKo's fond of exercise, yvpvd^o) (yvpvaS-) exercise,
crKeir-TLKos disposed to examine, a-Kiirropai (o-KCTT-) look care-
fully.

f. -L>xo and -(TLfjio, nom. -(o-)i/>io9, -rj, -ov :

rp6({>-Lixo? nourishing, nourished, rpicjxo (t/3€<^-) rear,

TrAw-iftos navigable, irXiai (ttXv-) sail,

pdx-ipo's fit to fight, pdxopat {pax-) fight,

Xpy]-a-ipos useful, xp^^l^^'- ixp"-'!') "^^^j

Kav-cripos combustible, Kcto) [Kav-) bum.

414 Tlie various participles are special classes of verbal adjectives.

DENOMINATIVES

Denominative Verbs

415 Verb-stems are made from nouns

(1) By merely adding the endings of conjugation,
the stem being unchanged, except by the usual pro-
cesses of conjugation ;

(2) By changing the final stem-vowel

(3) By
adding a new element the ; final stem-
vowel may be changed at the same time. All under
 DENOMINATIVE VERBS 149

this head belong in the present system to the -l class

(259) ; originally the presents of the other types be-

longed to the same although in Attic Greek the
class,

L no longer appears.
Thus arose, with some crossing of types, several
models, on which denominative A^erbs were made
pretty freely ; the classes are clearly separated in
form, much less clearly in meaning.

416 a. Stems in -o:o), pres. ind. in -o'w, regularly transitive, often

causative :

SovXo-oi (SovXoioy-) enslave^ ^ovXo'i slave^

ct^to-w (d^to:w-) deem ivorthy or ft, a^io? worthy.

On the same model, from other stems, with a change of

vowel
t,7]iJLi6-w [^rjixLoioi-) ptmish, ^rj/xLo. dfwiage,
pi^6-(j) (pt^o:w-) cause to root, pL^a root.

From consonant stems, with added -o :

/xacrrtyo-o) (/xao-rtyo:a)-) tuhip, fxacTTL^ (jxaaTly-) wllip.

b. Stems in -a:d or -a-.-q, pres. in -aw :

Tt/xa-co {Tlfxa-.T)-) 7l07l0r, rlfxy JwJlOr,

viKa-oi (vlKa:r]-) am victorious, vIky] victory,

rfTa-oixai (jjTTa'.y]-) ain worsted, rJTTa defeat.

From stems in -o, with change of vowel

dpLo-Ta-o) [dpca-Tair]-) hrcalcfast, dpta-Tov irealcfast,

yod-OfJiaL [yoa:rj-) ZVail, y6o<s IVail.

c. stems in -cit^, pres. in -ew, generally intransitive

oLK€-<a (oiKcir;-) divell, ot/cos liouse,

<f>iXe-<i) {cfjiXeir}-) love, (jiiXo^ friend,

oLTroSrjfxi-w {diro^fjie-.r}-) am abroad, a7r6Sr)fjio<s away fro7?i home,
aTTope-ui [aTTope-.r]-) am at a loss, d7ropo<; Without resourccs.
or poor,
 150 WORD-FORMATION

From stems in -eo-, with loss of o- (65 a) :

Kpare-o) (Kparc:?;-) am strong, rule, KpdTo<s (Kparea--) strength,

acrO€V€-(x) [aa-Oeve-.Y]-) am weak, HI, aa-Oevrj^, -€S tveak,
€VTvx€-iii {evTvxe-.r}-) am fortunate, evr^x^?, -C9 fortunate.

From consonant-stems, with added -c :

<TO)(f>pove-o) [(r(j)(f>pov€:7j-) am discreet, o-w^pwi/ of sound mind,

io-Topi-o) (IcrTope'.rj-) investigate, Lo-riop one tvJio hnoivs (405).

417 a. Stems in -ev, pres. indie, in -cvw

^aa-tXev-u) (ySao-tXcv-) reign, /3a(rtX€v<s Mng,

iTTTrev-o) (tTTTrei;-) serve in the L7nr€v<i horseman.
cavalry.

From other vowel-stems, with change of vowel :

VTTOTTTev-oi (tiTTOTTTCV-) SUSpCct, V7ro7rTO<s SUSplcWUS,

7rop€v-o) {iropev-) 7nalce proceed, 7r6po<s passage,
7ncrT€v-(D (TTto-rei;-) trUSt, ttlo-tos faithful,
pov\ev-w [/3ovX€v-) plan, PovX-q wHl, plan,
iKercTj-o) (iKcrev-) entreat, LKeTrj's suppliant,
aXyjOeviji (aXrjOev-) spcah truth, aX-qOrj';, -c? tr^ie.

From consonant-stems, with added -eu :

TratSev-o) (TratScu-) educate, 7rai<s (TratS-) child,

<j)vyaB€v-o) ((^vyaSev-) exile, (jivyds [cfivyaS-) exHe.

b. A few stems in -v, pres. in -vw :

SttKpv-tu (SaKpv-) weep, SaKpv tear,

yrjpv-o) [yrjpv-) speak, sing, yrjpv<s voice.

418 Stems in -tS, pres. ind. in -t^o) (t-class, 259 d) :

IX-rrilisi (iXiriS-) hope, a^iticipate, iX-Trt's (cATTtS-) hope,

ipi^o) {iptS-) quarrel, epi9 (ipiB-) strife.

From other stems, with change or addition of the final

element
Xapitofxai (xaptS-) do favor, X^P^^ h(P^9^'^~) ^^^<^^)
opitsa (6/otS-) limit, hound, opos boundary,
retxi'^w (rcixtS-) iuHd a wall, T€lxo^ (Tct;(€or-) toall,
 DENOMINATIVE VERBS 151

aOpoL^oi {aOpoiS-) assemble., a^/aoos, aOpoo<s in a crowds

iXXrjvL^ix) (iXXrjvLS-) speak Greek, "EAAryv Greeh^
X^p^Cf^ ix'^P'-^) ^^^ apart, X^P^'^ (adv ) apart.

For ifiTToSL^oi and ScaxeLpt^oi see 448 "a.

a. Similar in the present only is o-aATrt^w (o-oATrtyy-) sound
tlie trumpet, from a-dXTriy^ trumpet ; but aor. la-akiny^a.

419 Stems in -a8, -a^w (t-class, 269 d), are partly from
pres. in
noun-stems in but mostly from noun-stems in -a and
-ar,

adjective-stems in -o, with change of -d or -o

Oavixd^o) (OavfJiaS-) lOOlldeV, Oavfxa (OavfJLaT-) tVOnder,
ovofjLOL^w [ovofxaS-) name, ovo/xa (ovo/AttT-) name,
SiKa^o) (8tKa8-) give judgme^it, SUrj decision, justice,
/?ta^o/xat {/3iaS-) use force, pCa violence,
drt/Aa^o) (drt/xaS-) disJionor, aTlixo<: unhonored.

Also from other stems, with the final element changed

to -a8 :

Sixd^w (hixa-h-) divide in two, St^a (ady.) i7i tico parts,

o-rao-ia^o) (araa-iah-) jorm a crra.(Ti% (o-rao-t-) faction,
faction,

420 Stems in -av, pres. in -atVo) (t-class, 259 b). These are partly
from noun- or adjective-stems in -av, but oftener from others,
with change of the final element, or with an addition
ixeXatvix) (jxcXav-) hlachcn, /i-eAd? (/xcAav-) MacTc,
TTOLfjiaLvo) {TroL/xav-) herd, TTOLixTjv (TTOLfjiev-) herdsman,
evcl>paivoi (€V(f>pav-) gladden, €V<f>p(DV [evcfipov-) glad,
crrjixaLVii) (crrjixav-) signify, (rrj/xa {crr]piaT-) sig7l,

XaXeTratvo) (xoAeTrav-) am angry, x'^AcTTo? (;^aA€7ro-) hard, angry,

KepSaLVii) [KcpSav-) gain, KepSo<; (/cepSco--) gain.

421 stems in -w, pres. in -vvw (i-class, 259 b). These are largely
from adjective-stems in -v, but also from other stems, which
are changed or extended to conform to the model

Papvvoi {/Bapvv-) make heavy, ySapvs heavy,

Taxvvoi (raxw-) hasten, Taxys swift)

 152 WORD-FORMATION

Xa/jLTTpvyo) (XafMirpw-) brighten, Aa/xTTpos shining,

al(rxvvo) (aiV^w-) make ashamed, ato-xos shame,
IxrjKvvu) [jxyjKvv-) lengthe7i, lJLrJKo<s length.

422 Similar formations, with presents of the i-class, are seen in

ayyiXXio (dyyeA.-) repovt, ayyeXos messenger,
reKfiaipo/xai [reK/xap-) settle hy TeKfiap sign,
signs, infer,
KaOaipoi (KaOap-) cUanse, purify, Ka6ap6<s clean,
ixOatpo) (ixOap-) hate, txOo<s hatred,
liapTvpofxai [fxapTvp-) call to fjidpTv<s witness,
witness,
t/x-etpo) ()/>(-€/>-) long for, 'ip^cpos longing,
olKTipU) (otKTip-) pity, oTkto<s pity,
Trat^o) (TratS-) play, [ Trats (7rat8-) child.

423 The differences of use between the above verb-formations are

best seen when two verbs are made from one stem :

oiK€(j) dwell, oLKiCio settle (a town),

drl/Aoo) disfranchise, oLTlixd^u) dishonor,
fiaprvpioiam a witness, testify, /xapTvpo/xaL call to WltflCSS,
KaOapevo) am pure, KaOaipoi cleanse,
BovXevcD am a slave, SovXooi enslave,
TToXeyaeto 7nake ivar, TToXe/jLoo) make hostile,
a-o}cf>pove(i) am discreet. (ro}<f>povL^oi make discreet,
chastise.

Denominative A djectives
424 The suffix -to, fem. -ta, nom. -to?, (-td,) -tov, is most widely
used to form adjectives from noun-stems. A final stem-vowel
contracts with i, or it may be changed or dropt. The mean-
ing of the suffix is vague, pertaining to the noun, in some way
which the noun or the context makes clear
StKtttos just, right, SUrj (SiKd-) justice, right,
dpxoLos ancient, dpxy (dpxo^-) hegi^ming,
dyopaio<s of the market, ayopd market.
 DENOMINATIVE ADJECTIVES 153

paa-iXcLo<5 (27) royal., the Mng^s., ySao-tXcu'-s king.,

TeAa/xcov-ios of Telamou., TeAa/xwj/ Telamon,

cro)Trjp-Los saving., of safety., o-wrrip savior,
oIk€los domestic^ one^s own, oTko-s Jioiise, property,
ayp-LO<s wild, dypo-? field,

TToXcix-Lo's Jiostile, 7roAe/xo-9 ivar,

KopLvO-Lo<s Corintliian, KopLvOo's Corinth,

MrA.->Jo-to9 (46) Milesian, MiXrp-o<s Miletos,

alSolos revered, atSws (129) respect, reverence.

a. In some adjectives the suflBx appears to be -^lo, nom. -etos :

yuj/atK-etos of loomen, yvvr] (yvvatK-) ivoman.

425 The suffix -lko, nom. -iko?, -rj, -6v, is added to noun-stems as
well as to yerb-stems (413 d) ; in some cases the starting-point
may have been either. A final stem-vowel is dropt ; but with
i-stems the ending is probably -ko :

^aarLX-LKo^ hlnghj, pacnXivs king,

jSapfSap-LKos larlarian, (Sdp(3apo<; foreigner,
€\Xr)v-LK6<s Greeh, "EXXrjv Greeh,
SapetKos (for 8apei-tKo?) daric, Aapeto? Davcios,
TToXcfji-LKo^ icarlihe, ttoAc/xos ivar,

yeoipy-LKo? sJcUled in farming, yeoipy 6^ farmer,

a-Tparrjy-LKos skilled as a general, a-TpaTrjyos general,

<f>vcrL-K6s 9iatiiral, physical, <f>v(rL? nature.

Many of these, by omission of rixvi art, become nouns :

fjLova-LKT^ 7nusic, ypajxiJiaTLKy grammar.

426 The suffixes -eo, nom. -ov<s, -yj, -ovv (87), and -lvo, nom. -lvo<;j

-rj, rov, form adjectives of material

dpyvp-€0<;, apyvpovs of silver, apyvpo? sUvcr,

Xl6-lvo^ of stone, XlOo<s stone,

$vX-Lvo<s wooden, $vXov ivood.

But they also have in other words a more general meaning
(f)OLviK€o<;, (f)OLvlKov<s rcd, ^oLVL^ Phce?iicia7i,
aXr]0-Lv6<; genuine, aX-rjOrj^ true,
avOpwTT-Lvo's, dv6p(i)7rcLo<s human, dv0poy7ro<s man.
 154 WORD-FORMATION

Several in -lv6s are made from words denoting time :

iap-Lv6^ of spring^ tap spring^

oTTwp-Lvos autumnal, o-rrcopa harvest,
rjfji€p-Lv6s of daytime, rjfxipd dag.

427 The suffix -evr, nom. -ets, -ecro-a, -ev, in a few adjectives means
endoived or supplied with :

XapL-cLs graceful, X^P'-'^ (x"P'"5 X^P'-'^-) g'fdce,

<l>o}vrj-ei<s possessing voice or speech, ^lavrj voice.

Hence cfxovrjev {ypafxiia) a voiuel.

428 The suffixes -ipio, -vo, -po areadded to noun-stems as well as to

verb-stems (cp. 412). In some cases either verb or noun may
have been the base :

aAK-t/xo9 mighty, dXKrj prowess,

(f>p6v-iixo<s se7isible, cf^pyv (^pev-) mind,
6pei-v6s (for opecr-i/o?) of the opo's (^op€(T-) mountain,
mountains,
dXyct-vo? (for dAyeo--vo?) painful, aXyos (dXyeo--) pain,
Xv7rr}-p6<; painful, Xxhrrj pain, Xvirioi grieve,
(j>6ovc-p6<i grudging, <ji66vo<s envy, ^Oovim grudge,
8po(re-p6<i deiuy, Spoa-os deiv,
TTov-q-po's toilsome, had, ttovos toil, distress.

Perhaps in irovr^po^ and some others --qpo was thought of

as the suffix :

fioxOrjpos wretched, pLoxOo^ (fioxOo-) pain,

avOrjpos flowery, avOo^ (dvOio--) floioer.

Denominative Nouns

429 Nouns of quality (all feminine) are made from adjectives, and
occasionally from nouns, by adding to the stem the suffixes
-Ti)T, -id, -a-vvd. Abstract nouns often become concrete, being
applied to special instances of the quality or action :

a. Suffix -rrjT, nom. -rrj's (cp. Lat. -tdt, -tds) :

 DENOMINATIVE NOUNS 155

TTLorTo^rj^ faithfulness, TTto-To-s faithful,

((r)/juKp6-T7)<s smallness, ((T)iJUKp6-s small,
Traxv^rj^ thickness, Traxv-'s thick.

b. Suffix -ta, nom. -td or -ta, before which a final stem-

vowel is lost :

<f>LX-id friendship, <f>LXo-<; friend,

diroLK-Ld colony, ttTTotKo-s away from home,
€vSaLfjiov-Ld happiness, evSaLjjicov happy,
cvvoia good-ivill, ivvoo-<s friendly, kind,
dXyOeLa (for dXrjOccr-ia) truth, d\rjOrj<i [dXrjOea--) true.
da-Oiveia (for dcrd^v€(r-La) iveahness, do-^evrjs {daOiv^a--) iveah,
dOava(r-Ld (46) immortality, dOdvaro-<s immortal,
€V€py€(r-Ld (46) he7iefaction, c^epycTT/? benefactor.

c. Suffix -a-vvd, nom. -o-vvrj, before which a final consonant

of the stem is lost

SLKaio-(rvv7] Justice, SiKaLo-s Just, right,

cro}cl>po-<rvvr) self-C07ltrol, (T(l)cf>p(DV (o-W<^p01/-) Self-

co7itrolled.

430 IN'ouns denoting a person who has to do icith something are

made with the suffixes -cv, -rd, -nS (cp. 405).
a. Suffix -cv, nom. -cv?, masc, some forming a feminine in
-eta. A final stem-vowel is lost before the suffix :

vKiT-tm horseman, hnro-^ horse,

Up-evs priest, Up-eta jjriestess, Up6-<s sacred,
ypaixfjiaT-€v<s clerk, secretary, ypd/x/xa (ypa/^/xar-) writing.

b. nom. -rr;?, masc, some forming a feminine

Suffix -Td,
in nom. -tl<s. A final stem-vowel before the ending is
-Ti8,

often changed in some way :

7roXt-TT75, fem. 7roAt-Tt9, citizen, 7roAt-s state,

o-rpaTt(o-Tr;s soldier, (TTpartd army,

vryo-tw-TT/?, fem. vr](TL(ii-TL's, islander, vrjcrto-v, vrjCTo-'s island,
Sr}p.6-Tr}<s demesman, Stj/jlo-^ deme,
oiK€-T>7S, fem. oiK6-Tt?, house-servant, oTko-s house,
Sea-fKo-rrjs, fem. Secr/xco-Tts, prisoner, Scarfws dond.
 156 WORD-FORMATION

431 Several suffixes form nouns, many of which (but not all) have
a dimimitive meaning, or a caressing or a conte7nptuous tone ;
the end of the stem often suffers a change.
a. Suffix -to, nom. -tov, neut.

TraiS-LO-v little cJdld, Trats (TratS-) cJlild^

aKovT-io-v javelin^ aKOiv (aKovT-) spear,

^iPX-Lo-v hooh^ ySiySAo-s pa2)yrus^ book^
Xpvo-Lo-v gold piece, xp^^^~'^ gold,
TTiS-Lo-v plain, TreSo-v ground,
Xiop-Lo-v fortress, )(C)po-<s,
x^P^ place.
b. Suffix -Lo-Ko, -LCTKa, nom. -iV/cos masc, -lo-kt) fern.

vedv-i(TKo<s youth, yoimgster, vedvLd-^ youth,

TraiS-LCTKos little hoy, Trai'S (jraLS-) child.
iraih-icrK-q little girl.

c. Also the suffixes -dpio-v, -lSlo-v, -vX.Xlo-v :

jratS-dpLO-v little chap, TTttts (TratS-) child,

oIk-lSlo-v little house, oTkos house,
^oiKpar-iSLo-v dear little Sohrates, ^<jiKpdTr}<s {-^a--) Sohrates,
dZ-vXkio-v little picture, idyl, d^o<s (ctSco--) form.

432 Words denoting a place are made with the suffixes -to, -cto,
-rrjpLo, -wv, often with some change at the end of the stem.

a. Suffix -to, -6to, nom. -lov, -ctov, neut.

p.vpoTrdiX-Lo-v perfumer^s shop, fjLvpoTrwXrj? perfume-seller,
Kovpeco-v (27) barber's shop, Kovpev-<s barber,
fiov<T-€Lo-v place of the muses, /xova-a muse.
In other instances the force of the ending is vague :

dyycto-v (for ayyccr-tov) dish, ayyo5 (dyyco--) dish, VCSScl,

vessel,

(rr)ix€io-v sign, note, (rrj/xa (o-^/xar-) mark.

b. Suffix -rr}pLo, nom. -Trjpiov, neut., apparently made by

adding -lo to nouns in -Tr)p (405), which were later crowded

out by the forms in -nys :
 DENOxMINATIVE NOUNS 157

SiKacr-Typ-Lorv court, {^LKOxTTTip) 8iKa(TTrj<S judgB,

Povkev-rrjp-LO-v COUncil-hall, (povkev-r-qp) /JovAeuTTJs coun-
cilor,
Sca-jJiOi-Trjp-LO-v priSOn, 8etr/xo-s bo?ld.

Probably in some cases the starting-point was the verb,

without thought of an intervening noun :

IpyacT-Trjpio-v IVOrTcsllOp, ipyd^o/xai (ipyaS-) IVOrlc,

c. Suffix -<i)v, nom. -wv, masc., with loss of a final stem-

vowel :

d/xTTcX-wv vineyard, d/^TrcXos vine,

7rapOev-wv maiden's room, -n-apOevo-^ maiden,

avhp-ijiv 7nen's liall, dvyp (avSp-) man.

Some of these are enlarged by the ending -trtS, nom. -trt?,

fem.
di/8p(oi/-tTt9 me7i's quarters, ywatAcwv-trt? ivomen's quarters.

433 ^oiins denoting descent {patronymics) are made from names

of persons by adding -8d or -tSa, nom. -Sry? or -tS?;?, masc, and
-S or -tS, nom. -(d)s or -ts, fem., sometimes with changes at

the end of the stem.

a. Bopea-87;?, fem. Bopea-s, son (daugJiter) of Bopea-?,
AiV€a-S>7? Atvea? (Atvetds).

Nouns of this type caused -dSr]<s and -as to be taken as

endings for making other names :

©ea-TL-dSr}^, ©ecTTt-a? (-a8-), ©eo-Tio-9,

*A(TK\ri7n-d8rj<;, ^AcrKXi/JTno-S.

]S"ames of this type caused -taSrys to be taken as an ending

to form other nouns :

TcXa/xwv-taSr;?, TeXa/Awv.

b. KcKpoTT-tSr/?, fem. Ke/cpoTr-ts, KiKpoxj/ (KcKpOTT-),

Kpov-t8->79, Kpwo-s,
Aava-t8r)<s, fem. Aava-t's (-tS), Aavao-S.

c. Many such words were ordinary proper names, not de-

noting descent : EuplTrtSr;?, Ba/<;)^Xt87ys, 'AptoretSTys.
 158 WORD-FORMATION

d. These endings were probably at first less definite in

meaning, like -to (424), and that more general force appears
in some words, especially in poetry.

434 Xouns (and adjectives) that mark a person as helonging to

some people or city (gentiles) are made with the suffixes -6v, -ra^
-i8, -TtS. These are but special uses under headings already
given.
a. Suffix -€v (cp. 430 a), fem. -t8 (cp. 433 b and d) :

Mcyap-ev?, fem. Meya/o-6s (-tS-), Meg avian ^ Meyapa (neut. pL),

Evy8o-€v-s, fem. Ev/io-LS (-tS-) of Euhoia^ Ev^ota,
Krjcfna-L-ev's of the KepMsian deme^ KrjcfHa-id.

b. Suffix -ra, fem. -rtS (cp. 430 b) :

Alylvrj-T7]<s, fem.ALylvrj-TL<s of Aigina, Atylva,

'^vPapi-TT]?, fem. ^v^apL-TL^ Sybarite^ ^vf3apL-<s,

'HTTetpco-rr;?, fem. 'H7retpw-TiS Epirote, "HTretpo-s.

In several the ending seems to be -wtt^s, -wrt? :

2iK€A,t-a)T»;9, fem. ^tKcXt-wrts, Sicilian^ 5tKeA.td.

IT. COMPOSITION

435 Compound words are analyzed by dividing into two

members only ; if either member is itself a compound,
that is treated in the same way, and so on.
a. A few particles or adverbs are mere groups of three

or more separate words, which might have been printed sepa-

rately with no great change of meaning. Such are rot-yap-ow,
Kar-avTi-TTcpd^. These are not included here.

436 The second member alone of a compound carries the

inflection, as verb, noun, or adjective. The first mem-
ber is an uninflected word — as a preposition, or the
adverb eu, or the inseparable a(v)- or Svcr- (441, 444)
— or is used in the stem-form.
 COMPOUND VERBS 159

a.In the pronoun oo-rt? both parts are declined (220).

b. In a few words the first member is a noun in some case-
form v€a)(T-oLKOL ship-houses, vavcrL-7ropo<s passable by ships, 68ol-
:

TTo/oos traveler (68ot- locative, 228), 6peL-ftdTr)<s ivalkmg on the

mountain, *EAA7jo--7rovTo? Rene's sea, Hellespont.

Compound Verbs
tlie first member of
437 Prepositions alone can stand as
a compound verb the second member remains un-
;

changed. The name preposition (Trpd-^ecrt?) arose

from this use.
For sound changes see 32, 42, 50, 52.

a. All prepositions were first adverbs, modifying the verb.

When the connection with a verb became very close, the two
were regarded as one word, a compound but the older use ;

was also retained. Especially in poetry a preposition may be

written separately {tmesis, rfjirja-LS cutting) as an adverb, which
in prose would be joined to the verb. (Cp. English set off and
offset, trodden down and downtrodden. The older use is still

very common with English prepositions.)

Note applications of 435. Thus o-w-am^atVo) go tip with,
b.

a compound of o-vv and avafBaivoi, which is a compound of

avd and /3atVo).

438 a. Not every verb that begins with a preposition is

a compound it may be a denominative (415-423)
;

from a compound noun or adjective. Thus vTroirrevo}

suspect is from the compound vTr-oTrro?, but is not
itself a compound.
b. So, too, other denominative verbs from com-
pounds are not themselves compounds. Thus vav-
/xaxew fight ly sea is from vav-fjidxo<; (446 a), but is
not itself a compound of vavs and a verb (437) ;
 160 WORD-FORMATION

from evrvxv^ (447), but

€vTvx^(o is is not itself a
compound of ev and a verb.

Compound Nouns and Adjectives

439 The first member of a noun or adjective may be a

preposition or adverb (440, 441), a verb-stem (442),
or the stem of a noun or adjective (443). The second
member is the stem of a noun, adjective, or verb,

with the changes or additions that were felt to be

natural for declension.
a. The accent is generally recessive, but there are many
exceptions ; the most easily classified will be mentioned.

440 a. A preposition may be prefixt simply as an adverb

to some nouns and adjectives, with no further change
than with verbs (437) :

av-oSos way or march iip^ avd.

(XTro-o-Tao-t? standing off, revolt,
iiTL-povXi^ apian against,
cru/x-7ras all together,
o-uv-atrtos Jointly causing,

b. Different from these are nouns derived from compound

verbs and adjectives :

(TvvOrjfjia ivatchtvord (407), from o-w-TtOrjiJLL,

TTpoOvfjLLd eagerness (429 b), irpo-Ovfjco^ (447 b),

aTTOLKid colony (429 b), aTr-otKo? (448).
But in some cases either method may have been followed.

441 The adverbs irai^ altogetliei\ ev well, also the insep-

arables a(v)- not and 8ucr- ill, are preiixt in like
manner to a few adjectives, and the last three to
many verbals in -ro<;
 COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 161

TTOLv-croffio^ exceedi7igly ivise, (ro<fi6<s ivise,

Trav-TXrjfjuov all-enduring , wretched, TXyjfjuov wretched,

cv-SoKt/Aos ivell-approved, glorious, Sokl/xo^ approved,
d-SoKLfio? lui-approved, in-glorious,
d-Swaros un-ahle, im-possible, Swaros ahle^ possible,
Sv(r-TaXds in hard miser g, raXd's tvretched,
€v-TaKTo^ well-arranged, raKTos arranged,
a-TttKTo? un-arranged,
Bv(r-7r6p€VTo<; hardly passable, TTopcvTos passable.

But these simple compounds must not be confused with

a.

those described in 447, which have the same first member in

a different relation to the second (444).

442 A verb-stem stands in some adjectives and nouns as

the first member — either the stem simply, or with an
added vowel, or with added -ai (-cr before a vowel).
The second member is thought of as object (accusa-

tive, genitive, or dative) of the first. Cp. English

hreahnech^ tell-tale, loose-strife.

apx-i-^eKTOiv 77iaster-builder, apx<Ji rule, T€KTwv builder,

<^ep-€yyi;o9 bringing surety, cfiipoi bring, iyyvrj surety,
capable,
XtTT-o-ra^td desertion {leaving XctVo) ( XiTT- ) leave, ra^ts
the ranhs), ranh,
Xv-a-L-^eXri? paying charges, Xi(i) loose, riXo^ charge,
profitable,
iretO-apxo's obedient to commarid, TretOofxat obey, apX'? ^^^^^j
plcr-o-h-qpio's hating tlie people, pla-i-oi hate, 877/A09 people,
<f>LX-dvOp(i>7ro^ loving man. cfaXeix) love, dvOpioTTos man.
The last two perhaps belong rather under 449.
a. The syllables dpx-, apx^-? <^PX'"? came to be a mere prefix
meaning leader, first, Eng. arch-, archi-.

443 A noun or adjective as the first member appears as a

bare stem, and this may suffer various changes.
11
 162 WOED-FORMATION

a. The final vowel, or even more, may be lost or changed :

<f)vX-apxo^ tribe-leader, cfivXrj tribe,

TpLTfp-apxo's ca2)tain of a trireme, rpLrjpr]<s trireme,
(TTpar-rjyos army-leader, a-Tparos army,
pa-OvfjLo<s of easy spirit, lazy, pa-Bios easy ; the ending of
derivation, -8to9, is omitted.

b. Since o-stems were especially frequent in such com-

pounds, they became a model to which other stems were often

conformed. Hence o may replace a final d or the suffix -co-,
or may be added to a consonantal stem

Avp-o-TTotos lyre-maker, Xvpd lyre.

<rK€v-o-(f>6pos baggage carrying, st. o-kcvco-- baggage.
fjir]Tp-6-7ro\Ls mother-city, st. fx,r]T{e)p- mother.

c. Contractions may occur ;

KaKovpyo^ (Epio Ka/co [f ] cpyos) evil-doer.

irav-ovpyos doing anythi?ig and everything, scoundrel —per-
haps made on the analogy of KaKovpyo^.
Tlpniip6<i (for rliJia-Fop6<i) Upholding honor.

444 Certain elements enter as the first member into many

compounds, in whicli they have tlie force of an adverb
or an adjective, as tlie second member may require.
These are (cp. 441) :

eS well^ in composition well^ easily, or cjood^

Sus- (inseparable), ill^ with difficulty^ or had^

o^iy)- negative (inseparable), not, or no.,

rjfXL- (inseparable), Lat. semi-, half.

With these may be put KaXXi-, which is not used sepa-

rately, but in many compounds takes the place of KaXo? or
kclXQ)s.

a. In a-KoXovOo? accompanying, following (KeXcvOos path),

and or SiOpoos thronging, together (0p6o<s fioise of a
a-6poo<s
 COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 163

crotvd) the first element is d- copulative (for o-a-) related to

afxa and ofjLo- together.

445 In meaning^ when the first member represents a noun

or adjective, the relation between the tw^o parts may
vary greatly, and gathered from their separate
is

meanings ; especially the poets make combinations

very freely. (Even greater freedom is usual in Eng-
lish.) But certain classes are large, and these it is

convenient to name.
a. Determinative Compounds. —The first member
makes more meaning of the
specific {determines) the
second ; the whole denotes a particular case of what
the second part denotes alone — e. g., school-hoys are
one class of hoys, well-made is made in a particular
way (446).
b. Possessive Compounds. —These are adjectives,
being noun-compounds of the determinative class, but
with the idea oi jjossession understood. Thus yellow-
throat does not mean a yelloiv throaty but a bird hav-
ing a yellow throat the idea of having is not ex-
;

pressed, butfrom frequent use is understood. In

English many of these end in -ed^ on the model of
participles : hald-headed, warm-hearted^ sword-shaped
(447).
c. Prepositional-Phrase Compounds. — A phrase con-
sisting of a preposition and its object is made a single
word, with the force, and in Greek the inflection, of
an adjective (which like other adjectives may become
a noun). Thus out-door sports are played cntt of
doors, an wider-ground passage is sub-terranean (448).
 164 WORD-FORMATION

446 Determinative Compounds (445 a) are of two classes,

not always distinguishable.

Dependent Compounds the first member is a
a. :

noun that may be regarded as modifying the second,

as if dependent on it in some case-relation :

(TTpaT-r]y6<s leader of an army, CTTpaTO-s, -r)y6<s [dyw),

Aox-ayos leader of a company, Xoxo'S, -ayo? (ayo)), '

Xoyo-ypd<f>o<s speecJi-tvriter, Xoyos, ypd(fiO<s {ypdfjuii),

vav-fjLdxo<sfighting with ships, vav<5, -jjidxo'S (^fxdxoficLi)

o-rpard-TreSoi/ camp, cTTparov TreSov,

Xoyo-TToto? speech-maTcer, inventor of XoyOUS TTOtCOVj

tales,

X^ip-o-TToirjTo^ hand-made, ;j(ep(Tt TToirjTO'i,

vSp-o-(f)6po^ water-carrier, vSuyp, -c]i6po<; (^epco),

avTo-fxaro's self-impelled, avTos, root fxa-,

rptrjpr]^ triply-fitted. rpu'S, dpapL(TKOi,

b. Descriptive Compounds : the first member is an

adjective modifying a noun
as the second, or is an
adverb modifying an adjective or participle as the
second. (Cp. English hlue-hird and new-horn^ De-
scriptive compounds are fewer than dependents.

fjMv-apxo<: sole ruler, fjLovo^, apxos,

fjL€(r-r)p./3ptd (49) mid-day, /xearrj rj/Jiipa,

oLKp-o-TToXi? upper city, citadel, d-Kpa TToXt?,

iJ/evS-o-ixapTvpLOL false Witness, \p€vSrj<; /iiapTvpid,

rifiL-ovo<s half-ass, mule, rjfxi- (444), 6Vo9,

yjPii-Ppwro<i half-eaten, ^ifSpdycTKu) eat,

€vSr]Xo? quite clear, €V, SrjXo9,

irepL-epyos over-active. Trepi, -epyo? (rOOt e/oy).

e. determinatives have as latter member a word that

Many
does not occur separately, or not in that sense (410) in some ;

cases the lack is accidental. Thus apx6^, dyos (a), aywyos are
 COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 165

found separately, but not -r/yo?, -ypa</»os, -ftaxos, -ttoio? ; while

(f>6po<s, 8o/>to9, Spo/jios are used, but not in the sense in which
they form many compounds.
d. Determinatives of the o-declension, if the second part

is active, accent the penult if that is short, otherwise the ulti-

ma : A.t^o-/3oAo? stone-thr Giving^ vai;-/>ta;(os, Xoyo-^otos. (But not

compounds in -apxo<s and -©xos, which have recessive accent;
and other exceptions occur.)

447 Possessive Compounds (445 b). In these the idea of —

having is added in thought to a determinative in a ;

few the added idea is rather that of bei7ig

rpi-TTov^ having three feet, three-footed,
TToXv-dvOpuiTTo'i having many men, populous,
Sv(r-7ropo<s havijig a hard passage,
(.v-vov^ ic ell-minded, Jcindly,
iv-Tvxn^ having good fortune, fortunate,
6/>to-Tpa7re^os having the same table, table-companion,

6/xo-Aoyos having common speech or ratio, agreeing, homologous.

ofjio- appears only in composition ; but cp. the adv. o/xoC,

adj. o/xoto?.

^eo-ctSr)? having a god's appearance, godlike (cTSo?).

From -€tS>7?, contracting with a preceding vow^el, was formed

the derivative ending -w8r)<s, and English -oid.

Many compounds of this class begin with d(v)- negative,

a.

which may be either a not, denying the idea of possession, or

a 710 modifying the noun :

d-^opo<s 7iot having a passage, or having no passage,

d-rlfjLo^ without honor, disfranchised.

b. Prepositions often have an adjectival force in such com-

pounds (cp. 440 a)

Tvpo-Ovfxo? having a forivard spirit, eager (Ovfios),

dp,cf)L-Ovpo? having a door on both sides, double-doored {6vpd)y

fx€T-oLKos having one's dwelling tvith, resident alien (oTkos),

 166 WORD-FORMATION

ev-Oeo^ having a god ivithin^ inspired^

€<f)-e8posJiavmg a dy-seat {one ivlio lias draivn a " lye "),
irdp-eSpos having a seat heside^ assessor.

448 Prepositional-Phrase Compounds (444 c). —These con-

sist of a preposition and its noun, witli tlie idea of
heirig added :

Trapd-So^o? contrary to opinion, unex- -n-apa 86^av,

pected,
7rapd-voiJLo<s against the law, illegal, Trapa vo/xov,
Trapa-Oakdmos beside the sea, Trapa OdXaTTav,
tpL-iropo'ion a journey, traveler, importer, Iv -n-opw,

iv-OvfjLLos in the heart or mind, iv 0vfx<2,

icji-oSiosfor a journey, e</)' 68(2 or 6S6v,

lasting for a day,
i(f>-i^fjL€po^ c^' VI^^P9-^

liTL-x'^Lpov something on the hand, wages, lirl

x^^Ph
7rpo-d(TTLo<s suburban, 7rp6 da-reio'S,

ifji-fji€Xrj<s in tune, iv p.i\u,

7rXr)ix-fji€X^<s out of tune, ttXtjv {beyo7id) /xiXov?,

Ik-toko's out of place, strange, ck tottov,
d7r6-Sr)fJLO<5 out of the COUJltry, dirb SyfJLOv,

VTT-evdvvo^ subject to accounting, vir evOvvai<S.

a. From the phrase was made the adverb iKiroSwv

iK ttoSmv

out of the way. On

model was formed the opposite ifi-
this
TToSwi/ ill the way from this was formed the adjective i/x7r6Sio<s
;

and the verb ipLTroScCo) (418). In like manner from the phrase
through or in the hands,
Sea x^tpwi/ is made the verb Staxetpt^w
have in hand, 7nanage.

449 Instead of a preposition the first member is some-

times a verbal adjective governing a noun as the sec-
ond member, the whole being an adjective :

d^Lo-Xoyos worth mentio7iing, a^tos Xoyov,

d^to-Xpews good for the obligation, suf- a^tos xP^ov<s,

fcient,
 COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 167

la-o-Oeos equal to a god, godlike^ ta-o? Oeco,

<3f)iXo-KtV8i5vo5 fond of danger, </)tAos KLvhvvov.

a. These are much like the verb-object compounds in 442

they are also like dependent compounds (446 a), in that one
member depends on the other. But they are perhaps more
like prepositional-phrase compounds (448) ; in both classes a
familiar phrase, in which the first word governs the second,
has received the inflection of an adjective.
 III. SYNTAX

450 Syntax (crvz^raft? arranging together^ treats of the

use of words in combination, usually in sentences,
whicli may be simple, compound, or complex.
For undeveloped and incomplete sentences see 490-493.

I. SIMPLE SENTENCES
461 A simple sentence consists of one finite verb, with or
without other words.
According to the mode of the verb we distinguish
Indicative, Subjunctive, Optative, and Imperative sen-
tences. Some forms of Negative and Incomplete sen-
tences will also be treated separately.

INDICATIVE SENTENCES

452 The Indicative presents the action or state as real, in

assertions, denials, exclamations, and questions. (But
see 461 c, 467 c.)

453 The tenses are used nearly as in English, but not altogether
so and their force (like that of all words and forms) is af-
;

fected by the general meaning of the verb, by the context, or

by other circumstances. The leading types are illustrated in
454-470; those in which Greek agrees with English are
168
 INDICATIVE SENTENCES 169

treated briefly, more prominence being given to those in

which the two languages differ.

454 Present Indicatiye.

a. OuSck £Tt rjfXLv fidx^raL no One fight s ivith us any longer.
An. II. 1, 4.

b. Y^vpov /xcraTre/xTTeTat Cyrus lie sends for. An. I. 1, 2.

{Historical Present.)
c. Tt l^€Xavv€T€ rjixas ; ivhy are you di'iving {trying to
drive) us out? II. ii. 4, 20. {Present of Endeavor.)
d. *AAyoj TraAat 1 liave longleeu sorrowing. S. p. 806. {In-
clusive Present^ of an action begun in the past and still con-
tinuing — generally with an expression of time. English com-
monly uses the progressive perfect, as above.)
e. Ot <f>povovvT€<s ev Kparovori Travraxov they that have judg-
ment every ichere prevail. S. Ai. 1252. {Universal or Ge7ieralized
Present.)
f. The present of ^kw a?n come and oixop-on am gone may
usually be translated by the perfect, have come, etc. Some-
times also vl/ctu am victorious, and some others.

456 Future Indicative.

a. ^TTovSa? yj TToXc/xov ttTrayycXw; shall I report a truce or
war? An. ii. 1, 23. Xrj\j/€TaL /xurOov rdXavrov he shall receive
a talent as retvard. Ax. ii. 2, 20. o-vv tovtoi? /xa^ov/xc^a tvith

these ice will fight. An. ii. 1, 12. ovk €v6v? d(f>rj(T(D avTov 1
shall not let him go at once. Ap. 29 e.

b. In the second person, with ov, a question in the future

may become a lively request or command
OvKovv ip€l<; TTore; speah out ! {icouH you ever speah?)
S. AN. 244.

For ov p.'f] with the f ut. see 489 b.

456 Perfect Indicative.

a. *A7roXcXot7rao-tv ^/iS? they have left us. An. i. 4, 8.

aK-^Koaxf., ewpaKare, TreTrdv^are yOU have heard, have

seen, have suffered. L. 12, 100.
 170 SIMPLE SENTENCES

b. A completed act may result in a continued state, and

some perfects are best rendered by an English present
€yvwKa yap yes^ I Jcnow Mm {have recognized^ Lat. novi).
S. OT. 1117.

Among the most frequent of these perfects are

€(TT7]Ka {have lecome set), stand (363),
reOvrjKa {have died), am dead,
f^e/SrjKa {have placed my feet firmly) , stand firm,
TrecjiVKa {have grown, heen born), am,
K€KT7jfjLaL {havc acquivcd), posscss,
{have become fnindful), remember,
fiifjivrjiiai

oAwXa {have gone to ruin), am ruined,

iraroLOa {have believed), trust.

c. With the above belong some perfects that show little or

no trace of a perfect meaning. Such are

toLKa am like, toiKc it is Ulcely,
€L(j}6a am accustomed,
SeSotKtt, SeSta fear, and in poetry many others, SiSopKa see
{SipKOfiat) being especially common :

^v KOL SeSopKa's kov /JXeVeis thou hast sight and seest not.
S. OT. 413.

In compound perfects (as in English) the form of ei/tt

d.

(or in the sense of et/xt) expresses a continued state, the

€xo)
participle a completed act but in use there is often no clear
;

distinction between these compound forms and simple forms.

457 The Pluperfect transfers the present force of the perfect to

past time :

Oivo-Y) ircTeLxi-cTTo Oinoe was {already) fortified. T. ii. 18.

ela-TrJKyj I 2vas standing, rore 8' a(f>€La-T'JK€(rav but at that

time they had revolted. An. i. 1, 6. Trpona-T-qK^i rov ^cvlkov
he was in command mercenary force.
of the An. i. 2, 1.

a. For the pluperfect with av see 469.

458 The Future Perfect denotes an act to be completed in the

future, or (often) a future state
 INDICATIVE SENTENCES 171

Ev^vs 'Aptato? d(f3€crTy ^€L^ wcttc ^tXo? r]/xiv ovSeis XeXeiij/e-

Tttt Ariaios luill at once %vithdraiL\ so that not a friend ivill he

left us. An. II. 4, 5. 8t/cata ttcttov^ws eyw ecro/xat v^' v/x-oii/ /
s7i«Z/ have received justice at your hands. Ap. 41 e.

459 The Imperfect generally presents the action either as

continuing or as repeated in the past
SrpaTevfjLa crvveXeyero an army ivas being col-

lected. An. I. 1, 9. TToXXag 7rpo<^acret9 tjv pia Kev lie

hept finding many pretexts. An. n. 3, 21. ravrct toI<^

<^tXot? 8teSt8ou these lie used to distribute to Ids

friends. An. i. 9, 22. ravra 7rpd^d<; eKepSaivov fiep

ovSev, ifiavTov 8' et? klvSvvov Ka6icrTrjv i7i doing that

(assuming that I did it) / was gaining nothing and
was bringing myself into danger, l. 7, 32.

a. To be continually or repeatedly engaged in an action

may imply endeavor, without success (cp. 454 c) :

KAeap;(o? tov5 (rrpaTtwrds cySta^cro tei/at, ot 8' avTov cySaA,-

Xov Klearchos tried to force the soldiers to go ; hut they threiu
stones at him (as often as he tried). An. 3, i. 1.

460 The Imperfects XPI^ ^^ ^XPV^y ^^^^? TTpocrrJKe^ et/co? ^Vj

and the like, state an obligation or propriety in past

time. Often the context implies that the obligation
—
was not met that something was not or is not as
it should be.
OvBe Oaixil^ei^ rjplv Kara/BaLvcov et? tov UeLpaia'

XPV^ you donH come down to us in Piraeus

P'^vToi
at all often you ought to (i. e., it ivas your duty
;
yet
to come often, and you havenH been doing it), p. r.
328 c. Ticrlya^', ovk ixpv^ alyav why silent? thou
shouldst not be silent (i. ^., propriety required that you
 1Y2 SIMPLE SENTENCES

speak out, and you have not spohen), e. hipp. 297. dXX'
ixPV^ Tt hpav you ouglit to have done something,
Ar.r. 568. eSet yap to koX to iroLrjcrai koI to jjlt) TTOLrjaai
why, yes, we should have done this and this, and not
have done that, d. 9, 68. TovaSe yap fir) Irjv e S € i for
these ought not to le alive, s. p. 418. elKo^ rjv vfiaq
TTpoopaaOai avToi the fitting thing was that you should
foresee it (hut you did not). T. vi. 78. ^xiveiv yap
i^rjp for it was i7i his power to stand his ground (lie

might have stood his ground), d. 3, 17.

a. In these cases the obligation or propriety

thought of is

as existing in the past, perhaps before the act, and as real

the action or state resulting from failure to meet the obliga-
tion may be present, or may continue to the present, though
beginning in the past. In some few cases where the Greek
took this point of view, it seems to us as if av were needed
(461 c).

461 The Imperfect witli av (666) presents the action

a. As occurring from time to time in the past, on

occasion

AvaXafjL^dvojv avTcov Ta TroLyjfxaTa Sltj p cjt cjv av

avTovq taking up their poems, I loould question them
(different poets, at one time and another). Ap. 22 b.
•^y avaKT ovv av I used to he indignant (whenever
people spoke hardly of me), l. 7, 12.

b. As something that was to be expected or was

probably true
Tt a z^ (f)av€po<; yev6p.evo<; v<^^ vfxcov cwacrxov ;

what treatment was I likely to get from you in case of

detection f L. 7, 12. tt/jos ttoZov av e tt X e to whati ;
 INDICATIVE SENTENCES 173

man was lie prohahly sailing ? (can have heen sail-

Tie

ing f ) S. p. 572. TOTe oxpe rjv koX ra? ^etpag ov k av

KaOecjpojv hy that time it was late, and they ivould
not he likely to see the hands (raised in voting).
H. I. 7, 7.

c. As sometliing that would have been in tlie past,

or would be now, in an imaginary case, known to be
unreal {Hij])othetical Indicative ; cp. 467 c, 468, 469) :

Tore S' auTo to pay^a av i k piv er o icf)* avTov

it

hut in that case the matter would have heen decided hy

itself, D. 18, 224. Kkveiv a v ov^ aira^ i ^ovXo jjltjv
I should not wish to hear it even once, s. p. 1239.

These three uses are closely related the third is by far ;

the most frequent the second and third can not always be
;

distinguished. Only the context shows which meaning is in-

tended, and whether (under c) past or present time is meant.

d. 'EpovXofxrjv av I sJiould ivisli, with the infinitive, is the

regular way of saying / wish something were
Greek different.
puts the suggestion of unreality with the leading verb, Eng-
lish puts it with the subordinate clause.
Yi jBovXo ix-qv av avrovs aXrjOrj Ae'yeiv /xct^v yap av /cat

€/xot rovrov rayaOov fiipo? I ivish they iveve telling the truth ; I
too should have a share in that blessing. L. 12, 22.

462 The Aorist Indicative presents an action simply as

past ; it corresponds most often to the English simple
past (or to the Latin historical perfect) :

'Ei/rav^' Efxeivev there he remained, rrj o-rparia

direScoKe pLicrOov he paid the army wages. An. i. 2, 12.

yj\6ovj elhov^ ivLKyjcra veni, vidi, vici, I came, saw, con-

quered, Plut. Caes., 50.
 174 SIMPLE SENTENCES

463 Greek often prefers the aorist, stating something merely as a

past occurrence, where English uses the pluperfect or the
perfect :

Kat (TTparrjyov Sk avTov aTreSet^e 7ie (had) appointed Mm

general also. An. i. 1, 2. TroAActKcs iOav/xaa-a I have often
iuo7idered. M. i. 1, 1.

464 In verbs whose present denotes a continued state, the

aorist often denotes the beginning of that state, or
entrance into it (Inceptive or Ingressive Aorist) :

d(T0eva) am ill, y^adivqaai fell sick,

SaKpvo) weep, IhoLKpvaa hurst into tears,
/Sao-iXe-uo) am Jcing, i/BaaiXevo-a became Mng,
alycj am silent, iaiyrjcra became silent.

Especially common is iaxop got, acquired, from

e)((w have: ovk eax^ ^v^ y^^^p-w ^^^ did not adopt the
view. D. 18, 201. Tore 8e TT/DoSeSw/ceVat noivTas av
ecrx^^ cdriav in that case (^Athens) woidd have got
the blame of betraying all. d. 18, 200. 'iTTTrtd? ecrxe
Ty]v o.p-)(f)v Hippias received the rule. t. vi. 54.

a. This ingressive force extends to all the modes and to

the participles.

465 General truths, commonly expressed by the universal present

(454 e) are sometimes stated in the aorist {Gnomic Aorist^
yvw/jLTj a proverb) :

Tvxrj rexvrjv wp6(j)(T€v, ov rixvr] tvxw ^Tis fortu7ie gives

success to art^ not art to fortune. Men.

466 The distinctions between the simple aorist and the imperfect
are sometimes subtle and elusive. Also any action may be
looked upon as merely occurring or as continuing the choice ;

of tense depends on the point of view. Hence both tenses

occur together freely in the same narrative, often where Eng-
 INDICATIVE SENTENCES 1Y5

lishcan not make the distinction without clumsiness. The

beginner should watch the tenses carefully, and so gradually
learn the distinction.

467 The Aorist with av (666 ; cp. 461) presents the action

a. As occurring from time to time in the past, on

occasion
'E/cXeyo^ei/o? tov iTTLTijSeLov eTTatcrev av jpicking
out the right man^ he would strike him (i. e., he did
this on various occasions). An. h. 3, ii.

b. As something that was to be expected, or was

probably true
'O 6ed(TdfjLei'o<; Tret? av ri? dvrjp rjpdcrOri Sato?
elvai every man who saw it would get hot to he a war-
rior. Ar. r. 1022. 770)9 av 6 jXTj irapcbv iyco tl (T r^hi-
K7](T a how was I J
one wlio ivasri't there, to do you any
harm? D. 37, 57. iirep pcocrdr] S' av Tt9 iKeivo IScov

any one on have been strengthened.

seeing that loould
II. III. 4, 18. TOVTOV TL<; a V (TOL TOLvSpO^; Spdv djJLeiVCJV
rjvpeOr] who coidd have been found better in action
;

than this man ? (i. e., no one was likely to be found).

S. Ai. 119 f.

c. As something that would have occurred in an

imaginary case, known to be unreal (^Hypothetical

Indicative) :

av fxev ovSev av KaKov, firj iraOeiv 8*

'ETroL7]cr
i<j)v\d^avT' av lotco^ they ivould have done him no
harm, but would perhaps have been on their guard
against injury. D. 9, 13. 'npXv yevecrOai tjtt Lo-Trjcrev

av Tt9 aKovo-d^ before it happened, any one hearing

of it ivould have refused to believe it. t. vn. 38.
 176 SIMPLE SENTENCES

These three uses are closely related the third is far the ;

most common the second and third can not always he dis-
;

tinguished.

468 a. The aorist with av and the imperfect with av referring to

the past differ as do the simple aorist and imperfect (469,
462, 466) hut the difference often disappears in good trans-
;

lation.
b. The hypothetical indicative (461 c and 467 c) is very
common in complex sentences, especially when the imaginary
situation, known to he unreal, is described in an ct clause
(645, 649).

469 The Pluperfect with dv is used as a hypothetical in-

dicative when the real situation would be stated in
the perfect
*FiV TOVTCO T(0 TpOTTCp Tj (T a dv fX€ T ET I fJL 0) p OTJ-

fjLepo^ in that way you would have revenged your-

self on me (the fact being, ovk el /xe TerljjLCjpovfxevos:).

L. 7, 20.

a. The entire passage (L. 7, 20) illustrates the ease with

which the different tenses may be combined in this use 'E/xot :

fi€V ovSefjLLOLV av aTToXoytdv v-jreAtTres, avrbs Sk rj(rOa av jxe . . .

T€Tt/i,wpov/x-€vo5, OVK av i86 K eis iTvat (TVKOcfxivTr)^,

. . . . . .

TOT av TrActo-Tov cAa^cs you would liavB left me no defense (but

you did leave me a defense, wcAtTrcs), you ivould have revenged
yourself (but you have not), you ivould not noio seem to he mor
licious (but you do seem so, SoKcts cTmt a-vKoc^dvT-qsi)^ you ivould
have got most money (but ovk eAa/3eg).

470 a. A past tense of the Indicative with eWe or el yap

(Lat. utlnam) expresses a hopelessand unattainable
—
wish that something had been that was not, or that
something were now that is not. (Cp. 476.)
With the imperfect, one wishes continuance ; the
 SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES 177

fact wished away is generally present. With the

aorist, one wishes attainment the fact wished away ;

is generally past.
Et yct/3 TocravTTjv SvpafiLP el^ov that JT had
(ovfc exw) SO much power! e. al. 1072. el 6' rjv
^Opeo-TTjf; TrXrjcTLov loould that Orestes were near (he
is not). E. EL. 282. €1^6 crot Tore (Tvv€yev6iJiY]T/
would that I had met you then (I did not). M. 1.2, 46.
€1^6 ere ixtJTTOT elBofidv O that J had never seen
thee (as I did), s. ox. 1217.

b. ^^(^ekov owed^ ought, with the infinitive, and

w^ith or without eWe or el yap, has the same force
with the present infinitive it corresponds to the im-
perfect, with the aorist infinitive it corresponds to
the aorist
'AXX' axj^eXe Kvpo^ t^rjv Cyrus ought to he alwe,
ah! that Cyrus were living ! An. n. 1, 4. jxyj-n-oT axfte-
Xov \nrelv tyjv ^Kvpov O that I had never left Slcy-
ros. S. p. 969.

SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES

471 The Subjunctive is used to ask what action, or

whether some particular action, is likely, advisable,
or desired. (Duhitative; negative fiij.) Such ques-
tions are often exclamatory, calling for no answer.

a. In the first person

Tt TToiOo) ; what shall I experience f what will hap-
pen to me f (Frequent, in many shades of meaning.)
dfjLTrXaKo) Tov aov [xopov ; am I to fail of your fate f
12
 178 SIMPLE SENTENCES

S. AN. 554. 7 t (j)(i) jJLev TTpos TavTa ; aWo fXoXo-

tl t) 6
ycojjiep ; what shall we say to this ? anything else
than to agree? (shall we not agree?) Cr. 53 d. ri
Spdcrco ; what shall I do?
hevrepov \ri<^6io KaKos ;

shall I wrong again ? s. p. 908. tt w 9

he caught in
XtTrdi^av? yevcofjiai; how can I desert the fleet?
A. AG. 222. yJt] d'jT o K ptv 0) fxaiy dW erepov eiTTco ;

shall I make no reply hut say something else ? ^ Rep.

337 b. dXXa S17 (j)vyrj<; TlfJLtjcrcoiJLaL; shall J then

propose the penalty of exile ? c. (Cp. tivo^ Ap. 37

dvTLTlfjLTJa-ofjLaL Ap. 36 b, the fut. ind. in tlie same

;

sense.)

b. In the third person

n or TLS ovp ^vyrj; ttoI fxoXwv jxevco ; whither shall

one flee ? where shall I go and ahide ? s. ai. 403 f. eira
TavT ovTOL IT eicr 6 (DC IV vnep avrcov ere TToieiv ; this,

then, are these people to helieve you are doing for

them ? D. 22, 64.

472 The Subjunctive may present the action as proposed,

desired, or urged. (Hortative, in the first person;
negative /xt^.)

^H TratSe?, l(TTa>fjL€(r9a my children, let us rise,

S. OT. 147. Sevpo e^av acrr (X) jxev et? rr^v avXrjv kol
7repu6pTe<; avrov Siar pixp o) fxev, elra icofxev let US
rise, go out here into the court, and pass the time walk-
ing ahout there (until daylight) ; then let us go,
Pr. 311 a. ^ip eV ojvrriv lo) let me go to her! (I
want to go to her !) Ar. r. 291. ^e/)e 817 koI ras fiapTv
 SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES 1T9

ptd? avayvo) come^ 710 w^ let me also read the testi-

mony {I will noiD read?), d. is, 267.

Once in the second person, S. p. 300.

The first person sing, is often introduced by <^ip^.

473 The Subjunctive with /xt; presents the action as not

desired, as unadvisable, or as forbidden. {Proliihi-
tive.)

a. In the first person (not to be separated from

the hortative subjunctive, 472) :

M17 avajxev (ti^ev aX\ov<; let ifS not tvait for

others. An. m. 1, 24. ^ 7) hrjj dSiKTjd a> let me not he
wronged (in entreaty ; cp. b). s. ok. 174.

b. In the second person (aorist only) :

Mt7 Xltttj^ [jl ovto)<; ^ovov leave me not thus alone.

S. p. 470.

c. In the third person (aorist only) :

MT78et9 eiTTrj let no one say. D. 9, I6. ^y^hevl rovro

Trapaa-Trj let this occur to no one. L. 12, 62.

474 The Subjunctive with /x-q sometimes expresses what one fears
and desires to avert with ov, what one fears will not be.
; fj^rj

This is a variety of the preceding (473), the starting-point of

more common uses (see 609, 610) :

M-^ (Tov<; 8iacfiOeip7j ydfxovi may slw not spoil thy mar-
riage (i. e., I fear she ivill). E. al. 315. /at) ov ireLcrys o-o<^oi;s

yo^i ivill not convince the wise, I fear. E. tro. 982.

a. This is also softened to a cautious assertion, or made a

question :

M^ ay poLKorepov y to aXrjOh etTretv I fear ifs rather riicle

to speak the truth. Gor. 462 e. dAA.a jjlt] ov tovt rj x'^^^'^ov

but I suspect that is 7iot difficult. Ap. 39 a.
 180 SIMPLE SENTENCES

475 The Tenses of the subjunctive do not refer to differ-

ences of time. The present denotes continuance or
repetition; the aorist, simple occurrence or attain-
ment ; the perfect (infrequent), denotes a completed
act or a continued state. The distinction often dis-
appears in translating, but is not to be overlooked.

a. The time of independent subjunctives is regu-

larly future ; see examples in 471-474. In Homer the
subjunctive is often very like the future indicative in
meaning, often also the same in form.

OPTATIVE SENTENCES

476 The Optative (without av) expresses a wish that

something may be, in the future. (Negative /x?f.)

This use has given the name to the mode.

ES ^vvelev elcrael Oeoi the gods forever graciously
abide ivitli you ! S. ot. 275. ovto) vlKiqa-aLixL r iyco
Kol voiiit^oiynqv (T0(f)6<; SO may J win the victoi^y
and deemed wise. Ar. n. 520. 6X0L0 may you
he (eve?')
die! (a curse on you!), iiiqhel^ tcwt vfxcov im-
vevcreiev may none of you consent to this. D. I8, 324.

477 Such a sentence may be introduced by dOe or d yap,

in poetry by el alone (cp. 470) :

E r ^ e fXTJTTOTe yvoLrj<; 6? el mayst thou never learn

who thou art. s. ot. 1068. el yap iv tovtm eir) may
it only depend on that ! Pr. 310 d.

478 Earely the poets use the optative without av as a hypotheti-

cal optative (479, 482).
 OPTATIVE SENTENCES 181

479 The Optative witli av (666) expresses what would be

in a supposed case, or in any case likely to occur.
{Hypothetical Optative] cp. the hypothetical indica-
tive, 461, 467.)
The time is not defined, except by the context, but
is commonly future, often present, rarely past. Often
the statement or question is universal as regards time,
applying to past, present, and future alike
'Eya> 6 KV0L7JV av eU tol irXoia ifx^aiveLV I should
hesitate myself to go aboard the boats. An. 3, i. 17. ev9a
TToWrjv (TOJ(f)po(TVPr]v KarafJidOoL dv rt? there one
would learn any time) rmich self-control. An. l 9, 3.
(at
TTpo? ^iojv 8' ovK dv Xa/3ot9 a?id by force you ivould
never talce him. S. p. 103. ouSe ^xh yap ovhev d v
/3\d^eLev ov8e yap dv hvv aiT o for he would not
injure me a particle he woxdd not even be able to (in
;

any circumstances). Ap. 30 c.

480 What is not really doubted may, from caution or from
courtesy, be treated as not yet cei-tain ; hence a wide
range of meaning. Mighty could, m.ay, and even m,ust,
are often convenient in translating, but the Greek
expression is not properly potential (cp. the last ex-
ample in 479).
OvKovv TTO poL^ dv TifjvSe Scopedv ifiOL ; would you
then grant me this gift ? a. pb. 643. {Modest request.)
Ko iiit^oi<; dv aeavTov you may talce your-
'tv fiev

self off. s. AN. 444. {Softened command.)

OvK dv yieO eiyirjv tov Opovov I would not yield
the chair (in any case). Ar. r. 830. {Determined re-
fusal.)
 182 SIMPLE SENTENCES

Uax; av oXoLfxav ; liow sliould I find death ?

that I might die! e. al. 864. (^Passionate wish.)
Uov St]t av elev ol ^ivoi ; where may the strang-
ers he ? s. EL. 1450. {Polite question^ of a present fact.)
OvToi Se Tct^' av fieLlo) tlvol ao(j)Ldv cro^oi elev
hilt these men looidd he {are j^erhaps) wise in some
greater wisdom, Ap. 20 d. {Assumed uncertainty^ of
a present fact.)
BovXoLfjLTjv av I should lihe is a frequent formula, a
softened expression of wish.

481 The circumstances to which the statement (or ques-

tion) of the optative applies may not need mention,
or may be suggested by an expression of time, place,
manner, or may be more fully expressed by a par-
ticiple, infinitive, or subordinate clause. Relative
clauses and d clauses (614 ff., 645 ff.) are often used
for this purpose. This applies also to the hypotheti-
cal indicative (461, 467).

Thus in tv6a ttoXXtjv o-oicfipoa-vvyv KaTajjidOoL av tl<s (under 479)

ev6a (with the context) means at court. The interrogatives
irco5, TTov, TLS ask tvJiat the circumstances are. t6t€ the7i and
StKaticos justly have a similar office. In OavfidloLix av d oTaOa I
should be surprised if you know (Pr. 312 c), d oTa-Oa de-
scribes the supposed case. In Swat' av el povXoio you could
should you so will (E. b. 947), d /SovXolo describes the supposed
case. In t6t€ 8* avro to Trpayfjia av eKpivero e^' avTOv (461 c),
TOT€ sums up in a word the preceding description of the im-
agined circumstances.

482 In poetry the optative without dv is sometimes hypothetical

Tcdv, ZeO, Svva(TLV tl<s dvSpCjv vircpj^acria KaTacr;j(ot; whdt hu-
man trespass would constrain thy power ^ Zeus? S. an. 605.
 IMPERATIVE SENTENCES 183

483 The Tenses of the optative do not refer to time ; they

differ as do those of the subjunctive (475). The
future optative is not used in simple sentences.

IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

484 The Imperative presents an act as willed. It has

many shades of meaning, as of command, prohibition,
request, wish, supposition, assent, submission. (Nega-
tive fJLT].)

The tenses differ as in the subjunctive and opta-

tive (475, 483).
'AXXa vLv KOfjLLi^eT^ etcrcoy S/xoie? but take her witJi-
in, slaves, s. an. 578.
x^'-P^? x^^P^'^^ rejoice, fareivell.
ddpaei have courage, lovroiv let them go. An. i. 4, 8.

fxrjSeU vfjicjv XeyeTco let no one of you spealc. An. i.

3, 15. ecrraj SO he it. In It oj cJ? tw ^€w (J)lXov, the oj?

clause marks ltcj as a humble acceptance of divine

ordering let it go as God will.

485 Imperative, subjunctive, and optative, in simple sentences,

shade into one another in meaning, and are often found to-
gether.
A proMMtion in the second or third person, if in the pres-
ent tense, is always an imperative ; if in the aorist tense, it is

nearly always a subjunctive.

MtJt* oKV€tT€ fx-qr* dcfirJT* Itto? KaKov neither he afraid
nor let fly an evil word. S. ok. 731. ravrd fiot Trpa^ov, tckvov,
KoX fJirj /SpdSvve ft 178' i-n- L/Mvrjo-Orjs tri Tpotd<s do that for me,
my sonj delay no more, nor me^ition Troy again. S. p. 1399 f.
Trave, /x^ ^€^?/5 Tripd stop, speah 710 farther! S. p. 1275. In
An. III. 2, 37, immediately after oAAws ex^'^" ^^t it he otherwise,
there follow two optatives of wish, X€tpLcroff>o<i rjyoiro and hvo
 184 SIMPLE SENTENCES

oTparrjyu) eTnfjLcXoLa-Orjv, which are equally imperative in force,

but perhaps more courteous in form.

NEGATIVE SENTENCES

486 Ou, or acompound of ov, simply denies. Mif, or a

compound of jxij, presents the negation as willed (de-
sired^ hoped, aimed at^ assented to, etc.), or as part of
an imagined or assumed case. Hence /iif is the regu-
lar negative in wishes (470, 476) and in subjunctive
and imperative sentences (471-474, 484). For /xt^ with
the infinitive and participle see 564, 672, 579 a, 582 c.
a. M17 with finite modes in simple sentences and principal
clauses regularly expresses a willed negative of one shade or
another. Both meanings are in so far one that both represent
a negative as conceived, rather than as fact.

487 After ov, alone or in composition, a compound of ov

;
repeats and strengthens the negation ' so also a com-
pound of ixTj following ixTj

OvTTOTe ipel o u S e 1 9 no man shall ever say. An.

I. 3, 5. ^Tj (jivyrjTe firj^aiJifj do not in any case flee.
S. p. 789.

a. If the second negative is simple, each has its separate

force :

Kat oi) ypd(fi€L fxev ravra rots 8' ep-yots ov Trotet and he doeS not
merely write this and then not carry it out in deeds. D. 9, 27.

Here the first ov negatives the combination ypa<jf>et pXv ov 8e

TTotet, thus in a sense canceling the second ov.

1 In older English a similar doubling of the negative was common,

and common among the uneducated, though not in good usage.
is still

Thus, from Shakspere, "I can not go no further." As You Like

It, II, 4.
 NEGATIVE SENTENCES 185

488 Mt^ with the Indicative is used

Often in questions, intimating a hope of a nega-
a.

tive answer so also apa jjnj and fxojv (for jjirj ovv).
;

Ml] TL veaxrepov ayyiWei^ no serious newSj IliO])ef ;

Pr. 310 b. pjf^ avTOP otet (j^povTLcraL Oavdrov you donH

;

suppose lie was anxious about death, do you ? a p. 28 d.

/Awi/ Tt ere dSt/cet; he hasnt injured you, has he?
Pr. 310 d.

Sometimes in cautious statement of a present or past

b.

fact (cp. 474 and a), intimating a hope (perhaps ironical) that
it is not true :

'AAA.' apa fJLT] ov Totavr-qv viroXaii^avWi crov Tr]v jxadrjo-LV €(r€crOai

hut perha2Js you mean that your learning will be not lil^e that.
Pr. 312 a.

In both these uses firj has essentially the same force as

c.

with modes in other simple sentences (486 a). This is

finite
plainest in the former, but still traceable in the latter a ;

deprecatory statement is made, most often in the interrogative

tone (a), but sometimes without it (b). The firj is an expres-
sion of desire on the part of the speaker to negative the state-
ment; but this desire may be merely assumed, or may be
nothing more than surprise that the statement should be true.

489 Idioms (of uncertain explanation).

a. Ov ixTj with the Subjunctive is a strong denial

referring to the future :

Ov Tt /xt) \rj(f)6a) SoXw I shall not he caught hy

a trick, a. s. 38. ov jxt) TTid7)Tai he will never
yield. S. p. 103. ouSel? fjLrjKeTi fxeiprj tojv ttoXc-

[XLOJv not one of the enemy ivill stay any longer. Ax. iv.

8, 13. ov K€T L fjirj SvpTjT at ^acriXev^ r}jjia<^ KaraXa-

j^eiv the hing will no longer he ahle to catch us. An.
II. 2, 12.
 186 SIMPLE SENTENCES

b. Ov ixrj with the future indicative is sometimes a strong

denial ; in the second person it may be a prohibition :

Ov (TOL fxr] /xe^€i/^o/Aat ttotc / will never follow thee. S. e.

1052. oi) fjLT] AaAiyo-cts do7iH keep chattering. An. n. 505.

UNDEVELOPED AND INCOMPLETE SENTENCES

490 Some expressions are not fully developed sentences, with a
subject and predicate. Language begins with simpler forms,
sometimes not even distinguishing parts of speech, as is clearly
seen in children beginning to talk.^ Such primitive forms
remain in use, in all languages, especially in lively conver-
sation and in poetry.' They are less formal, more natural for
expressing emotion and simple thought. They are found in
all stages of development, from the simple interjection to

phrases of some length, with verbal forms, and even a subject.

491 Such are

a. Interjections :

"^O, a, alat, ^ev, lov, ico oh, ah, alas, ha, ho, etc.

b. Exclamations without a verb :

Aevpo this 10 ay ! here ! firjSkv aydv nothing too far ! tw

ixoi fioL Sv(TTYjvo<s tth me unhappy I Zevs '^(orrjp Koi vlkt) Zeus the
Savior and victory ! An. i. 8, 16. w fiiaphv rjOo? koI ywatKos
va-repov vile nature, subject to a ivojnan ! S. an. 746.

c. Titles and headings :

Kvpov 'Avay8ao-t9 The Expedition of Cyrus. Ilcpt IIot^rtK^s

On Poetry. 'E-Trra IttI ©y^ds Seven against Thehes.

^ "The language of birds is very ancient, and, like other ancient

modes little is said, but much is meant and
of speech, very elliptical ;

understood." White, Nat. Hist, of SeTborne, Letter 85.

2 Tennyson, for example, uses them very freely: "Sunset and eve-
ning star, and one clear call for me." "A plot, a plot, to ruin all !"
"God's blessing on the day " "A week hence, a week hence." "Ah,
!

the long delay !

" "I to cry out on pride !
" "Scorned, to be scorned
by one that I scorn."
 UNDEVELOPED AND INCOMPLETE SENTENCES 187

d. Some words or phrases, introducing a sentence that fol-

lows, or summiDg up something that precedes :

8e, or T^Kix-qpiov 8c, and as

^r]fji,€Lov evidence . koX to fii-

yiATTov and ivhat is most imi:)ortant . koX tovto avro t6 tov

'Ofirjpov and then as Homer says . Ap. 34 d. So the fre-

quent expression koX ravra and that too, in which ravra, like
that, stands for the preceding expression, repeated in this
abbreviated form, that some new point may be added with
emphasis.

492 Exclamatory Infinitives are more like sentences, sometimes

having a subject.
a. In an imperative sense, often to be rendered by an im-
perative :

HpC)Tov fxkv Tovro irap vplv avrois (3€/3aLio<S yviovai jlrst of all,

this firm conviction in your otvn minds! D. 8, 39. Spda-avTi

'jraOelv to him that did it (to the guilty) suffering. A. c. 312.

oU p.y] TreAa^etv go not near these. A. pb. 738.

b. As a prayer or wish :

©cot 7^oA.^Ta^ ixrj /xe SovXctd? rvxctv my country'' s gods, not

slavery, not that fate for me ! A. s. 239.

c. Of surprise, indignation, or other emotion :

*E/>ie TraOclv raSc, <^ev / tO Sllff'er this! Ha! A. E. 840. w

Svo-ToAatvo, TOidS' avSpa xp^o-t/xov </)(uvctv ah, icretchcd me ! for
a good man to speah so! S. ai. 410. tolovtovl Tp€(}>€Lv Kvva to

keep a dog like that ! Ar. y. 835.

493 Sentences are often incomplete ; any part that is clearly im-
plied may be left unexpressed.
a. In many sentences the subject is not expressed, because
easily understood, or indefinite, or contained in the verb :

$ao-6 they say. koL elx'^v ovtw? and so it teas. An. hi. 1, 31.

/taxr?? Set there^s need of a fight. An. ii. 3, 5.

Here belong impersonal verbs : Set there is need, xpi opor-

tet, 7rpo(TrJK€L it behooves, /xcAct it is a care, etc.
 188 SIMPLE SENTENCES

b. The verb is often omitted, especially t'o-rt, elat and other

common verbs that are suggested by the context
^TTOvSat /JL€V jxevovcriv, a7riov(TL Be rj Trpo'iovcn TroXe/xo? a truce if
we stay^ if we leave or advance, war. An. ii. 1, 23. fxrj fioL fiv-

piov<s ^evovs no ten tliousand mercenaries, please. D. 4, 19.

c. Sometimes an adverb or adverbial phrase stands for a

whole sentence, as in the common answers vai yes, /AaAto-ra

certainly, ov no, ov Srjra of course not, 7io indeed, irdw fxlv ovv
assuredly, vrj Ata yes, iy Zeus, fia tovs Oeovs by heave?i, no,
KaXQ)<s very well, cv ye bravo
These and the like may be called abbreviated sentences.
d. Sometimes it is not clear, nor of any importance, whether

an expression is incomplete through omission, or belongs un-

der 490, as a more primitive form :

OiKTpa ixkv voa-roL^ avSa piteous the cry at the return ! S. e.

193. So also the examples under b.

494 Thus far (451-493) sentences have been treated rather as

wholes, the treatment centering in the verb as the backbone
of the sentence. In the following sections (495-699) the sepa-
rate parts of the simple sentence will be treated in this order
Verbs, Nouns (the Cases), Adjectives, Special Forms of Predi-
cation, The Article, Pronouns, Infinitives, Participles, Verbals,
Prepositions. Of the verb, since the modes and tenses in
simple sentences have already been explained, only Agree-
ment and Voice remain to be described.

VERBS: AGREEMENT AND VOICE

495 A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and

person, as in English and Latin.

496 But a neuter plural subject commonly takes a singu-

lar verb
 VERBS: AGREEMENT AND VOICE 189

noXXa T(^v vTrot^vy io)v aTrcoXero 7nany of the

haggage-animals died. Ax. i. 5, 5.

But also: a-n-avra rj(Tav evwSrj all were siceet-smellmg.

An. I. 5, 1. rja-av ravrcL hvo T€txq these were tivo walls. An. I.

4, 4.

497 A dual subject may take a plural verb :

'A8eA</)a) 8uo ixopov kolvov KaTeipydcravTO OUT twO brothers

wrought their common death. S. an. 57.

498 The agreement often follows the sense instead of form ; but
sometimes it follows the form instead of sense :

a. To irXyjOo's otovrai the multitude suppose. T. i. 20.

(Agreement with a collective subject.)

b. Bao-tAevs koX oi cruv avrw cla-TriTTTeL the Mng ti'ith his

followers breaks in. An. i. 10, 1. (The king is thought of as
the central figure.)
c. "ETre/xt/^e yae 'Aptatos koX ^ApTdo^os Ariaios and Artao-
zos sent 7ne. An. ii. 4, 16. (Agreement with the nearer noun
only.)

d. To pLiCTOV TWV TCL)(piV T) (T aV (TTd^LOL T/3et? thC SpaCC 1)6-

tween the walls ivas three stades. An. i. 4, 4. (Agreement with

2u predicate noun.)

499 The Active and Passive voices have the same force
as in English.

a. Some active verbs are used as passives of other

verbs :

aiTOKTeivo) Mllj diToOvrjcTKoj (die) am

Mlled^
iK/SdWo) cast out exile J J
iKirtTTTO) (fall otit), (f)evya)

(flee) am exiled,
ev or /ca/cw? ttolco do good eu, fcafcw? ttolctx^^ ^^ well
or ill to, or badly treated,
 190 SIMPLE SENTENCES

SiaTLdrjiiL dispose^ bring to Sia/cet/xat am disposed, am

a certain disjposition, in (this or that) disposi-
tion.

500 The Middle voice expresses an action of the subject

a. On himself, as direct object {Direct Middle) :

TTavo) mate stop, Trauo/xat stop myself, cease,

(j)aLj^o) show, (j)aLvofiai show myself, appear,
L(TT7]iJiL set up (cp. 363), tcrra/xat place myself,
irddoi persuade, Tret^o/xat persuade myself, he-

lleve,

hihdo-Ko) teach, StSctcr/co/xat teach myself, learn,

aTTTOj fasten, dirrofjiaL tlvo<s fasten myself to

something, touch,
exoj hold, exofxai tlvo^ hold myself to,

cling to, am next to,

b. For, to, with reference to himself {Indirect Mid-

dle) \

dpyoi am first, dpxoyiai begin for rnyself be-

gin my task,

TTOLOJ malce, TroLovixai nva (J)lXov maJce one

my friend,
dy(x) lead, dyofiai yvvaiKa take to myself
a marry,
wife,
l3ov\evo) plan, ^ovXevofxai plan for myself,
deliberate,
crviJilBovXeva) advise, avix^ovkevo fxai seek advice,
alpeco take, seize, alpovfjiai take for myself
choose,
^vkdrToi watch, guard, ^vkdrroyiai am on my guard.
 NOUNS: THE CASES 191

c. From Mmself, froin Ms own ])owers or means

{Subjective Middle^ sometimes very like tlie active) :

TToiw TTokefjiov cause a war^ iroiovyiai TroXefxov carry

on war,
TToXlTevofxaL act as a citizen, tahe part in government,
d7ro(^atVo/xai yvcDjjurjp sTiow forth my opinion,
iTTayyeWofxai tl offer or promise sometliincj {announce
from myself^.
Tov<; dypd(j)ovs v6^ov<^ ov^ ol dvOpcoTTOL iOepTO dXXd
0eol TOLs dv6pa>7TOL<; eOeaav the unwritten laws not men
establislied of themselves, hut gods for men, (See
M. lY. 4, 19.)

d. The Indirect and the Subjectiye middle can not always

be distinguished ; both are sometimes causative :

IJi€Ta7r€fX'7rofx,aL TLva seucl for, littve One sent to me,

StSao-Ko/Attt Tov TTolSa have the boy taught,
SiKa^ofxaL get judgment rendered, iri7ig suit,
ypd(f>ofjLaL TLva get a?i indictment {ypa<^rj) U'ritte7i agaiyist one,
indict.

601 Deponent verbs are properly middle, in the indirect or sub-

jective sense, and the active was not thought necessary.
The aorist passive was originally not passive, but merely
intransitive, and in some verbs this intransitive sense con-
tinued in common use : IhoKct /jlol Tavrrj ireipaa-Oai (roiOrjvai it

seemed to 7ne lest to try to attain safety in this way. L. 12, 15.

So always ix^pw rejoiced, from x"-^P^-

NOUNS THE CASES

:

502 A noun (or pronoun) in the same case with another,

and denoting the same person or thing, is an apposi-
tive if added directly, Sip)redicate if added by means
 192 SIMPLE SENTENCES

of a verb. Botli appositive and predicate noun may

be in any case, according to tbe construction of the
primary noun
AvSw/iai Se tt a T 9 'A^tXXews, NeoTrrdXe/xos I
am called the son of AcJtilles^ Neoptolemos. s. p. 240 f.

(Here Neoptolemos an appositive to Trat?, which is

is

a predicate noun, agreeing with the understood sub-

ject of avScjfjLaL. For special idioms of predication in
Greek see 645-548.)
For the cases with prepositions, alone or in composition,
see 597-599.

The Nominative

503 The Nominative case of nouns (or pronouns) is used

(1) As the subject of a finite verb,

(2) In address, for the vocative :

Z € u ? ^aaikevei Zeus is Mrig. a) ^ Xog

t eliri O
friend, speaJc, a. pb. 562.

504 A Nominative may stand as appositive to a sentence :

Nt/Acws w8' ippvOi(rixai, Ztjvl Svo'KXirj's 6ed tJius piUUssly a7n I

chastised, a sight of evil fa^ne for Zeus. A. pb. 257.

The Genitive

505 The Genitive is a blend of two cases, once distinct.

These are
(1) The Genitive proper (like the Latin geni-
tive),

(2) The old Ablative, or From case.

In great part the two sets of uses are fairly dis-

tinct but some uses are puzzling, and must be

;

learned mainly through reading.

 THE GENITIVE 193

(In Latin the genitive remained pure, and the ablative

was blended with the instrumental and the locative. See
528.)

506 The Genitive proper may depend on a noun or pro-

noun directly {Adnominal Genitive), The relation
intended is gathered only from the nature of the
words and from the context some combinations oc- ;

cur so often that they are named, but a host of others

are too various and elusive to name
:

a. 'H /3acrtXew9 Swa/xt? the hinges poiver {Pos-

sessive Genitive^ rj Ic^oSo? tov ar parev fxaro^
the approach of the army {Subjective Genitive), ^nqhe-

jjLLd o-coTT] pLd<^ hope of safety {Objective

eA.7ri9 710

Genitive), rpicov rj fiepiov 6S6v a three day ^ journey

{Genitive of Measure), tmv pivpicDv i\Triho}v fxid

one hope in ten thousand {Genitive of the Whole).

b. IlXrj9o<; av6 poiTT o)v a nndtitude of men. crlyrj

(J)lXojv with silence toward your friends, e. m. 587.

eV ftecrw rj fjuwi' kol y8 a o" t X e a> 9 between US and the

Icing. An. ii. 2, 3. ^ € w 1/ TToXefios war from the gods.
An. II. 5, 7. Tj Tcov K p eicr (T 6v (ov SovXeud servitude
to the stronger. T. i. 8. oifxa^aL irer pcov wagon-loads
of stones. An. iv. 7, 10. ypa(f)r) aae^eidq indictment
for impiety. ahLKruxdrcov opyrj anger at wrong-
doing. L. 12, 20. Si alcr^vvTqv Koi olXXtjXo)!^ kol

Compare, from Shakspere, nighfs predominance, ruin's entrance, tn

'

Ms kingdom's defense, in his country's wreck, an hour's delay, my heart's

core, the Norway's king, a summer's cloud, heaven's breath, this night's
business, each day's life, life's feast, my scepter's awe from J. R. Lowell, ;

Lethe's ooze, battle-odes whose lines, the letters sheath, at life's dear
peril.
13
 194 SIMPLE SENTENCES

Kvpov for shame both lefore one another and hefore

Cyrus, An. III. 1, 10.

507 The word on which the adnominal genitive depends

a. May be omitted :

Ets StSao-KaAov to a teacliefs {Jiouse)^ to school, h "A 1 8o

in Hades' (abode, realm), in the other ivorld. iv Alovvo-ov in

(the precinct) of Dionysos. t^s y^s h-^ixov they ravaged
{some) of the land. T. i. 30. See also 510 a.
b. May be represented by the article only :

El? Ty\v €avT<x)v to their own land.

The genitive often stands with a neuter article :

To, T^s TToAews the (affairs, interests) of the state, ra fxh

Kvpov ovTtoS €^€L TTpos rj/xa<S axTTrep TO. rj^irepa 7rp6<s Ik€lvov Cyrus's
relation to us is just like ours to him. An. i. 3, 9. to, tCjv

Oewv the (ordering) of the gods. t6 t^s Tvxn^ the (action) of

fortune, to twv TrvevixaTCDv the matter of the winds, or simply
the ivinds. m t^s i/rv^^s the soul.

c. May be a neuter pronoun or adjective, made a noun of

degree or quantity
Ets ro(TovTov KaKLd<s rjXOev he came to such a pitch of
baseness. L. 12, 67. cts tovto a(f>2^0e fJLO)pLd<s 17 irapav olds
you have reached this hight of folly or of madness. D. 9, 54.

€7rt jxiya Svva/xews to a great degree of power.

d. May be an adverb of place, degree, or condition :

IIov y^s ; where on earth, uM terrarum f ttov yviopirjs ttot

€*; where in thought are you? S. an. 42. oT do-eAyetds to what
pitch of profligacy. D. 4, 9. Trpoo-w far into the
tov iroTa/xov
river. An. iv. 3, 28. Trrjfxovrj? aAts enough of woe. So with cv,
KaKws, wSe, 0)5, tva. Cp. also 518 b.

e. May be, really or apparently, a superlative adjective or

adverb ( Ge^iitive of the Whole) :

*0 fj>ikTaT avhpuiv dearest of men. S. e. 23. /xdXia-Ta roiv

'EXX^viov most among the Greeks. An. i. 6, 5. d<^ei8eo-Tara -n-av-

Twv most unsparingly of all. An. i. 9, 13.

 THE GENITIVE 195

508 A Genitive may be

brought part of tlie predicate,
into dependence on a noun or pronoun by means of
the verb {Predicate Genitive) :

'^YLv ovTo<^ T(x)v p ar evo ^liv (ov

dfji(f)l MiXrjToi' (jt
this man was one of those in military service about
MiletOS. Ax. I. 2, 3. TOLOVTOJV icTT € 77 p O J6V (x) V of
such ancestors are you. An. m. 2, 13. rjv ircjv w?
TpiaKovTa he was about thirty years old. Ax. n. 6, 20.

ov T (x)v vlK(x)VTa)v icrTL TO, OTrXa TrapaSuSovaL giv-

ing up their arms is not the victors^ jpart. Ax. n. 1, 9.

a. In the above the verb connects the genitive

with the subject other verbs may connect a genitive ;

with the object

No /x t ^e t KoX vfjLa^ iavr ov elvau he thinks you
too are his (captives). Ax. n. 1, 11. r 17 9 ly/xere/ad?

d /x, e X e t d 9 av tl<; e ltj Stfcatw? 07ie would justly put

it doion to our neglect, d. 1, 10. Trotd? ttolt pd^ av tj

yevovs u/xct? nore rvxpiii av eln cov ;

pray, of what
land or lineage should I rightly call you ? s. p. 222.

509 The From Genitive {AblativaV) is used with verbs to

denote
a. Separation, source, and the like ; the verb often
contains a preposition that would by itself take a
from genitive, as aTrd, ef, Trap a, irpo :

'EvTavOa Suecrxov aXXyjXcov there they drew

apart from each other. Ax. i. 10, 4. ixjjlXovTo 6 \6-
</)09 ra)v LTTiTeajv the hill tvas left bare of the horse-
men^ Ax. I. rjXeKT pov ovSep 8 l ^<i>€.p e
10, 13. rj 6\pL^

their appearance was not a whit different from amber ^

196 SIMPLE SENTENCES

An. II. 3, 15. aiTiqWay fxiv 1 tovtcov tcjv TTOVOiV

having got rid of these labors. An. iv. 3, 2. rev^ecrOe
Kvpov you will obtain it from Cyrus. An. 4, is. i.

Setrat avrov ixr) Karakvaai he asJcs of him not to

come to terms. An. i, lo. T^So/^ai olkovcov aov i.

(f)povLvov<; Xoyovs I ain delighted at hearing from

you words of sense. OLfSet? rjjJidpTavei' An. h. 5, 16.

Tov dvS p6<; no one missed (went wide of^ his

man. An. m. 4, 15. a fXTrXoLKco rov aov jjuo p ov am ;

I to fail of thy fate? S. an. 554. dporov yyj<; dv-

liv ai to send up fruitage from the earth, s. ot. 270.
fidOpojv LCTTacrOe rise from the steps, s. ot. 142.

b. That to which something is superior or inferior,

with verbs implying comparison (Genitive of Com-
parison ; cp. 517) :

To Trepielvai t cov (f)

lXojv the surpassing his
friends. An. i. 9, 24. tt epiyev ea 9 ai rrj^; ^acrtXew?
SvvdiJL€o)<; to get the better of the Mng's force, an.

II. 1, 13. T ovT ov ov^ TfTTTia 6 (xed a we shall not be

outdone by him. An. h. 3, 23. tovto^v iTrXeoveKrelTe you
had more than they. An. m. 1, 37.

So with 7rpoi)(0), Trpoeo'TrjKa, vTrepi^^co, XeiVo/xat, vtKw/xat, etc.

c. Cause, with some verbs of emotion (cp. also

611 c) :

T 7] <; i\ev6 € p LOL^ vjjidq evSaLfioj/L^o) I con-

gratulate you on your freedom. An. i. 7, 3. pj^ avrov
oieu cj) povT LO- ai avdrov ; do you suppose lie was
anxious about death f a p. 28 d.

So too in exclamations, without a verb, and with

adjectives :
 THE GENITIVE 197

Oljjlol Ta\aLvr]<; ClJl^ unliappy ! S. an. 82. ^ev Trj<;

avoids alas for thy folly ! s. e. 920. Oav^daiaL tov

KaXkov<; KoX fjL€y€Oov<; wonderful for heauty and size.
An. II. 3, 15.

d. The agent (source of the action), in poetry, with some

passive participles and verbals :

KctV->7? hihaKTo. taught iy lier. S. E. 344. <^a)Tos rjiraT-qixevr]

deceived ly a liushand. S. at. 807.

510 The Genitive is used as object with many verbs not easy to
classify

a. Verbs of sliaring :

*AyaOov />tev ov8€v6<: /jlct ea-x^v aXXwv Sk ttoAAcuv Jie tooJc

part in no good tiling^ hut in many of another sort. L. 12, 48.

So^rys fierdSos impart your thought. E. it. 1030.
So with Koiviiivui, />t€T€;(<o, (JLCTaXafi/SdviD, and Aay;(avw when it
means get by lot a share in.
Some examples may belong either here or under 507 a.

b. Some verbs meaning toiich^ talce hold 0/, hegin, try :

^AvTiXdpeorOe Tuiv Trpdy/xarwv lay hold of the busi?iess. D. 1, 20.

TOV Xoyov rjpx^ro wSe he began his speech thus. An. hi. 2, 7.
tXapov TTj^ ^u)vr]s tov 'Opovrrjv they took hold of Orofites by
his girdle. An. i. 6, 10. ©cTTaAcd?
i-rri/Sr] he set foot on

Thesscdy. D. 1, 12. rovroiv yeppo(f)6poi next to

e^^/w-cvot
these (cp. 500 a), troops with wicker shields. An. i. 8. 9. ttci-
pu)fx€voL ravTr]<s t^s Ta^€co9 makiiig trial of this order.
An. III. 2, 38.

So with dTTTOfxaL, Oiyydvw, ij/avo), dvTe)(OfxaL.

c. Verbs meaning r^de or lead (cp. 509 b) :

Twv 'EXXrjvwv rjp^av iKovrayv they rilled the Greeks with

their consent. D. 3, 24. tov Se^tov Kcpu)^ rjyeXa-OaL to lead
the right wing. An. i. 7. 1. (But rjyovfxaL also takes the dative
rot? oAAots TfyuTo he led the rest. An. ii. 2, 8.)

d. Verbs meaning am, claim., reach^ attain :

 198 SIMPLE SENTENCES

McyoAoov i/^iJ^wv icts ovk av aiJLdpT0L<5 ahnifig at great souls,

you would not miss. S. ai. 154. icf>U/jL€vo<s Trj<s dp^^s longing for
the rule. T. i. 128. ovk avTiTroLOv fxcO a ySao-tAct t^s ^PXV"^
we do not dispute with the Mng for the sovereignty. An. ii. 3, 23.

i^LKV€i(r$aL Tcov (T(f>€v8ovr]T(x)v to reach the slingers. An. hi. 3, 7.

tZ/x^s Tvyxa-viiv to obtain honor. An. i. 9, 29.

So with (TTOXOi^oiJiai, opiyofiaL, ij/av(o.

e. Verbs meaning taste, smell, enjoy :

BovAerat Kal crc tovto)v yeva-ao-Oai he ivishes yOU also to

taste these. An. i. 9, 26. ri yap aXA' av tov OLTroXava-aLfxi
/jbaOrjfiaro^; tvhy, what other good of learning should I enjoy?
Ar. n. 1231.

So with 6(T(f)paLV0fJLaL, ovLvrjfiL, ripTro/xai, €v<D)(ov/JiaL.

611 The Genitive is used as object witli many verbs that

denote an action of the senses or of the mind ; several
of these admit the accusative.
a. ^Akovo) hear, alcrdavoiLai perceive, and a few
others of like meaning :

(&opv^ov rfKovcre he heard a noise. An. i. 8, 16. But

note r\Kov(T^ TLcrcra(f)€pvov<; tov Kvpov (tt6\ov lie heard
of Cyrus's equipment from T. An. i. 2, 5. alo-ddvoixaL
likewise takes the gen. or ace. olXXtjXojv ^wieaav they
understood one another, t. i. 3, 20. to t o)v tolov-
r oiv iOeXeuv olk poacrd ai the willingness to listen to
such men. d. 9, 55.

b. Verbs meaning remember., forget :

MLiJLVT]crK€L<; KaKCJv thou remindest me of sorrows.

E. AL. 1045. dXXov Xoyov fxe fxvr) a 9 e rememher some
other word. a. pb. 522. p^r^ iinXaO copeOa ttJ? ol-
KaSe 6S0V let US not forget the way home. An. m. 2, 25.
These verbs may also take the accusative ; a neu-
 THE GENITIVE 199

ter pronoun as object is always accusative : tov Ev-

(fypoLov jjiefjivrjiJLa^oL remembering Eujphraios, D. 9, 6i.

c. Verbs meaning care foi\ neglect^ spare, desire :

^ povTj a eo)^ KoX dXr] 9 etd^ Kal ttJ? ^^XV '^

ovK iir L
fjLeXel ovSe (j) p ovt L[,eL<; for in telligence
and truth and
you tahe no care or thought.
the soul
Ap. 29 e. ikaaaov Zrjvo<; rj fjurjSev fjueXeu hilt
e/xot 8'

I care less than naught for Zeus. a. pb. 9to. ^p-qixd-

Tcov imOvfjLeL he is eager for wealth. An. m. 2, 39.

Similarly with fj-cTafiiXet /jlol poenitet me^ ivrpiTrofmi regard^

a/xcAw neglect, oAtywpoi think lightly of, <^€t8o/Aat spare, d^ctScu
am unsparing^ ipQ) love, ttclvw hunger for.

512 The Genitive is used witli verbs and adjectives of

plenty and want
AL(f)0€pd<? in LfJLTrXacr av ^oprov Kov(j)ov they
iDOuld fill skins with hay. Ax. i. 5, 10. rwi^ €771x77-
8 e t oj i^ OVK diT o pij a fiev we shall not lack pro-
visions. An. II. 2, 11. v8aro9 f%dl of ivatev.
7rX7ypet9
An. II. 3, 13. ^py)ixdToiv evnopei he had plenty of money.
D. 18, 235. fjidxr]^ Set there is need of a fight, an. h. 3, 5.

513 The Genitive may denote price or value :

Uoaov SiSdaKeL ; for how much does he teach f

Ap. 20 b. T oiv TTOV o)v tt (oXovc lv r]plv irdvra TaydO^
ol Oeoi for toil cdone the gods sell all good things.
Epich. fxlKpd fx€Tpa iroWov dpvpiov small measures
for a large sum. An. m. 2, 21.

514 The Genitive with verbs of accusing, convicting, ac-

quitting ^enoi^^ the charge. >*s^e

ER
OF
 200 SIMPLE SENTENCES

Tlius /cXotttJs atrtw/xat accuse ((j)evyo) am accused)

of theftJ aael^da^ Slcoko) prosecute (ypdcj^ofxaL indict,
elcrdyco hring to trial, aTroiri^vya. am acquitted) for
impiety,
a. But with KaTr]yopu> accuse, KarayiyvMa-Kw adjudge against,
KaTaxprj^^i^ofxaL vote against, and some others, the genitive of
the person is governed by the Kara.
Tlfiu) estimate a penalty takes the genitive of value the ;

active is used of the court, the middle (in a causative sense,

get it estimated) of the accuser or accused.
AXAa St] <l>vy7]'S Tt/X7^(r(o/x,at; tcrcos yap av fxoi t ovtov rlfxi^-
o- a t T c but shall I then put {the penalty) at exile f For perhaps
you (the jury) would put it at that amount. Ap. 37 e.

515 The Genitive may denote the thne or space within

which something occurs, or to which it belongs :

Ov [LojyfxTCLi SeKa rj fjie pwv he will not fight with-

in ten days. An. i. 7, 18. dii t ov KaOij kovto<;
Xpovov yiyveaOaL occur always within the appro-
priate time. D. 4, 35. iiTT aKaiSeKa ar aO fxoyv to)v

iyyvrdroi e/c tt}?

x^P^^ ovSei/ eixofJiev Xafi^dveLv with-
in the sixteen nearest stages we could get nothing from
the country. An. h. 3, ii.

In prose only a few words of time, and still fewer of place, are
freely so used, especially xP^vov, -^fiipd^ by day, wktos by night,

co-TTcpa? in the evening, xct/xwvos in winter, Oepov? in summer.

Here also belong some adverbs and adverbial phrases of

place in the genitive, as avrov on the spot, -n-ov where? ov
where (rel.) : ovk ecfiaa-av Uvai Tov TTpoa-o) they refused to go
forward. An. i. 3, 1.

516 The Genitive is used with many adjectives.

a. Adjectives of like meaning with the above verbs (509-

514);
 THE GENITIVE 201

Such are trepos different^ 6p<^avos lereft^ iXevOepos free, and

in poetry various compounds of a(v)- negative, taking a from
genitive ;

Also lirrjKoo^ listening^ virrjKoo^ obedient^ /AvrJ/xwv mindful^

€7nfjL€Xrj<s careful, d(/>ei8ris unsparing, atnos causing, iyKpaTrj^s hav-
ing control, a^tos worthy, dva^tos unworthy (therefore d^tw
think Ivor thy).
b. Adjectives of various meanings, best learned from read-
ing :

'ETTto-TTJ/Acuv Twv d/A^i Ta^^ets shilled in tactics. An. ii. 1, 7.

Upo^ Tri<s 'Apre/xiSos sacred

Artemis. An. v. to 3, 13. aTreipot

avroiv ivithout experience of them. An. m. 2, 16.

617 With comparative adjectives and adverbs the From

Genitive denotes the starting-point of comparison
( Genitive of Comparison ; see 509) :

Ilepcrd? eavrov ^eXTiovs Persians superior to

himself. 2, ov Tr\iov eiKoai

An. II. 1. err aS lcov not
more tJian twenty stades. An. m. 2, 34. ovtoctl croc^aj-
Tepo<^ ifiov this man here is wiser than I. Ap. 21 c.

So with any adjectives that imply comparison :

T^ V are paid ttJ? yuax^'^ on the day after the

hattle. TToXXaTrXacrtou? vpcov avr (ov ivlKare
you defeated many times your own number. An, m.
2, 14.

518 The Genitive is used with

a. Adverbs derived from adjectives or verbs that
take a genitive :

'Af ta>9 T179 TToXew? in a manner worthy of the state,

b. Adverbs of place, time, separation, state :

XIo/opw Tov I3lov Oavdrov Sk eyyv? far on in life and 7iear death.
Ap. 38 c. €^0) TOV ScLvov out of danger. An. ii. 6, 12. 6i(/e r^s
 202 SIMPLE SENTENCES

y/x€pd? late in the day. x^P^^ ''"^^ aAXwi/ apart from the rest.
\dOpd Twv (rTpaTLWTQ>v Without the knowledge of the soldiers.
An. I. 3, 8.

So with, ecrco, ivTo^j eKTos, fxera^v, irX-qarLov^ Trpoo-^ev, efXTrpoa-Oev,

OTTLO-Oev, a/x^oTipayOev, evdev, 7repd(v), ttojs, ev, and others. Cp.

also 507 d.

c. ''Avev, ttXtJv, ^XPh I^^Ph ^Ve/ca —adverbs that

have become virtually prejDositions (cp. 599).

For the Genitive Absolute see 589, 590.

The Dative

519 Three cases, once distinct, are blended in the Greek

Dative. These are
(1) The true Dative, the To or i^^r case,
(2) The Instrumental (or Sociative), the With or
£y case,

(3) The Locative, the At or In case.

The English prepositions to and for, ivith and hy, at and

in, cover fairly the three sets of uses ; but there are many
differences of idiom.
The dative is used mostly with verbs and adjectives, but
also with nouns, adverbs, and prepositions.

520 The To Dative is used with verbs to denote the indi-

rect object

Tavra aTrayyeXw /3a(T iXel this J will report

to the hing. An. h. 3, 24. ravra r ol*^ c^tXot? SteSi-
hov these he used to distribute to his friends. An. i.

9, 22.dXXa (t)L\oo-6(j)0) eoifcas why, you seem like

a philosopher, an. n. i, 13.
a. Many Greek verbs take the dative though the
 THE DATIVE ,
203

corresponding English verb takes a direct object, or

requires some other preposition than to :

'E7rto-T€uoj/ avTw iJiey trusted liim. Ax. i. 2, 2. 77 e t

cr o fjLai fjLakXov rw ^ew r) vfilv I shall obey the god

rather than you, Ap. 29 d. Kupw jreiSapx'^lv to he
obedient to Cyrus. An. i. 9, 17. l^ol opyit^ovrai they
get angry at me. Ap. 23 c. rw Oeco fiorjOojv aiding the
god. Ap. 23 b. rot? ^A6r]vaL0L<; TraprjveL he used to ad-
vise the Athenians. T. i. 93. errecrOe tco rjyovixivo)

follow your leader. An. h. 2, 4.

So with iTTLTljxii), fJLeix(f>oiJLaL, iyKaXu) ilame, <ji6ovoi envy^ oveLBc^oi

reproach^ rlfjuopC) avenge o?ie, vTna-xvov^ai promise^ and many

others. Some verbs (as /xe^u-^o/xat, ovctSt^co, iTnTlfxC)) take some-
times the accusative and sometimes the dative.
b. Here belong some semi-impersonal verbs, the subject of
which is not an acting person, but a thing or an act

*Eyu,oi /xeA>Jo-€t it shall he my care. An. i. 4, 16. fjieTafxeXrja-ei

auTw he icill repent {it tvill repent him). L. 16, 2. cSokci i^Srj

TTopevea-Oat avrw avoi it noio seemed test to him to march up

(from the coast). Ax. i. 2, 1. T-rj r/XiKLd cTrpcTre it 2cas S2iitahle

to his age. Ax. i. 9, 6.

So also l^eo-rt it is possible, Bel fjiot Ttvo9 / need something,

/xeTeaTL (jloC rtvos I have a share in something, etc.

621 The To Dative may denote the person to whom

(rarely the place to which) with verbs of motion :

TouToj^ (TO I iirefjixpe this (^wine) he sent to you.

Ax. I. 9, 2o. tafjiLOL<; rj\Oe he went to tlie Samians.
T. I. 13. 'iXto) lidpiq -qydyer '^\ivav Paris brought
Helen to Ilion. e. axd. 103. ttovo^ ttovco ttovov </> e-

p € I toil to toil brings toil. s. ai. 866.

Much oftener these verbs take Trpo? with the accusative

in this sense.
 204 SIMPLE SENTENCES

622 The To Dative is used also with some adjectives, ad-

verbs, and nouns, more or less like the above verbs
in meaning
ToL? TToXe/xtotg IvavTiov^ opposed to the enemy. An.
III. 2, 10. TCL Kped Tjv IT a p airXij (T La t ol<; eXac^ei-
o L 9 the meat ivas like venison, An. i. 5, 2. OdvaTov
TTOLCTL KOLvov elvai dv ay Kalov dv 6 p cjtt oi<;
Kai
that to all and inevitable for man.
death is common
An. in. 1, 43. dWd /xoi hrj\6v ecrrt rovro hut this is
clear to me. Ap. 41 d. r^ ep.r] rw e^ vttt) pea id
my service to the god. A p. 30 a. cr(l)i(Tiv aurots
pLovov eTTiTT^Setoj? advantageously to themselves
only. T. I. 19, 3. 7Tvpo<; /3poTol^ Sorijp^ o/aa? thou
seest the giver of fire to mortals, a. pb. 639.

So with vjvov^ friendly^ ixOpo? unfriendly, TroXe/vtio? hostile^

<l)av€p6<s plain, aSrjXo? uncertain, dTrpeTrTJs unlecoming, and many

others.

523 The For Dative is used (with verbs, adjectives, ad-

verbs, and nouns) to denote the person or thing in-

terested or affected :

To, aKpa 7) plv it poKar a\api ^dveiv to seize the

hights heforehand for us. An. i. 3, 16. ravra /cat z^ e w-

T ip (p Kal TT peer fivTepcp ttoltjct o) this I shall do
for loth younger and older, Ap. 30 a. i^eoyeiv avrol^
d(T(j)aXeaT€pov 7] rj jxlv fleeing is safer for them
than for us. An. m. 2, 19. -^aXeiTov tjv ifjLOL it was
difficult for me. T. 22. to ydp epvfjba t co cTTpaTo-
i.

TT e 8 w ovK av ireix^o'avTo else they would not have

built the wall for their camp. t. 11. to Is dcrOe- i.

viai T po^7J<; eveKa for the sake of support for the

 THE DATIVE 205

weak, T. I. 5. ov av fxoL tcovS* air id ; are not you

the cause of this for me f s. e. 295. y^iyicnov k6(t [lov
dvS pu the greatest ornament for a man, An. i. 9, 23.

(TlTy]pi(jiov [Lovov rfj Svv dfjueu ration-money alone

*
for the force, d. 4, 28.

a. Greek often expresses a/br relation where Eng-

lish puts the matter in some other way :

^Kvd^y]9i /x, o t koX fiaTvprja-ov come np^ please {for

me\ and testify, l. 16, 8. crTTovhai ^ev ixivovai,
dir Lov cr L 8e rj tt p o'iov cr l TrdXe/xo?a truce if we
stay here^ hut icar if we withdraw or advance {for us
remaining^ for us ivithdr awing, etc.). An. h. 1, 23.

o-<f)Sv fjL€v for you {so far as

ivToXrj Alos ex^i reXoq
you are concerned) the command of Zeus hath con-
summation, A. PB. 12. (jvv^\6v7i 8* aTrXw? to put
it simply {for one putting it simply), d. 4, 7. rt/xTy?

aft,o9 TTj TToXet worthy of honor from {ivith reference

to) the state. M. i. 2, 62. ovtch'^ araXatVajpo? r ol^

TToXXoi? r] l7]Tr]<TL<; rrj<; dXrjOeLa^ SO lightly do the
multitude take {so unlahorious for the multitude is)
the search for truth, t. 20. ovtoi n aol {w SovXo? i.

aXXa Aof la in no degree as servant to you do I live,

hut to Loxias. s. ot. 410.

624 The For Dative also denotes

a. The Possessor, with elfxi, yiyvofjiaL, and the like

'EvTavOa Kvpco /BaatkeLa tjv there Cyrus had a

palace. Ax. 2, 7. eyevero avrot? 17 tStct irapa-
i.

aKevT) fjLeC^^cjv their individual preparation hecame

greater {the preparation hecame greater for them).
 206 SIMPLE SENTENCES

T. I. 19. oi/o/xa avTYJ Kopa-coTT] its (the city^s) name

was Korsote, An. i. 5, 4. avdyKT] iari fioL it is neces-
sary for me.
b. The Agent, regularly with the verbal in -reo<;

(596), often with the perfect and pluperfect pas-

sive :

'E/xol rovTo ov TTOLTjreov this must not he done

hy me. An. i. 3, 15. ttolvS* rj filv tt eir oirjT ai it is all

done hy us. An. i. 8, 12. ra tovtol<; ixprj (jy ta fxeva

the measures voted hy these men, l. 12, 30.

c. The possessor or the agent in these constructions is

really the person interested or affected, so that in essence

these cases fall under 623 ; but usually /o?' can not be used in
translating.

625 The With Dative (Sociative) is used, of person or

thing, with words implying association of any kind
whatever
'EiroXefieL rots Spa^C he carried on war with the
Thracians, An. i. 1, 9. (to(J>oIs 6 filXcjv /cavro? iK-
^TJo-Tj (70(^09 hy heing with wise m£n you will yourself
become wise. Men. ovk dvTLTroLOV fJueO a /Bao-iXel
T179 dpxv'^ '^^ do ^^^ dispute with the hing for the
sovereignty. An. n. 3, 23. olvco Kepdads avrrjv mix-
ing it (the spring) with wine. An. i. 2, 13. a/xa ttj

rjfiepd at daylight (with the day). An. n. 1, 2. e/c 8ia-

Sox^9 dk\T]XoL<s in relays with each other, d. 4, 21.

a. Xote some typical idioms :

TeTTapas va9s eXaf^ov avrots avSpdan tliey tooh four sMpS

with the crews {with the men themselves). H. i. 2, 12. /x-^

rjixas av rat's rais rpt^Jpccrt KaraSva-y lest he sink US triremes

 THE DATIVE 207

and all {tvith the triremes themselves). An. i. 3, 17. oXt'yo)

a-TpaTev/xaTL ov ToXfi^areL e^eVeo-^at iotth a small army he tvill

not dare to folloiV. An. ii. 2, 12. AaKcSai/AoVtot r^kOov -n-pea--

/?eia the Spartans came with an embassy. T. i. 90. eV TavTw
y€ ^aOa tovtol<s yotc Were at least in the same place with these
men. Ax. iii. 1, 27.

626 The By or With Dative (Instrumental) denotes

a. Cause or taeans :

^;)^e8tat9 Sta/3atVoz^T€9 crossing with rafts. An.

I. 5, 10. oLKOTj icr^ev ive know hy hearing. T. i. 4.

Lcr)(vv TTepieTTOir)aavTo ^^prjfjidTcoy re n pocr 6S a> /cat

dXXcov dpxj) they gained superior strength hoth hy

access of wealth and hy ride over others, t. is. tov- i.

TOL<; TJaOrj Kvpos with these Cyriis was pleased. An.

1.9,26. ixev koX evvota eirofxevovs ov^iirore
(^iXtoL
d^x^v he never had men who follotved him hy reason
of affection and good-will. An. h. 6, 13. ^aXcTrw? ^dpcx)
Tols TTapovcTL TT p d y a a I am trouhled at the pres-fji i

ent situation. An. i. 3, 3.

b. Manner
KpavyT} rroWfj iTTidcnv they ivill come on ivith
much shouting. An. i. 7, 4. iroWd r% 'EXXctSo? rw
TTaXatw T poTTcp vefxeTaL much of Greece is occupied
in the ancient manner, t. i. 5. 7rdvTe<; jiia opfjufj
TTpocreKvvrjo-av rov Oeov all with one impulse wor-
shiped the god. an. m. 2, 9.

Here belong ttJ aX-qOda in truths Aoyw in luord^ Ipyw in

deed, anrovSr) earnestly, a-lyfj silently ; also some common ad-
verbs, as KOLvrj in common, IStd privately, Brj/xoa-Ld publicly, Tavry
this way.
 208 SIMPLE SENTENCES

c. The Measure of Difference, with a comparative,

superlative, or any word implying comparison :

'OXtyo) TrXeLO) a little more, ov ttoXXoi? erecriv

varepov not many years later, T. i. 18. KaKucrTa St)

fjLaKpcp KCLTeLfxi most wretcliedly hy far do I go down.

S. AN. 895. re-^vrj S' dpdyKr)<; daOevearipa [xaKpco A.rt
is far weaker than Necessity, a. pb. 530.

527 The At OY In Dative {Locative) denotes

a. The Place where (in nouns of place), mostly

poetic
Ad/xoi9 Sexier 0aL to receive in their dwellings,
S. OT. 818. ert fjieyas ov pav m Zeu? Zeus is still great
in heaven, S. e. 174. TrepieppeiTo vtto tov Meter accI kv-
kXm it was flowed around in a circle (was completely
surrounded) hy the Maskas, An. i. 5, 4.

In prose a few proper names are so used (cp. 228), especially

names of demes MapaOcovi at Marathon, MeXtTy in Melite.
:

But generally a preposition precedes eV ttj oiKta in the house. :

Also figuratively, of State or Condition :

Ovx V7TVC0 y €v8ovTa not slumbering in sleep,

S. OT. 65. (jypovTiSo^ TT\dvoi<; in the wanderings of
anxious thought. S. ot. 67. rat? i/ivxctt? ippojfjLeve-

arepoL stronger in their souls. An. m. i, 42.

Examples like the last shade naturally into the following.

b. The Particular, or the special sense, in which

something is meant (Specifying Dative sometimes \

possibly instrumental, but we more often use in) :

Botwrtct^wi^ T 77 4^o)vfi like a Jjoiotian in pronun-

ciation. An. III. 1, 26. ot hoKovvTe<^ iia^ipeiv etre cro-
 THE ACCUSATIVE 209

(ffid euT avh p eia etr aXX?^ rivTiviovv dperrj tJlOSe

who are tliourjlit ^wperior whether in wisdom or in

hravery or in any other virtue whatever, Ap. 35 a.

c. The Time when, in nouns of time with a speci-

fying word, and in names of festivals :

T^ varepaid on the next day. /xta vvkti in one

night. Se/carw e r e ^vve/Brjaav t they came to terms
in the tenth year. t. i. 103. UavaOrjvaLOL^; at the Pan-
athenaia.

528 The following table shows the relations between the Greek
and Latin cases and the older case-system. The nominative,
accusative, and vocative remained distinct in both languages.
GREEK OLD CASES LATIN
r. .,• ( Genitive Genitive
Genitive 1 a-, i -• , n \
( Ablative {from) ^

r Instrumental (ivitJi, dy) V Ablative

Dative \ Locative {at^ in) J

L Dative (to, for) Dative

The Accusative

529 The Accusative is used mostly with verbs, but also

with some adjectives and nouns and with certain

prepositions.
The Outer Object

530 The Accusative is used as the Direct {Outer^ object

of a transitive verb :

VvoiOi aeavTop hioto thyself.

2L. Many Greek verbs are transitive whose English
equivalents require a preposition :

'"ApKTov TTore i.TTi<\)epop.iv'r]v ovk erpecrev a bear

that once attached him he did not shrink from. An. l
14
 210 SIMPLE SENTENCES

9, 6. ovSe A a t ^iviov rjSeo-drj lie felt no sliame even

hefore Zeus^ protector of the stranger. An. m. 2, 4.

alyav r u x '^ ^ ^^ ^^^P silent about my fortune, A.

PB. 106.

So, among many others, ala-xvvofiai feel sliame before^ ofivvfii

stvear by, XavOdvoi escape the notice of (Lat. lateo), ev or /ca^ws

TTotwdo good or harm to, <f>v\dTTOfjLaL guard against, dfjivvofjiaL
defend myself against, TrAew r-^v OdXaTTov sail over the sea,
(fiOdvoi get the start of
b. Some intransitive verbs become transitive when com-
pounded with certain prepositions, as Sta^atVw cross, dTroSt-

Spda-KO) run away from.

c. Many verbs vary, and are used now as transitive, now as

intransitive. Thus olkovo) hear and ala-OdvofiaL perceive take
the accusative and genitive />teiu.<^o/xat blame takes the accusa-
;

tive or the dative. Especially in poetry some verbs take the

accusative that do not in prose.

531 A few verbal adjectives and nouns admit a direct object (as
participles and infinitives of transitive verbs do regularly) :

'ETTto-TTy/Aoves rot. KaOyKovra Jcnowing their duty. C. m. 3, 9.

o-€ (jiv^LfjLos able to escape thee. S. an. 787. to. /xercwpa <f>pov-

TLo-Trj's one who studies things on high. Ap. 18 b.

a. A phrase may be equivalent to a transitive verb, and so

take an accusative :

TeOvaa-L tw Seet rov^ toiovtovs aTroa-ToXovs they die of fear

of (are frightened to death at) such expeditions. D. 4, 45.

532 The Accusative is used after the particles of swear-

ing, vTJ and fxd, as with ofjLvvfjn (530 a), vy affirms ;

fxd denies, unless vau yes precedes :

N17 Ata or vol fid Ata yes, hy Zeus; fid Ata or

ov fxd Ata no, hy Zeus,
 THE ACCUSATIVE 211

533 In poetry the accusative may denote the limit of motion :

"H^ct? 'Y^pL(TTTjv TTOTafxbv ov \f/€v8(!)vvfiov thou wilt come to the

Brawling stream^ not falsely named. A. pb. 715. o-e toT IXtj-

XvOe TTav Kpa.To's to thee all this power has come. S. p. 141. rk
7roT€ dyXaas l^as ®r]^ds what art thou that hast come to glo-
rious Thebes? S. ot. 153.

534 Two Accusatives denoting the same person or thing,

the direct (outer) object and a predicate accusative,
may stand with some verbs :

Kv pov cr ar p oLTrr] V iiroiiqae koX err paTiqyov he

avTov airihei^e lie made Gyrus satrap, and appointed
him general also. An. 2. tov% lxOv<; ol tvpot i. i,

0eov<; ivofjLi^ov the Syrians regarded the fishes as

gods. An. I. 4, 9.

a. These predicate accusatives shade off gradually into

simple appositives some cases may be taken in either way
;

"ESwKtt Swpcav ra XvTpa I gave the ransom as a gift. D.

19, 170.

b. In the passive the direct object is made subject ; the

other accusative remains a predicate noun, agreeing with the
subject
Kvpos KaT€iriiL^Orj craT pairrj'S, err parrjyo^ 8k (XTreSctx^r;

Cyrus teas sent dotcn as satrap., and was appointed ge^ieral.

An. I. 9, 7.

535 Two Accusatives, one of the person and one of the

thing (double outer object), are found with some
verbs, especially those meaning as\ demand, teach,
remind, hide, deprive :

^Lvpov alreip nXola to ash Gyrus for hoats.

An. I. 3, 14. avafJLVijcraj u/xa? Kai rov<; rcov irpoyovoiv
Kivhvvov^ I will also remind you of the dangers of
 212 SIMPLE SENTENCES

your forefathers. An. m. 3, ii. ra 17 /x e r e p' 17 /x a ?

dTToo-Tepeu he is dejpriving us of our property. D. 4, so.

The Inner Object

536 An Accusative of the Inner object (^Cognate Accusa-

tive) isfound with many verbs. It repeats the mean-
ing of the verb in the form of a noun or pronoun.

a. A noun, with a modifying word or clause (rarely

omitted) :

SrpaTiqyelv ravrrjv ttjv err parrjy lolv to act as

general in this campaign. An. i. 3, 15. aWrjv jjih ap-
Xr)j^ ovSejjLLav TrwTTore any other
'^p^a I never held
magistracy. Ap. 32 b. kiv^vv^vo^ tov ^(lyjxTov klvSv-
vov I am in the utmost danger. Ap. 34 c. ^wi^vye
T7)v ^vy7)v TavTTjv he shared the late exile, a p. 21 a.
So hiKoX^eiv hiKr\v TLvd decide a suit, (j)evy€Lv Slktjv
TLvd he defendant in a suit^ ypd^^o-dai y po.^r\v nva
bring an indictment^ Oveiv rd AvKaia celebrate hy
sacrifice the Lyhaiaj etc.

b. An adjective or pronoun in the neuter :

''^TTadov TL TOLovTov I had sonic such experience

as this. Ap. 22 a. MeXT^Tft) TovTOiv ovre fxeya ovre
fjLLK pov TTcoTTOTe ipu4\.7)(Tev Mclctos uevcr cared either
much or little about these matters. Ap. 26 b. So r i
Xpyjcr^rai tovtco ; what use will he malce of this ?
fxiya ^poveiv be proud {think large)^ irdyra rrd-
OeaOai render all obedience^ etc.

c. Some verbs take both a direct object and a cog-

nate accusative :
 THE ACCUSATIVE 213

'H/Act? TO. aucrx'-o'T a alKicrd^evof; hy inflicting

on us iJie most shameful outranges. Ax. m. i, is. e/ca-
ar ov evepyereiv rrjv ixeyLcrrrjv eve pyea idv to confer
on each the greatest benefaction. Ap. 36 c. erepoi he
TToXXa Kay ad a 6/xa? elcnv elpyaafxevoL and others
have done many good things to yon. l. i6, 19.

The inner object may stand also with the passive :

Tt a^LKTjOa.'i VTT ifxov vvv iTTL^ovXevei^ fxoi; tvJiat IVTOng did

you receive from me, that you are now scheming against me 9
An. I. 6, 8.

d. A few adjectives also take a cognate accusative :

^ocfib<i Tr]v €Ketv(i)v (rocf>LdVi d/jiaOr]<s ttjv a^aOCav wise in their

luisdom, ignorant ivith their ignorance. Ap. 22 e.

Freer Accusatives

637 The Accusative may specify to what particular or de-

tail a statement is meant to apply (Specifying Ac-
cusative) :

IIoTa/xog KvSz^og ovofiay evpo<; Svo 7rXe6pa)P a

river., Kydnos hy name, of two pletlira vn width. An.
I. 2, 23. epo)Ti 6i) p,ov eKTr\ayel(j "Idaovof; smitten in
heart with love for lason. e. m. 8. diTOTpjt]devTe<i rd^
k: € (^ aXa ? beheaded {having their heads cut off). An.
II. 6, 1. ^ekr'iov ecm <t co fid y rj xjfv-^rjv vocrelv His
better to be ill in body than in soul. Men.
With many words the dative may be used in the same
sense (527 b).

538 The Accusative of a noun of time or space may de-

note extent
"E/ietj^e 7/0619 7) fiepd^ he remained three days,
irr} yeyovo)^ e^SofjiiJKovTa seventy years old. Ap. 17 d.
 214 SIMPLE SENTENCES

TToXvv xP^^^^ TjTTopovv I lOGS in doubt a long time,

Ap. 21 b.

CTTaO fxov eva tt a paa dyy d<; oktco he

'E^eXavi^et
marches one days journey eight j^arasangs, airfixov ,

TT]^ *EXXaSo9 ov fjuelov '^ jxvpLa crraSia they were

not less than ten thousand stades distant from Greece,

An. III. 1, 2.

639 The Accusative may stand in apposition to a clause or sen-

tence :

"EtAt; OvTrjp yevicrOai Ovyarpo^ ttoXc/xwt/ dpwyav he endured

to sacrifice Ms daughter^ as an aid to ivar. A. ag. 236. rwvS'

(.Xf-yx^v TovTo fxev ILvOwS' ioiv TrevOov to. xprjaOivTa as a test of

this^ first go to Pytho and inquire about the response. S. ot. 603.

Here belong expressions like irpolKa as a gift, freely^ X^P'-^

Ttvos as a favor to {for the sahe of) some one, TCKfirjpiov as evi-
dence, TO /xcyto-Tov as the chief point, to Xeyofievov as the saying
is. When placed before the clause, such expressions may pass
over into the use mentioned in 491 d.

540 The Accusative in many expressions has become in

effect an adverb. Such Adverbial Accusatives are
special forms of the uses described in 536-539, we can
not always say which. The following are rather fre-
quent :

Toj/Se TOP TpoTTov in this manner, rrjv Tax^o-rrjv

(oSdz^) by the quickest road, most speedily, ovk apxvi^
not at all, hiKr^v like, in the manner of, rrpcoTop at first,
TO TTpojTov first, TO XoLTTov hcreaftcr, tl why ? tl some-
what, TOVTO or TavTa for this reason.

541 For the accusative absolute see 591. For the subject of the
infinitive see 570 d.
 ADJECTIVES 215

ADJECTIVES
542 An Adjective takes tlie gender, number, and case of
its noun. This applies to all adjectival words that
are declined —the article, participles, and adjective
pronouns —whether attributive or predicate.
643 The noun with which an adjectival word agrees is often not
expressed ;

'H Sc^ta the right hand (x^tp), rrjv Taxio-rr^v the quichest ivay
{o^ov), fiaKpdv a long way (6Sov), 61 ttoWol the many.
a. Note the two cases that may arise when the subject of
an infinitive is omitted :

(1) BovXerai (Tocli6<s yevia-Oat he ivishes to hecome tvise. Here

the unexpressed subject of the inf. is the same as that of
ySovAcTttt, the principal verb ; hence the predicate adjective
(ro<l>6<i agrees with the subject of the latter, in the nomi-
native.

(2) KttKov/ayov ecrri KptO €v t* dTro^ai/eiv, orrparriyov Be fxaxo-

fjievov rots iroX^p.toL'sa Criminal to die by sente7ice of
it IS like

courts hut Wee a general to die fighting with the enemy. D. 4, 47.
Here KpSkvra. and fxaxofxevov agree with the understood sub-
ject of aTTo^avetv, which subject is omitted because indefinite
and general.

544 By omission of the noun many adjectives become

nouns any adjective or participle may be so used,
;

most often with the article (cp. 552, 555 b, 582 a), but
also without an article :

AiSaKTov iariv r) apeTij virtue is a tiling that

may he taught Pr. 320 b. (Here StSafcroV, instead
of agreeing in gender with apeTrj, is a predicate noun.)
prjTopLKTJ rhetoric^ the art (jexvrj) of speaking.
 ^16 SIMPLE SENTENCES

SPECIAL IDIOMS OF PREDICATION

545 The commonest form of predication is a simple verb the ;

copula elfiL or the like with a predicate adjective or noun is

also familiar, and is like English and Latin usage the predi- ;

cate noun agreeing with the object is described in 534. But

Greek employs the predicate noun and adjective (and par-
more freely than English or Latin does, and in some
ticiple)
peculiar idioms/

546 A Predicate noun or adjective (or pronoun) agreeing

with the subject often requires in translation a differ-

ent construction :

'Eyo) ere dcr fiev o^ icopaKa I am glad to liave seen

you. An.
16. 'ETTuafa tt poT ep a Kvpov et? Tap-
II. 1,

crou? dcf)iKeTo Ejpyaxa arrived in Tarsoi hefore Cyrus,

An. 2, 25.
I.
6 pO pLos 7]K€l<; you have come before sun-
rise, Pr. 313 b. o-vjjLTrXeojv iO eXovryj s sailing with

them as a volunteer, d. 4, 29. iycj p^ev yeuTcov oIkco

TTj 'EXXaSi I live as neighbor to Greece, An. h. 3, 18.

^ English uses many predicate adjectives and nouns in a manner like

those in 546, 547; but the words so used are mostly different in meaning
from those so used in Greek, and they are much fewer and less common:
Benighted walks under the midday sun.— Milton, Comus.
To glide a sunheam by the blasted pine.
To sit a star upon the sparkling spire.— Tennyson, Princess.
Noon lay heavy on flower and tree.— Shelley, To Night.
Kneel undisturbed, fair saint. Thackeray.
— May find
Thee sitting careless on a granary floor. Keats, Ode to Autumn.
And learns her gone and far from home. Tennyson, Jw 3Iem., viii.

So in many common prose expressions go harefoot, run dry, lie quiet,

:

live secure, come home hungry, also huild a wall high, strike one dumb,
walk oneself lame, drink the stream dry, etc.
 SPECIAL IDIOMS OF PREDICATION 217

iXeye Trpwro? TLcr(Ta(f)€pvr)<; Tissapliernes spoke first.

An. II. 3, 17. TL9 TTore dyXaa? IJSd? S7]/3d<; ; what art
tJiou that hast come to glorious Thebes f s. ot. 153.

547 A Predicate adjective or noun agreeing with the object

—accusative, genitive, or dative — often requires a
different construction in translation :

Merewpoi;? i^eKOfJucrav ra? d/xctfd? thei/ lifted

the wagons up and brought them out, An. i. 5, 8. yj

/BapvSaiiJLova fJi^yjrrjp €T€K€v surely jjl' ill-fated was

I at my birth {iny mother bore me as one of evil fate),
E. AL. 865. TLva<; ttoO' eSpa? rctcrSe fioi Ood^ere what ;

is this session that ye hold? (i. e., tchy sit ye thusf),

S. OT. 2. Toi' (TTpaTov iXdaaco rjyayov the army
{whicJi) they led {was) smaller, t. i. ii.

*Hyov/xej^ot avr ov 6 jjl cov tojv ^vjxpid^oiv leading

their alliesJ but leaving them self-governing, t. i. 97.

XeLfxaSCa) y^prjaO ai At] fjLvco to use Lemnos as win-

ter quarters, d. 4, 33.

548 The predication is sometimes implied, or merely indi-

cated by the order, where it must in English be ex-
pressed (cp. 552 d) :

Aid TO ^€.ipOTr\rj6 ea L tol<; \l6ol<; acjyevSopai' be-

cause the stones used in their slings were big enough
to fill the hand. Ax. m. 3, 17. dveufjievr} rfj SiaLTrj by
their mode of life being more relaxed^ i. e., because
their mode of life was more relaxed, t. 6. Std Ty]v i.

XiqcTTeidi' inl ttoXv avricrx^^^ ^^ because piracy

had prevailed loidely, t. 7. i.

 218 SIMPLE SENTENCES

THE ARTICLE
649 The Article 6, yj, to, originally a demonstrative pro-
noun, retains that meaning in a few phrases in Attic
prose.
a. With juieV and Se, in 6 /xeV . . . 6 Se the one . . .

the otherJ in all the cases ; also in to fjuev , . , to Se

and TOL /xeV . . . ra Se used adverbially (540) :

O I jxev iTo^evovy o I S' e(TJ)ev'^6vo)v some used

their bows and others their slings. An. m. 3, 7. ra
IX ev TL fjLaxojJieT^oL ra Se avairavo^ievoi now fighting
a little and now resting. An. iv. i, 14.

b. In 6 Se, 7) Se, TO Se hut (or and) he (she, this),

beginning a sentence, when the subject changes
Kvpo(; SlSojctl KXedp^co fivpiov; Sctpet/cov?- 6 Se Xa-
^a)p TO xpvaiov aTpaTevfjua avveke^ev Cyrus gives
Klearchos ten thousand darics, and he talcing the
money collected an army. An. i. i, 9.

c. In TTpo Tov hefore this, earlier] also in koI t6v

(jyji', Tov<;) and top (rrjv, tov^) Se, when kol 6s e^y), rj

S' o9 (560), and the like are changed to the infinitive

in indirect quotation (577, 578) :

K a TOV t eiTTelv and that he said, tov he yeKdaai

and that he laughed.

650 Poets omit the where prose requires it they

article freely ;

also use it more and sometimes (as

freely as a demonstrative,
in Homer) as a relative pronoun.

651 The differences between Greek and English in the use

of the article must be learned in reading note espe- ;

cially the following

 THE ARTICLE 219

a. Xames of persons often take the article :

AtaySaAAet rbv Kvpov he slander s Cyrus; but also o-vXA-a/x-

pdvec Kvpov he arrests Cyrus. Ax. i. 1, 3.

b. Abstract nouns generally have the article :

*H (To<j>La. or o-o</>td wisdom.

c. With a possessive pronoun or a possessive genitive the
noun has the article when a definite person or thing is meant
*E/xo? <^tAos or </)tAos \kov a friend of mine .,\iVi\, 6 c/xos c^i'Aos

or 6 cfiiXos fxov my friend (a definite person). Ata, iv ov tw

lep<2 i(Tfji€v Zeus, in whose sacred precinct we are. T. m. 14.

TTOTafxo? ov TO cvpos a river tvhose width.

d. The article alone is often used where English requires a
possessive pronoun :

Ata^aXXet tov Kvpov Trpos tov aBcX<}>6v he h'ings Cyrus into

discredit ivith his brother. An. i. 1, 3.

e. Xames of countries, mostly adjectives by origin, com-

monly have the article :

•H'EXAas Greece.
f. Names of peoples often omit the article :

*A6r]vaLOL or ol ^AOtjvolol the Athenians.

g. Predicate nouns rarely have the article the subject ;

and a predicate noun are often thus distinguished (cp. 652) :

*Ex^pos av6p(xyn-o? (36 b) the man is an enemy. D. 4, 50.

h. For the article with demonstrative pronouns see 553,
654.

662 a. The place just after the article is called the attribu-
tive position. Most attributive words take that posi-
tion if the noun has an article
Ot ayaOoi SyjixLovpyoi the good artisans,
b. Sometimes t he_articleand an attributjre stsmdjifter the

noun, as if added as an afterthought

Kara tov^ vofxovsi tov<s Keifiivov^ according to the laivs, the
established [laivs). rrjv re ttoAiv Sii^pTraa-av koI to. ^ao-tActa to. iv
avrfj they plundered both the city and the palace in it. An.
I. 2, 26.
 220 SIMPLE SENTENCES

c. If an adjective (or a participle, adverb, or other

expression used adjectively) stands before or after
both and noun (the article being before the
article
noun, in the normal order), it is in the predicate posi-
tion^ and is a predicate, whether a verb is expressed

or not
'Aya0ol ol SyjjjLLovpyoi the artisans are good. Kokw
TO dO\ov Kol rj cXtti? fjieydXrj the jprize is nohle and our
hope great, Ph. 114 c.

d. An adjective in the predicate position with a

noun in the genitive, dative, or accusative often
requires special care in translating (cp. 648)
Mer' a K paL(j)vov<; T'fj<? fv/x/xa;)(td9 with the alli-

ance still intact. T. i. 19. 8ta <^tXtd? r^? x^P^"^ oLTrd^eL

he will unake the country friendly in leading us thi'ough.
An. I. 3, 14. Kv/D09 xfjik-qv e^wz^ rrji' Ke(j)a\r)v et? rrji'

fjioixv^ '<oiOi(TTaTo Cyrus went into the battle with his

head hare. An. i. 8, 6. ovk ifiov ipco rov \6yop, aXX' et?

d^Loxp^oiv vfjLLv Tov \eyovTa dvoiao) tlie statement I shall

onahe will not he mine^ hut the speaker to whom I shall
refer it loill he sufficient for you. Ap. 20 e.

553 But oSe, ovTo^^ and iKelvo^; regularly take the predi-
cate position, the noun reguiring the article; when
the article is omitted, the noun or the pronoun is a
predicate
Efcetz^o? 6 TTat? or 6 Trat? i Ke2vo<; yonder hoy.
But T avTiqv el privrjv vrrokaiJi^dvei he understands
this to he peace, d. 9, 9. r wSe <^ t X o) ;)^pw/xat I treat
this man as a friend.
 THE ARTICLE 221

a. Proper names, however, may omit the article ; and if

another adjectival expression is used Avith the pronoun, the

latter 7nay stand in the attributive position :

"OSe (6) '^wKpaTTj? this Socrates, ra? CTTtcrroXi/xatous ravrds

Swa/xets these forces on paper (forces that figure in dispatches).
D. 4, 19. TttS i^aLcf)vr)<s ravrds o-Tparetds these sudclen expedi-
tions. D. 4, 17. But also Ik Trjs d/AcActd? ravTTjs r^s aydv OUt
of this too great carelessness. D. 4, 17.

554 Likewise €KacrTo<;, eKarepos, dfjL(j)0)y diJL(j)6T€po<; take tlie

predicate position, if the noun has the article. So

also a personal or a relative pronoun in the possessive
genitive (e/iov, fiov, rjjJLwVy crov, v/jlcov, avTov, avrwi', ov,
S)Vj etc.), with the same exception for the personal

pronouns as for oSe, etc. (553 a) :

To) TToihe d[i(f)OT e pcj hotll his SOUS. rj 770X19

rjfjLwv our state.

a. But the reflexives used possessively {liiavrov, kavrov, etc.)

take the attributive position, if the article is present

'H kavTov x^P^ ^^'^^ ^^^ laJid.

555 a. An adverbial expression is made adjectival by

standing in the attributive position :

Ot irdXaL 'AOrjvoiOL the Athenians of old. rj

oLKaSe 686s the tvay ho7ne. twv olkol dvriaracrKx)'
TO)v his ojyponents at home. An. i. i, lo. rjTore pcojjLT]

T(op AaKeSaLfxovLcov, rj vvv vj^pLS tovtov the strength

of the Spartans then, the insolence of this man noio.

D. 4, 3.

b. An adjectival expression is made in effect a noun

by having an article before itand no noun after it
Ot 77 aXa t the men of old.
ol ttoXXo the many, l

the masses, ol d/K^l^Aj/uro^ Anytos and his fol-

 222 SIMPLE SENTENCES

lowers (those about Anytos), 6 ^ovXojxevos any

one who wishes, ovk eo-nv 6 ToXfxT] acov there is no
one loho will dare. An. h. 3, 5.

c. Any quoted word, phrase, or clause is made a noun by

prefixing to :

To fjLTjSev aydv Nothing 1 00 far.

the saying^ '"'
"^^

d. Some adverbial expressions are extended and made ad-

verbial accusatives (540) by prefixing r6 or ra :

Ta vvv now. TO KttT* €/>t€ tts Tegavcls me. to h\ ottws,

TovTo Aeye })ut the how^ tell us that. D. 3, 10.

656 Distinguisli
TToWd many things^ ra TroWd most things^ in most
cases ;

TTokv muchj TO TTokv the greater part ;

irXeicTTOL very many^ ol 7r\eicrroi most people, the

majority.
Also r) fxecrrj ttoXc? the city between (two others),
/xecTTy "T] TToXts or J] TToXt? /AecTT/ the midst of the
city
Tj icrxdrrj x^P^ the farthest land,
io-xdrr) rj
X^P^ ^^ V X^P^ icrxdrr] the edge of
the land ;

6 [Lovo^ vto9 the only son,

fjLovos 6 utd? or 6 uto? fjLovo^; the son only.

PRONOUNS
557 The endings of the verb indicate the person (first,

second, or third) with sufficient clearness ; hence the

personal pronouns in the nominative, eyw, av, r}fji€L<;,

u/xet?, are used only when emphasized. So in the

third person ovto<;, oSe, or eKeivos as subjeqjb
 PRONOUNS 223.

'Eyw oKvoLTjv OLT/ ifx/BaLveLv I should myself hesi-

tate to go aboard, An. i. 3, 17. aXX' elhev tovto Ka\a>s
eKelvo^ but HE saw this clearly, d. 4, 5.

658 For the three meanings of auros see 199. Note that when
standing alone in the nominative auros always means ipse^
emphasizing some word understood :

AvTos ^wetSoj? (ji-qa-Lv; does lie say it of his oiun Icnoivledgef

S. OT. 704. rj^ei yap avrd things
come of themselves. S. ot. ivill

341. avTos £<^r/ he himself (the master) said it, ipse dixit.
In other cases also the word emphasized by avro? may be
omitted :

nXevareW €t5 ravrd? avro t S iiJi/3a(TLv yOU must Sail, going 071

toard in person {vfiiv being understood). D. 4, 16.

a. Note also the idiomatic use of avros with an ordinal

numeral
ScKaro? avT6<s he ivas chosen amhassor
*Hip€^i; Trpea-jSevrrjs

dor with nine others {himself tenth). II. ii. 2, 17.

559 In phrases like -q/xerepa avroiv our own things the possessive
pronoun (adjective) and the possessive genitive are put side
by side, as equivalent constructions, instead of Ty/xwv avrcuv, etc.

560 "O? retains its earlier force, as a demonstrative, in a

few phrases :

'^H 8' 9 said he. koI 65 6(^17 and he said. So

Koi 77, /cat ot. Cp. 549.
a. For the use of os as a relative see 613, 614.

561 a. Ovro5 in the nominative is sometimes used in call-

ing to a person
Ovro9, TL 7roLeL<? you there, what are you doing?
Ar. r. 198.

b. Note also o8e, ovrro^^, or e/ceti/09 in the predicate,

translated by here, there, etc.
 •224 SIMPLE SENTENCES

"O S' Ik SofjLojv Trepa here he comes from the house,

S. AN. 386. vrjeq eKelv ai iTmrXeovcn yonder are ships
sailing in. t. i.si. otSe TratSe? crTeixov(Ti here come
the hoys, e. m. 46.

INFINITIVES

562 The Infinitive is a verbal noun wliose range of use has

been much enlarged. Originally a to oy for dative, it
retains that force in some of the most common con-
structions (665, 566) the others are developed from
;

this,but the connection is not always clear. The

English infinitive with to is in many uses closely
parallel.

a. As a verb, the Infinitive has voice and tense, though it

does not distinguish person or number; it may take a subject

in the accusative, and an object (accusative, genitive, or
dative), like the rest of the verb to which it belongs ; it is

modified by adverbs and particles, including av.

As a noun it may in some uses take the article (neuter)
and so be marked as having a noun construction in any case
but the vocative.

563 The present, aorist, and perfect Tenses of the Infini-

tive distinguish kinds of action (as in the subjunc-

tive, optative, and imperative, 475, 483, 484), not dif-

ferences of time. The future puts the action in a

time later than that of the principal verb.
a. When the infinitive represents a finite verb, it retains

the tense and tense meaning of the form which it replaces

(577).

564 The negative with an infinitive is usually fxrj, except

when the infinitive represents an original finite verb
 INFINITIVES 225

which had ov ; and even then after some verbs there

is a tendency to change ov to fxij (579 a).

565 The Infinitive may be connected, as a to ov for dative,

with verbs, adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or with a
whole phrase :

Tr^v ^(i)pav iweTpexlfe S ca piT dcr ai rot? '^^Wrjcnv he

gave the land over to the Greeks to plunder {^forijhin-
dering). Ax. i, 2, 19. TroXXat dfia^ai rjcrav (j)epecr at
tliere were many tvagons to he carried off. Ax. n. i, 6.

ov^ a>pd Kad evSeiv ouS* afxekeiv rjfJL(t)P avrcov it is no

time for sleeping or for leing careless of ourselves.
Ax. I. 3, 11.

a. This Dative Infinitive has a wide range of mean-

ing, from simple purpose to cases where it merely
defines the application of a Avord or phrase. The
dative force can usually be seen, but in or some other
preposition may be necessary in translation :

EtXeo-^e dpx^i^v fjLov you cliose (tJiem) to rule over

me. Ap. 28 \eyeiv ready to speak (^for
e. eTOLjjLos

speaking). Seuvo^ \iyeiv skilled in {with reference

to) speaking, ovx v^^a aKoveiv not pleasant to
hear. D. 4, 38. oXo^ det TTore /xeraySaXXecr^at
{such^ as to he alivays changing, h. n. 3, 45. . iKavoq
Td<; oLKpoTTokuq (jyvXcLTTeiv sufficient for guarding
the citadels. Ax. i. 2, l. Y^Xiap-yo^ cnvyvo% r^v o pdv
Klearchos was repulsive to see. Ax. n. 6, 9. ovroi

o-vvexO^Lv dXXd (Tvp.j)iXelv e^vv I am not one

{ivas not horn) to join in hatred, hut in love. s. ax.

523. ToaovTov hid) bp.oXoyelv SO far am I from

15
 226 SIMPLE SENTENCES

agreeing {I lack so much with reference to agreeing).

D. 9, 17. v6(Tr)fjia jjuel^ov rj (j)€peLv a trouble too great
to bear (greater than for bearing^, s. ot. 1293.

b. Note the use with Ixw :

OvSei/ €tx€ <l>pd(raL he had nothing to tell. S. ot. 119. This

easily passes into the meaning he could tell nothing hence ;

€Xw becomes practically equal to Swa/^ai, taking an infinitive

(most often a word of saying) with or without an object ovSk :

Sivpo toi/T€s €K T^s x'^^po''^ ovSev €LxofJicv XafjL/3dv€iv even when coining
hither we could not taJce anything from the country. An. ii. 2, 11.

666 The Infinitive with w? or aio-re is used

a. With adjectives in the comparative, or imply-
ing comparison :

'OXtyot ws iyKpaTets elvai too few to Iiave power.

C. IV. 5, 15. ^paxvrepa rj w? i^LKvelaOai too short
to reach. An. m. 3, 7. eXarrw €\ovTa h-uvapLiv rj axTTe
Tov<; (J)lXov<; cjcjyeXelv having too little force to aid his
friends (less than as for aiding), h. iv. 8, 23. yepojv
eKeivo^ axTTe a a)(j)€\e2v he is old for aiding you.
E. AND. 80.

b. To denote result, especially an intended result

wcrre is the usual word in prose, often preceded by a
demonstrative ; the idea of intention gradually fades
out
YXyov ra openava et? yrjv f^XeTrovra w? Z laKoir-
T€Lv they had ground
the scytlies extending toivard the
(as) for cutting in (whomever they came on).
tivo
An. I. 8, 10. vTreXctcrd? w? crvv avTrj a at riding u/p so
as to meet him. An. 8, 15. vvkt6% teVai, ws
i.
fjurj
 INFINITIVES 227

opaaOai to go hy night so as not to he seen. Ax. iv.

6, 13. -^povcp TTOT i^eiTpd^av W9 Sovpau hiKTjv at

length they have lorought it out so as to pay the pen-
alty, S. AN. 303.

MT^^az^al TToXXat elaiv coctt e S La(f) evy eiv Odva-

Tov many devices there are for escaping death. Ap. 39 a.

TTOLPTas ovTO) StttTt^ei? ojcTTe avTco (f)L\ov^ eXvau SO

disposing all {jnitting all into such disp)osition) as to

he friendly to him. Ax. i. i, 5. e)^oj r/jtTypet? wcrre

ikelv TO iKetpcov it\oiov I have triremes so as to catch
their hoat. Ax. i. 4, 8. 8etV iiriqTreiXei, wcrr' ovre vvk-
TOf; VTTVov ovT i^ r)iJiepd<; e/xe ar ey d^eLv made
he
dreadful threats^ so that neither hy night nor day did
sleep cover me. s. e. 780 f. The last example comes
very close to tlie use of ware witli an indicative, de-
noting an actual result (639 a).

c. Sometimes oio-Tc. with the infinitive states a condition or

proviso (cp. 567) :

Twv XolttCjv apx^LV 'EAXt/j/wv, ware aurov? vTraKoveiv /Jao-tAet

to rule the rest of the Greeks, provided they ivoiild (so as to)

themselves ohey the Iciyig. D. 6, 11.

567 The Infinitive after ec^' w or ec^' wre states a condi-

tion or proviso :

I o ecpacrav aTTOococreLv ecp co firj Kaeiv rag otKta?

and they said they would give hach (the dead), on con-
dition of their not hurning the houses. Ax. iv. 3, 19.

d(f)L€fjL€v cr€j eVt rovrcp fxevroL, i(f)* <5t€ fjL7]K€TL (^tXo-

o-o(j)€2v we let you off^ on this condition hotvever, that
you no longer seek tvisdom. Ap. 29 c.
 228 SIMPLE SENTENCES

668 The Infinitive is used with TrptV before :

ALe^r)crav tt p iv rov^ aXXov<; oltt ok ptv acr au

they crossed before tlie others answered. An. i. 4, i6.

Kareiyii irpiv fxoi fJLoipav e^rJKeiv ^iov I go down

before 7ny allotted term of life is over. s. an. 896.

For irpiv with finite modes see 644.

a. Earely Trporepov rj with the infinitive has the same mean-
ing.

669 The Infinitive is used in some idiomatic phrases, partly off-

shoots of the dative infinitive (666 a and b), partly standing

nearer to the adverbial accusative (540). Among the most
frequent are
*Os €t7ret]/ or ws eTTos eiTTcti/ SO to speah^ softening an expres-
sion that might seem too strong, (ws) o-wcAoVrt dirdv in a word
(for one to say^ taking it together)., w? dKaa-ai to make a guess^
i/xoL 8oK€Lv, in my vietv, as it seems to me, oXtyov Setv almost (to
lack little), iKibv cTvat willingly, to vvv elvai for the present, to
Kara tovtov ehat as regards him.

570 The Infinitive is used as object with many verbs

a. As the only object
liiOelv Tirana? ovk rjSvvijOrjv J coidd not per-
suade the Titans, a. pb. 220. e/xeXXe /caraXuetj/ he
loas intending to halt. An. i. 8, 1. et? IllcrtSd? fiovXo-

/xei^o? err parevecrO au Wishing to make an expedi-

tion against the Pisidians, An. i. 1, 11. ^o^oiprqv
av eVecr^at I should be afraid to follow. An. i. 3, 17.

b. With /xeAXo) intend, am about, the future infinitive is

often used (also the present, sometimes the aorist) :

MeAAo) v/^ias 8 1 S a ^ e t V I am ahout to explain to you. Ap. 21 b.

e/xeXXev avrui KaXw re KayaOoi Troi-^acLv he was make

likely to
them what they should he. Ap. 20 a. efxeXXc KaraXvetv he
 INFINITIVES 229

was alout to halt. An. i. 8, 1. /xeAAw -n-aOelv I am aloiit to

suffer. A. pb. 652.

In all other uses the future infinitive may be regarded as
representing an indicative (577, 578).

c. With another object

Tou9 67r\tTd<; eKeXevaev avrov ^elvai he hade the
hoplites remain there. An. i. 5, 13. iiroLrjae ^vevvecriv
fjLrj hvvacrOai /caret yrjv ivavriovcrOaL ^vpco (the Spar-
tan naval commander) made 8yennesis unable to op-

pose Gyrus hy land. h. m. l, l. at y^hovaX ireiOovcTi

T7)v ^vxy]v jjirj cr CO
(f)
pov el V pleasures urge the soul
not to use self-control, m. i. 2, 23.

d. From such uses as the last the accusative came

to be regarded *
as the subject of the infinitive

'E^ouXero ro) TratSe afX(j)OT€p(o irapelvaL he

wished both his sons to he near. an. i. i, i. ScoKpdrrj^;

TjyeLTo 9eovs iravTa elhivai Sohrates believed that

the gods Iciioio everything, m. i. i, lo.

Thus arose the infinitive clause with subject accusative,

which received a wide extension, as in Latin.

571 The subject of an infinitive is omitted when it is the

same as that of the leading verb ; a modifier of the
subject, whether predicative or attributive, then
agrees with the subject of the leading verb
*0 S' VTT eerier o avhpX e/cacrrw hoxj eiv Trivre dpyv-

^ A similar growth can be traced in English, in such a sequence as :

(1) good for us to he here, (2) For us to be here is good, (3) For us
It is
to be here is a proof of our friendship. In (1) for us modifies good in ;

(2) the same construction is possible, but one is inclined to take for us to
be here as a clause, the subject of is good in (3) the last construction is ;

the only one possible.

 230 SIMPLE SENTENCES

pLov fjLvoL'; and he promised that he woidd give five

minae in money to each man (cp. 677 a). An. i. 4, 13.

Heparjs e^i? elvai he said he tvas a Persian, An.

IV. 4, 17.

a. A predicate noun or adjective remains in the nomi-

native when the with subject omitted, has the
infinitive,
article, or depends on a preposition :

'Opeyo/xevot ToO Trpwros lKa<jro^ y lyv ^a-Oai stfiving each

to get ahead of the other {to 'become first). T. n. 65, 10. ovk iirl
Tw SovXoL elvai cKTrc/xTroj/rat uttolkol not 071 the iasis of being
subjects are colo7iists sent out. T. i. 34, 1.

b. If the subject is omitted because indefinite or general,

a predicate or attributive modifier of it is in the accusative :

TrpaTTovra /xe jxvrjo-O ai Oeov

AtKtttov €v it is jUSt to re-

7nember God when one is prospering. Men.

c. When the omitted subject is the same as the
object of the leading verb, that object being in the
genitive or dative, a modifier of the subject may be
either in the same case or in the accusative
Kvpo^ irapayyeWei KXeap^co \a ^ovr i r^Kuv ocrov
Tjv avTcp (TTparevfJiaj Kai Hei^ia r)K€iv TrapayyiWei Xa-

^6vT a Tov<; d\Xov<; Cyrus ordered Klearchos to come,

hringing all the force he had ; and he ordered Xenias
to come, hringing the others. An. i. 2, 1. YJvpov iSeovro
ct)9 TT p oOvfxoT dr ov yev4(T0 ai they ashed Cyrus to

shotv himself as zealous as possible, h. i. 5, 2.

572 With verbs meaning forhid, prevent, deny, escape,

or aim in any way at a negative effect/ the infini-

^ Cp. " You may as well forbid the mountain pines

To wag their high tops, and to make no noise,
When they are fretten with the gusts of heaven."
Mer. of Ven., iv, 1.
 INFINITIVES 231

tive often has /lat;, tliougli Englisli omits the nega-

tive :

'Aj/reXeyd^ rti^e? firj livai Traz^ra? S077ie opposed^

urging that all should not go, An. n. 5, 29. rov avhp
OLTravSco fJLyjr^ ev^e^ea 9 ai jxiJTe 7rpo(j(j)(ove'LV
riva this man I forhid any one to receive or address,
S. OT. 238. eyo) fjiovo^; rjvavTLcoOrji' jitT^Sei/ Trouelv irapa
Tov^ pojjLov^; I alone opposed doing anything contrary
to the latvs. Ap. 32 b. filKpop i^e(j)vy€ firj Karaire-
T pcoOrjvcLL he barely escaped being stoned to death.
An. I. 3, 2. Karapvel fxrj heh p aKevau raSe ; do you
deny that you have done this ? s. ax. 442.

a. M^
with an infinitive becomes /a^ ov if the leading verb
has a negative, or is in a question implying a negative :

OvScv eSwaro dvT€;(etv /x^ ov \a. p it, f.(T B ai lie COuld fiot liold
out at all against granting the favor. C. i. 4, 2. rt 8^Ta /xeAAeis
IXT] ov ycyiov LOT K€Lv TO TTOLv ; tvliy then do you delay (i. e., do

not delay) to tell the whole? A. pb. 654. rt c/xttoSojv /xr) ov^t
airoOavelv; ivhat is to hinder (i.e., ovScv i/jLTToSwv) our heing
put to death 9 An. hi. 1, 13.

b. Most of these verbs admit also the simple infinitive

without ^rf or /a^ ov :

Tl KO}Xv€L Kol TO. oLKpa -qfuv KiXcveLV Kvpov TTpoKaToXafx^dviiv ',

ivhat hinders our bidding Cyrus occupy the hights also for us?
An. I. 3, 16.

c. With verbs of hindering and the like the infinitive may

also have the article tov^ as a from genitive (509) :

K.(i)Xv(r€Lev av rov kolclv eTTtovra? he tvould prevent them

from this attaclcing and btirning. An. i. 6, 2.

673 Some of the above infinitives, even those plainly dative in ori-
gin, occasionally have t6, especially in poetry :

OvTOL €ia-LV jJLOVOL CTL TJfUV ifXTToSoiV TO fXT] rj^YJ cTvaL €vOa TTttAai
o-n-evSofiev these alonc are still in the way of our toeing at once
 232 SIMPLE SENTENCES

ivliere tue have so long leen eager to he. An. iv. 8, 14. to pCa
ttoXItwv Spav £<^i}v d/xijxavo? act in defiance of the state I can
not. S. AN. 79 f. KapStds 8* e^io-Ttt/xat to 8pav yet from my hearfs

purpose I ivithclraiu to do it. S. an. 1106. <^6^o<i av$' vttvov -napa-

a-Tarei, to /jirj jSXecfiapa a-vjxpaXelv fear instead of sleep stands

near, that I close not my eyes. A. a. 15.

The TO seems to bring these connection infinitives into

with the specifying accusative (537), whicli is in effect much
like a looser for dative, such as we translate by with reference
to (523 a).

574 Tlie Infinitive without or with to is used as the sub-

ject of many verbs — also as a predicate noun or an
appositive :

TpdfjijjLaTa fxaO elv Set koX fxaOoPTa vovp e^ eiv

one must learn letters^ and after learning them have
Sefise, Men. iSoKei [jlol ravrrj ir ei pacrO ai croiOrjvai

it seemed to me best to try to save myself in this way.

L. 13, 15. dyaOoi<; vplv TrpocnJKeL elv ai it hefits you to
he hrave. An. m. 2, ll. tovto vficov SeojJLaij fjujre av-
IJidt^eiv fX7]Te 6 opv ^elv this I ash of yoUj neither
to he surprised nor to make a disturhance. Ap. it c
a. Instead of an impersonal verb with the infinitive as sub-
ject, a personal construction is often used with the infinitive
depending on the verb or adjective :

Kat yap ov^\ rroppio SoKov/xev /jlol avTov KaOrjcrOaL (instead of

ov SoK€L KaOrjorOai) for in fact we seem to he encamped not far
from him. An. i. 3, 12. Stxato? ei/^t dTroAoy^o-ao-^at (instead
of StKaioi/ co-Ttv d.) it is right that I m alee my defense. Ap. 18 a.

575 The Infinitive with rov or rco may be used in any

genitive or dative construction that is suitable to its
meaning
 INFINITIVES 233

Nebt? TO alyav KpelrTov ecrrt r ov XaXelv for

young people silence is better than talking. Men. ap-
faj^re? r ov hia^aiveLv heing first in crossing. An.

1.4,15. Ikto^ el Tov fxeWeLv oltt oO vrjcr k€lv av-

piov you are free from the prospect of dying to-morrow,
Cr. 46 e. TO 8e TTf iTTLfJieXeLa Trepieivai tcov (fyCXcov kol
T (p 7rpo6vfJie2a9ai yapit^eadai, TavTa ifJiOLye jxaX-
Xop SoKei ayacTTa elvai hut tlie excelling his friends in
attentiveness and in Ms eagerness to do favors, this
ratlier to my mind appears admirable, an. i. 9, 24. ov
Trpo? T (o TToXet? avTj pTj Kev ai TiOrjcn tol HvOua ; be-

sides having destroyed states, does he not conduct the

Pythian festival ? D. 9, 32. eVt r &> awoicreiv Tama
ireirela-O ai Xeyeuv alpovp.ai I choose to spealc because
of my conviction that these measures will be for your
interest, d. 4, 5i. Kiv^wevaaiT av tco top 'EWtJo--
TTovTov aXXoT pLcodrjp at you would be endangered
by the fact that the Hellespont has become another'^ s,
D. 9, 18.

576 An Infinitive with tov sometimes used tQ express purpose

is :

MtVo)5 TO XxjCTTLKov KaOrjpiL TOV TttS TTpoaoSovs fxaXXov l i V a

avTio Mmos put doivn piracy, that his 7'evenues might cofne to
him better. T. i. 4.

This may be regarded as a genitive of cause ; v-n-ep or eve/ca

is sometimes put with it.

577 An Infinitive clause, with or without the article, often

represents a sentence with a finite verb ; the original
sentence is thus changed to a noun and made part of
another sentence, in one of the constructions above
described. Most often such an infinitive is the sub-
 234: SIMPLE SENTENCES

ject or object of a verb of saying or tlmiking —that

is, a verb meaning say, tell, Jiear, learn, or thinh, be-
lieve, hnow, and the
In such infinitive clauses
like.

a. The original tense and tense-meaning are re-

tained, the time (if the original verb was an indica-
tive) being relative to that of the principal verb. The
future infinitive is found chiefly in this use.
An imperfect or pluperfect indicative, as these
tenses are not made in the infinitive, is represented
by the present or perfect —the infinitive of the same
tense-system.
b. If the original sentence had ov, that is usually
retained, but is sometimes changed to /xt; (579 a).

c. If an original indicative or optative had av,

that is retained. Thus av with an infinitive shows
that the infinitive represents an indicative or optative
with av (579).

578 The Infinitive representing a finite verb often stands

as object with certain verbs of saying or tMnhing :

'Eyw ^7)1X1 ravra <l>kvdpid<; elvai (representing

ravra <^\vdpiai etcrt) I say tJiat this is nonsense. An.

I. 3, 17. avT i\ey eiv (f)rj^ Tol<i /BovXojxevoL^; rjixd^ dno-

Xiaai you say you spohe against (avreXeyov, 577 a)
those who wished to destroy us, l. 12, 26. ovk e(j)r}

6 fjielcrO at he said he would not taJce an oath (ovk

ofjLOVfxaL). n. I. 3, 11. 6ix6aavTe<; opKov^ rj jjltjv jxr)

fjivrjo-LKaKt] creLv taking oaths that they would verily

maintain amnesty for the j^ast {ov fivrjo-LKaKijao), ov
being here changed to fjnj because of the idea of will
implied in an oath), n. n. 4, 43.
 INFINITIVES 235

No/itX<^ v/xa? ifjiol elvai koi irarpiha koL (J)l\ovs I

think you are (yixels iare) to me both country and
friends, An. 3, 6. 'oloixepou
i. ra Trdvra vIkolv koX
Kvpov 1,7] V tJmiking they loere completely mctorious
and Gyrus was alive (viKWfjiev, ^tJ). Ax. n. i, i. ^^a?
iycoye olkovo) tov<; Aa/ceSai/xoz^tov? cac TraiScov KkeTrreiv
fieXerav I hear that you Spartans practise stealing
from childhood (/AeXerare). An. iv. 6, 14. Treicreo-d ai
TTpoaSoKcov expecting that he will suffer (Tretcrojitat).

D. 6, apa it po ah o kolv avrov<; roiavTa TreiOeaO ai

18.

oieaOe do you suppose they expected (irpoaeSoKcov) to

he suffering like this f d. 6, 20.

a.So also as the subject (with Xeyerat and the like, 574),
as appositive, and in the personal construction (574 a) :

'EAcyero Ku/aw Sovvat ^-qy.a.Ta TroXXd she ICaS Said to liave

giveyi Cyrus a large su7n. An. i. 2, 12. Tov<i dyaOovs ek TroXe/jiov
wfjioXoyrjTo 8ta<^€/3ovTw? rlfjidv lie was acTc7iowledged to lionor ex-
ceptio7ially those who ivere good for war. An. i. 9, 14. koX ydp
ovSk TToppo) SoKov/xev /xoi avrov KaOrjcrOat for We seeM tO me to ie
encamped hy no means far from him. An. i. 3, 12.
b. Future infinitives with ui(n(. fall under this head,

scarcely differing at all from ^(tt^ with a future indicative

(639 a) :

Mwpia TYjXiKavTrjv riyela-Oai ttoXlv olk€iv to fieyeOo'; wcrre jxr] 8ct-

vov 7reto-€o-^at it is folly to thinh the state we live in is so

great that tve shall suffer nothing serious. D. 9, 67.

579 An Infinitive with dv represents an indicative or

optative witli dv (461, 467, 479, 480), the context alone
determining which
'Akovco KaKehaip.oviov<; rore ipi^akovra^ a v koX Ka-
K(0(TavTa<; ttjv ya)pav dv a^o) p elv in olkov irdXiv I
hear that the Spartans in those times^ after invading
 236 SIMPLE SENTENCES

and TO/vaging the land, woidd then tvithdraw toward

home again (avexf^pow av, 461 a), d. 9, 48. KOpo?
apiCTTO^ aV So/cet ap^o)v yeve&O ai it seems likely
that Cyrus loould have been an unusually good ruler
(^dpiaTos av kyivero^ 467 c). 0. 4, 18. apa avTov^ Xe-
yovTo<; av nvos ttictt ever ai otecrOe do you think ;

they ivould have believed any one if he said it?

(\eyovTO<; av Tivo<; irficTTevaav ;) D. 6, 20.

Sw vixiv p,ev av oXfiai elvai TtfXLo<; ^vith you J think

I should be in honor (jtixio^ av eirjv, 479). An. i. 3, 6.

iirLCTTeve fjL7)S€v av irapa ra? airovha^^ TraOelv he was

confident that he would stiffer nothing contrary to the

agreement {ovSev av 7ra^ot/xi). An. i. 9, s.

a. Some of the above examples illustrate the tendency to

change original ov towith the infinitive after words mean-
/xtJ

ing stvear, promise, Jiope, and the like the notion of tvill in
;

the verb seems to affect the negative.

For exclamatory and imperative infinitives see 492.
For farther treatment of indirect discourse see 667-664.

PARTICIPLES

580 The Participle is a verbal adjective, essentially like

the English participle in use ; but its full declension
enabled the range of the Greek participle to be ex-
tended much farther in some directions.
a. As a verb the participle has voice and tense, and may

take an object (accusative, genitive, or dative) or an adverbial

modifier.
As an adjective it is declined, and agrees with a noun or
pronoun, (1) attributively, with or without the article, (2) as
a predicate, belonging to either subject or object.
 PARTICIPLES 237

681 The present, aorist, and perfect tenses of the participle denote
the kind of action rather than time the present denotes con- ;

tinuance or repetition, the aorist denotes simple occurrence

or attainment, the perfect denotes a completed act or a con-
tinued state (cp. 475, 563).

a. But when a participle represents an indicative clause,

the tenses retain the tense-meaning of the indicative, and de-
note time present, past, or future relatively to that of the lead-
ing verb. The future participle is always so used ; for the
other tenses the context alone determines whether the time-
value is intended or not (cp. 677).
Note examples in the following sections.

682 The Attributive Participle agrees directly witli a noun,

witli or without an article :

To, KaO eaTT] KOT a irpdyfjiaTa the existing situa-

tion (c(ffairs^ government). K:e/caXXte7ri7/xeVot>9
Xoyov9 finely worded speeches. Ap. it b.

a. The Attributive Participle is often used without a noun,

thus becoming itself a noun (555 b). Such a phrase, if brief,

may sometimes be rendered by an English noun ; if longer,

its nearest equivalent is a relative clause :

Ot AeyovTcs the speakers, ol aKovovTcs tlie hearers, ol

evoiKovvres the inhabitants, rf re/covcra the mother, €LKrj
Xeyofiiva things stated carelessly, ra avrots /3e^tw/xeVa their
lives {things lived hy tliein), to. So^^avra t^ o-r/aarta the opin-
ion {decision) of the army. An. i. 3, 20.
Ot ravrriv r-qv (fitjfjirjv Kara(TK€8dcravT€<S those ivho have
spread this report', tov? raura t,r]TovvTa^ those who investi-
gate these matters. Ap. 18 c w KaTaif/rjcfua-d/jLevoL fxov you
who voted agai7ist me. A p. 39 b.

b. Common phrases are 6 fiovX6fjievo<s any one who wishes,

6 Tv^wv any chance comer. Note also KaAov/^evo? and Acyo/xevos
in phrases like Kprjvrj rj MtSov KaXovfjiiv-q the spring called
 238 SIMPLE SENTENCES

Midas'' s^ the so-called spri7ig of Midas \ tov Uphv KaXov^x^vov

TToXefiov the war called Sacred^ the so-called Sacred war.
c. With
such a participial phrase refers to a particular
ov
person, thing, or class with fLrj (486) the phrase is more gen-
;

eral, a merely supposed case :

Tots fxr] TTct^o/xevots fxereixeXe any ivho did iiot talce his
advice repented. M. i. 1, 4. (rot's ov Tret^o/^evots would have
meant those people, a definite class, tvho in fact did not take
his advice.)

683 A Participle often agrees attributively with a noun or

pronoun, without the article, adding some circum-
stance of the main action. {Circumstantial Parti-
ciple?)

English uses the same construction, hut less freely ; a

better rendering is often a relative clause, or an adverbial
phrase or clause (of time, manner, cause, means, concession,
condition), or even another verb parallel to the leading verb.
The circumstantial participle without av represents an indica-
tive ; the tense therefore generally denotes time (581 a).

*H fJiTJrrjp vnrjp^e Kvpco (fyiXovcr a avrov fxaWov his

mother sufpjported Cyrus., loving him more, An. i. i, 4.

d Kova dcr L to2<s (TTpaTrjyoi^ ravra eSofe to cTTpdrevyia

avvayayeiv on hearing this the generals decided to call

together the army, Axx. iv. 4, lo. 6 Se eXirtSa? Xeycov

SiTJye but he Icept putting tliem off by talking hope-
fully. An. I. 2, 11. TTpcoTov fjL€v iSaKpve ttoXw ^povov
iaTa><; first he stood and wept for some time. An. i.

3, 2. ravra yap fcaXoi? iyco € t 8 w9 StwXecra this, though

I hriew it well^ I had let slip, s. ot. 318.

a. Certain participles occur often in idiomatic use, as ap-

Xofx^^vo's (beginning) at first, reXevTwv (ending) finally tx'^v (hold- ,

ing on) constantly, Oappwv boldly, XaOwv secretly, dvv<rds quickly

 PARTICIPLES 239

Xat/owv without punisliment^ ^AatW ivith sorrow. Also exoiv,

may often be translated tvith
dy(Dv, Aa/3wv, cf^ipwv, xpto/xevos :

TeAcvrojv ovv eVt tov<s x^'-porexvas ya SO finally I We7lt to tllG

artisans. Ap. 22 c. ov n ^^^atpwv 8ts ye 7rrjfxova<s epct? ?zof «^i77i-

OM^ sorroio slialt tliou twice spealc luords so dire. S. ot. 363.

npo|€vo9 -rrapTjv l^wv oTrXtrd? Proxenos came with hoplifes.

An. I. 2, 3.

b. The future participle in this use often expresses inten-

tion or purpose :

AvLCTTavTO ol fjikv CK Tov avTOfxaTov Xi^ovTCS a lyiyviocrKov

some rose of their oivn accord to say ivhat they thought. An. i.

3, 13. TrefJuf/aL kol tt poKar aX-qxp o [xiv ov<5 to, aKpa to send 71ien

to seize the hights in advance. An. i. 3, 14.

684 Predicate Participles are used like predicate adjec-

tives (545-548), witli extensions into certain special
idioms. The compound tenses, consisting of €t/xt and
a participle agreeing with the subject, are the simplest
type.

685 A Predicate Participle agreeing with the siihject is

often used

a. With verbs that express existence in some par-

ticular IV ay., as
Tvyxdvo) am hy chance^ happen to he,
\av6dvoj am secretly or ivithotit the hnowledge of,
(j)6dpco am first, get the start in,

Sidyco, SiareXo), SiayLyvofiai am coritinuously, Tceep on,

(f)aLvofjLaL (also 817X09 or (f)av€p6<; elfxi) am plainly \

Hap COP krvyyave he happened to he there. An. i. 1, 2.

Irvyyavov \eyo)v I
was just saying. An. hi. 2, 10.
^ovXoLfjLTjv av \a0eiv avTOv dir e\0 div I should lihe to
get away without his hiowing it (to he-hidden-from him
240 SIMPLE SENTENCES

going away), an. i. 3, 17. ^Odvovcnv eVl rw aKpco

yevojjLevoL tov<; TroXe/^tov? they anticipate the enemy
in getting v/pon the hight. An. m. 4, 49. hieTi\ovv
^pco jjuevoi To1<; tcdv TroXefiLcov To^evfJiacrL they kept
using the enemies' arrows. An. m. 4, 17. ov ^0 ovciiv
TOL<; <^avepo)<; TrXovTovcnp i(j)aLpeTo he was plainly not
envious of the openly tvealthy (it was plain that he did
not envy). An. i. 9, 19.

b. With verbs meaning hegin^ cease^ endure^ grow

weary and ^ tlie like

OvTTore iiravofjuQv r}fxa<; olKripajv I never ceased

pitying ourselves. An. m. 1, 19. d7TeLpr]Ka rjSr] crvcr-
K€v ai^o [Jiev OS kol t p e^ co v koI tol oVXa (f)€ p o)v I
am tired now of packing up and running and carry-
ing my arms. An. v. 1, 2.

c. With otxo/xat am gone a predicate participle may

specify the manner of going, and so contain the main
thought
Et9 TO irpoaOev oi)(ovTaL Slcj kovt e<; they have
gone forward in pursuit. An. i. 10, 5. ^x'^ro direXav-
voiv he loent riding aivay, or simply, he rode away.
An. II. 4, 24.

With YjKw and some others the idioms differ but little from
'English usage.
d. A Participle agreeing with the subject is so used with
some verbs that one can not say certainly whether it is a cir-
cumstantial or a predicate participle :

l^ovrov ovx rjTTrja-ojxcOa ev ttoioOvtcs we shall not he heliind

Mm in well-doing. An. m. 2, 23. dStKct tov^; viovi 8ta<^^ctpwv

he is guilty of corrupting the young. M. i. 1, l. So with a

number of verbs meaning endure, am pleased, content, indig-
nant, ashamed, etc.
 PARTICIPLES 241

586 A Predicate Participle agreeing with the object is

often used

a. With some verbs meaning perceive (with the

senses or w^ith the mind), rememhei\ hnoiv^ and the
like:
ElSe KXdap^ov SueXavvovra he saw Klearclios
riding through. Ax. i. 5, 12. ovk ffSeaav avrov TeOvrj-
KOTa tJtey did not hnow that he was dead. Ax. i. lo, 16.

75817 hi TLVdiv rjaOofJLiqv Kal Slol ravra a^9 o ix iv cjjv /xoi

and now I have observed that some felt unpleasantly

toward me for this reason too, l. 16, 20. rjKovad -rrore

avTov nepl (^i\<jjv S iaXey o fievov I once heard him

talking about friends. M. n. 4, 1. yaipovdiv i^era-
t^o fxiv oi<^ rot? olofxevoLf; fxev elvai (TO(J)ol^ ovctl 8' ov

they delight in the examination of those tvho think tliey

are loise but are not. ap. 33 c.

b. With verbs meaning show^ make known^ and the

like:
Kvpov eTTiarpaTevovTa irpoiTo^ rjyyeika I ivas
Gyrus tvas marching against
the first to report that
him. Ax. II. 3, 19. e/xe toivvv ovSetg av anoBeL^eiev
airevexO ivTa no one, now, could show that my
name was handed in. l. 16, 7.

587 With some verbs a predicate participle may agree with either
subject or object, according to the meaning (cp. 586)
"la-Oi /xevTOL dv6r]To<; wv be sure^ however^ that you are foolish.
Ax. II. 1, 13. rjixeis ahvvaroL opw/xcv ovre? TrepLyev ecrOaL we See
that tee are unable to get the upper hand. T. i. 32. ya-Oer rfSc-
Krjfievrj she perceived that she had beeri u^ronged. E. m. 26.

cyw ov ^woiSa i/xavrw cro(fi6s wv I am not co7iscious of being wise,

16
 242 SIMPLE SENTENCES

Ap. 21 b. Cp. ifxavTi^ ^vvySr} ovSkv iir LcrTa/xevo) I ivas con-

scious that I k?ietu 7iotliing (Ap. 22 d), with no essential differ-
ence of meaning, because subject and object are the same
person.

688 a. Most of the above verbs admit also as object a on clause

(622).
b. 'Akoi^w, alo-OdvofjiaL, TrvvOdvofjiai admit three constructions,
usually distinct in meaning :

d/cov(o Ttvos w. ptc. / hear^ with my own ears, something

going on ;

oLKovo) ri (or TLvd) w. ptc. / hear, am told, that ;

aKovm w. ace. and inf. / hear, as report, or tradition,

that .

c. In like manner several verbs admit either a predicate

participle or an infinitive, with different meaning :

WITH PARTICIPLE WITH INFINITIVE

ffyaLvofiat I plainly am. it appears {but may not
true) that I ;

apxofULL am at the heginning of, undertake, set about ;

aiSovfxat am ashamed of,

i
\
am ashamed to, refrain for
al(Txvvofxai \ do with shame, )
shame
ytyvtoo-KO) rccognize decide
iTTLo-Tafxai understand that understand how
oT8a know I some- knoiv hoiv to do
fiavOdvoi learn '
thing learn {lioiv) something.
iTTtXavOdvof/xiL forget is, forget {how)
fxefjivrjfjLaL remember remember

589 A Participlemay agree with a genitive which is not

dependent on any other word the two are then in ;

the Ge7iitive Absolute :

^Av€/3r) eVl TOL oprj ovSevo<; kcoXvovt o<; he went

vp on the mountains, no one hindering. An. 2, 22. i.

a. 'Ekwi/ willing and aKwv tinwilling are treated as par-

ticiples :
 PARTICIPLES 243

"A/covTo? oLTTLiov Kvpov gotug aiuay ivitliout Cyruses con-

sent {Cyrus imwilUng). Ax. i. 3, 17.

590 In effect the Genitive Absolute is an abbreviated ad-

verbial clause, of time, cause, condition, concession, or
merely of attendant circumstance. These relations
are not stated, but only implied in the context often ;

one can not say which of two or more relations is

more prominent
T ovTcop \e^0 4vr cov avicrrrjo-av til is sauI, they
rose. Ax. III. 3, 1. ovhev tojp SeoPTOJV ir oiovvT (t)V
v^ctjv KaKcj^ TOL irpdyixara ej^et affairs are in a had
way (because ?) you are doing notJiing of ivliat
ivliile

you shoidd. D. 4, 2. koX ixeTaTrefnTOfiepov avrov

ovK ideko) i\ddv even though he is sending for me^ I
am univilling to go. Ax. i. 3, lo.

a. The Participle may stand alone in the genitive absolute

when the noun or pronoun is readily supplied from the con-
text :

'EvreC^ev it polo v Tin v i<fiaiv€TO txvr] Linriov aS they loeilt 071

from there^ tracks of horses appeared. Ax. i. 6, 1.

591 A Participle may be in the Accusative Absolute instead of the

genitive, when it is impersonal, or has an infinitive as subject
'E^ov cJpyjv-qv ex^LV atpetrat TroAe/xctv whe?l it is pOSSlMe to
have peace., he chooses tear. Ax. ii. 6, 6. oTo-^a, p.i\ov yi o-ol
you k7i02v, since it is of interest to you. Ap. 24 d. So TrpocrrJKov

since (or though) it is fitting, 8o|av it having heen agreed to.,

ah-qXov 6v it leing uncertain, rv^pv ly chance., and others.

a. Even personal expressions are sometimes in the accusa-
tive absolute, especially with ws or wo-7rep (593 c, d) :

'^o)Kpdrr]<; tjvx'^to Trpos tov<s rov^

Oeovs (XTrAw? TdyaOa StSovat, ws
Oeovs KoXXia-Ta etSoras Sokrates used to pray to the gods
simply to give what teas good, feeling that the gods knew best
{tvhat is good). M. i. 3, 2.
 244: SIMPLE SENTENCES

592 A few adverbs, though belonging grammatically to the verb,

often stand with and seem to modify a circumstantial par-
ticiple ; such are a/xo, /xcra^v, €vOv<s, avTLKa, o/xcas :

"A /A a TavT ctTTwv dv€(TT7j iinmediately as he said this he

rose. An. hi. 1, 47. TroXKa-^ov fxe eTrecr^^eAeyovra ficra^v if
often checked me in the midst of my words {checked me mid-
way, while Speaki7ig). Ap. 40 b. cvOvs TratSe? ovre? fxavOd-
vova-Lv apx^i-v t€ kol apx^cOai immediately, tuhile hoys, they learn
hoth to rule and to he ruled. An. i. 9, 4. iprjo-ofiaL Bk koI Ka/cws

Trao-xovo-' o/xws / will ash, though wronged, none the less.

E. M. 280.

693 Certain particles make raore distinct the relation of

thouglit between the circumstantial participle and
the rest of the sentence.

a. "Are (less often olov^ oTa) shows that the par-

ticiple is causal

'EttI ttoXv rjv TOL VTTO^vyiaj are Slol crT€prj<; Trj<; oSov
TTopevo iJi€pa the baggage animals extended a long
way., because the road they were following was narrow.
An. IV. 2, 13.

b. KaLTrep (also /cat, though less distinctly) shows

that the participle is concessive :

Ou9 iyo) jxaWov (jyo^ovjJiaL r) tov<; d/^(^t Avvtov,

Kaiirep ovt a<; kol tovtov<; Seuvovs whom I fear
more than Anytos and his friends., although these also
are formidable. Ap. 18 b.

c. 'n? with a participle is often rendered by as ;

but the idiom has been extended far beyond what is

possible in English. In many cases w? implies that
the statement of the participle is the thought of some
 PARTICIPLES 245

one mentioned in the context ; the translation must

vary with the situation :

Trjv -^copdv iTTeTpexjje hiapTracrai tol<s '^EkXrjcni' o) 9

TToXefjLLdv ovcrap he turned the land over to the GreeJcs

to plu7idei% as heing hostile. An. i. 2, 19. crvWapi^dvei

Kvpov w? OLTTo KTevwv he arrested Cyrns^ as intend-
ing to hill him. an. i. 1, 3.

^EXeye dappeip ws KaraaTTjaopLivoiv rovroiv

et9 TO hiov he told him to have no fear^ assuring him
that this woidd settle itself properly. An. i. 3, 8. -^X-

Oov iiTL Tiva rcov Sokovvtcjv cro(f)(x)v elvau, o) 9 ivravOa

i\iy^(x)v TO pLavreiov I went to one of the men ivho
seemed to he luise, thinking that there 1 should test the
oracle. Ap. 21 c. iKTTt7rT0vr€<; Trap* 'AOr)paLov<; w 9 ySe-

^aiov 6 V dvexcopovv when exiled they withdrew to the

Athenians^ with the idea that it was safe there, t. i. 2.

d. "Qo-Trep just as, even as (cp. 216) is a strengthened w?,

but it often requires a different translation
''AAAoS dv€(TTr] cTTtSetKi/vs rrjv evT^Oeiav tov tol TrXola alrelv KeXevov-

T09, wcTTrep TrdXiv tov cttoXov J^vpov ttolov jx€vov another arose,
jjointing out the sim'plicity of the man who suggested ashing for
boats, just as if Cyrus were making the expedition lack again.
An. I. 3, 16. KaraKetfjieOa wa-irep i^ov rjcrvxtdv dyctv we are lying
here just as if it icere possible to remain quiet. An. in. 1, 14.

594 With some verbs of knowing, thinking, saying, w? is used with

a predicate participle some cases a circumstantial parti-
; in
ciple with ws is used where we might expect a predicate par-
ticiple :

fi 9 /xev (TTpaTrjyi^a-ovTa ifxk TavT7]v rrjv (npaT-qytdv /xiySei?

v/Acuv no one of you speak icitli the idea that I ivill
AcyeVo) let
retain command in this campaign (591 a). An. i. 3, 15. St^Aois
8' ws TL a-rjfjiavCiv viov you shoiv that you
have something neiu
 246 SIMPLE SENTENCES

to reveal (you slioiv as one ahout to reveal). S. an. 242. ws Tro-

Ae/Aov oi/Tos Trap' vfxoiv airayyekw shall I report from you that
there is ivar 9 [shall I report with the understanding that there
is ivar f). An. ii. 1, 21.

595 A Participle with av represents an optative or indica-

tive with av, the context alone determining which
(cp. 579) :

Alrei feVov?, w? p ly evo jxev o<; av rcov

ovto) tt e

avTLG-Ta(Tio)TO)v he asks for mercenaries, saying that

thus he should get the hetter of his opponents (repre-

senting TrepLyevoifjirjv av). An. i. 1, 10. %a>KpdTrj<; pa-
Slco<; av a (f>
e 9 el (; viro rcov SiKacTTcov TrpoeiXero drro-

Oavdv Sohrates, who would easily have heen acquitted

hy the judges, chose to die, m. iv. 4, 4.

VERBAL ADJECTIVES IN -TE02

596 The Verbal in -Teo<; (cp. 352, 354) is generally passive

in meaning; it may be used in the personal or the
impersonal construction ; the agent in either construc-
tion is expressed by a dative (524 b).
a. The personal construction gives more promi-
nence to the subject, with which the verbal agrees,
as attributive or as predicate the copula is often ;

omitted
'EjLtot Tovro ov TTOLrjT eov this must not be done
hy me, An. i. 3, is. ov Toaavra opr) opdre {jfjulv ovra
TTopevrea do you not see so many mountains
; that
must he traversed hy you ? An. h. 5, 18.
b. The impersonal construction gives more promi-
nence to the action ; the verbal is in the neuter sin-
 PREPOSITIONS 247

gular (sometimes in the plural), and may take an

object ; the copula is often omitted
'Hfilv y virep Trj<; iXevOeptds ay oiv lar 4ov W€ at
least must 'make a struggle for freedom, d. 9, 70. Iriov
ovv iirl a7ravra<; tov<; tl So/cou^^ra? etSeVat T had to go
therefore (the context shows that '^v is understood) to
all those who appeared to have some hnovjledge. Ap. 21 e.

Tov<; (J)lXov<; ev € py errjT eov rwv ^oaKrjixdrcov iiri- ,

jjL€\r]T€ov one must benefit Ms friends, one must ca/re

for his flocks. M. n. 1, 28.
c. Some verbals in -rio^ have the meaning of the middle
voice : Treta-Teov 0716 must obey^ ^v\a.Krkov we must he on our
guard.
PREPOSITIONS
597 All Prepositions were once adverbs ; Homer uses them as such
freely, the Attic poets occasionally ; in Attic prose tt/oos alone
is so used (cp. 437 a). But their special office, along with
440 a), is to connect nouns or
their use in composition (437,
pronouns with other words, making the relation plainer than
the case ending would alone.
a. The and meaning of prepositions are
details of the use
best learned from reading, and from vocabularies and the dic-
tionary ; some of the chief distinctions only are given here.
598 *Aj/a, et9 or e? (and w?) take the Accusative
'Ei^ and avv take the Dative only
'Ai^rt, aTTo, ef, and upo take the Genitive only

Ata, /caret, /xera, virip take the Accusative and

Genitive
'AjLt(^t, eVt, TTapdj irepi^ Trpo^;, viro take the Accusa-
tive, Genitive, and Dative.
a. A preposition joined to a verb may affect the case of a
noun or pronoun precisely as if it were not in composition.
 248 COMPOUND SENTENCES

b. The meaning of the noun or pronoun, or of the verb,

often determines the meaning of the preposition ; a relation
that is natural in one situation may be impossible in another.
This principle has a wide application. Thus ek rov TrorafjLov
:

into the river, els dvSpa<s eyypdt^uv to enroll among men, ei? 8wa-
liiv to the extent of one's power, ck TpidKovra to the number of
thirty ; virh yijs under ground, v<j) rjfxiov Tl/iw/Aevos honored hy us ;

Trapa tov Trora/xov oloiigside of the river, irapa paaikea to the

king's side.

599 Besides the prepositions proper (i. e., those which may be
compounded with verbs), a number of adverbs are often
used with the genitive, and hence are called improper preposi-
tions. Such are avev without, dxpi and /x-exp^ as far as, p-era^v
between, ttXi^v except, hcKa (etvcKa, eVeKev) 071 account of, cyyvs
and TrXyjcrtov 7iear, etc. (cp. 618 b, c).

11. COMPOUND SENTENCES

600 Successive independent sentences in Greek are usu-
ally joined together in one of four ways
(1) By a coordinating conjunction;
(2) By a demonstrative pronoun or adverb; this
may be in the earlier sentence, pointing forward, or
in the latter, pointing backward
(3) By a relative pronoun or adverb, at the begin-
nincr of the second sentence ;

(4) By a particle standing early in the second

sentence, and referring to the preceding sentence.
a. Absence of such a connective [da-vvherov not bound
together, asyndeton), though so common in English, is gener-
ally in Greek a mark of emotion. Thus the following passage
(L. 12, 100) shows far more feeling than the English version
aKryKoarc, ewpa/care, TrcTToV^aTC, c^cre StKa^ere yoU have heard, seen,
•

suffered, you have him-, give judgment.

 COMPOUND SENTENCES 249

b. Eepetition of some significant word {ava<f>opd anapliora)^

with asyndeton, is an emotional way of connecting sentences
Tt' ovv l(TTL TovTo ; aTTLcrr la. ravTrjv cf>v\dTT€T€, ravTrj^ avrir
X^a-Oe what, then, is this? Distrust. Guard this, cling to
this. D. 6, 24.

601 When successive sentences, independent in construc-

tion, are by a coordinating conjunction, and
joined
are so united in speaking as to make one, the whole
is called a Compound Sentence.

602 The principal coordinating conjunctions are the following

details of their use and meaning are to be learned in reading
nearly all have other uses too (cp. 665-673).
a. Copulative Conjunctions : Kat, re (enclitic) aiid ; ovSe,

fJir)S€, ovT€, jx-qre and UOt, nor. Kat . . . Kat, T€ . . . Kat both . . .

and, ovT€ . . . ovT€, fn]T€ . . . jxrjTe neither . . . nor, are fre-

quent combinations.
b. Adversative Conjunctions : aXka hut, 8c (postpositive)
lut, and, ardp hut, however, fiivTot (postpositive) however, yet,
KairoL and yet.

c. Disjunctive Conjunction : rj or. rj ... t] either .. . or,

is a frequent combination.
d. Inferential Conjunctions : dpa then, accordi^igly, as it
seems; ovv therefore, then; vw or vvv (enclitic and poetic), tol-
vvv unemphatic 7iow, then (cp. 673).

e. Causal Conjunction : yap for (cp. 672).

603 Instead of a full compound sentence, a sentence with a com-

pound subject or a compound predicate may be used {Abbre-
viated Compoimd Sentence)
'O Se Tret^erat Kat (rvA.Xa/x/3av€t Kvpov he believed it

and arrested Cyrus. An. i. 1, H, cTra^tws yap ^ol(3o<;, d^tw? 8c

eOecrO* i7rLcrTpo(f>T^v for right tUOrthily
(TV Trpo Tov OavovTO^ rrjvS'

hath Phoibos, and ivorthily hast thou, bestowed this care for
him that is dead. S. ot. 133 f.
 250 COMPLEX SENTENCES

PARATAXIS AND HYPOTAXIS

604 When two sentences, independent in form, are so united in
speaking that one is subordinate to the other in thought, they
are called Par atactic'^ {TrapaTaa-a-oi arrange beside). In form,
as written, they are simply coordinate sentences not joined
together by a conjunction
'E-TriVrao-^e kol v/xct?, olfxai you hnow it yourselvBS^ I thinh.
An. III. 2, 8. r]hi(TT av (XKovo-ai/xt to ovofxa, tl<s ovto)<s icrrl 8etvos

Xeyeiv; I sJiould like Very much to hear the name, tuho is so

skilled iyi talking 9 An. n. 5, 15. ev fxivTot lam, iraa-av vfuv rrjv

aX-qOetav epoi he assured, hoiuever, I shall tell you the ivhole truth.
Ap. 20 d. LKvovfjiai [xy] 7rpoSov<5 rjixas yevy do not aia7ldon US, I
entreat. S. ai. 588.

605 Out of such paratactic sentences have grown all types of Sub-
ordination, or Hypotaxis (vTroTaa-a-oi arrange under). A sen-
tence is 8uhordi7iate when it is made part of another, with the
value of a noun, adjective, or adverb.

III. COMPLEX SE^^TEXCES

606 A Complex Sentence consists of a principal sentence
and one or more subordinate sentences, which are
then called clauses.
a. The Principal or Leading clause may be of any
type of simple sentence (451-489).
b. A Subordinate clause is marked
(1) Always by an introductory subordinating
word ;

by a change of mode
(2) Often ;

(3) Sometimes by a change of person, in verb

and pronoun ;

1 Such sentences are even more common in English of familiar style

than in Greek literature as we have it.

 MVj CLAUSES 251

(4)Sometimes by a change of tense but only in ;

the indicative, from present to imperfect or from per-

fect to pluperfect.'

c. A direct quotation, or an indirect question that retains

the direct form, though clearly subordinate, can hardly be
separated from cases of parataxis (604).

607 The tenses in subordinate clauses have the same force

as in simple sentences ; but when they denote time,
their time is often merely relative to that of the lead-
ing clause.

608 Since the introductory subordinating word is what

always and most clearly marks the subordinate clause,
that is made the basis for classifying and describing
such clauses.

609 Three functions, in the following order of development, may

belong to a subordinating word :

(1) It has its own construction in the subordinate clause,

as adverb,pronoun, or adjective.
(2) It connects the subordinate clause with some word,
expressed or implied, in the leading clause.
(3) Both these functions fall into the background, and
'
one or both may disappear, as the subordinating word comes
more distinctly to denote the relation of clause to clause,
rather than of word to word.

Mti clauses

610 Mr; (cp. 486) is often a subordinating conjunction

(lest, that, that not) after expressions of fear or caution,

* In English, change of order is often the only sign of subordination

so sometimes change of tense.
 252 COMPLEX SENTENCES

and sometimes after expressions of preventive action

implying caution. (Negative ov. Cp. also 474.)

611 In Mif clauses

a. An indicative (present, perfect, imperfect, ao-

rist) denotes a present or past fact
AeSoLKa fjLTj Tr\rjyo)v 8eei Tin afraid you need
a whipping, Ar. n. 493. c[)0^ovfJieda /x 17 afji(f)OT€pa)V

rj fxapTT] KafjL€p we fear that we have failed of both.

T. III. 53.

b. A subjunctive (rarely the future indicative) de-

notes something still future, or treated as unsettled

Okvol7)v av €19 TOL TrXota ifx^aiveLVy jjirj rjjxa^ Kara-

hvcrrj I should hesitate to go aboard the boats^ lest

he sink us, An. i. 3, 17. SeStw? fxr) \a^d)v fxe hiKr)v

iiriOrj fearing that he will take and punish me. An.

I. 3, 10. opa fjLT} ajjia rco KaKco koX alcT^pa fj

beware
lest it be (see that it be not) shameful too as well as
evil, Cr. 46 a. TravaaLy p. 7) ev p €0 fj
iff) <; avov<; stop,
that you be not found foolish, s. an. 281.

Note that lest and that not are often equivalent. In the
last example we might say lest you le found fxr] ov l<j>€.vpSrj<i ;

—
would be lest you le not found the negative of ^r] i(fievpeOyj<s.
c. An optative denotes something future or treated
as unsettled at the time of the principal verb, and
also presents it as more remote from the speaker or
writer — thought of another person, or as
e. g., as the
belonging to a past or an improbable situation.
The optative is therefore common after a past tense
and after another optative, but is otherwise rare
 "Os AND "Oo-ris CLAUSES 253

^ESetcraz/ ol "EXXi^t'e? fXTj tt p ocr dyoiev Trpo? to

K€pa^ the Greeks feared they would advance on their
jiank. An. i. lO, 9. eSo/cet airiivai inl to aTpaToireSop
fjLT) eVt^ecrtg yivoiTo it seemed best to go hack to the

camp, lest an attach should he made. An. iv. 4, 22. virai

Tt? dp/3vXd<; \voLy /x ij rt? TrpoacoOev /3dXoL
o/A/xaro?
^dovo^ let one undo my shoes, lest from afar an envious
look should smite me. a. a. 938.

"Os AND "Oo-TLS CLAUSES

612 The Relative Pronoun og (213) connects its clause with

some noun or pronoun, and lias its own construction
in the subordinate clause. (So of its compounds
ocnrepy oaTL<;, etc.)

a. The connecting force of 09 may be no stronger than

that of a demonstrative. The os clause is then really inde-
pendent.
When clearly subordinate, the os clause often precedes
the leading clause, or may be included within it.

613 a. The Eelative Pronouns take their gender, number,

and person from the antecedent but sense may pre- ;

vail over form,and when the relative is the subject

a predicate noun sometimes prevails over the ante-
cedent.
b. The Relative is often attracted from its proper
case to the case of the antecedent, especially /rom the
accusative to the genitive or dative
^Ai^8p€9 d^LOi Trj<; iXevO e p Ld<; 179 KeKTrjcrOe men
ivorthy of the freedom which you possess. Ax. i. 7, 3.

(l)oj3oLiJLrjv avT(^r)y€fx6vL w 80117 iireadai I should

254 COMPLEX SENTENCES

fear to folloiv the guide whom he may give, An. i.

3, 17.

c. Rarely the antecedent is attracted to the case of the

relative, the two standing side by side :

*Ai/€tA€v avTw 6 'AttoAAwi/ 6 eol^s ol<s eSei Ovciv Apollo in re-

sponse told him tlie gods to ivliom lie should sacrifice. An.
III. 1, 6.

d. The antecedent may be taken up into the subordinate

clause, OS agreeing with it adjectively :

TouTovs apxovras liroUi rj<S KaT€crTpecf>CTo ;>(wpds these he made

rulers of the territory which {of what territory) he suldued.
An. I. 9, 14.

The antecedent may be omitted ; it is often indefinite and

therefore not expressed ; it may none the less attract the rela-
tive from the accusative to the genitive or dative (613 b) :

Nvi/ hraLVoi ere icfi' ols Aeyets re kol Trparrets now I praise you
for lohat you hoth say and do. An. hi. 1, 45. a /x^ oTSa ovSe
oto/xat elSevai what I do not Jcnow, I also do not think I hnoiv.

Ap. 21 d. e/xyaei/OjUei/ oX'i oiixoXoyrjcrafxev 8tKat06S ovg-lv rj ov; do We

abide hy luhat we agreed was just, or not ? Cr. 50 a.

a. From the customary omission of the antecedent have

arisen some common idiomatic expressions :

ela-lv oi, more often ) some, literally the7'e are who,

e(TTLV OL {wv, 6i<i, ovs, o) )
ctc.
ea-Tiv oa-TLs; (interrogative) is there any 07ie ivho?
iviore (from evt ore) sometimes,
€(TTLv ov somewhere,
ea-TLv fi
in some way,
ovK €(TTLv oTTws thcre is no way how.
b. AVith these may be put ovSds o(ttl<s ov there is no one
ivho . . . not ; through omission of the verb and the attrac-
tion of the antecedent to the case of the relative (613 c), the
phrase is treated as a single pronoun meaning every one, and
is then declined
 "Os AND "Oo-rts CLAUSES 255

OvSeva ovTLV* ov KareKAao-e he l)7'olce cloWfl evevy 0716.

Ph. 117 a.

615 A "05 Clause may take any form that is used in simple sen-

tences (461-489). It may suggest cause, purpose, concession,

and other relations. The negative is ov or /^rj according to
the meaning :

TotovTOVS eTTCTre/x-TTovo-t' /xot, ots tfjieL<s ovk av SiKaCwS ttlo"-

T€voLT€ they send against 7ne such people^ whom you would
not justly believe. L. 7, 40. o /x.^ yevotro which heaven forMd
{tnay ivhich not happen I). eSo$e rw Srjfjuo TpiaKovra avSpas iXi-
(tOul, o t tovs Trarpi'ovs vofiov^ avyy pd\j/ov(T l^ Koh^ ovs tvoWt^v-
(T over I the people voted to choose thirty men to codify the ances-
tral laws^ in accordance icith which they should conduct the
govermnent. H. n. 3, 2. TroTa/xov, ov fxr) Trepda-rj's a river
which do not thou pass. A. PB. 744. TrXdvrjv cfipda-w, yv iyypd-
cf>ov (TV p.vr)pLocnv Se'Arot? ^pcvoiv I tcill tell thy wandering^ which

do thou lorite in the tablets of thy me^nory. A. pb. 815.

a. Instead of repeating a relative in a different case in the

same sentence, Greek usually changes to a demonstrative or
relative pronoun, or leaves the relative to be supplied :

'B,€VO<f>ii)V, OS ovre a-Tparrjyos ovre o-rpaTidiT'qS u>v crvvf] koXov-

$€1, dXXa Hpo^evos avrov fjieTeTrefJuj/aTo JietlOphon, who ivas
icith them neitlier as genercd 7ior as soldier., but Proxe7ios had
sent for him. Ax. iii. 1, 4.

616 In "09 Clauses that differ in form from simple sen-

tences,

a. A subjunctive (with av^ which is sometimes

omitted in poetry, rarely in prose) describes a sup-
posed or assumed case, which may or may not be real.
The time is future, or present in the generalized sense
(i. e., applying to present, past, and future alike).
The subjunctive is especially common when the ante-
cedent is indefinite
256 COMPLEX SENTENCES

'O avrjp TToWov dfto? <^iXos w av <^tXo9 fj

the man is
a valuable friend to any one to whom he is a friend
(generalized present). An. i. 3, 12. rw av^pi ov kv
eXrjcrOe ireiao p.ai I will obey the man lohom you
choose (in tlie future). An. i. 8, 15. w fxaKoipLOL Brjra
ot av vfjLMv iir l8 (OCT L tyjv TracTCDv rj^Lanqp yjixepav O
blessedj therefore, whoever among you shall behold that
sweetest day of all ! n. n. 4, 17.

TtJoi/ TrrjfiovCjv fxaXicTTa Xvttovct at (fiavCxr avOaiperoL tllOSe

griefs give most pain that are seen to he self-clioseyi. S. ot. 1231.

SeSoLKa jxr} ovk e)((o LKavovs ots 8w^ I fear I sJiall not have enough
people to ivhom to give. An. i. 7, 7.

An optative (without av) describes an assumed

b.

case, but as more remote in thought from the speaker

e. g., as the thought of another person, or as part of a

past or imaginary or improbable situation. The time

is future, or present in the generalized sense, with ref-

erence to the time of the main verb. The optative is

es23ecially common after a past tense, and when the

antecedent is indefinite, or the assumed situation is
thought of as having occurred repeatedly
^KirriyyeWov 01 Trpecr^et? ec^' of 9 ot AaAceSat/xoi^tot
TToiolvTo rrjv elprjvrjv the envoys reported on what
terms the Spartans offered to make the peace, h. n. 2, 22.
TrpoTepov OVK e^cov 7Tp6(j)acnv i(j) 7) 9 rov f^iov \6yov
SoLTjv, vvv\ eiLXrj(f)a whereas before I had no pretext

^ others explain this differently. But cp. Goodwin, Moods and Tenses,
588-540. Both in relative clauses and in et clauses with the subjunctive iiv

is omitted regularly in Homer, often in Attic poets, and certainly sometimes

in Attic prose.' In this example tv would have been natural; the omis-
sion does not change the meaning. Cp. also 621 a.
 "Os AND "OcTTis CLAUSES 257

on which to give an account of my life, now I have

got one, l. 24, i.

'OKvoLr)p av et? ra TrXota i^^aiveiv a rjfuv Ki)po9

8 17^ I should hesitate to go aboard any boats given
by Cyrus (supposing him to give any). An. i. 3, 17.

dXX' ov TToXt? cTTT] (reue^ rovSe )(pr) Kkveiv but ivhom-

soever the state appoints, him we should obey. s. an. 666.

'Aei 77/009 M eiT) €pyo), tovto eirpaTTev always, at

whatsoever task he was, that he strictly pursued, h. iv.

8, 22.

617 In place of a subjunctive or optative in o? clauses one could

in any instance use the indicative. This merely left unex-
pressed (except by the context, which is usually enough, as in
English) the suggestion conveyed by the other modes :

''A /at) otSa, ouSc oioynat etSeVat ivliat I do 710 f kfioto, neither
do I think I know, Ap. 21 d. (Here fjcrj shows that the ex-
pression is general ivhatevei\ at any time, I do not knoiv.)
OvK hi €7x°^ ^ '''^ dAe^erat nov is there any
cfipovTcSo-s

iveapon of thought ivhereivith to defend {ivherewith one shall

defend). S. ot. 170.

Hapov fioL firj Oaveiv virep ai$€v, aX\* avSpa a-)(€Lv ©ecro-aXoov ov
rjOeXov though it was i7i my poicer not to die for you, hut to
get as hushand lohom I would of the Thessalians. E. al. 285.
(Alkestis had no one man in mind the expression ; is general.)

618 "Ocrrt? Clauses take all the forms of "O? Clauses (615,
616), and the modes have the same force. But though
the antecedent is usually indefinite, the indicative (617)

is more frequent than in "O? Clauses :

a. Subjunctive: aTrd? 8e rpd^v^ ocrrt? ap viov

K parrj and every one is harsh thafs nexo in power.
A. PB. 35. (Tvv viiiv 6 T L av Ser) 7r€tcro/xat with you I
will suffer whatever we must, An. i. 3, 5.

17
 258 COMPLEX SENTENCES

Without av : KoKov rot yAwo-cr* oria Trtcrr^ '^^PV H is a fin

tiling^ whoever has a trusty tongue. E. it. 1064.

b. Optative: ovcniv ql% -^peir) ap^eiv Traprjy-

yeWov they gave orders what men should hold office.

L. 12, 44. ala^pov vixlv KoX Tjvrivovv [81^171^] aTroknreiv

TjvT IV a Tt9 /3 ovXoLTO TTapoL TovTcov Xajx^dveiv it is

shameful for you that any (^penalty^ ivhatever should

he lacking which any one might rvish to exact from these
men. l. 12, 84. (Here the optative hightens to the
utmost the inclusiveness of the expression the most —
unlikely wish could not go too far.)
c. Indicative where subjunctive or optative would have
been appropriate
"Oo-Tts tpjv iTTLOvjxeL^ TTCipddOoi vIkolv wlioever is eager to
him try to conquer. An. hi. 2, 39. -jrapia-xov
live, let ifiavrov 6

TL povXea-Oe ^rjo-Oai I offered myself for you to treat in

whatever way you ivill. L. 7, 40.

619 "Oo-rt? with an indicative often suggests cause, purpose, or

result, by treating a definite antecedent as indefinite in order
to characterize it (generally of persons) :

Tt TOV 6€o2<S t^KTTOV OV (TTUyetS OeOV, O (T T t S TO (TOV OrjVTOLCTL

7rpov8(jDK€v yepas why dost thou not hate this god, to gods most
hateful, one who betrayed thy prize to men? A. pb. 38.
UpecrlSeLdv Trifnreiv ^ris ravT ipel to send an efuMssy to

say this. D. l, 2.

Tl<s ovTOi jxacveTai oo-rts ov ^ovXerat (tol (ftlXos cTvai who IS

so mad as not to icish to le your friend? An. ii. 5, 12.

OTHER RELATIVE CLAUSES

620 Like "O? and "Ocrri? Clauses, in construction and in
the use of modes, are Clauses introduced by the other
Relative Pronouns, o, o(jo<i.^ 0X0% y]KiKo% orrocrosj oirolos,
 OTHER RELATIVE CLAUSES 259

oTTT^XtKo?, oTTorepo^ (227), or by the Kelative Adverbs

ovj oOev, ol, f),
oTTou, OTToOevj oTTOLy oTTTj, OY hj €p6a, evOev^

wlien these are relative (236) :

AeOpd ixoL (^(x)vei ^Xeircov ocr av a i p ojt cj look

this tvay and answer wJiatever I ash you. s. ot. 1122.

avv vfjuv fxev av ot/xat eivai rt/xto? ottov av o) tvitll

you I thinh I sJiould he in honor wherever I am.

An. I. 3, 6.

'O a o)v \p av o L fji i Travroiv rcovS* ael p.erei^eTiqv all

that I touched^ this they ahoays both shared, s. ot. i4G4.

OTTOV fxev aTpaTTjyo^ crajg etT/, rov (TTparriyov irape-

KokovVy OTToOev he oi^oiro, rov virocTTpdnqyov
ivlierever a general was safe, they invited the general,
and from tvhatever division he was gone, the second in
command. An. m. 1, 32.

'Ev T-fl Kvpov o-p-^rj cyeVero dSctos iropevecrOai OTry rii iqSeX^v
in Cyrus's iwovince it Iccame possible to travel fearlessly wher-
ever one ivislied. An. i. 9, 13. Kpvi{/(D t6S^ ^yx°'* ^y^o. jxt^ rt?

oif/eraL I ivill hide this sivord ivhere none shall see it. S. ai. 659.

a. "Oo-o? and olo^ are often exclamatory, with no antecedent

expressed ; the clause then has the form of a simple sentence.
rjXiKos and other relatives are sometimes so used :

"Oo-os Trap' vfuv 6 <f>06vo9 ^vXaaa-^rai hoiv great the envy

that is stored tvith you I S. ot. 382. olov p! aKova-avr dpruos
€^€L \f/v^<s irXavrjiia what icandeving of soul, at hearing this
just noiv, possesses me ! S. ot. 726.

621 The general relatives, oo-rts, ottoo-os, etc. (227), and ottov, o-rroOev,

etc. (236), are also indirect interrogatives, used in quoted

questions. The direct interrogatives (227, 236) are also used
in indirect questions.
Such clauses have the form of a simple sentence but ;

when they depend on a historical tense (246), an indicative or

 260 COMPLEX SENTENCES

subjunctive of the direct form may be changed to the opta-

tive.
"O Tt vynets TrcTTov^are ovk oTSa Jiotv you have heen affected

{ivliat you have experienced) I do not knoiv. Ap. 17 a. otto tots

Aoyots €7reto-e JLvpov aXXrj yiypaiTTai hy ichat arguments he con-
vinced Cyrus has heen written elsewhere. An. ii. 6, 4. ovk l^^
(T6<f>L(r/jL OTO) (XTraAXaycu I have no device whereby I shall escape.
A. PB. 487. (Direct : rtVt a-Oi^tV/Aart aTraAAayoj; 471.)
"O/xoLOL rj(rav Oavfid^ova-LV ottol ttotc t p eif/ov rat ol "EAAt/vcs
KOL T t vw ex o t e v they ivere like people who wondered tchither
€v

the Greeks would turn and what they had in mind. An.
III. 5, 13.

a. By omission of the antecedent, o? and the other simple

relatives become sometimes in effect indirect interrogatives :

Ei^€ iLTjirore yoLrj<s os et mayst thou never learn who thou

art. S. OT. 1068.

Perhaps SeSoLKa fxrj OVK e^w t/cavou? ots 8co (An. i. 7, 7) also
belongs here, because fxy ovk e^w o tl 8co, a quoted dubitative
subjunctive (471), stands just before, in the same sentence.
Cp. 615 a, foot-note.

"On, AiOTi, AND Ow6Ka CLAUSES

622 "Ort, the neuter of becomes a subordinating octtls,

conjunction (that) after many words of thinking,

saying, and the like it introduces quoted Avords or ;

thoughts, those of another or of the speaker, as an

object, subject, or appositive clause

^^vvoiqaoLTO) on
TravTa^ov ravra y lyv et ai let liinn
happens everywhere, ii. n. 8, 24. tovto
reflect that this

ytyvaxTKCDV, on 77 8' ecrrlv rj crcot^ovcTa recognizing

thiSj that it is she (the state) that saves us. s. an. iss.

eXeyov on Kvpo? reOvr) Kev they said that Cyrus

was dead. An. h. 1, 3.
 On, AioVi, AXD OiJv€Ka CLAUSES 261

a. "Otl also introduces subject and appositive clauses of

the same kind after S^Xov ia-n it is plain, etKos eo-rt it is
probable, and the like ; these clauses are treated as quoted
thoughts
ArjXov OTt Trava-ofxai 6 ye aKOJV ttolQ) it is plain that I shall
stop doing what I do unintentiotially. Ap. 26 a. aAXw? yvwa--
Tov OTt dXrjOrj Acyw on other grounds it may he perceived that
I tell the truth. H. ii. 3, 44.

has also the force of in that and because in these

b. "Otl ;

senses it may
introduce any form of the indicative sentence
or of the hypothetical optative (479)
To, iilv oAAa
^Kov(ra<s- or l Bk koL i/xk o € t eiTrttv tovto,
6pOC)<s t

7rapriKov(ra<s you heard rightly ; but in that you suppose

the rest
I too said this, you heard ivrongly. Pr. 330 e. ala-xvvofxevo'i
OTL (TvvoiSa e/xavTw iij/€vaix€vo<s avTov ashamed bccause I am
conscious of having deceived him. An. i. 3, 10. Oavfjid^ere fjurj

OTL xaAcTTw? (fiipu) do not be surprised that I feel badly. An. i.

3, 3. TL TTOT ovv Tii)v ijjiOL TTeTTpdy/xiviov ov)(i /xe/AVT/rat ; otl tcov

dSLK-tjixoLTOiv av i/jLefiv-qTo rcov avTov ivhy, pray, has he 7iot men-

tioned my acts? Because he ivould have mentioned his own
wrong-doings. D. 18, 79.

c. A OTt clause often precedes its leading clause :

"OTt dStKcto-^at vop^L^eL vc{>' rj/xwv oTSa that he thinks him-

self wronged by us I am sure. An. i. 3, 10.

623 A quotation introduced by oTt may retain its original form, as

a simple, compound, or complex sentence (direct quotation) ;

OTt is then merely a mark of quotation, not to be translated :

'O? d7ro(f>avC)V tw )(py](rfJi<Z otl " ovTOcri ifJiov aocfxjjTcpo^ Icttl, av

8' Ipx e<j>Y)(TOa" thinking that I should shotv to the oracle, " This
man here is wiser than I, but you said 1 2uas.^' Ap. 21 c.

624 a. An Indirect Quotation with otl usually retains tlie

tense and mode of the direct form

^avepo)<; elirev otl tj fiep 7t6\l<; cr(f)cov reret^^icr-
rat Tjhr] he said openly that their city was already
 262 COMPLEX SENTENCES

walled. T. I. 91. TOVTO Ka\a)<; r^TTiaravTO, on aXXw?

ixev ovx ^^^^ ^^ eaovTai TTepiyeveaOai tJiey Tcnew this
well^ that otherwise tliey would he unable to get the
iippe7' hand, l. 12, 45.

b. But after a historical tense an optative may

stand in tlie indirect form for an indicative or sub-
junctive of tlie direct form
Ki}po9 e\eyev on rj 6809 ecroiro 7rpo9 ^aaikea
Cyrus said that their marcJi would he (direct, earai)
against the Icing. An. i. 4, 11. eXeyov on Kupo? ^xev

r eOvr) Kev 'Aptato? §e 7re(j)€vya)<; eliq koI \eyoi on

TavTTjv fiev Trjv rjixepdv it € p l fxev o'iev avTOv<;^ rfj 8e
dWr) oLTTiivai c^atT^ they said that Cyrus was dead
(direct, ridv^K^^ and that Ariaios had fled (Trec^evyw?
eVrt, 7re(^€vye), and said (Xeyei or eXeye) that during
this day he would wait for them (the messenger said
TrepLfjLeveLj Ariaios said irepip^evco), and that he decla/red
{€(j)r)) that on the next day he ivoidd depart. An. h. 1, 3.
Note that a pres. opt. may represent the imperfect indie.
but the change to the optative is never made when it could
cause ambiguity.
c. Sometimes a present or perfect indicative of the direct
form is changed to an imperfect or pluperfect in the indirect,
as is usual in English :

'El/ TToXXrl aTTopta -^(rav ol "EAXryve?, ivvoovjxevoi fxkv or l Ittl rats

jSacrtAcws 6vpaL<s y crav , TrpovScSwKetrav 8e avrovs koI ol ^dp/Sa-

poi the Greehs ivere in great were

difficulty^ refiecting that they
at the hinges gates (direct, rah OvpaL<; eo-yaeV), and that theIttI

barbarians also had abandoned them {r]ixa<s Tr/ooSeSw/cao-i). An.

III. 1, 3.

625 By the omission of verbs arise expressions like SrjXov Stl evi-

dently, oTS' oTt / am sure, surely, ovx ^'^^

i^^^ ^^'^ ^P^ ^'^0 ^^^
 CLAUSES WITH "Ore, 'EircC, ETC. 263

merely^ jxr] on (for fxrj et7ro>, €L7rr}S, V7roXdl3rj'S ort) TlOt to Say^ TlOt
only.

626 AioTt (for 8ta ort) wherefore^ because^ that., is used like on, often
in the sense of because., sometimes in the sense of that. ovv€Ka
(for ov eveKtt) tvherefore, that, is used like on in poetic style :

*ETvy;(ave €<^* dixd^rjq Tropcvo/xcvos Stori ir ir pioro it hap-

pened that he tvas riding in a wagon^ because he was ivounded.
An. II. 2, 14.

OvTos 8c fxoL <j>iXo<i ovv€K 'ArpctSd? (TTvyel this man is my

friend because he hates the Atreidai. S. ph. 586. la-di tovto
irpoiTov ovv€Ka "EAAt^vc? ia-fxev Jcnow this first, that we are
Greeks. S. ph. 232.

CLAUSES WITH "Ot€, 'Ottotc, 'Eirei, 'HviKa, 'OiniviKa

627 ''Ore wMlej when, and 'Oirore wlienever (236), intro-

duce temporal clauses, the time of which is commonly
the same as that of the leading verb. When av with
the subjunctive follows, av is joined to the conjunc-
tion ; oT^ av becomes orav, oirore av becomes birorav.

"Ore and 'OTrore, like iclien, since, while^ often take

a causal meaning ; rarely they take a concessive mean-
ing, altliougli.
"Ore and ^Oirore Clauses are like "O? and "Ocrrt?
Clauses. With the subjunctive they are always tem-
poral :

''Ore TavTa tjv, (j\ehov fiecrau -qaav vvKje^ it was

about midniglit ivhen this was tahing place. An. m. i, 34.

ivTavOa 'Bep^r]^;^ ore eK T7J<; 'EXXaSo? aTre^wpei,

Xeyerai OLKO^ofJirjcraL Tavra ra ySacrtXeia there Xevxes

1 Lat. cum has like changes of meaning ; but the Greek use of modes
must not be confused with the Latin.
 264 COMPLEX SENTENCES

is said to have huilt tliis palace when he was returning

fronn Greece. 2, (Here the inf. oiKohojjirjo-aL,
An. i. 9.

representing an aor. indie, is tlie leading verb for the

ore clause which fixes its time.) ot^ ovv irapaivova
ovSev €9 7T\iov TTOLCOy 77/309 CTC LKeTi^ dcfilyfJiaL since
then I accomplish nanght hy advising (liim), to thee

I have come, a suppliant. S. ox. 918. ^aXcTra ra irap-

ovTa, OTTO re avhpcov (TTpaTrjycjv tolovtwv aTepo-
[led a the present situation is hard, since tve are hereft
of such commanders. Ax\. m. 2, 2.

'Orav <T7T€v8r] rt? aurdg, x^ ^^^^ avvaTTTeTai

whenever one shows zeal himself God also
j aids. a. p.

744. orav hrj (xr) crOivoj TreTravaofiai I will stop

when in truth I have no more strength, s. an. 91.
''Ore e^co rov heivov y iv oivt o^ iroWol avTov airi-
XeiTTov whenever they got out of danger, many would

leave him. An. n. 6, 12. a Ik^vo^ iOrjpevev oltto Ittttov

OTTore yvfJivdcrai /3 ovXolt o eavrov re Kai tovs tV-

TTov^ tvhich he used to hunt on horsehach, whenever he
wished to exercise both himself and his horses. An. i. 2, 7.

628 Evre and cvt av in poetry have the same meaning and use as
ore and orav :

Etire y e^ aiXTrriav AtaS fieTeyv m(t6 t] Ovfiov nOlV that AiaS,

beyond our hope, has repented of his tvrath. S. ai. 715. evrc
TTOVTOS iv ixc(Tr]ixj3pLva2<s KOLTai^ oLKvixiov vr)vefJiOL<s evSoL Trecrwv

* The opt. in subordinate clauses of repeated past action, the use of

the impf. and aor. indie, with &v in principal clauses for occasional past
action (361 a, 367 a), and our similar use of would, as in translating the
above sentence, all seem to proceed from the same mental tendency.

Instead of making the statement in the form of a fact, it is made in the

form of a supposed case; the context shows that the case assumed is
understood as a typical one, such as occurred repeatedly.
 CLAUSES WITH "Ore, 'Eircf, ETC. 265

whenever the sea fell waveless in its calm 7nidday couch and
slept. A. A. 570.

629 when^ after tliat^ after introduces temporal clauses,

'ETTct ^

the time of whicli is earlier than that of the leading

clause. When
av with the subjunctive follows, av
unites with eVet and forms iiTrjv or eTrdv.
'Ettci also takes a causal, rarely a concessive, mean-
ing since^ whiles whereas, rarely although.

*E7r€t Clauses are like "O? and ''Ore Clauses. With

the subjunctive they are always temporal.
'ETTctST^ (with av, eVetSai^) is a strengthened form
of eVet. eVetSaz/ is more frequent than iirriv or

'Ettci er€XeuTT7cre Act/aeto?, Ticr(Ta(j)€pj/r]<; Sta-

^dXXei Kvpop after Dareios died, lissaphernes slan-
dered Cyrus. An. I. 1, 3. cTret u/xeZ? e^ot ovk iOi-
Xere TreiOeaO ai, iyco avv vfjilv expofxai since you are
imivilling to obey me, I ^oill folloio you. An. i. 3, 6.

€ 77 e 1 8 17 Ki}y909 i KaXety Xa^cov vfjid<; iTropevofJLrjv when

Cyrus called, I tooh you and went. An. i. 3, 4. lirel
Tovro iyivero koX tov^ veKpoiJ<; vttoctttop^ov^ dire-
8 lB oa av, TTpocriovTe'^ dXXyjXov^; ttoXXoI SieXeyovro
after this was over and they loere giving hach the dead
under a truce, many approached and talked ivith each
other, n. n. 4, 19.

'O 8' viricr^eTo dvhpX eKdara) Sco(T€lv Trivre dypvpiov

ixvd<; ^a^vXoiva rJKOjai and he promised
iwrjv el<;

that he would give each man five minae in money

after they should get to Babylon (the mode of the
direct form, lirriv y^Kcofiev, retained), an. 1.4, 13. eirei-
 266 COMPLEX SENTENCES

Sap oLTravTCL dKovo-rjre Kptvare after you have lieard

all, then judge, d. 4, 14.

aav Koi TToXiv err el tt^tj a idt^oiev ol lttttol, ravTov

iiTOLovv the asses, whenever any one pursued them,
would run forward and then stand still ; and again
they would do the same whenever the horses dreiv near.
An. I. 5, 2. iireiSy] dv oiy^d (.it), elafjiJiev irapd rov
^ (OKparr) as soon as it (the prison) was opened, ive
used to go in where Sohmtes was. Ph. so d.

a. 'E-TTct clauses may, like os clauses (612 a), be so loosely

joined to the preceding sentence as to be in fact independent
*E7r€t /cat TovTO ye //-ot SoKet KaXov etvat altJlOUgll this toO
seems to me to he a fine thing. A p. 19 e.

630 ivhen and 'OTrrjvLKa whenever are

'Hi/tKa like ore and ottotc in

meaning and use, but they generally define the time more
precisely—;/t^5^ tvhen, at the very time luhen ; they are much
less frequent than ore and ottoVc :

*Hi/tKa SuXt] iy tyv €t o, icfjdvr) KovLoprbs wcnrep v€<l>iXrj XevKrj

just as evening was coming on^ there apj^eared a rising of dust

like a luhiie cloud. Ax. i, 8, 8. i-mx^Lpei yvLKa av rjjxd^ jxr]

SwaifjieOa Ikcl(T€. dc^tKeV^at he mahcs attempts just ivhen ive

should he unahle to get there. D. 4, 31.

'E^ap^w ph/ ovv iyoi rjv lk av KaLpb<s rj Tratava I tvill mgself,

then.) paean when the right moment comes. II. ii. 4, 17.
lead in a
EtpTTC 8' aXkoT aXkaya. tot av etAvo/zevo?, av lk* i^avecrj BaKc-
6vp,o<; ard then he would drag himself this wag and that (after

food), whenever the devouring anguish ahated. S. pn. 705.

CLAUSES WITH "E(OS, "EcTTC, Me'xpl, "Axpl

631 "Ew? ivhile, so long as, until, likewise "Ecr-re, Mex/at ov,
lAiyjpi,"" K^pi {pv), until, so long as, introduce Relative
Clauses of time. The indicative states a fact, present
 CLAUSES WITH "Ews, "Eo-re, M^xpi, "Axpi 267

or past ; tlie subjunctive (with avj sometimes with-

out) and the optative (without av) have the same
force as in os clauses (615 a, b).

In the sense of loliile^ so long as, they naturally

take one of the tenses of continuance (present, imper-
fect, perfect) ; in the sense of U7itil they generally
take the aorist
'Eoj? fxiv o fxev avrov, (jKeTrriov [xol So/ccl onco^;, ktX,

ivliile we remain here^ it seems to me we must consider

llOW^ etc. Ax. I. 3, 11. € w 9 y^v irl fJLOLTO, ttlcttov eav-
Tov irapei^ev SO long as he was honored^ he shoioed
himself faitlif id. L. 12, G6.

Upoo'iJLeLvavTe<; € w 9 tov<; v€Kpov<s dv e lXopt o ol

7rpoo-if]KopTe<; waiting vntil their hinsmen had tahen iip
the dead. H. h. 4, 7. raGra iiToiovv pii^pi aK6T0<;
iyivero this they hept doing till darhiess came on.
An. IV. 2, 4.

''Ea)9 8' av ovv i k fjid9r)<;, e^ iXniSa but keep

hope at any rate until you learn the whole, s. ot. 835.

6 w 9 dv cr (p (^rjT aL to o'/<:a(^o9, rore ^pir) Kau vavriqv

KoX Kv^epvTjTiqv Trpo6vp.ov^ elvai while the hoat is safe^
then ought both sailor and pilot to he zealous. D. 9, 69.

pi 4^ pi dv 7] KO)y al aTTovSal p^evovroiv let the truce con-

tinue till I return. Ax. n. 3, 24. eVtcrx€9 e9 r' dv koI

rd XoLird it pocr pdO r)<? wait till thou hast also learned
the rest. a. pb. 723.

^ESofei^ ovv irpoiivai eco 9 Ki^pw av p, pei^ eiav

they decided to go o?i, until they should join Cyrus.
An. II. 1, 2. TTepiepeve pixp^ eXOoi he tvaited for
him to come {till lie should come). H. i. 3, 11.
 268 COMPLEX SENTENCES

a. A ews clause has the indicative also when the action is

known to be impossible, because dependent on a clause that

implies unreality :

vavTOy rj(rxvx^o.v av Tjyov I most of

sJiould Tiave icaited^ until
the several speakers had set forth their view, and should have
kept still D. 4, 1.

b. Some of the above clauses with cw?, etc., and the sub-
junctive or optative imply both purpose and condition, while
at the same time they are primarily temporal.

*i2s CLAUSES

632 'Os as, ho2V, and ws thus, so, are adverbs of manner from os

(339) they differ only in accent, ws corresponding to the

;

older demonstrative form of o<s, and w? to the relative form ;

sometimes ws accented (18, 21 c).

itself is
The uses of ws as a subordinating conjunction fall under
two classes :

A. Corresponding to those of o? and other relative pro-

nouns,
B. Showing farther developments in special directions.

633 A. 'n? as, hoiu, i7i luhich way, corresponds closely to o? in

meaning, and introduces clauses like os clauses most of them ;

are like simple sentences (615), but some have the subjunc-
tive and optative in the manner described in 616 a and b.

a. As purely relative, in comparisons, often in the strength-

ened form wo-TTcp. Though a conjunction, w? retains the force
of an adverb in its own clause :

'EKcXevcre rov<5 "EXXryva?, ws vofio^i avrot? et? fxaxw^ ovto) raxOrj-

vdL KOL arTrjvat he directed the Greeks, as was their custom for
hattle, so to arrange themselves and take position. An. i. 2, 15.
OaTTov rj 0)9 av t^ero more quickly than {as) one would have

thought. An. i. 5, 8. ws o raSc irop^v oXolto as may he that

wrought this perish. S. e. 126.
 •fis CLAUSES 269

Often the antecedent is a sentence or phrase w s />t€v rots :

iSoKovv, <f)L\oTiixr}04vT€9, OTL kt\. beinff jealoiis, as they

ttXclo-tols

appeared to the majority^ because^ etc. An. i. 4, 7. So w? cAe-

7€To «s ?^a5 said, ws d/covw a^ / hear, and many like expres-
sions.

b. As indirect interrogative :

'E^TJyyetAe ttjv ws iyevero he reported the

Kpiariv 'OpoVrd,
trial of Orontes, how it ivas conducted. Ax. 6, 5. a/covo-ov i.

ws €/3(u /^ear how I shall tell it. S. ot. 547. olcrG' a>s ttoltjo-ov;
do you know how you should do ? (literally, do you knoiv how
do?) S. OT. 543.

In this use also ws retains its force as adverb.

c. Temporal
*0 8' ws aTTrjXOe fSovXevcrai hut he, as he ivent away, con-
sidered. An I. 1, 4. (I)S et8e KAeapxoi/ SteAavVovra, t?y(rt t^
d^tVry ivhen he saw Klearchos riding through, he threio his ax
at him. An. i. 5, 12.

d. Causal
(Tov 7rapafji€LvaL rffuv, w? eyw ov8' av evos ^8Zov ukov-
A€o/u,ttt

o-at/At/ ^e^ ^0?^ ^0 ^^rt/y with us, as there is not one ichom I
would more gladly hear. Pr. 335 d.
e. Such clauses, like those introduced byos and eVet (629 a),
are often so loosely connected with the main verb as to be
really independent sentences.

f. Some common phrases have arisen from the omission of

a verb. Thus clauses like w 5 fidXio-Ta iSvvaro as he ivas most
able (An. i. 1, 6), and cb? av hvvoifxat hi eAa^to-Tcov in as brief
terms as I can (L. 12. 3), are abbreviated to ws and ws
/xdXta-ra

Si iXaxt(TT(j)v. In this Avay (1)9 becomes merely a means of

strengthening a superlative : w? /3iXTL(rTo<; as good as possible.

634 B. Two special uses of w? have been developed from the rela-
tive meaning (633 a). These are (1) the declarative, (2) the
final, denoting purpose.
 270 COMPLEX SENTENCES

635 Clauses witli 'H? declarative^ meaning liow^ that, are

like Clauses with "On meaning that (622) :

OvTTore ipel ov8el<; o) 9 iyo) ttjv tcjv jSapjBdpcov (j)L\Ldp

el\6 fjLTjv no one shall ever say that I chose the friend-
ship of the harharians. An. i. 3, 5. o) s §e tovto ovtoj<;

€X € t, ireipdcroixaL koX vpuv eTTiSetfat and that this is so,

I will try to show you also, Ap. 24 c.

636 Clauses with '^.s final, denoting purpose, meaning that,

in order that, are frequent in poetry, but rare in prose,

except in Xenophon. With w? in this sense

a. A subjunctive (often with dv) denotes a pur-

. pose still to be accomplished

Act ^€019 hovvai hiKrjv, a)9 av S ihax^jj he must

pay the penalty to the gods, that he may he taught (in a
way in which he may), a. pb. lo. aj^S'avfjidOrj^;
on ovS* av ifxeis St/catco? e/xot aTncrTOLrjTe, avrdKovcrov
hut that you may learn thai you also would not justly
distrust me, hear in turn. An. h. 5, 16.

b. An optative (without dv) denotes a purpose of

the same kind, but more remote from the speaker
e. g., as that of another person, or of a past situation,
or as less likely to be accomplished. The optative is

common after a past tense :

'iKopirjv TO Tlv0LKov fxavreiov, w? (judO o t fx* otco

TpoTTO) TTaTpl St/cctg dpoifjLiQv I came to the Pythian

oracle, that I might learn in what ivay I should gain
justice for my father, s. e. 33. irpoa-Kakwv tov<; ^lKovs
icnrovSaLoXoyeLTo w? 87)\o Crj ovs rl/xa he used to call
 "Ottws clauses 271

Ms friends and talk seriously with ihem^ so as to sJioiv

whom he honored, an. 28. i. 9,

c. A past tense of the indicative (imperfect, aorist,

pluperfect) marks the purpose as unattainable, part
of an imaginary, unreal situation expressed or implied
in the leading clause :

Et yap [L V7T0 yrjv jJKev, &> ? /Ai^Ve ^eo? iirjre rt? dWos
TO tcrS' iireyTjOeL oh that he had sent me under the
earthy that neither god nor any other creature might he
rejoicing at this. a. pb. 165. ri fx ov Xa/Bcbv eKreuva^;,
ojs eSet^a avO pciyiroiaiv lohy did
fiijiTOTe ifxavTOP
you not take and day me, that I might never have
shown myself to men. s. ot. 1392.

d.For 0)9 with a participle see 693 c.

For 0)9 with an infinitive see 566.

637 "Qa-n-ep is a strengthened o)9, used only in a relative and com-
parative sense even as, just as. "Qa-n-ep clauses are therefore
like simple sentences
"fl or TT e p r7r7ro9 €iyev^9 ev tolctl 8€tvot9 Ovfjiov ovk dTrwAecrcv,
o)o-a^jTO)9 oTpvvus even as a horse of nolle dlood does
Sk (TV rjfias

not lose heart (465) in danger, so thou dost spur us on. S. e. 25.

"Oir(OS CLAUSES

638 "^Ottw? is the general relative and indirect interroga-

tive to 0)9 and 770)9. ''0770)9 Clauses are like '119 Clauses,
but some types are more frequent (and others less fre-

quent) with O770)9. The following are common.

a. With a future indicative, after expressions of
planning or effort, to denote the aim :

-
^KeTTTeov fjioi So/cei elvau o 77 o) 9 dcr<^aXecrraTa fi €

vov iJL€v it seems to me we must consider how we shall

272 COMPLEX SENTENCES

remain most safely. An. i. 3, il. ^ovkeverai o tt w 9

fiijirore eri ecrrac eVt rw dSeXc^w he considered how
he should never again he dependent on his brother.
An. I. 1, 4. OTTO)? /cat vy^^% ifxe iiraivecreTe e/xol

fxeXTJcreL it shall he m.y care that you too shall praise

me. An. I. 4, 16. aWo n rj rrepl ttoWov Troiet oircos w?
^eXTLaroL ol vearrepoi eaovrai; donH you think it

very important that the young shall he as good as pos-

sible ? Ap. 24 d.

b. Out of the preceding, by omission of the main verb, has

grown the use of oVw? and ottws /xtJ with a future indicative to
express a command or prohibition. A leading verb is no
longer thought of, and the ottws clause becomes a form of sim-
ple sentence

Ottws ovv ecrea-Oe avSpes ol^lol rrj'S iXevOepcds pTOVe yOUV-

selves men ivorthy of your freedom. An. i. 7, 3. ottws /x^

7roti}(reT€ o TroAAa/ct? v/xas ef3kai(/e see that you doTiH do wliat

has injured you often. D. 4, 20.

c. With a subjunctive, often with av., or an opta-

tive without av, expressing purpose ; in legal and
official style oVw? aV with a subjunctive is frequent

^Icr^t TTOLv TO Spcofjiepov, OTTO)^ av et8w9 tjiAv ay-

yeiXr)^ learn all that is going on, that you
cracfirj

may with knowledge bring a clear report to us, s. e. 40.

Set TreipacrOai o tt w 5 /caXw? vlKCJvre^ cr co^coixe9 a we
must try horo we may save ourselves by conquering
nobly. Ax. III. 2, 3.

ATreKpti/aTO on avrco pieXoi 7ra>? KaXa)<; €)(ol he

replied that he was taking care that it should be well.
An. I. 8, 13. \kclvo% pkv ^povTiC^eiv r^v ottcos ^X^^ V
 "fioTc CLAUSES 273

arparia avrco tol iiTLTTJ^eLa lie tvas comjpetent to provide

liow Ms army should have supplies. Ax. n. 6, 8.

d. After expressions of caution or fear a clause Avitli ottws

firj sometimes takes the place of a /xtJ clause (610, 611) :

AeSoiKtt OTTO) 9 i^r] rjfxlv dvdyKr] yevjyo-erat I fear that neces-

sity win come U2)0n us. D. 9, 75. <fivXdTTov ottws /z^ ets rovvav-
TLov e\6y^ take care that you do not run into the very opposite.
M. in. 6, 16. Slightly different is t^v Oehv 8' ottcos XdOu) SeSotKa
but I fear I shall not escape the goddess (literally, / fear the
goddess, hoiv I shall escape her). E. it. 905.

e. The common phrase ovk ta-nv ottws there is not hoiv is

translated variously according to the context
Ovk tcTTiv ottw? ovk eTnO-^o-eraL rjijuv it is impossible that
he will not attack us. An. ii. 4, 3. ovk la-riv o-n-ws a-v ravra
ov^i aTTOTreLpcjfJicvo'S rjfxwv iypdif/u) ttjv ypa<fir]v TavTrjv tt Ca7l not he
hut that you brought this indictmeut by way of making trial

of us. Ap. 27 e. OVK €cr^' ottoos oi//^et cri; SeO/a' eXBovTa /xe you
surely luill never see me come here. S. an. 329.

"12crT€ CLAUSES
639 "^(TT^ (ws or 0)5 and re) has three meanings and uses : .

a. And so, so that, with any finite mode. The mode has
the same force as in simple sentences ; in fact the wa-re clause
is often independent
"i^a-Tc ySaortXevs rrjv fxev Trpo? iavTov iTrtjSovXrjv ovk rfcrO dv €To
so tliat the king did not perceive the plot against himself. An. i.
1, 8. ioa-TC /xrjSlv Sl dXXo fxe r/yeto-^e ravryv Troietcr^at r^v diro-
Xoytdv SO do not suppose that I make this defense for any other
reason. L. 16, 8.

b. As, like w^ and wa-irep in comparisons, mostly without a

verh expressed
Tlavre?, wctc To^orat o-kottov, to^€V£T dvSpb^ roOSe yOU all
shoot at me, as archers at a mark. S. an. 1033.

c. So as to, so that, with an infinitive, see 566.

18
 274 COMPLEX SENTENCES

"Iva CLAUSES

640 "Iz/a has two meaDings and uses

(1) Relative, ivliere ; in poetry this older meaning
is still the prevailing one
(2) Final, denoting purpose, in order that, that ; in
prose this is the most frequent final conjunction.

641 Clauses with "l^'a relative are like "O? Clauses (615)
the verb is generally in the indicative ; Iva sometimes
becomes an indirect interrogative :

'E^* ayopaj Iva vfjuojv ttoWoI d kt] k6 dcr l in the

7narlcet-place, where many of you have heard me, Ap.

17 c. TwS' diravOpMiTCO Trdyco, Iv^ ovre (j)a)vrjv ovre tov

fjiop(j)r}p jSpcyrojv oi//ei to this lone hight^ where neither
voice nor form of any mortal shalt thou behold, a. tb. 21.

o/oa? Iv rJKeis; dost see where thou art come f s. ot.

687.

642 In Clauses with "ivafifial (cp. 636) :

a. A subjunctive (without dv) denotes a purpose

still to be accomplished :

iw avopi ov av eArjcrue TreLcrofxaL, uva €LOrjT€ otl

Kol dp^eaOai eTTicrra/xat I will ohey the man whom you
elect, that you may Icnow that I understand also how to
he ruled. An. i. 3, 15. a 'A^poKo/Jids KarcKavaev, Iva
ixrj Kvpo<; Sia^rj which (hoats^ AbroJcomas huriied,
that Cyrus might not cross. An. 4, I8. i.

b. An optative (without dv) denotes a purpose of

the same kind, but more remote from the speaker
e. g., that of another person, or of a past situation, or
 "Iva CLAUSES 275

a purpose less likely to be realized. The optative is

common after a past tense, and when subordinate to

another optative
Aa/3cbv L)/xa9 iiropevo^iqvj Iva oi(^e\oiriv avrov
dv6' S)v ev eiraOov vn Ik^lvov I took you and came, that
I might aid hhn in return for the kindness I had
received from him. An. 3, 4. MevcDv S17X09 rjv iiriOv-
i.

ix(x)v TLfJiacrOai Iva TrXeico Kephaiv 01 Menon was

plainly eager to he honored^ that he might make greater
gains. An. h. 6, 21. dvixbv yivoiTO X^^P^ irXrjpoJcraL 7T0T€j
Iv^ at MvKrji>aL yvolev 77} ay it some time he mine to

satisfy with deeds my longing, that Mykenai might

learn, etc. s. ph. 325.

c. A past tense of the indicative (imperfect, aorist,

pluperfect) marks the purpose as unattainable, part
of an imaginary, unreal situation, expressed or implied
in the leading clause :

Ou yap ^XPV^ ap^ovra^ oIk€lov^ elvaL, iv^ rfv q}^

a\r)6cos T179 TToXeo)? rj Suz^a/xt? ; ought there not to have

heen commanders of your own, that the forces might
really helong to the state ? d. 4, 27. ovk av layoix-^v,
Iv rj TV(^\6<; re /cat kKvmv /xT^SeV I should not have
refrained, that I might he hoth hlind and deaf
S. OT. 1389.

d. Kote that any clause of purpose, if its leading clause

implies that the case is already impossible, takes a past tense
of the indicative.
This is a form of attraction, the mode of the leading clause
determining the mode of the subordinate clause. In the same
way, any clause dependent on an optative is generally attracted
to the optative.
 276 COMPLEX SENTENCES

IIpiV CLAUSES

643 The comparative adverb Trptv earlier, before, is used often with
the infinitive (see 668). It also becomes a subordinating con-
junction it may then often be best rendered until.
;

644 In Clauses with IlptV

a. An indicative denotes a past fact

OvK levai YjOeXej irpiv 7) yvvrj avrov eireicre Kat
eXa/B e lie was not willing to go^ until his ivife
Trtcrrei?

persuaded him and he had received pledges. An. 2, 26. i.

S/xd^eWa? yap dptcTTT], tt p\v avrov elXe Alo^oXov

irXrJKTpov TTvpos Kepavviov for he was ivont to raise the
dead^ until the Zeus-hurled holt of thunderous fire de-
stroyed him. E. AL. 128.

b. A subjunctive (usually witli av) describes not a

real but a supposed or anticipated case ; the time is

future, or present in the generalized sense

Aetrat avrov (xr) npocrdev KaraXvaai irpiv av avrco
orvpL^ov\€.v(Trirai he ashs him not to come to terms
before consulting with him. An. i, i. lo. pJri areva^e
rrplv fjiddrj^; no more lament., hefore thou learnest.
S. p. 917. alcrxpov rjyovfxai irporepov TravaaaOai, rrplv
av iffxei^ irepX avrojv o n av /SovXrjcrde xjjrj (j) uarj <t 6e
I think it a shame to stop hefore you shall have voted
ivhat you loill about them. l. 22, 4.

c. An optative (without dv^ describes a supposed

case,but more remote in thought from the speaker
as the thought of another, or as part of a past or
an imaginary situation the optative is not frequent
;
 El CLAUSES 277

'TTTOcr^d/xej^o? aurot? (jlt] irpoaOev iravcraaOaL tt p\v

avTov^; KaraydyoL oiKahe prmnising therti that lie

would not stop till he should restore them to their

homes. An. I. 2, 2. ovTTOT eycxiy av, it plv tSot/x' op-
dov €7ro(;y iJLefji(j)oiJi€v(x)v av KaTa^airjv never woidd I^

before I see the word made good^ say yea when they do
hlame him. s. ot. 505.

d. An indicative irptv clause generally lias a negative lead-

ing clause ; subjunctive and optative irpiv clauses nearly always
do. When the leading clause is affirmative, TrptV generally
takes the infinitive ; in the meaning 'before^ when until can
not be substituted, it takes the infinitive even after a negative.

El CLAUSES
What is stated not as a fact but as a supposition, assumed in
order to base upon it another statement, is called a condition ;

any word or form of words that so states something is a condi-

tional expression. Common conditional expressions in English
are such as begin with t/, unless^ suppose^ in case^ 07i the chance
that, 2uhoever^ ivhenever^ etc. ; inversion of subject and predi-
cate may have the same meaning, as Were I Brutus, or Should
you ask 7ne} Several forms of conditional expression in Greek,
used for stating a supposed case, have been already noted (481,
616, 618, 620, 627, 629-631) but the fullest and most dis- ;

tinct form is the d clause. A conditional sentence consists

of a conditional clause or condition {protasis) and a principal
clause, the conclusion (apodosis).

^ Other frequent forms of condition are illustrated in

What matter, so I help him back to life. Tennyson, Lane, and El.
Not without she wills it. Tennyson, Lane, and El.
Man gets no other light,
Search he a thousand years, — M. Arnold, Emped.
Imperative and interrogative sentences, in both English and Greek,
sometimes have the same office. ..j:g^ ": -rr==^
\ B nA nf )^

OF THE
[
UNIVERSITY
OF
 278 COMPLEX SENTENCES

643 Et if introduces conditional clauses, stating a sup-

posed or assumed case. (For other meanings of the
€t clause see 654, 655.)

Et clauses may have the verb in (A) the indicative, (B) the
subjunctive, (C) the optative. The negative is /xtJ. The con-
clusion may be any form of simple sentence; but certain
forms of conclusion and condition are naturally more apt to
go together.

A. Et uritli the Indicative

647 El with the present indicative, also with the perfect,

imperfect, and aorist, presents the supposition simply,
without implying anything as to its reality or proba-
bility the tenses have the same force as in simple
;

sentences {Simple or Logical Condition, present or

past) :

EiTrep ye AdpeLOv icrrl Trat?, ovk a/xa^et ravr

iyo) \rj\\fo^ai if he is indeed a son of Dareios, I shall
not take this without a battle. An. i. 7, 9. Oav^idt^oiii

av el olcrOa I should he surprised if you Icnoiv.

Pr. 312 c. (j)y]crov<TL St] [xe cro^ov elvai, e I /cat fjiij el fxi
they will say of course that I am wise, although {if in
fact) I am not. The Kai hints, without quite assert-
ing, that the case is not merely assumed, but real.

Ap. 38 c.

Ov davfJiacrTOP S* el Tore ra? fiopLa^ i^ kottt ov

it is not surpynsing if at that time they cut out the
sacred olive-trees, l. 7, 7. et Kepiaiveiv i/3ovXov,
TOT av irXelcTTov e\a^e<; if you loished to make money,
you would in tluit case have got most. The et clause
here is a simple condition ; TOTe is a conditional ex-
 El CLAUSES 2Y9

pression that resumes an earlier clause and stands for

an unreal condition (649). L. 7, 20. e i ravr alado-
/>te^'09 iyoj S LeKcoXvcT a^ ravr'' icrrl TTpohoriqv elvaL tojv

<^i\o)v ; if I^ perceiving this, preve7ited it, is that being

a betrayer of one'' s friends ? h. n. 3, 46.

648 The future indicative in an Et Clause

a. form a simple future condition sometimes
Is in ;

it is equivalent to /xeXXw with an infinitive, denoting

present intention or expectation :

E I TovTov KaT axjjT] (l)Le'La6 €j SrjXoL icreaOe w? 6p-

yii^ofxevoL tol^; TreirpdyfjLevoL^ if you vote against this

man, it will be plain that you are angry at their deeds.

L. 12, 90. aavvera vvv ipovixev, e l cri y evcj) p avcj
we will talk nonsense now, if shall {thereby^ please I
you. E. lA. 654. el ovv 01 hoKovvTe<; hia^epeiv tolovtol
ea ovT ai, alcrxpov av etr) if tlien those loho are thought
superior are to be like that, it would be a shame.
Ap. 35 a.

b. It often suggests threat, warning, or earnest

appeal {Emotional Future Condition) :

Et V (f)r] (T 6 fJLeO a kol cttI ^aaiXei y evrj a 6 fxeO a,

TL olofjieOa TTeLcrea-B ai ; if loe yield and come into the
hing'^s power, what treatment do we expect ? Ax. m. 1, 17.

el TliJL(i)pT](reL<; UarpoKXco tov (^ovov koX ^KTOpa

OLTT KTeve2<;, avro? oLTroOavel if you shall avenge the
slaying of PatroMos and hill Hektor, you will your-
self die. A p. 28 c.

In such cases tlie indicative presents the supposition more

distinctly as a possible future fact ; if the consequences will
 280 COMPLEX SENTENCES

be serious, it gives a " minatory or monitory " tone to force one

to look at them in that way.

649 Et with tlie indicative imperfect and aorist, rarely tlie

pluperfect, is used to imply that the supposition is

past realization, opposed to a known fact ( Unreal

Past Condition).
The imperfect is used when the reality would be
expressed by the present or imperfect, the aorist
when the reality would be expressed by the aorist,
the pluperfect w^hen the reality would be expressed
by the perfect

<I>w9 et 1X7) el^o fxevj o/iotot toi<; tv(J)\ol<; av rjixev

if we did not have light (as we do) ive should he like

the hlind. M. iv. 3, 3. ovk av vrjcratv e/cparet, e I fxij tl

Kal vavTLKov €.l^e he would not have ruled over is-

lands if he had not had some naval force (therefore
j

he had, elxe vavriKov), T. i. 9.

E6 /xt) D/x€ts rj\0 ere iiropevoyieOa av inl ySacrtXed

if you had not come (but you did, T^X^ere), we should
now he marching against Mng. An. n. i, 4. e t rt?
the
cr€ rj per o^ tl av if some one had asked you
aireKptvcx) ;

(nobody did), what should you have answered? Pr.

311 b. € t ere Tv^Tj ir p ovtt e fjLxjj e Kal rj\LKid<; eirij^rj-
(T€Vy eXTTtSt y TjaOa /xeya9 if fortune had guided thee
on and hrought thee to manhood^ in hope at least tlwu
wast great, cia. 22G3.
El € Ke KTT) fjLTjv ovcTLaVy €77* dcTpd^r]^ av OJ^OVfXiqV

if I possessed property^ I should ride on a saddle,

L. 24, 11.
 El CLAUSES 281

B. 'Eav ivith the Suhjunctive

650 The subjunctive takes av (rarely omitted), wMcIl is

joined with et, forming idv (often contracted to r]v
or av).
The subjunctive puts the supposition simply, re-
ferring it either to future time, or to any or all time
(the generalizing present), whichever the context,
especially the leading clause, may indicate (^Simple
Future Condition, or General Condition).
*Hz/ ikkv fjL€va) fxevj cnrovSaC if we remain, a truce.
An. II. 1, 23. y^v TOVTO X ayS o) /x e ^', ou SvpTJcrovrai fxe-

veiv if we take tliis^ tliey will not he able to remain.

An. III. 4, 41. eai^ 8' aTTT^ to yaip^iv^ raW^ iyo) Kair-

vov (T/cta? ovK av TTpiai^iqv hut if joy he (jone^ tlie rest

I ivould not for a vapor'^s sJiadoiv huy. s. an. iito.

El Tt vv^ ^^^7 rovT in r^jiap ep^eTai if night

leaves aught this the ^ day assails, s. ot. 198.

a. For lav meaning on the chance that, see 662.

b. Greek also uses the present indicative (with d) in gen-
eral conditions, as English does (cp. 617).
c. Greek and Latin uses of the subjunctive in conditions
must not be confused. with the subjunctive corresponds
Idv
to si with the future or future perfect indicative
si with the ;

subjunctive corresponds to d with the optative (651) lav :

TOVTO TTOL-qa-Tjs si hoc fades or fecer is.

C. El 2vith the Optative

651 Et with the optative (without av) presents the sup-

position as more remote in thought (616 b)
(1) As a mere possibility, generally future, some-
times present or general {Possible Condition),
.282 COMPLEX SENTENCES

(2) As part of a past situation wliicli occurred

repeatedly {Past Repeated Condition),

(3) As the thought of another person or an ear-

lier time (^i^6>^^(i Condition) ; the future optative in
such a condition always represents a future indicative
of the original form :

OvK av Oavfjidl^oLfjiL el ol iroke^xioi rjfjuviiraKo-

\ov0 olev I sJiould not he siirpi'ised if the enemy
should folloiD us. An. hi. 2, 35. XvTTOVfievoLS 6;5(X')7pd9,

€ I fjioXoL, ^eVo? a guest annoys the sorrowing^ if he

come. E. AL. 540. KoX tovto ye /xot Sofcet Kokov elvai^

e I Tt9 ofo9 T e Ir) iraiheveiv avOpoyirov^ this too seems

to me a fine thing^ if one he really ahle to educate
people. Ap. 19 e.

Et St; TTore tto pevoLT o koL TrXeicrTot (xeWoiev

oxjjecrOaLj irpocrKaXoiv tov<; c^iXou? icnrovSaLoXoyelTo if
ever he was on march and many woidd see
the it^ he
would call his friends and talk seriously with them..
An. I. 9, 28. roiv ttoWojv etri? alcr o lt o, icriyd if
any of the popular party perceived it^ he said nothing.
D. 9, 61.

^YAl3ov\y]0r)craif 'EXevcrtz^a eftStwcracr^at, ojare elvai

(T(I)LG-L KaTa(f)vyrjv el Seijcreie they wished to make

Eleusis their own^ so as to have it as a refvge in case
of need. H. n. 4, 8. yvov<; 6 Kptrtd? OTi el eiT lt p exjjoi

TTJ ^ovXrj ?na\\fy)^it^ecr6aL irepl avrov Stac^eufotro Krit-

ias^ recognizing that, if he should allow the council to
decide ahout him hy a vote, he would escape (direct,
Ct eTTLTpexpO)). n. II. 3, 50.
 El CLAUSES 283

a. Earely d with the optative expresses an unreal condi-

tion, as in Homer.
652 'Eav with the subjunctive, and after a past tense el with the
optative, are sometimes to be translated on the chance that, in
the hope that, if perchance the future supposition of the la.v
;

or d clause is a motive for the action of the leading clause

OvKow arpefji I^€t9, r]v tl koI •^ophrj<i XajSy^ WOn't yOU keep
quiet then, on the chance of getting some sausage too ? Ar. r. 330.
Tre/xi/^avre? Trpicr/Seis, €t ttws tt etcr etav firj cr^wv Trept vewrept^eLv

sending envoys, in hopes they might {if haply they might)

firjSiv

induce them to make no innovations in regard to them. T. i. 58.

653 Etre . . . ctre and lav re . . . lav t€ luhether . . . or, introduce

alternative conditions, with indicative, subjunctive, or optative
IlavTco? Stjttov, lav re av Kal "Avvtos ov cfyrjre lav T€ <f)rjT€

it certainly is so, ichether you and Anytos say 7io or say yes.
Ap. 25 b.

654 After expressions of wonder, indignation, and some

other emotions, €t witli the indicative is used to de-
scribe, in the milder form of a supposition, the fact
that causes the emotion. In such clauses d may
sometimes be translated if, but oftener that :

©av/xa^oj 8' eycoye el /xT^Set? vfjiwi/ jjltJt iv Oi) fxel-

rat iirjT 6 pyC^erai but I am for ray xjart sur-

prised that no one of you hears it in mind or is angry,
D. 4, 43.

Other Uses of Et

655 After expressions of doubt or inquiry, et with the

indicative (rarely lav with the subjunctive) becomes
an indirect question. In such clauses d (or idv) may
sometimes be translated if but more often whether :

Et \jAv Stj St/cata ironjcroj ovk olSa tvhether T shall

he doing right I do not hiow. Ax. 3, 5. et ^v {jltto- i.
 284 COMPLEX SENTENCES

vTj (T ei<; ^vv e py dcTTj aKoirei see whether thou

kclI

wilt worh with me and share the deed. s. an. 41.

656 By omission of the verb some common phrases have arisen

a. Et /jtr; except^ d jxtj 8id except for
'ATToXeVat Trap€(TK€va^ovTO rrjv ttoAiv, et firj 8l avSpa<; ayaOov^
they 2vere preparing to destroy the state^ except for {had it not
been for) some good men. L. 12, 60.

b. "fio-Tre/a av d as, Uhe \ the av suggests a hypothetical in-

dicative or optative as a conclusion to an d clause :

Eu^vS rjcnrd^ero avrov axTTrep av el rrdXai cjiiXwv daTrd^oLTo he

greeted him at once, just as if one should greet an old frie^id.
C. I. 3, 2. (do-Tra^otTo might have been omitted.)
c. El Se ijnq otherivise also introduces a supposition contrary
to something that precedes —
often where fxri seems unneces-
sary, sometimes where we should expect Idv instead of ct
'A7rT7T€t rd xPVf^oLTa' ct Sc fit], TroXe/Jii^a-eLV t<j>r) avTOL<; he de-
manded the return of the property otherivise he said he would ;

make rear on them. H. 3, 3. /x^ TroLrja-ys Tama, el Sk yj,

i. jjl

aiTLav c^cts do not do this, else you tuill he blamed. An. vn. 1, 8.

INDIRECT DISCOURSE
657 Words or thoughts so quoted as to be made grammatically
subordinate in form to a verb or other expression meaning
say, thinh, hear, or the like, are indirect quotations ; a direct
quotation retains the original form.
The forms used in indirect discourse have been already
given in their proper places for convenience they are here
;

briefly summed up together.

658 Simple sentences and principal clauses (not interrogative) in

indirect quotation are put in the infinitive after certain verbs
—
(577-579) after <^?7/xt, oto/xai, and. vo/xt^w regularly in prose,
seldom after Aeyw and dirov, except in the sense of hid.
 INDIRECT DISCOURSE 285

659 After most other verbs such clauses are introduced by on or

ws (624, 635) ; the original tense is retained, the original
mode is retained always after primary tenses and often after
historical tenses. (But see 624 c.)

But after historical tenses an indicative or subjunctive

a.

may be changed to an optative, unless that would cause am-

biguity an indicative with av (461, 467, 469) is retained un-
;

changed, to avoid confusion with a hypothetical optative.

b. After one or more on or ws clauses, when the introduc-

tory verb of saying is no longer near, a succeeding principal
clause may be in the infinitive — as if the introductory verb
had been one that requires the infinitive.

660 After verbs of thinking, hearing, and the like, that take a
predicate participle agreeing with the object (586), the lead-
ing verb of a brief quotation may be changed to a predicate
participle. (See examples under 586.)

661 Direct questions, when made indirect, retain the original mode
and tense but after historical tenses they may change an
;

indicative or subjunctive to the optative, like on clauses

(659 a).

Xote especially that no indirect question has the subjunc-

tive unless the direct form has it (dubitative subjunctive, 471)
and that the optative is never required, even after a past
tense.

662 Subordinate clauses of indirect discourse retain the mode and

tense of the direct form always after a primary tense, often
after a historical tense. But after a historical tense they may
change an indicative or subjunctive to an optative, unless
that would cause ambiguity a past tense of the indicative in
;

an unreal condition (649), or in a clause that expresses a pur-

pose past attainment (636 c, 642 c), is retained unchanged, to
avoid confusion with other forms of conditional or final
clauses.
 286 COMPLEX SENTENCES

663 A long quotation carried through strictly in the indirect

form, as is so often done in Latin, would have seemed in

Greek monotonous and dull. The Greek preferred to vary it

by repeating ecfir), by inserting ecfirj xprjvai or iKeXeva-e before an
expression of will, and by shifting from indirect to direct
forms. English resembles Greek rather than Latin in this
respect.

664 Examples of Indirect Discourse.

'AyaTrycreLV fxe t<j>a<TK€v el to o-w/xa crwcrdi lie said I lUOUld
he satisfied if I should save my life (direct, ayairrja-u^ d o-wo-eis).

L. 12, 11.

'^Hkci/ ayyeXos X.iyo)v on XeXonrihs elrj %vivv€.(TL<i ra uKpa, €7ret

ycrOiTO TO Mevoivos aTpaTevfJia otl ^St) iv KlXiklo, rjv there Came a

messenger saying that Syennesis had left the hights after he
perceived that Merlon's force was already in Kilihia (direct,
XkXovKt, iireL rjaSeTO otl rjv. For rjv see 624 c). An. i. 2, 21.

'O Se aircKpivaTO otl olkovol A o k6 fidv, ixOpbv avSpa, iirl

T(p YiVcfipaTrj TTora/Aw etvat, a7re)(0VTa SwSeKa crTaO/JLOvs' Trpos tovtov

ovv ecfir) ^ovXecOaL iXOelv kolv /xkv fj

iKel, ttjv Slktjv e(fi7) XPV~
^€lv CTTt^etvat avrw, -^v Sk cfievyrj, y^fxel^ e/cet irpos Taxrra ^ovXeva-ojxeOa

he ansivered that lie had heard (d/couoo) that Abrohomas^ an ene-

my of his, was near the river Euphrates, twelve days' march
distant (this fact would have been reported to Cyrus in the
form *AI3poK6fjid<: 1(ttl) ; against him therefore he said he wished
(direct, ^ovAo/xat) to go ;and if he proved to he there (direct
form retained), he said he wished to punish him (direct, XPV^^) J

hut if he retreats, lue will there concert measures in regard to

this (direct quotation). An. i. 3, 20.
In An. I. 3, 14, kXia-OaL depends on ciTre in the sense of hade,
urged, representing a hortative subjunctive cAw/xe^a or an im-
perative IXecrOc. Similarly ayopdlea-OaL, (TV(TKevat,ecr6aL, atretv,
o-wTttTTco-^ai, TTifxij/aL. Meantime el jSovXcTaL remains in the
direct form ; ri Se ayopa rjv is a remark of Xenophon, not of the

soldier ; w? dTroTrXeotei/ represents ws airoTrXioifxev of the direct

iav StSo) and ctTrd^et are unchanged, as are (jiOdo-uio-L and ex^ficv.
 PARTICLES 287

PARTICLES
665 A class of words called Particles^ some of them conjunctions,
some adverbs, some both at once, are used freely in Greek to
make clearer certain relations between ideas. Most of the
ordinary conjunctions have practical equivalents in English,
and hence make no difficulty. (See, e. g., 602.) But for som.e
of the commonest particles, adverbial in character, or partly
adverbial and partly conjunctional, English has no precise
equivalents in separate words we express only by stress, by
;

pauses, and by tones or changes of pitch (speech-tune) what

in Greek is fully expressed, by these particles and by word-
order, on the printed page. The force of such particles can
be really learned only by observation in reading, especially
while reading aloud and while listening to such reading. The
following sections (666-673) describe briefly the more distinct
meanings of the particles that most require attention, although
such a description can not be very exact.
Particles which can not begin a clause are postpositive,
and are marked in the following list by an asterisk, as * av.
666 ^"kv marks the action of a verb as more or less uncertain,
either (1) as contingent on circumstances not yet realized, or
(2) as itself merely supposed. The first use is seen in the
hypothetical indicative and optative (461, 467, 479) in the ;

second use av stands (or may stand) with most classes of sub-
ordinate subjunctives (616 a, 618 a, 620, 627-632, 636 a, 638 c,
644, 650). av is not used with subordinate clauses nor with
/u-tj

quoted dubitative subjunctives, because it was not used with

the simple subjunctive sentences from which these subordi-
nate clauses arose it nearly dropt out of purpose clauses,
;

though oTTws and w? clauses often retain it.

a. Earely av stands with a future indicative to mark it as

contingent, or with a future participle representing such an

indicative.

667 The negative adverbs ov and /xtJ have been described (486)
their compounds differ in meaning as do simple ov and yu,?}.
 288 COMPLEX SENTENCES

Ov8e (fJt'rjSe) is the negative of 8e and /cat, (1) as conjunction,

but not, and not^ nor^ especially in continuing a negative
(2) as adverb, emphasizing the following word or phrase, nor
yet^ also not, not . . . either, not eve?i.

668 *A/oa and rj mark a sentence as interrogative, implying nothing

as to the answer expected.
For fjt.ri and /awi/ in questions see 488 a, c. ov in a question
is like English not, implying that the answer yes is expected
so also ovKovv, but less strongly, apa before ixrj or ov merely
makes the interrogative force more distinct.
IloTcpov (TTorepa) . . . rj introduce the members of an alter-
native question, utriim an. (
Whether or was for-
. . . . . .

merly used in the same sense, but tuhether is not so used in

modern prose in a direct question.)

669 a. ^MeV, a weaker form of /atJv (671 a), implies that the word
•
before it, or the phrase in which it stands, is thought of as

contrasted with something that is to follow the second con- ;

trasted member is usually marked by * 8e, sometimes by aXka

or some other adversative conjunction, but is sometimes left
unexpressed. /xeV and 8e are very frequent, marking a great
variety of contrasted ideas, often where English or Latin
would use for the former member a concessive clause, intro-
duced by although and the like.
Note that Sc is always a conjunction hence fteV ; . . . hi
can be used only when the second member requires a lut
or and.
b. * MeVrot (/xeV and rot, 671 e) generally marks a contrast
or a transition to a different topic, hoivever, yet.
But sometimes the older force of /xeV (=/>i7/v) is more
prominent certainly, surely. So sometimes in other combi-
nations, as Travv fxev ovv assuredly, certainly.

670 a. Kat (besides its use as a conjunction, and) is an adverb, also,

evpn, emphasizing the following word or phrase.

, Kat €t is even if, el Kai if in fact, although, koI 8r/ Kat and of
course also, and in particular.
 PARTICLES 289

b. KatTot is slightly adversative, and yet.

c. KatVep aWiough stands only with participles (593 b).

671 Several particles are intensive, denoting emphasis or stress, of

slightly varying degree and kind.

a. M^v in truth is the strongest, often giving prominence

to the whole statement rather than to a single word 5 M^ ;

verily introduces the formula of an oath Kat /t-^v and surely^ ;

and see, in tragedy often calls attention to a newcomer.

The weakened form /xeV sometimes retains a similar force
(cp. 669).

b. The *y€ emphasizes the preceding word by

enclitic
restriction. At
has a like force, but is usually too
least
strong a slight stress of voice is sometimes the only transla-
;

tion possible. * yovv (ye and ovv, 673 a) is a stronger at least,

at any rate.

c. The most untranslatable and elusive is *8//.

(1) Its force on a single preceding word (though

falls

another particle may intervene), marking the idea as obvious,

definite, positive; 8^Aa hrj quite plain, iroXXol h-q a great many,
KdXXL(TTo<i Sri the very finest, clearly the finest, ovrtos 8?} in just
this icay, irov h-q; ichere, pray? d Srj if indeed, opare 8rj you
see, of course, t6t€ Srj then indeed. Sometimes it gives an
ironical tone, forsooth, as he claims.
(2) Its force extends to a whole clause, near the beginning
of which it stands it then marks the statement as obvious,
;

to be expected under the circumstances ; it may thus become

inferential, of course, you see, clearly, accordingly.

d. The form * Brjra surely is a stronger, S-^ttov {8y and irov)

a weaker 8?;. Srjirov is often ironical, douMless, I suppose.

BrjOev is almost always ironical, forsooth.

e. The enclitic *Tot is by origin a for dative of crv (older

Tv) ; thus it calls the listener's attention to the statement, as
one that concerns him. The translation is various doubtless, ;

you know, he assured, have a similar tone, but are usually too
19
 290 COMPLEX SENTENCES

strong. Frequent compounds are fjiivroL (669 b), ovtol surely

not. For rotVw, etc., see 673 b.

672 From ye apa (673 a) is formed *

ydp, which has several distinct
uses, with some that are transitional between these.
a. Adverbially, yap makes the preceding word prominent,
somewhat as ye does, while suggesting, like apa, that the pre-
ceding sentence has something to do with this prominence.
Especially in questions yap denotes surprise, or some kindred
emotion: ris yap av i^TjO-q; tvliy, tclio loould have thought!
D. 9, 68. yap av tl Kaivorepov COuld there possiMy be
yivoLTo ;

anything newer! D. 4, 10. Also in answers, or other state-

ments positively made, with some reference to a preceding
statement: rj yap avdyKrj (An. I. 6, 8) or dvdyKrj yap I must
indeed !

With these belongs the use of yap in wishes (470 a, 477).

yap in this group of uses may be called yap emotional.

b. Often a narrative or explanation that has just been

promised is introduced by yap explanatory. The nearest Eng-

lish equivalent is namely; sometimes we may translate hj for
example, that is but more often English in such cases has no
;

introductory word : v/xas etSws SiSd^m. to pikv yap TrXrjOo? TToXv

ktX. I icill explain to you. Their number is large, etc.

An. I. 7, 4. Whether this yap is an adverb or a conjunction it
is difficult to say.

c. As a conjunction, ydp causal introduces a reason ; the

sentence with ydp generally follows that for which it gives the
cause. Sometimes the ydp clause precedes or is inserted par-
enthetically within the other sentence ;
ydp may then usually
be rendered since.

d. Ka6 ydp is sometimes for even, for also, /cat being adverb-
ial and emphasizing the next following word but more often ;

Kai is a conjunction and yap adverbial, and in fact sometimes ;

it is impossible to determine w^hich was the conjunction, k<u

ydp having become a standing formula

 WORD-ORDER 291

TovTo iiroUi £K Tov ;(aAc7ros ilvaf Kal yap bpav CTvyio'S rjv kol
ttJ <f)U)vfi Tpdxv<; this he did by heivg severe; his very appear-
ance was disagreeable and his voice harsh. An. ii. 6, 9. In
dAAa yap the yap is almost always adverbial, dni i7i fact, hut
really,

673 a. The particles * apa, * ovv, and (in poetry) enclitic * vw or

* vvv are inferential, translated therefore, accordingly, so, as it
ajjpears, unaccented noiv or then. St} sometimes approaches
these in meaning (671 c).

The *
b. syllable rot- (not the same
tol, 671 e), probably
as
another form of the demonstrative tw, as a with or hy dative,
appears in ^ tol-vw accordingly, well then, farther; also in rot-
ydp, TOL-ydp-TOL, Toi-yap-ovv, more strongly inferential, therefore,
and so, for just that reason, ydp is here adverbial, the final
-Tot of roL-ydp-TOL is the enclitic (671 e).

WORD-ORDER
674 Each language has its own ways of arranging words within
the sentence, ways natural to the native speaker, but more or
less strange at first to others. English, Greek, Latin, French,
German, all differ considerably from one another in word-
order. The following sections describe the more striking
differences between Greek word-order and English.

675 The order of words in Greek is much freer than in

English, because Greek has fuller inflections.
Thus the boy saiv a man means one thing, a man saic the
boy means another, saiv a man the boy means nothing but ;

the Greek could say 6 Trats etScv dvSpa, dvSpa cTScv 6 Trat?, ctSci/

dvSpa 6 TTttt?, or avSpa 6 Trats cTScv, all with equal clearness, with
no change in syntax or essential meaning, but merely with
different emphasis. In English the word-order is the most
important means of indicating syntax in Greek it serves this
;

purpose to a far less extent, but is the chief means, along

with particles, of indicating what we call rhetorical effects.
 292 COMPLEX SENTENCES

676 Certain requirements of position for certain words and mean-

—
ings have been described above the attributive and predicate
positions (552, 555, 556), the special rule for oSe, ovtos, eKetvo?,

etc. (553, 554 and a), the meanings of avros according to its

position (199), the fact that many words are postpositive (665-
673), and that some particles throw their force on the preced-
ing word (as /xeV, Si, ye, yovv, 8rJ) while others throw their force
on what follows (as Kat, ovSe, fii^v). Also, as in English, a
preposition usually precedes noun, a conjunction begins
its

its clause, any word that looks back to a preceding clause is

likely to stand near the beginning, any word that looks for-
ward to the next clause is likely to stand near the end. These
general requirements, and the necessity for clearness of syn-
tax, take precedence of all other principles.

677 The above requirements being met, and other things

being equal, the more important precedes, the less
important follows ; the degree of importance dimin-
ishes from the beginning of the clause to the end, the
final place is that of least prominence.
a. As regards the final place, this is the opposite of the
rule in English, which makes the the most promi-
final place
nent. —
In reading English aloud or Greek that one does not
—
understand the tendency is to put most stress on the last
word this must be reversed in reading Greek. In trans-
;

lating, the relative prominence is sometimes best preserved in

English by reversing the Greek order.
b. A longer grammatical unit (sentence or clause) may be

divided into smaller rhetorical units, each consisting of sev-

eral words the above rule then applies to each rhetorical
;

member as well as to the whole clause. Thus the first word

after a pause in Greek receives the prominence of a last word
before a pause in English.

678 The importance that determines order may be logical or emo-

tional ; the two kinds are in most sentences more or less com-
 WORD-ORDER 293

bined, and are not always clearly separable in thought. Logi-

cal importance is relative prominence in a complex thought,
viewed wholly without emotion, as a simple fact or a scientific
statement the relative logical importance of the same ele-
;

ments of a thought may vary with varying circumstances

(679). But most things are looked upon with more or less of
feeling, which may give them, to the speaker or listener, a
relative importance very different from that of logic or of
abstract thought this is their emotional importance (680).
;

The term emphasis denotes generally emotional importance,

but is used also of marked logical importance.

Order determined mainly by logical importance.

a. "EoTtv ovv T/3aya)8td fu/JirjcrL^ 7rpd^€(ii<s (nrovSo.Ld'i kol TeA.€t'aS,

fiiyedo'S i)(ov(Tr)<5, rjSvo-fxevio Aoyo), X'^P'-'*

^i«^<J'tov twv ctScov iv rot?

lxopLOL% SpwvToiv Koi ov Bl This is Aristotle's defini-

aTTayycAtds.
tion of tragedy (Poet. 6). The preceding discussion (to which
ovv refers us) has included tragedy, and has reached the point
where the question is now, not so much what tragedy is, but
rather what tragedy is^ in view of the preceding argument
hence ta-nv stands first. The central fact in the essence of
tragedy is fxiix-qo-L'i imitative presentation then follow the ;

various restrictions, that gradually narrow the general state-

ment down to a definition, proceeding always from the general
to the particular. In its essence, then, tragedy is the repre-
sentation of an action that has dignity, completeness, and mag-
nitude, in artistic language, ivith each kind of verse kept sepa-
rate in the parts, presented hy people acting instead of through
narrative.
b. General rules, applying this principle in detail, in the

simple unemotional sentence, are :

(1) An arrangement without emphasis is subject, its modi-

fiers, predicate, modifiers of the predicate. This often agrees
closely with the English order.
(2) An adjective, or adnominal genitive, or appositive,
unless for some reason emphatic, is apt to follow its noun.
 294: COMPLEX SENTENCES

But if the noun has the article, any attributive expression

takes the attributive position (552).
(3) Modifiers of a verb (except the negatives) are apt to
follow the verb.
(4) But circumstances may give special importance to a
modifier, and therefore place it earlier.

c. An example of simple narrative is :

'Ei/Te9^ei/ i^eXavvei crTaOfJLov<s Bvo TrapacrayyaS 8eKa ets neAra?,

ttoXlv OLKovfxivqv. evravO^ efxetvev i^/xe/ads rpets • iv als Hcvtds 6 'Ap-

KttS TO. A.vKaLa eOvcre kol dywva WrjKe- rd Se aOXa ^(rav o-rAeyytSe? XP^~
crat* iO€o)pu Se tov dywva kol K£)po9. An. i. 2, 10. Here the de-
monstratives ivrevOev and ivravOa, and the relative iv ah, point
back to the preceding sentence and form the connection
i$€Xavv€L and €fj.eLvev contain the central idea of these clauses
the numeral follows its noun. Xenias is a new person intro-
duced, who interrupts the monotony by a festival the name ;

of the festival, rd AuVata, is more important than eOva-c, which

was the regular verb denoting such a celebration so with ;

dywva and eOrjKc. The prizes were strigils is our natural order
also, but the relative importance of the pair a-TXeyyiSes ^va-al
is represented in English by the opposite order, golden strigils.

In the last clause the important item was that the prince him-
self was a spectator e^ewpet is duly marked by its position,
;

Kvpos is made prominent by Kai (cp. 681 b).

In such simple narrative note that chronological order may
often determine the order of presentation, when lucidity is a
prime object.

680 Order influenced by emotional prominence.

'12? fxkv (TTpaTTjyycrovTa e/xe Tavrrjv Tr]V CTTpaTyytdv f.t7)Sel<S vfxwv
AeyeVo) let fio One of you speak tvith the idea that I am going to

act as general in this plan of campaign. An. i. 3, 15. a-rpcnr]-

yqa-ovTa e/xe contains the central idea which the speaker wishes
to remove from their minds /acV looks forward to a following
;

clause, to be contrasted with this.

 WORD-ORDER 295

In An. I. 4, 3, eTTTaxocrtov? e^tov oTrXtrd? and rcrpaKoa-LOL OTrXirat,

the stress laid on the numbers, which are somewhat contrasted
with each other, places them before the nouns. In Ax. i, 3, 17,
/3ovXoLfxr)v S' av dKovTo'S dTriwv Kvpov Aa^ctv avrbv aTreXOwv I sliould

wisli^ if I am going aicay icitliout Cyrus'^s consent^ to get away

witliout Ms hnoidedge, aKovTo<s and XaOclv are contrasted and
emphasized. In Ap. 40 d, Oavfxda-iov K€pSo<s av clrj 6 Odvaros a
wonderful gain ivould death le^ Oav/Mda-cov is the most em-
phasized word and K€pBo<i next, while the subject, 6 Odvaros,
is here the least important, and might almost have been

omitted.
Sometimes, of two or more coordinate expressions, which
in English would be so arranged that the most important
would come last, the first is in Greek plainly the most empha-
sized : fJirj icf)€vpeOrj<S dvovs re kol yepoiv d/jui lest tllOU he found hoth
old and foolish too. S. ax. 281.

a. When
the clause is apparently complete, a new element
—noun, pronoun, verb, but especially an adverb may be —
added after a slight pause, as if an afterthought. The added
word is then the first after a pause and is thereby made promi-
nent, though it may be also the last in the clause it virtually ;

makes a clause by itself.

Sometimes a form of the periodic style, so common in
b.
Latin, is followed in Greek also, when a more even stress and

an air of calm dignity is suitable tt^v Toiv vreAas avrol i7r€X06vT€<;

:

ov ;j(aA€7ra)S iv t^ dAAorptia tov<s irepl twv olkccwv dfivvo/Jievov^ H-^X^

fievoL TOi TrAct'w Kparovp^cv when we ourselves invade otir neigh-
bors^ territory^ without difficulty^ on alien soil, though against
men who are acting in defeyise of their oicn, we more often
prevail. T. ir. 39. This is the style of one who is conscious
that every word is laden with meaning, and will be weighed.

Since there are many ways of indicating the importance of

words besides order, it often happens that an emphasized
word stands where the order alone would leave it in the back-
ground. Other means of emphasis are :
 296 COMPLEX SENTENCES

a. The personal pronouns eyw, o-v, y/xels, etc., also avros

standing alone in the nominative, or in any case in the predi-

cate position, also oSe, ovtos, or iKuvo's used as a personal pro-
noun in the nominative, are emphatic in any position. Thus
in D. 1, 9, r)v$T^cra/jL€v, w avSpe? 'A^T^j/atot, ^tAtTTTTov rjfJLcls tve OUr-
selves, men of Athens^ have given Philip his present poiver,
7]v$rj(TafX€vemphasized strongly by position, i^/xets by being
is

expressed at the place at the end does not affect rj/xels one
all ;

—
way or the other unless indeed a slight pause was made be-
fore it (680 a).

b. Adverbs and particles like Kac, ovSi, fxriv, Brj, all indicate
prominence.

c. Simple repetition, or the use of two synonyms for one

idea, delays attention longer and so makes an idea prominent.
d. Any form of parallelism in expression, whether of repe-
tition or of contrast, calls attention to both members. Thus
fjL€v and 8e, similarity of ending {h^oiorikcvrov rime), and the
use of the same word in different cases side by side (682 b),
always give emphasis. In this way an important word may
stand last without danger of being slighted.

682 Certain combinations were so frequent that we may call them

fashions of word-order. Especially noticeable are

Chiasmus (" criss-cross " order, from the shape of the

a.

letter X) reverses in the second of two parallel phrases the

order of the first this gives equal prominence to each mem-
;

ber in both phrases koXov to aOXov koI tj cXttis ficydXr] noble is

:

the prize and our hope great. Ph. 114 c.

KaXbv TO aOXov

7) eATTt? /xeydXr]

b. Two words of like sound or derivation but of contrasted

meaning, or two forms of the same word in different construc-

tions, are apt to be put near each other ra twv Oewv tvTlfx drl- :

fjidcrda !;(€ what the gods honor, in dishonor hold. S. an. 77.
 WORD-ORDER 297

c. When the same word is repeated in two contrasted mem-

bers which contain fxiv and Si, the repeated word stands first,

followed by and Sc. This usage doubtless began with

fiev

clauses in which the repeated word was emphatic but it ;

became the rule, as early as Homer, even when the repeated

word was unimportant Trao-a /xei/ 686<S cvTropos ttSs 8e Trora/xos 8ia-
:

/Jaros every road is easy, and every river can he crossed. An. ii.

5, 9. Here the contrast is not between uao-a and ttSs, but

between the remainder of the clauses, although every is an
important idea. In Ax. i. 2, 3, TpLdKoatov^ /xcv oxA-trd? TpLdKocrLov<s

8c TTcArao-ra? cxwv TrapeyeVcro, the importance of the number

would not of itself have placed it first.

d. At the end an adjective and its noun are

of a clause
often separated by a verb-form. This usually is the order
that gives the natural emphasis but it came to be sometimes
;

little more than a rhetorical fashion et tolwv 6 <J>t'A67r7ros t6t€

:

ravTTjv io-^e rrjv yvuifx-qv, ovk av rocravTrjv ^KTYjaaro SvvajjiLV if til en

Pliilip at tliat time liad adopted this opinion, lie would not have
acquired so great poioer. D. 4, 5.

683 Finally, considerations of euphony, especially of rhythm, often

affected word-order, as in English but this influence is diffi-
;

cult for us to trace in prose, because Greek prose rhythm (like

that of verse) was determined by the quantity of the syllables,
which we feel less strongly than the Greeks did.
 ABBEEVIATIONS

In citing examples
A. = Aischylos (WecJcletn), L. = Lysias.
A., Agamemnon, Men. = Menander.
c, Choephoroi, Plato is cited thus
E., Eumenides, Ap. = Apology,
p., Persians, Cr. = Crito,
PB., Prometheus Bound, GoR. = Gorgias,
s., Seven against Thebes. Ph. = Phaedo,
Ar. = Aristophanes {Bergk), Pr. = Protagoras,
N., Nubes (Clouds), Rep. = Republic.
R., Ranae (Frogs), Plut. Caes. = Plutarch's Caesar.
Vespae (Wasps).
v., S. = Sophokles (Jebb),
CIA. = Corpus Inscriptionum Atti- AL, Aias,
carum. AN., Antigone,
D. = Demosthenes. E., Elektra,
E. = Euripides {Nauck), OT., Oedipus Tyrannus,
AL., Alkestis, OK., Oedipus at Kolonos,
AND., Andromache, p., Philoktetes.
B., Bacchae, T. = Thukydides.
HIPP., Hippolytos, Xenophon is cited thus :

lA., Iphigenia at Aulis, An. = Anabasis,

IT., Iphigenia among the Tau- C. = Cyropaedia,
rians, H. = Hellenica,
Medea.
M., M. = Memorabilia,
Epich. = Epicharmos. 0. = Oeconomicus.

Most of the other abbreviations need no explanation ; but cp. = com-

pare, irapf. = imperfect, impv. = imperative, kt\. = Koi ra Xoiird = and so
forth.
298
 VERB-LIST

—
Note. This list is intended to contain all verbs of classical Attic
Greek whose forms can cause diiRculty to the student. But rare forms
are sometimes omitted, especially such as occur only in lyric parts of the
drama, or in works not likely to be read until the student is beyond
dependence on an elementary grammar. In many doubtful cases it
seemed better to err on the side of inclusion rather than of omission.
The forms that belonged to prose or to spoken Attic are in full-faced
type those in ordinary type belonged to poetry. Yet in some cases a
;

simple verb that appears only in composition in prose is recorded as a

prose form also verbs in -ffffo), -rrta, are recorded with <ra; though the
;

regular prose form had tt. The class of the present system is given
after the verb-stem, unless the present belongs to the formative-vowel
class or to the root-class.

"A-yafJiai (a-ya-, 365 and a) admire, i\ya<rdr\v.

ayyiSXci (ayytK-, i cl.) announce, ayyikta, V\yyi\Xa., iiYY^^i^o-j i^YY^^H'*'-* "^YY^XO-qv.

aydpia (aY^p-, i cl.) gather, ^y^ipa.

&.yvv^\. (oLY-, ttY", nas. cl.) break. &|«, ?a|a, ^aYa, layvy.
&y<a (oLY-) lead, &|a), i^YO-Yov (350, 10), Tjxa, ^yF^^^^j ^X^^'
aeipca (aep-, i cl.) lift, older form of atpw, which see.
aSft) (tt8-, for aetS-) sing, a(ro|Jiai, fjcra, T](r9iiv.

al8^o|jLat (ai86-) and a^Bo,uai (alB-) respect, ai5^<ro|iai, •n.Seo-jiai, f|8l(r0T]v.

alv^w (alv€:Ti-) praise, alveo-w, r^vi<ra, fvcKa, f,vii[iai, r\vidy\v.

aXpita (aip€:Ti-, IX-) seize, aiprjo-cu, cIXov (350. 9), f.pT]Ka, rpii|ji,at, f,p^8Tiv.

atpo) (ap-, I cl.) lift, ap», ^pa, ^pKa, ^pu-ai, <^p9T]V.

al(r9dvo[iai (al<r9-, al(r9ii-, nas. cl.) perceive. al(r9irj(rofiai, f(r9d|iiiv, no-9'qjJLai.

ata-eu) {olCk-, i cl.) and atro-o) rush, dt|« and d^^w, ^i|o and f^a.
oX<jyyv(a {aXu\vv-f i cl., 421) shame, al<rxvvw, y\fr\vva., f|<rxvv9'qv.
aKovci) (cLKOu-) hear. aKov(ro|xai, fJKoucra, aKil]Koa (291 c), i?|Kovi<r9iiv.

d\€{<j>« (d\i<|)-, d\€i<J>-) anoint, dX:i\|/«, i^\€i\|fa, d\^\i4>a (291 c), dXi^Xt|Ji|iai,

399
300 GREEK GRAMMAR

dAe^o) (ctAe^-, ccAe/c-) ivard off, aki^ofxai, r]\€^oi/jLr]v.

aXCo-Konai (aX-, aXo:w-, incep. cl.) am captured, aXwo-ofiai, laXwv or fjXtov (267,

369 c), cdXcoKa or 'fjXwKa.

dXXdcra-o) (aXXav, t cl.) change, dXXd|a), ijXXa^a, ijXXaxa, ^^XXaYjxat (345),
f|XXdx9iiv and if|XXd7T]v.

&XXo|xai (dX-, I cl.) leap, dXov)j.ai (324) i\\a\i.r\v.

aKvcTKU) (for aKvK-ffKU), clKvk-, cp. 8i8d(rKci), incep. cl.) avoid, oAu|a>, ^Xv^a.
dfiaprdvia (djiapr-, duaprif]-, nas. cl.) err, d|xapTif]aro)JLai, -fjfjLapTov, i]\i.apT't\Ka,
^p.dpTT]|Xai, TJfJLapTIQSTJV.

d/iTr-e'xw and afxiT-i<Tx<» (d|jL<|)C + ^X**! ^^OC**) ^''«/> about, put on, afitpe^w, ijjJL'iri-

(Txov. M id. d|X7r€xo[iai, dfiirio-xofJLai, afiTriax'^^o/xai have on, d|JL<J>e|o(j,ai, •i\\L'ic-

lo-xop-iiv and '^p.Tr-c<rx6p.Tiv (cp. 268 d).

aixirKaKiffKu (d/x7rAa/c-, a/xTrAcucr;-, incep. cl.) miss, ^jXTtXaKov, TifiirKaKrifxai.

d|xvva) (djJLW-, i cl.) ward off, d{xvv(o, i^(i.vva.

dp,(j}i--Yvo€a> doubt, impf. •f||x<j)-€7voouv (268 d), 'f|}jL<J)-€YV0T]<ra.

dva-pi.w(rKO|xai : see Pidto.

av-aXCa-KM (-aX-, -dXo:w-, incep. cl.) and dv-aXoo) spend, dv-dXwo-o), a,v-r\K<a<ra,
dv-TJXcoKa, dv-irjXa)(JLai, dv-tiXtoO-qv.

dv-oC-yviJixi, av-oCyca (see o\!yvu(j.i) ope7i, impf. dv€u»Yov (267 a), dv-o£|«, dv-e(u|a
(267 a), dv-^u»xa (291 a), dv-^tt»7(xai, av-i(u\Qy\v (snbjv. dv-oix6w, etc.).
dvvo) (dvu-) sometimes dvuo), also olvvto) accomplish, dvvo-o), i^vvtra, i^vvKa,

ijvvcrp.ai.

i£;/tw7a (dj/wy-) command, root perf. (370), with pres. meaning, ^.vaya^, ^vui-yc,

impv. &vux^h ^vwxOe.

dTr-€x9dvo|jtai (-€X^"> '^^s. cl.) become odious, dir-cxO^o-ojJLai, a.ir-rwQ6iLT\v, dir-

flXeTijxttt.

diTTdi (d<))-, T cl.) fasten, kindle, dv(;a), t]\|/a, t]jx|iai, •fj<J>9T]v.

apapiffKd) {ap-, incep. cl.) fit, ^pcra, ^papov, &pdpa.

dpdcro-o) (dpa^-, i cl.) bang, slam, dpd^ci), ^pa^a, ir|pdxOTjv.

dp^o-KO) (dpe-, incep. cl.) please, api<r<a, i^peo-a, nipecrd-qv.

dpK^co (dpK€-) assist, suffice, dpK^o-o), i^pK€o-a.
apix6Ca}, dpp,0TT« (dp|j.OT-, i cl.) fit, dp|xdo-», -flpixocra, fjpfioo-p.ai, TJp(id(r9T]v.

dpuvfiai (ap-, nas. cl.) win, apovfiai, iipSfxrjv.

dpdo) (dpo-) ploiv, ijpoo-a, i\p6Q'r\v.

dpTrd^o) (dpiraY", dpira8-, i cl.) seize, -dpird(rofi.ai and -dpirdo-w, {jpirao-a, fjp-
iraKa, -flpTrao-fxai, iqpTrdo-O-riv.

apvo) (apv-) and dptiro) draw water, -i^pvo-a, t|pv9t]v.

dpXw (dpx") am first, begin, rule, dpi<«), ^p|a, ^pYjiai, ijpxO'nv.

avaiuco, avaCvo) (avav-, t cl.) drg, atiavd), i^viiiva, i^vdvOiiv.

av^dvo) (av|-, avlt]-, nas. cl.) and ail^w increase, aii^irjcra), Tii)|T]o-a, T]{»|TiKa,

"qiJlTlfjiai, iiv|tj9t]v.

dx0op.at (dx9-, dx9€(r-) am vext, dx96o-o(iai, irjx9^(r9i]v.

 VERB-LIST 301

BaCvft) (pa-.T]-, Pav-, i cl.) go, pii(ro|xai ()8T]cra> causative), l^r^ (369 a), ejSTjo-a

(causa live), p6pT]Ka, -p4pa{iai, -epdS-qv.

pdWw (paX-, pXr]-, I cl.) ^Arot^, paX«, ^paXov (350, 4), p^pXT]Ka, pcpX-qnai,
€pXTJ0TlV.
pdiTTw (Pa<j)-, T Q\.)dip, pd\|/«, ?pai|/a, p^pan^ai, €pd4)Tiv, ifidcpdrju.

PaaTaCu) (^aa-raS-, i cl.) carry, jSatrTcio-co, i^daTaaa.

pipdto) (pipaS-, I cl.) maAre ^fo (causative of paivw), pipdcrw and pipw (346 b),

-epfpao-a.
^i^puxTKU} {0po:u}-, incep. cl.) eaY, fiefipcoKa, fiefipu/xai.
^i6u> ()8io:a)-) ZiVe. piwo-o|iai, ePtW (369 c), PepCwKa, Pepitofxai. dva-Piwo-KOfxai
revive, dveP^oxra, av-i^loiv.
pXdirro) (pXap-, t cl.) injure, pXdx|/a), ?pXa\I/a, p4pXa4)a, pepXa|X(iai, €pXd<j)9Tiv,
€pXdpTiv.
pXaoTdvw (pXatTT-, pXao-rt]-, nas. cl.) sjyrout, fiAaarriau}, ^pXacTov, (PiepXdo--
Ti\Ka.
pXe'irw (pXcTT-) lool-j pX€»|/o|iai, ^pX€\|/a.
PoiiXojJiai (povX-, PovX-q-) ivish, PovXi^crofiai, PtPovX-qnai, €pouXirj0T]v (266).

Pp^X" (PP^X-) u'ef, ^Ppega, p€pp€7(iai, eppexQ-qv.

fiptew ifipW') am heavy, fipitru^ efiplcra, fiifipWa.

Ppuxdo|xat (Ppvx-> Pp^XO-'I") bellow, fiefipvxa, fipvx'^Qf^is.

Pvve'w (Pv:v-, nas. cl.) stop up, ptio-o), 'i^va-a, pe'Pvo-fiai.

rajx^w (7a|JL-, Yaiie:!]-) marry (act. of a man, mid. of a woman), ya^a, tyry^o.j

YtYdjJLTiKa, -y67d)Ji't]fJLai.

y^fojva, pf. with pres. meaning, (70;!'-) shout, also '^^'yaivita (7€ya>j/€:7j-) and
ycywviaKU} (7€7ct)»'-, incep. cl.), 7 €70)1/7] (r&>, iyeywi/'ncra.

-yeXdb) ("ycXa-) laugh, -yeXdcroixai (322), e^^Xao-a, eYeXdcrO-qv.

77j0ea) (77J0-, yr]Qe:T]-) rejoice, yndriau), iyrjdr)(Ta, ^CYiiOa.

"yqpdo-Kaj ("yqpd-, incep. cl.), also yr]pdci} {ynpa-) grow old, 'Y'np&(r(i>, €7if|pd(ra,

yc^TipaKa.
y£-yvo|iai (y€v-, 70V-, 7€vt|-, 257 a) become, Yev^<ro(j.ai, lYcvdji-qv, 7€Yova, 767^-
vqjjLat. For ycyus see 370, (3).

•yiYVwo-Koi (yvo.'o)-, incep. cl.) come ^ hnoiv, recognize, Yv«<ro(jiai, i-^v<av (366.
367), ^YVwKa, ^Tvoxriiai, l7v«<r0T]v.
•ypd4>a> (7pa<J)-) mark, write, Ypdx{/w, ^Ypa.}/a, 7€7pa,(j)a, "y6Ypa|Xjxai, €7pd(j)T)v.
(See 341, 345.)

AdKvo) (SttK-, 8t]k-, nas. cl.) hite, S^^ofxai, 28aKov, 848t]Ynai, eSVjxQtlv.
^apQdvo} {Sap6-, SapOrj-, nas. cl.) sleep, ^Sapdov, SeSdpdtjKa.
8€8oiKa, SeSia, 370, (5).

8eCKVv|jii (8€iK-, nas. cl) point at, 358-360.

SepKo/xai {5epK-, SopK-, dpoK-) see, (SpaKov, 545opKa (456 c).
302 GREEK GRAMMAR

84po) (Sep-, Sop-) skin, flay, Sepw, ^Seipa, ScSapp-ai, I8dpt|v.

8^X^H'<^>' (S^X") receive, S^^ofxai, IScldjiiiv, Se'ScYfiai, cSexQ^lv.

8^0) (8€:t|-) bind, 8irjj-a), ?8T]o-a, 848eKa, SeScfxai, €840t]v.
860) (8c-, 8CTJ-) lack, Seifjo-w, eS^-qo-a, ScSeriKa. Impers. Set ^Aere ^s neetZ, 8cirj(rci,

ISe'-qc-e. Dep. 8^o{iai ask, request, 8€ifj<ro|xai, SeS^Tjjxai, cSeirjGTjv.

8iaiTd<«) (8iai,Ta:Tj-) diet^ arbitrate, 8taiT'^<ra), e8ifiTiio-a, 8€8ifjTT|Ka, 8€8ifiTt]|iat,

eSiTiTi^O-qv.

8t8d(rKw (8i8ax-, incep. cl., 260 l) teach, 8i8d|«, €8t8a|a, 8e8£8axa, ScS^SaYp-ai,
e8i8dx8iiv.
-8i8pd(rKa> (8pa:a-, incep. cl.) run aivay, -8pd<ro|ji,ai, -^Spav (369 a), -Se'SpaKO.
8i'8«iii, 372, 375.
Zi^6.o} (5ti|/o:rj, 320) thirst, Sixp-fjcru), i5i\pr](ra.

SiuKO) (81WK-) pursue, 8i(o§op,ai, cSfco^a, ScSfuxa, 8i£8{a>Y[iaL, €8iwx9t]v.

8oK6a) (80K-, 8oK6:i^-) thiiik, seem, 8d|b), ^8o^a, 8e8oY[xai, eSdxQ'qv. Also So/c^a"«,

idSKTjcra, SeSJ/cTjKo, SeSei/CTj^ot, iSoKrjdriv.

8pap.ov}j.ai : see rp^x***

Spd(T(roiJ.ai {Spay-, i cl.) grasp, iSpa^dfiriPj SeSpay/xat.

8pd(tf (8pa:d-) do, 8pdo-a), ^Spdcra, 8^8pdKa, 8e8pdp,ai, kBpta-Qtiv.

Svvafiai, (SvvatT]-, 266, 365 a) can, 8vvi^(ro)i.ai, 8€8iivT]p.ai, €8wtj0t]v.

8va) (8i>:v-) e7iter, Zv<r<a (causative), ^8u<ra (causative), ^8w (366, 367), Se'SvKa,
8^8i;Ka, 8€8«}JLai, eSuO-qv.

*Eda) (€a:a-, 267) let, permit, Ido-co, d^do-a, ctdKa (291 a), etdjiai, €ld9Tiv.

€-y€Cpw (l^cp-, €7op-, €7p-, I cl.) rouse, waken, €7€p«, iJYcipa, T|7pd|it)v, eypi^Yopa
(291 c, 332) am awake, €Yi^Y€pp.ai (291 c), i\^ip^-t\v.

^8op,ai, l8ir)8oKa : see €o-9£b).

'i^o^iai (eS- for (reS-, i cl.) SiY, chiefly in comp. with Kara. See KaOe^oixat.

iQikci and 0l\o) (I0€\-, eOeXt]-) am willing, e8€Xiri<ra), OcXtjo-o), f|9^XT]o-a, ^OeXTjKa.
c9it« (€0t8-, I cl, 267), accustom, I9k3 (346 a), eWto-a, €t0iKa (291 a), ciOio-jiai,

€l0t<r0T]V.

cISov : see opdco.

€l8«s (172), €l8€vai : see oI8a.
clKd^cD (elKa8-, i cl.) make like, conjecture, elKdo-u, e\!Ka<ra or '^Kao-a, dKoa^iai
or ^Kao-piai, €lKd(r6T]v.

cIkws : see ^oiKa.

€1(11 am, 384 ; clfxi go, 385.
clirov (€lir-, aor.) said, 350, 8, and 351 ; for other tenses see (pyj^ii.

€lfpYvv(j.t (€tpY-, nas. cl.), also cl'pYO) shut in, €ifp|o), clp^a, clp7p.ai, etpxQilv.

etpYw (elpY") shut out, €\Ip|<«), etc., like the preceding, except in the breathing.
€'i(i>0a am accustomed, plup. elw0€iv, 456 c.

€Xaxivti> (IXtt-, nas. cl.) drive, k\St (322 c), ^jXao-a, cXVjXaKa (291 c), cXTJXa}iai,
"jjXdOtiv.
 VERB-LIST 303

ikiyxoi (eX.€YX-) ^^^^^ cX^y^w, i^Xc^fa, IX^XcYjJtai (344 t), iiXiyxQtiv.

tXeiv, elXov : see aip^co.

i\€V(rofxai, eXifjXvGa : see ^pxojxai.
4X961V, ^XOov : see ?pxop.at.
eXfo-o-ft) (IXiK-, I cl., 267) and €iXC<ro-« M>tnc?, tXtlo and €lXC|ci), ctXi^a, ctXiYH-o-i,

'^Xkw (IXk-, IXku-, 267), ^|«, €l'XKV(ra, etXKUKa (291 a), el'XKuo-jjiai, cIXkvo-Otiv.
Later, eXKixo, kKKvcTw.
IXirCtu (^XttiS-, I cl.) expect, hope, {jXirKra, '#|X'irC<r0t]v.

€jjLeft) (Iji-, €(!€-) vomit, €|xov(j,at, l^p,€<rtt.

eiiiroXdft) (efiiroXa:!]-) get hy trade, trade m, -fnxTrdXiiKa, ^iroXTJQ'qv.

cvavTioofjLai, 268 b.

6V€YK€iv, ^ve^Ko., -J^vcYKov, Ivi^voxa, evi^vcYH'Q'i' : see ^ip(a.

ivtTTW (eV + (Teir-, ctt-, 0"7r-), also iuvcirco (for iv-ffiiru)), tviffirov {ivi-cnrw, iyi-airoifiif

ivi-a-Kis like cx^s and iirl-ffx^s, ivi-cir^^v).

ev8vp,4o)j.ai (€v + 0v(w:t]-) hear in mind, lv9vp.i^(ro|xai, €VTedtj|XT])ji,ai, IvedCp.^-

0tiv.

(Vfvixi (e-, older feo--, Lat. ves-tio, nas. cl.) clothe, partic. €'//i€j/os. In prose
d|X([>i^vvv|ii, dp.<{>i(o (for aixcpicao}, like reAew, 322 c), d|x<}>i^(ro{iai, f||x4>£c(ra

(268 c), -f|p.({>Ceo-|jLai.

cvoxXc'w (cv + oxXet-q-, 268 d) annoy, f|v«xXTi<ra, irivtoxXilKa, fivcoxX-qjiai.

^oiKtt (Ik-, €iK-, oIk") am like, 370, (6).

eoprdto) (lopraS-, i cl.) heep festival, impf. ec&pratov.

itzdyia (cTTCi-y-) jaress forward, circC^oiiai, ^ireCx^'HV.

€iri|i€X^o(j.ai, lirip.eXo)iai ; see (jieXcD.

cirtorrajiat (eTrwrrarT]-, 365 and a) understand, lirto-T^crofiai, •fjTri(rT^9't]v.

'^iro|xat {kit- for o-ctt-, ott-, 267) follow, ^\|/o(iai, £(nrdp.T]v (<nrM[Jiai, (nroCp,Tiv,

(TiroVf <nr^<r9ai, <nrd(J.6Vos).

Ipdo) and epafiai (€pa-) /ore, irjpd(r0t]v.

€p7d5ojjiat(€pYa8-, i cl., 267) work, cpYd(ro|xai, €lpYa<rd{iT]v, €\!pYa(r(jiai, clpYao-OTjv.

cpSft) (ep5-, epy-) doj also epSw and ^e^w (pey-, i cl.), ep|co and pe|a>, ep^a and
epe^a.

€p£i8ci> (cpeiS-) pi^op, kpda-b), {jpeio-a, {)p€iKa, lpifjpcio-|xai (291 c), •i\pii<rQ'r\v.

ipeiiru) {epiir-, fpeiir-) throiV down, ipfiypu, i]pnrov, ip-fjpiira (291 c), ip-f^pififiaiy

ipei(pdr]v.

kpil<a (€pi8-, I cl.) contend, ijpio-a.

'^pir« (cpir-, 267) go, creep, '^pxj/o). Also kpirvCa, cl'pirvo-a,

ippa {epp-, ippf)-) go, begone, IppVjo-o), ¥ippt\a-a.

epvKCi) (epvK-) hold hack, ^pv|a.

^pXop,ai (€px-» e'Aew^-, €Xv9-, IX9-) ^0, iKeva-o/xai, ^X9ov (1X9^, 349 a), and ijAvOoi',

IX^Xv9a (291 c).

cp»; e'iCpt|Ka, cppirj9'qv : see <{>t])i,i.

 304: GREEK GRAMMAR

Ipcordci) (ep«Ta:i]-) ash, Ipwr^o-w, fipwr-qo-a, 'f|p(Grt]Ka. But the common fut.
and aor. are (from cp-, Ipr]-) epi/jo-ofjiai, T|p6p.nv, of which the pres. tpojxai
is rare.
ia-Uia (lo-9i-, €8-, 18c-, €8o-, ^ixr^-) eat, ^8o(jiat (without fut. suflQx), '^4>a7ov, khi\-

8oKa, €8iQ8e(r(xai, fj84o-9'qv.

€o-iro|iT]v : see ^irofxau

6<rTida> (€<rTia:a-, 267), €icrTia(ra, €i<rT(aKa (291 a), €to-T(d|xat, €i<rTtcL9i]v.

eu'Soj (eiiS-, cwSrj-) sleep, €u8rj(r«, -euSTjca. Commonly Ka9cv8o>, which see.
€vp^<rKw (€vp-, €vp€:t]-, incep. cl.) find, cvpiqcro), i]vpov, Tivp-qKa, Tivpii|iaw, TivplOtjv.
ev(j>paCv(i) (eu<})pav-) cheer, ev4>pavco, -qilijjpdva, 'r,v<}>pdv9T]v.

cilXoP'*'' ('^X") P^^(^y> ti{|o(xai, Tjv|dp,Tiv, iilYjiai.

ixdalpw (ixdap-) hate, ix(^apov/xai, iJx^VP°-

'(i\(a (<r€x-, €x-, €X-> o^-> <nC«:'n-) ^«^'e, ^?w and o-x^o-w, ^<rxov (350, 6), ^xxriKa,
^(Txilixai, icrx^O^v- Also pres. tcrx« for o-jorexco, 257 a.

^\|/« (c\j/-, k^y\-) boil, €\|/ifio-(«), fjiffrio-a.

Zdo), 320.
li-Cyvv\i.\. {Ivy-, livy-, nas. cl.) Join, yoke, Uvi<a, ^t^v^a, ^t^uYH-ciij ^U^xP'^v,
lX,()yr\v.

tew (tc-) boil, intr., teVw, ^t€0"a-

twvvup (t«>-, nas. cl.) ^iVc?, ?5«ora, '(il<aiM\. and iltw<r|jittt.

''H8o|xai (1^8-) am pleased, ^a-Qr\v.

TJixai, 388, 389.

^il^L, ^v, ^, 383.

©dXXo) (9aX-, 9t]\-, i cl.) bloom, floiirish, r^QriKa with present meaning
(456 b).

9dTrTft) (9a'n--, Ttt<j)-, 47 d, t cl.) bury, 9dv|/a), ^9at)/a, T69a|j.p,ai, lTd<j>iiv.

9ai»p.dtw (9au(xa8-, i cl.) wonder, 9avp.do-o|iai, €9avp.a<ra, T€9ttv(jiaKa, 69aj-

p.d(r9T]v.

9iXu> : see €9€\(«).

9ia) (9€u-, 9€-) n^n, 9€iio-op.ai.

0t77ova> {Oiy-, nas. cl.) touch, Bi^oinai, ediyov.

eXtpo) (9Xxp-, 9\tp-) squeeze, Q\i]f(a, ?9\X\|/a, T^9\T|x|xai, €9\t<j)9Tiv, €9X£piiv.
QvriffKO), for Qvfi-KTKti) (Oav; Qvq-, incep. cl.) die, Qavovfiai, tQavov, Ti^vr\KO. (370,

4), T€9vir||(o (364). In prose regularly d'!ro9vfio-Kw.

9p^|o(ji.ai, ^9pc|a : see rp^x***
9p4\j/a), ^9p6i|/a : see Tp^(j>a>.

9piiTrT0) (9puTr-, t cl.) iveaken, 9pv\j/w, ^9pv\|fa, Tl9pu(ip.ai.

dpc^a-Kco {6op-, Opci}-, incep, cl.) leap, dopovfxai, eOopop.
0WW (9u:v-) sacrifice, 9uo-w, ^9v<ra, T49uKa, T€9u(xai, €tu9iiv (47 c).
 VERB-LIST 305

'I8€iv, €t8ov: see opdo).

il<a (It-, tti-), chiefly in com p. with Kara : see KaQCi<a.
i'T]|i.i (er-q-) setid, i\tr<a, rjKa (378), cka, €l|iai, dQtiv, 374, 375.
iKv^onat (iK-, nas. cl.) coirie, t^ojiai, iKdjXTjv, lY|xai. In prose usually d<|>-

iKv^o|j.ai.

iXd(rKop,ai (iXa-, incep. cl.) propitiate, iXd<ro|JLai, i'Xa(rdp.T]v, iXdaO-qv.

to-jjiev, to-do-i, 386.

i<rTr]\Li (<rTa:r\-) set, station, o-rifjo-o), 'dcrr^tra, ?<rTT]v, '^(rrqKtt (plup. sometimes
da-T-fiKT]), eo-Tde-qv. 362-364, 366, 367.
i<r\<a : see ^X"*

KaQaCpto (Ka9ap-, i cl.) cleanse, KaOapw, tKdOriptt and CKdfldpa, K€Kd0ap|xai,

fiKaddpO-qv.

Ka9^Jo|xav (Kara + eS-, i cl.) sit, impf. €Ka0€td|niv (268 c) and Kaee(6iJLr}v, Ktt9€-

8ov|Jiiai (for KadeSecro/xai). Cp, KadC^O).

KaOevSb) (Kara + €v8-, 6v8t]-) sleep (inipf., sec 268 c). Ka9€v8^(r(i).

Kd9i}[iai, 389.

KaQClot (Kard + VC,-, itt]-) seat, sit, Ka9i« (cp. 346 a), Ka9itTi<ro|iai, €Kd9i(ra
(268 c) and KaQla-a, Cp. Ka9c?op.ai.
Kaiuco {Kav-f t cl.) Jcill, Kavw, iKavov. Only in the compound KaraKaCvw in
prose.
KaCft), Kdw (Kay-, Kd-, i cl., 259 e) hum, Kaviirw, ^Kavo-a, K^KavKa, K^Kavp.ai,
€Kav9'qv.
KoXi<a (KttXc-, kXi]-) ca/Z, KaXw (322 c), cKaXeo-a, K^KX-qKa, K€KXT](Jiai, €kXt)9t|v.
KaXviTTw (KaXvP", t cl.) cove?; KaXv\|/(i), €KdXv\{/a, K€KdXv(jip.ai, cKaXv<t>9T^v.
Kd|j.v(i) (Kap.-, K|iT]-, nas. cl.) lahor, am tired, KapoOpai, ^Kapov, K€KpT]Ka.
Kdp-n-TO) (Kapir-, t cl.) &e/ic?, Kdp\(/a), ^Kap\)/a, K^Kappai, eKdp<j>9T]v.

K€ipai, 387.
Kcfpo) (Kcp-, Kap-, I cl.) shear, Kcpw, ^Kcipa, KCKappai.
KeXevo) (kcXcu-) hid, KeXcvcrco, CKcXevo-a, KCK^XevKa, KCK^Xcvo-pai, lKeXcv(r9T]V.
KeAAw (/ceA.-, i cl.) SriH^ ^0 s/<0?'e, K^Kau, iKeXcra. Cp. okcWcd.
Kcpdwvpi (Kcpa-, Kpd-) mio:, CKcpao-a, K^Kpdpai, iKpdQi\v and eKepdo-9T]V.

K€p8aCva) (K€p8av-, t cl.) gain, K€p8av«, €K4p8dva (327 a).

Kcvdoo (Kevd-) hide, Kevcro), eK€v(ra, KCKevda (456 b).

KT|8opai (kt]8-, K'q8c-) sorroiv, care for, eK'r]8e(rdp't]v.

KT]pv(ro-(i) (KTipvK-, t cl.) proclaim, K'qpij^a), iKirjpvIa, KCK^jpuxa, KCKifjpvYpai, Ikt]-

ptJx9Tiv.

Ki7Xaj'a> (k^X"5 f*X^'» ^^^S. cl.) reach, Kix'ticofiai, ^kixov.

kCxP'HH''' (XpO'-'H") ^ewc?, mid. borrow, )(jp-f\<r<a, '4xpt\<ra,

k^xPT^^j k^XP'HK-"-""
K\d((o {K\a-)y-, I cl., 259 d) resound, KKay^u, ^KXay^a, KfKhayya.
KKaiu}, KXdo) (xXav-, KXd-, i cl.) weep, KXavo-opai, ^KXavca, K^KXavpai.
icXdo) (KXa-) hreak, ^KXao-a, KCKXao-pat, lKXd(r9'qv.

30
 306 GREEK GRAMMAR

kkiirra (kXctt-, KXair-, kXott-, t cl.) steal, icX4\|/(i), ^KXcij/a, KeKXo4>a, K^KXeiijjiat,

eKXttTTIlV.

kXtJcd and kXc^co (kXt|-, kXci-) shut, kXtJo-o), ?KXT)<ra, K^KXrjKa, K^KXufiai, 6KX'ji<r0TjVt

Also icXeforo), ^KXcio-a, etc.

KXjfvw (kXiv-, kXi-, I cl.) lean, kXivw, ^KXiva, K^KXifiai, €kXi9t]v, €kXCvt]v.
KvaCbt (Kvai-) scratch, Kvalffw, ?Kvat<ra, KCKvaiKa, KCKvawrjxai, €Kva£<r9T]v.
Kvdh) (KvaiT]-, 320) scrape, ^Kvii<ra, CKV^crO-qv.
Ko^iX,<ji (KOfiiS-, I cl.) carry, Kop.iw (346 a), eKd{jLi(ra, KeKO|jiiKa, KCKo}jLi(r[j.ai, cko-
|jiC(r9T]v.

KOTTTW (kOTT-, T cl.) CUt, KOt|/0), ^KO^/a, K^KO(}>a, K€KOfX}Jiai, iKOTT-qV.

Kopevuvfxi late (Kope-, nas. cl.) sa^e, KCKopeo-fiai, iKopea-drjv.

Kpdtw (Kpa^-, Kpay-, i cl.) cr^/ o?^^, ^KpaYov, KCKpd-ya.

i cl.) accomplish, Kpavw, eKpava, iKpduOrjp.
Kpalvco {npav-,

Kp^)jia|xai (Kpcfxa:-!]-) hang, intr., Kpc|xi^o-o)JLai..

Kp£|Jidvvvp.i (KpcfAtt-, nas. cl.) hang, trans., Kpcp,co, iKp^fxao-a, iKpcfido-Ot^v.

Kpi'vo) (Kpiv-, Kpi-, I q\.) judge, Kpivto, ^KpXva, KCKpiKa, K^Kpifxai, eKp(dr]v.

Kpovo) (Kpov-) 6ea^, Kpovorco, ^Kpovo-a, KCKpovKa, KeKpov(a)p.ai, eKpovo-B-qv.

KpUTTTW (KpV<}>-, T Cl.) ^ic?e, Kpv\)/(0, ^Kpvv{/a, KCKpUfJlfJiai, eKpU(}>6T]V, €KpV(j)r)V.

KTdo|j.ak (KTati]-) acquire, KT^o-ojjLai, cK-nio-dnTiv, KCKT-qjiai (rarely ^KTTjfxai)

possess (456 b).

KTCCVO) (kT€V-, KTaV-, KTOV-, I cl.) kill, KT6VW, J;KT€lVa, iKTaVOV, dir-CKTOVa, t/CTCtJ/,

(KTatct-, 369 a). Also dTro-KrCvvvji-i (/crt-).

kt/^oj (/cTtS-, t c\.) found, Krlaa, iKTiaa, ^KTia-fiai, iKriadriv.

Kv\i<a (kvXT-) and kvXCvSo) (kuXivS-) roll, iKvKlaa, K€Kv\i<TfjLai, iKvKiaQrjv.

Kvvlfa) (ku-, nas. cl.) kiss, tKvaa. irpoa-Kwifa (-kuvcit]-) do homage, regular.
KlJlTTW (kV(|)-, T cl.) stoop, KV\)/Ci), ^Kl}\]/a, K€KV(j>a.

Kvp€(o {Kvp-, Kvp€-) happen, Kvpau) and Kvpiiaa, tnvpffa and eKvprjaa.

Aa.y\av<a (XaX", XtiX", nas. cl.) get hy lot, XTJlop-ai, ^axov, ctXtixa- (291 b),
ctXT^-yiiai, €Xtjx9t]v.

Xttp.pdvw (XaP", Xrip-, nas. cl.) take, XTJ\|;o[ji.ai, ?Xapov (350, 1), 6tX'ti4>a (291 b),

etX'qjxiiai, i\i\^^'r\v.

Xd}JLirco (Xa|JLTr-) shine, Kdjx^w, ^ap,i|/a, AeA.ou7ra.

Xav9dva) (Xa9-, Xti9-, nas. cl.) lie hid, escape the notice of, X^o-o), {!Xa9ov,
X^XTi9a, XeXiqa-fjiat. Also \i]B(c.

Xda-Kw (for KoK-ffKu, KaK-, Ad/c-, KaK-q-, incep. cl.) speak, XaK-fia-ofiai, iXaK-riffa and
(tXaKOV, \4\a.Ka.

•\iy<a (Xe-y-) gather, -\4^<a, -(Kf^a, -ciXoxa (291 b), -etX€7p.ai, rarely -X^Xe7|xai,
-l\iyT\Vf -IX6x9rjV. Attic in compounds only.
\iyoi (XcY") speak, X^|a>, ^Xe^a (ctp-qKa : see cj)!!}!.^, X^Xcyp-ai (but 8i-€CX€YK>oii,
291 b), iki\9r\v.
XcCiTft) (XiTT-, XcMT-, Xotir-) leave, Xd^a, ^iirov (348), X^Xonra, X^Xcip.|xai, IX€C4>9'r]v.
 VERB-LIST 307

\r]ea} : see XavGdvw.

Xovft) (Xov-) u'cisk, veg. Also \6o} (ao-), contracting in the present system,
as ^Xov, IXo{)|xev, Xovo-9ai, Xov|i€vos.
Xvo) (Xv:v-) loose, Xt;<r(D, ^vcra, Xe'XuKa, Xe'Xvjjiai, €Xii0T]v.

MaCvb) (fiav-, i cl.) madden, ^ji-qva, iiliA-qva a77i mad (456 b) ;

|iaCvop.ai am
mad, l\iavic\v,

|xav9dv(>> (|ui9-, nas. cl.) learn, (iaOil^o-opxii, l|ia6ov, |i6{id9T]Ka.

fxapTTTOi) {ixapTT-, T cl.) seize, ^idpy^Kt)., ffiap^pa.

(jLapTCpojiat (jxapTvp-, i cl. ; see 423), call to witness, cp.apriJpdfi.'qv.

[ido-o-o) (jia-y-, i el.) knead, p.d^«, ^|xa|a, }ilp.a\a, [ie'jJiaYnai, €p.dx9'qv.

|jtdxo|JLai (jiaX", ^o.\i:r\-) fight, jiaxovftai (322 c), €[jLax€<rdp,iiv, ixeiidx-nixai.

|ji€i7vi)|JLi (fii-Y-, |A€t7-> nas. cl.) mix, ixci^ca, ?|i€i|a, fi^(X€iYp.ai, k^d\<^^v, tp-^Y-qv.

(ieXXo) (|i€XX-, [ieXX-q-, 266) intend, (ji,€XXt|o-u), lneXXrio-a.

lAcXo) (jJLcX-, jicXt]-) care /or, ptcX^o-a), Ifi^X-qo-a, )xe)i€XT]Ka, ficii^Xi^iiai, €|ji,€Xtj9t]v.

Impers. p.4X€i, etc. ; otherwise, in Attic prose, only in dep. compounds,

eiri|Ji€Xo[j.ai or eirifxcXeofjiai, cirincXi^o-ofjLai, etc., and }iCTa{ieXo}jiai..

H^jiJJx'H-ai (|Ji.€H.<}>-) blame, ji€|A\j/o[iai, €|i€[jL\|/d|XTiv.

^ivia (|i€v-, |Jtevii-) remain, ncvw, ^{leiva, |i€|x€VT]Ka.

Ix-qSo/iai (/H7j5-) devise, ixr^a-ofxai, ifxriadix-qv.

\uyvv\Li, late spelling for (icC-yvi/jit.

jxi/xv^a-Ko} and ixifj.vr](TK(i} {/xya-.r]-, incep. cl.) remind, ijiu-fjcrco, tfimiffa, |ilfiVT]{i,ai

(456 b; subjv. ^6p,vcj|ie9a, opt. (i€|ivf|o, (icuvfiTO, (i€|xvf|fi€9a, also |X€}ji,vwo,

|jL€|iviuTo, n€|jLV(w}JL€9a, are found), c^J.v1^<^91]v. In prose dvap.i}ivn<rKw and

{iiro(i.

fxifivu = /xeVftj.

jxiffyw = fieiyvvixi.
ifioX-) come, fut. ftoAoDuot, aor. iixoXov.

Ne'ixo) (veii-, vc|iTi-) distribute, vh>m, ^V6i}ia, v€V6|x'qKa, v€v^|iti[iat, €V€jJiirj9T]v.

v€» (vv-, V6V-, 257 b; su'im, viva-ov\i.a.i (326), ^vevo-a, ve'vcvKa.

n'^a; (»'*7-, Vi/S-, t cl.) ivash, vlipo), ti/trpa, v^vifx^iai.

vop,it« (vojiiS-, t cl.) thinJc, believe, vofxiw (346 a), evd|Ai<rtt, vcvo|jLiKa, v€vdni<r-

|iai, lvo{XkG-9T]v.

S'Hpa^vco (l-qpav-, i cl.) £?rj/, ^tipavw, l|T|pava, €^ifjpa<rp,ai, kir\pdvQif\v.

"O^w (68-, otT]-, I cl.) smell, 6X,r\<r<a, w^i](ra.

oXyvvfxi {oiy-, nas. cl.), also ol^ctf oj9e7i ; mostly in compounds ; see ayoiyyv^u
olSa, 386.
olSe'w (o18c:t]-), also olhauw, swell, ^iST^o-a, ^SiiKa.

oiKTtpo) (o'lKTtp-, I cl.) pity, wKTipa (late olKreipa), ^KT(ipoi).

308 GREEK GRAMMAR

ol^ofiai., oljjLai (ol-, oIt)-) think (irapf. commonly ^^ur/i'), olTJo-o|xai, ^i\^r\v,

oCo-o) : see ^ip<a.

otxo|Jiai (olx", olxtl") am gonCi olxi^o-o|jiai, ^xrj/ca.

oKcXXo) (oKcX-, I el.) hring to shore, wKciXa, prose form of KeWw.

6Xicr9dv&> and 6Xio-9aCv« (6Xi(r0-, nas. cl.) slip, «Xi<r0ov.
oWvui, for oXvvjxi (6X-, oXc-, nas. cl.) lose, destroy, d\w (cp. 322 c), &\e(ra,
u}\6firiv was lost, ruined, oAc^Aewra, oAcoAa (291 c) am lost, ruified. In prose
dir-oXXiJui, etc.
5fjLviJ|xi (ofJi-, 6(1.0-, nas. cl.) swear, 6)j.ov|j.ai, wfjiocra, 6)JL(6|ji,oKa (291 c), 6}Ji(o|xo(r-

liai, u>pid9T]v and a>|Jido-6T]V.

ofxSpyvvnt {ofiopy-y nas. cl.) w^tpe, 6fi6p^o/xai, &>fiop^a. Only compounds in

prose.
6v£vT]p.t (ovaiT]-, redupl. in pres., 365) henefit, ovqcrw, t5vT](ra, «v%tiv (369 a),

u)vi]Q'r\V'

o^uuco {d^vv; I cl.) sharpen, -o^wu, H^vva, -ic^vfi/xai, w^vvdrjp. Only compounds
in prose.
ijirwira, 6^o\iXLi : see opdo).
opdw (6pa:d-, ott-, 18-, 267 a) see, 6iJ/o(jLai, cISov (350, 7), edp&Ka, IwpdKa (291 a),

oTTooira (291 c), ((opdfiai and wp-fxai, cS((>9t]v.

dpiYh) (6p€Y-) reach, opc^co, wpe^a.

opj/y/it (op-, nas. cl.) raise, rouse, mid. 7'ise, rush, opau, S>p(Ta, opwpa (291 c) am
aroiised (456 b).

opvo-o-o) (opuY-, I cl.) dig, 6pv|(tf, wpu|a, opwpvxa (291 c), 6p(opvY)jLai, wpvx^'HV.
6(r<{>pa{vo}:.ai (6<r^pav-, 6(r<j>p-, 6(r4)p'q-) smell, 6(r4>p'^(rop.ai, te>(r()>pd[jLi]v, w(T<pp6.v-

6^ii\<a (6(j)€X-, 64>€iXti-) owe, d<})€iX^<r«, w<}>€Xov, a><})€£X'r](ra, a)<j)c(X'riKa, a)<J)€i-

X^9'nv.
6{|)Xi(rKdv« (d(J)Xi<rK-', 64>X-, 64)X'q-, nas. cl.) lose a suit, am convicted of, or
condemned to, 6(j>XTi(ro), a)({>Xov, ca({;X'r]Ka, (i)4>X'T])iai.

TlaUa (irai-, TraiTj-) strike, ira{(rcD and iranfjo-o}, iTrawra, Tr^iraiKa, £iraCo-9T]v.
TTCtAAw (iraA-, t cl.) shake, CTrrjAa, TreVaA/xat.

(TTCt-) acquire, iracrofiai, iirdad/xriu, ireirdfiai.

irdcra-aj (irar-, i cl.) sprinkle, ird<rft), ^irao-a, 6'irdor9T]v.

irdcrxft) (ira9-, '7r€v9-, 7rov9-, incep. cl., 260 b) suffer, ircCo-ojiai (for irev0-o-O|Uai,

53), ?'7ra9ov, '7r^irov9a.

7rc£9a) (^19-, Tr€t9-, -77019-) persuade, ircfcrw, ^Treio-a, 6Tri9djj.i]v, ir^irciKa, 7r^7roi.9a

believe, trust (456 b), Tr^ireio-jxai, lTr€£<r9T|v.

ircivdo) (irciva-) hunger, 320.
7rcCo-o|xai : see Trdo^w.
-ir^XdCo) (TreAaS-, TreAo-, irAct-, t cl.), also ireXdOw, irXddco approach, TreAw (like
^Aa>, 322 c), iirihaffa, itrehda-driv and iir\dQi)v.
 VERB-LIST 309

ir^fiirw (ir€{jnr-, irojiir-) escort, send, irejixl/w, ^ircjjuj/a, ir^iro(t(f>a, ir^ircjiiiai (344 a),

€'rr€|i4>0'qv.

TTtpaCvcD (TTtpav-, I cl.) ^ro through, finish, irepavw, CTrcpdva, Treirepao-iiai, lirc-

pdv6t]v.
7rep0co (7rep0-) c^ac/i:, irepaco, iTrepaa. (The pi'OSe word is iropGcw.)
TT^a-o-w ("jrcK-, TTCir-, i cl.) cook, ir^if/ca, ^ir€\]/a, ir€irep.|iai, C'ir^<|>9Tiv.

ir€Tdvvu(ii (ir€Ta-, irra-, nas. cl.) spread, ircT« (like eAcD, 322 c), €ir^Tacra, Trc'ir-

rafxai, iTrcrdirdrjv.
ireTojjtai (ircr-, ttt-, irTaiT]-, ttctt]-) ^^, irTTjo-ojiai and ircnqo-oiiat, 6irTdjxi]v and
cTTTTjj/ (369 a).

Kivdofxai = irvvddvo|iai.
•jr'f\yvv[Li (TTiry-, iray-, nas. cl.)^a:, ir-nlo), ^iriila, iriTn\ya (456 b), liraYTiv.
•irCiJnrXiiiJLt (irXaiTj-, pres. reduplication with inserted /u) fill, irXiqcro), ^irX-qo-a,

•jrlirXTiKa, ir^TrXTKiai and ir^irXTjoriiai, eirX-^o-Oiiv. In prose only in compo-

sition : €|X'7r£(|A)irXT]p,i, etc.

irCp.irpiiiJLi (irpaiT]-, with inserted p, as in irCpirXTHii) burn, irpTJo-a), ^irpiia-tt,

•n-€irpTip.ai, l'irp-f\(rdr\v. In prose €pTrC(p)irpTipi, etc.

irtvo) (tti:!-, iroiw-, nas. cl.) drink, tzio^ax and 7r<o/xat (without fut. suffix),
hriov, TT^irtoKa, ir^iropai, lirdO-qv.
irnrpdo-Kw (irpd-, incej). cl.) sell, ireirpaKa, 7r^irpd[iai, eirpdO-qv. iruX^o) is the
common pres.
irtiTTw (ttct-, irco--, irTw-, 257 a) fcill^ 7re(rovpai (326), ^irco-ov, ir^irTCDKa.
•nlrvw = iriTTTW.
irXdo-oroj (irXttT-, \. c\.) form, ^irXao-a, ir^irXao-p-ai, CTrXdo-O-qv.

irX^Kft) (ttXck-, irXttK-) plait, tivist, ^irXela, iriirke^^o.i, lirXdK-qv, IttXc'xOiiv.

TrXeo) (irXv-, irXev-, 257 b) sail, irXciio-op.ai and TrXcvo-ovpiai (like Treaovfj-ai, 326),

^irXtvo-a, ircTrXevKa, ireirXcuo-p.ai.

TrXiri<ro-<i> (irXiiY-, i cl.) strike, irXifj^co, ^TrX-q^a, iriirXtiya, Tritrkriyiiai, lirXifiY'qv.

irXvvft) (irXvv-, irXu-, i cl.) ivash, 'Tr\vy&, ^irXiiva, Tr^irXvp-ai, iTr\v9r\v.

trvib) (ttvv-, irv€u-, 257 b) breathe, hloiv, irv€vo-opai and irvcvo-ovpai (like ireo-oG-

fiai, 326), ^irvevo-a, Tr^irvcuKa.

irvtYO) (irviY-, irvtY-) choke, irvtlco, ^irvXia, irlirviYpai, Ittv^yiiv.
{irop-, irpoo-) give, allot, eiropov, ireirpwTai it is fated.
irpdo-oro) (irpdY-, i cl.) do, arpd^co, 2irpd^a, ir^irpdYa and TrcTrpdxa, ir^TrpdYp-ai,
lirpdxQtiv.
irpCao-6ai, eirpidpiiv : see a>v€0|ji,ai.

Trpiu) (irpT-) saiv, ^irpio-a, ir^irpTo-p.ai, lirpio-Oiiv.

TrTdpvup.ai (irrap-, nas. cl.) sneeze, ^irTapov.

n-TTJa-o-o) (ttttik-, i cl.) cronch, cower, hrrr^ifl., hTr'r\yja..

TTTlio-O-ft) (iTTUX-, I cl.) fold, trTXi^Vti ^TTTV^a, ^TTTU-yP'Cl'') CTTTyxOlv.

TTTVft) (7rTu:0-) spiY, eTTTvaa.
TTTdxTcot = irr'hffiToa,
810 GREEK GRAMMAR

irvvddvojxai. (irv0-, ir€v0-, nas. cl.) inquire, hear, ireto-ofiai, eirvOofJi'qv, ir€in«r-
|i.ai.

'Pafvw (pav-, I cl.) sprinkle, pavw, ^ppdva, Ippdv9i]v.

pdirro) (pa<|)-, t cl.) sew, stitch, pdxj/o), ^ppa\|/a, ^ppa|X}jLai, €ppd4>i]v.

^eX*" ' see ep5«.

p^cD (pu-, p€u-, pvT]-, 257 b) ^oz^, peii(ro|xai and pviqo-ofxai, €ppvT]Ka, Ippui^v.

p^-yvviii (pilY", p«7-> paV", nas. cl.) hreak, pr'ilw, '^pp-q^a, ^ppw^a, eppd-yTjv.

piTTTco (pt4>-> p«'<j>-> T cl.), also pIiTT^w (pIiTTc-) tkrow, pi^b), ^ppi\j/a, '^ppl:{:a,

?ppiji}iat, €ppif<|>9T]v and cpp£<j)T]v.

puojxai {pi)-) preserve, pvcrofxai, ippvcrdfirju.

pdouvv/xi late (pw-, nas. cl.) strengthen, -^ppwo-a, ?pp«[x.ai, Ippctfo-Otiv.

SaCvw (<rav-, i cl.) /az^w- i^pow, ^crriva.

aaipo) {(Tap-, ffrjp-, i cl.) sweep, earipa, o-4(rr]ptt ^?•^7^.

o-aXir^tw (<raXTrtYY-> ^ cl.) i/oz^; trumpet, I(rd\irt7|a.

o-dTTO) (oraY", I cl.) pack, a-i<r(x.y^ox.

o-p^vvujJii (o-pc:-!!-, nas. cl.) quench, o-p^o-w, -o-prjo-ojiai, ^o-pco-a, eo-jSTji/ (369 b),

-?o-pT]Ka (456 b), l(rp€<r9Tiv.

Q-dui (o-ei-) shake, o-eio-w, iff^icray (r€<r€iKa, <r4o-€io-|jiai, la-eCo-Biriv.

<ni|AaCvo> (o~qjxav-, i cl.) show, cn]|iavw, €<rTJ|jLiiva, <r€<rTi|xa(r|i,ai, €on](idv0T]v.

(T^irw ((rqir-, <rttir-) maA:e ro^, (r^\//eo, o-4<rr]ira (456 b), IcrdTTTjv.

o-KdiTTO) (o-Katj)-, T cl.) fZi^^, o-Kd^o), ^(rKa\{ra, ^(rKa({)a, ^o-KafjifJiai, eo-Kd(j>t]V.

<rK€8dwi>|Jii ((TKcSa-, nas. cl.) scatter, o-kcSw (like iKu, 322 c), €o-K48a<ra, lo-ic^-

8ao-^ai, lo-KcSdo-Stiv. Also pres. (tkISptj/jli.

o-K^TTTojiat (a-Kitr-, t cl.) view, more often (TKoiriu in pres. syst., o-K^xJ/o[iai,

e(rK€\{/d}Jk'qv, ^crK€p.|iai.

<rKir]TrTo> (<rKT]Tr-, t cl.) prop, (rK^\|/(o, ^o-KTivlfa, 2<rKT][A|xat, l<rK^(J)0T]v.

o-Koireo), in pres. syst. for <rK€TrTO|iai.

o-KwirTo) (o-Kwir-, t q\.) jeer, (rK(tf\{/o|jLai, ?<rKft)x}/a, Io-k«<J)0t]V.

{nrdw (o-ira-) draw, (nrdo-cj, ?<nrao-a, '^<nraKtt, ^<nra<r|j.ai, €oird(r0i]v.

(nreCpcD (oirep-, crirap-, i cl.) sow, o-rrcpd), ^onreipa, ^onrapjjiai, l(nra.pt\v.

o-irevSw (o-TrevS-) j90itr a libation, <nrcCcro> (53), ^(nrewra (53), ^o-ircKrjxai.
o-ireilSci) (o-TTCuS-) hasten, <nr€V(ro), ^<nr€u<rtt.
o-To^o) (o-ray-, t cl.) cZroj9, cffra^a.

CTcifiu} {(TT^i^-, (TTifirj-) tread, ^a-retrpa, icrTlfi'r}fiai.

oreXXo) ((rreX-, o-raX-, i cl.) equip, send, otcXw, ^(rrciXa (331), ^oToXKa,
^cTaXjiat, lo-rdX-qv.
aTivdt,<a (cTTCvaY", i cl.) groan, arreud^cc, lo-r^va^a.

OT^PYw ((TTepY", CTTopY") love, a-rip^u, ^o-repla, caTopya.

(TTipibi (oPTcpc-), oTTcp^aKCi) (<rT6p-, incep. cl.) deprive, <rTipi\<r<a, etc. (rT^pop.ai
(o-T€p-) am in ivant.
 VERB-LIST 311

a-rtlb) (o-TiY", I cl.) pricJc, (rri^<a, ^crriYjjiai.

OTdpvv|ii (o-Top-, nas. cl.) spread, a-Topai (like reXw, 322 c), lorTop€<rtt.

o-Tpecjxi) (o^petj)-, o-Tpo<J)-, <rTpa<j)-) ^<<r/i, arrpiy^otf 'itrr pe]fa., ia-rpo^a, ^(rTpa)i)xai,
€(rTpd<J>T]V.

<rTpwvvi;(JLi ((rrpw-, nas. cl.) spread, ffTpdixTu)^ ^(rrpoxra, ^o-Tpa>|iai, iarpdod-nv,

(rtpdCo and (r^a.TT<a {<r^a.y-, i cl.) slay, (r<|>d^a), ^(r<j>a|a, *^o-<{>a'Y}j,ai, i(T(pdyT}v.

(r<t>dXX(d (o-<}>a\-, i cl.) /r^}j, o-4>aXw, ^(r<j>'q\a, ^<r4>aX|iat, €<r4)dXT]v.

o-wtto (for (roo'iCw, o-«i8-, o-«-, i cl.) save, o-cio-o), ^o-oxra, o-^o-coKa, a-ia-iaiiOLi and
cri(r(o(r[JLai, l<ra)9T]V.

Tapdcro-« (ropax-) i- cl.) disturb, T(tpd|cc, Irdpa^a, Tcrdpa-yiiai, CTapd^STlv.

rdo-o-o) (raY", i cl.) arra^ige, ra^oi, 'dra^a, riTa\a., rirayiiai, Ird^Oilv.
Ta4>i]vai, €Td<j)'qv : see Gdirrw.
T6iva> (t€v-, Ttt-, I cl.) stretch, revw, ^'rciva, Tc'raKa, Wrajiai, IrdOTjv.

T€K€lV, ^T€KOV : SBC TlKTCi).

T€Kixaip(o rare, T€K|iaipo(iai (rcKjiap-, i cl.) fix by a marJc, infer, T€K|xapovp.ai,

6T€KfJ,T|pd|l'r]V.

TcXcw {Tiki-) finish, tcXw (322 c), crcXeo-a, rcr^XcKa, TCT^Xeo-jxai (322, a, b), trc-

Xeo-S-qv.

TeAAw (reA.-, i cl.) cawse to rise, rise, ir^iKa, -TeToA^uat. More frequent in
composition : dvareXXo), lvT^XXo|iai.
T^{xv6) (t6|jl-, Tap.-, Tfi-q-, nas. cl.) cut, n^St, 'iny-ov and ^rajiov, WruTiKa, t€T|jlt]-

|iai, 6T|xt]9t]v.

TipTTO) (repir-) delight, rfprpo), eTepi|/a, iTipcpOrju.

T6ux<w (t^X"? TfwX") ^G^^'6, T6j;|c«j, eTeu|a, TfTvy/jiai.

ri\K<a (TttK-, TT]K-) 7;?e?^, ttjIw, ^r-qla, TerqKa (456 b), lTdKt]V.

t£0ti|jli : see 375, 372.

tCkto) (t€k-, TOK-, 257 a) bear, ?4^o(iai, ^reKov, reroKa.
T^vft) (ti:I-, T€i-) pay, T€£<r«, ?T€tcra, T^rciKa, T€T€i(r|xai, iTcCo-fl'qv. Later, and
often in ovir editions, tio-o), ^Tto-a, etc.

TiTpwcTKo) (rpw-, incep. cl.) ivound, rpwo-o), ^-^pwo-a, Tirpjojiai, €Tpw9T]V.

(tAo:tj-) endure, rX^fta-ofxai, irX-qv (369 a), TfT\7]Ka.
rpiira (rpeir-, Tpoir-, Tpair-) ^?<rw, Tp4ij/w, ^Tp€\|/a, T4Tpo<j>a, T€Tpap,nai, Irpd-
irqv, eTp€(j)9t]V.

rpi^b) (Tp6<j)- for 0pe(^-, 47 d, Tpo<|>-, rpaij)-) nourish, Qpi]f(a, ^9p€^a, T€Tpo4,a,
T€9pa|x|iai, €Tpd<|)T]v.

Tpe'xo) (rpcx- for 0p6x-, 47 d. Spafi-, 8pa|xTi-) r?/w. Spajiovjiai, ?8pa|iov, 8cSpd-
|XT]Ka, 8€8pd|iT|fjiat. Also rarely -9p^^op,ai, cOp'^^a.

rpiia (Tp6-) tremble, 'irpecra.

rpi^o) (rpXP", TptP") r?<i, Tpt]/&), ^Tpi^/a, TlTpi{|)a, rlrpTunai, lTpt:|>9Tiv, irpi^r\v.
TpioY« (rpcoY-, Tpa^-) gnaw. Tpw|onai, ^rpayov, TCTp(i)'yH''°''"

Tvyxdvw (tuX"> t€ux-> '""^X'^'j ^^^S- <^^) happen, rcj^ojiai, ^t^xov, T€Tux'nKa.
312 GREEK GRAMMAR

rvirra (rxm-, tvittt]-, t cl.) strike, tuttti^o-w, Irviniv.

Tv<|>(i) (tv<J)-, tu<|>-, for Ovp-, 47 d) smoke, T€0iiji.}i,ai, €tu<J)T]v.

'
Yirwrxv^ofiai (inro + l<rx-, <rx-} o^^-j nas. cl.) promise, {»'jro(rxif](ro(i.ai, virc-

i
(TXonTiv, vircirx-qfiat. Cp. ^X"*
i^aiv<a {it^av-f i cl.) weave, v^avu, v^y\va, i^aa-^ai, v^avQr\v.
</« (iJ-) ram, i»o-a), i<ra, vo-}iai, vadriv.

4>aY€tv, ^(paYov ; see lo-OCo),

<j)a£v« (<j)av-, <|>iiv-, i cl.) show, 4>avc0, ^<|>iiva, '7r€<j>a7Ka, tzi^r^vo. (332), ir^<j>a(r(Jiai

(339), €<j)dvTiv, 6<|)dv0Tiv (337).

<{>dpYvv)j,i = (}>pd'yvv[j,(,.

<|>e£8o}iai (<{>ei8-) spare, <j>e£(ro|xai, l(j)€i(rdftT]v.

4)^p« (<j>€p-, ol-, €V€7K-, €V€K-, €voK-) Jcar, oto-w, i^veYKov and ^jvcyKa, Iv^voxa
(291 c), lvifjv6Y|iai, -^v^xOilv.
<|)€V70) (<j)VY-| <|>€V7-) flee, <}>€v^ofjLai and 4>€viov|xai (326), 'i^vyov, tri^fvya..

<j)T]Hi (<j)a:'q-, 382) say, <|)^<ra), ^<j>Ti<ra. Also (Ip-, pcii]-) Ipw, c1ipT]Ka (291 b),

€\!p'r])iai, cppTJOtiv. See also elirov.

<j>0dva) (<|)0a:T]-, nas. cl.), anticipate, <{>9ir](ro)jiai and <{)6d(rci), '^<})9aora, 'i^^r\v

(369 a).

<{)9cCpfa>
(<i>9€p-, <{>9ap-, ({>9op-) corrupt, 4>9€pw, ^4>9€ipa, '^4>9apKa, i(pQopa, ^<j>9ap-

}j.ai, l<}>9dp'qv.

<|)9tv« (4>9i-, <j>9iv-) ivaste, perish, (fyeia-u, itpOicra, i(p6ifiai.

<j>pd7vv(Jii (4)paY-, nas. cl.), also (j>pdo-(ro> (t cl.) enclose, ^^^pctia, ir^^jpaYiiai,

€({)pdx9T]v.

^pdt«> (<|>pa8-, I cl.) tell, ({>pdo-(i>, ^<|>pa(ra, 7rl<{>paKa, ire<j}pa(r)JLai, icppdcrdrjv.

<j>pi(r(ro> (<j)pXK-, I cl.) bristle, shudder, ^<J>pi|a, ir^<j>plKa.

4>pvY(» (<}>pvY") '''oast, <j>pv^<i), ^<|>pv|a, '7r4<|)pi>Y}iai.

ipvyydvoi {(pvy-, nas. cl.) = ({>€VY^*

<f>v\d(r(ra> (<}>vXaK-, i cl.) guard, <}>vXd^o), e<j)uXa|a, 7r€<j)i>Xttxa, ir€<j)iiXaYfxai,
€<j)vXdx9'riv.

«j)vpo) (<j>vp-, <t>vp-) m^a;, 'ir^<}>vpfiai.

<j>v(i) (<|)v:v-) produce, <})tJo-«, ^<^iJ(ra, ^<j)vv (369 d), ir44)iJKa (456 b).

Xaipo) (xap-, xa'P«:'n-> X^fl-* «• cl.) rejoice, xo-ipV"* Kcxdpr^Ka, Kexdpvfiai,

Ixdp-nv.
XaXdo) (xaXtt-) loosen, IxdXao-a, Ix^^a-o'S'nv.
Xdo-Kw (xa-, xo-v-, X'H^-, ineep. cl.) ^ape, xo-voCjiai, ^xo-^ov, k^xIvo-*
X^« (x^-j X*^'> 257 b) pour, \i<a (without fut. sviffix), ^x^^-j Kc'xvKa, Kexup-ai,
Ixv9tjv.
\6<a {\o:<a-) heap, x^Kra, ^\<aa-af kIx^i^o-j Klxw<r|iai, lx«cr9Tiv.
Xpdo|jiai (xpO'J'n-j 320) use, xp^o-opiai (317 a), expTjordixTiv, K4xpilK<ai, 6XP^°"®1^'
 VERB-LIST 313

Xpdo) (xpa^'H-) 320) give an oracle, xp^o-w> ^XP'HO"*) Ixp^o"0t]v.

Xpi^, 390. dirdxpil it suffices, inf. diroxp^v, impf. dTre'xpT].
Xpto) (xp"i-) anoint, sting, xpto-w, ?XP^°"*> K^xpli^ai and Kixpla-^a)., i\pifr^t\v.

Xpwt«, xpo't'C'^ (XPf S-> XPo"*5"s •• cl.), xp^^^^^H-^

(XP'^'j ii^s. cl.) co^or, K€xp«<r|jLtti,

€XP«<r0Tiv.

^€v8o> (^I'cvS-) deceive, ^€v<r<a, i^ivcra, ^\)/€V(r(i.ai, c^|/6v(r6i]v.

^vx" (xj/vx", ^v\-) cool, \|/i>|«, ^xj/u^a, ^\j/v7|iai, &^^\9r\v and i^'^X'HV*

*Q.Qi<a («9-, wQc-, 267) j9?<sA, woro), ^wo-a, ^wo-fiai (291 a), IwcrOtiv.

«v^o|xtti ((oveiT]-, Trpia-, 267) buy, «vifj<ro}j.ai, lirptdjxiiv (369 a), €»VT]|iai (291 a),
 GREEK INDEX
Note. —
The Indexes are intended to supplement the Table of Con-
tentsand the Verb-List for verb forms look first in the latter. Refer-
;

ences are to sections but a few references in the English Index are to
;

pp. 1-3 of the Introduction.

A, quantity 4 ; initial a in era- alarOdvofJLaL^ w. gen. 511 a ; w.

sis 36 b ; interchanges with ace. and gen. 530 c ; three
€, o 25 ; aor. in 351 ; d- neg. constructions 588 b.

444 ; d- copulative 444 a. ato-xpo5, compared 181.

d, retained in poetry 69 a, b ;
ala-xvvoixai^ w. acc. 530 a.

after c, t, p 77 a, 317 ; inter- atrio?, w. gen. 516 a.

changes with 7), (0 26. -d/ct9, adv. ending 232.

-d, suffix 404. oLKovui, w. gen. 511 a ; w. acc.
dya^o?, compared 182, 1. and gen. 530 c ; three con-
dyvws 145. structions 588 b.
ayo), meaning of mid. 500 b. dxpodo/xat 317 a.

dywv 99. aKO)v 167 ; as partic. 589 a.

ayo)v 583 a. dAXdo-o-o) 341, 345.

-dSf}?, -d?, suffix 433. dWrjXoiV 202.

-d^w, f ut. of verbs in 346 b. dXXoOev, dAAo^t 228.
'AOdvd, 'AOyva 85, 86. dAAos 201.
'AOrjvdle, ^AOrjvrjOev, ^AOriviqcn dAAoo-c 228.
228. dAs 40 a ; declined 99, 100.
at, diphthong 5 and a ; final, d/xa, w. partic. 592.
effect on accent 14. d/xeAoj, w. gen. 511 c.

dt, a, diphthong 5 and b. dfjio'; (d/xds) 204.

m, pronoun 18 a. d/Ac^t, w. acc, gen., and dat.
at8(us 129. 598.
al^ 109. d/X^tOt€V, dfJL(f>LOLT€ 377.
atp€(o, meaning of mid. 500 b. dfx(f>6Tepo<;, w. art. 554.
315
316 GREEK GRAMMAR

oLfjicfiOTepoiiOev, w. gen. 518 b. aTTTw, meaning of mid. 500 a.

a/x<^w, w, art. 554. d/aa, inferential particle 673 a.

dixvvofiai, w. acc. 530 a. dpa, interrog. 668; apa fx-j

a(v)-, neg. 441, 444, 447 a. 488 a.

-ai/, for wv 69 b. "Apaij/ 112.

dv, w. impf . indie. 461, 468 ; w. "ApT^s 128 c.

plup. indie. 469 ; w. aor. in- -dpio-v^ dim. suffix 431 c.

die. 467, 468; w. opt. 479, dpx", dpxe-, d/oxt-, prefix 442 a.

480 w. infin. 579 w. partie.

; ; dp)(6iJi€vos 583 a.

595 ; w. oT€, oxoTc 627 w. ; dpxw 341 ; meaning of mid.

cTTCi, cTTctSij 629 general uses 500 b.
;

666 and a. dpira^ 145.

dm, w. aee. 598. -d9, names in 72 e.
dva^ 111 C. -d?, innouns of number 192.
dvd^tos, w. gen. 516 a. doTTV 130.
ava<jiopd 600 b. dcrvvherov 600 a.

avSpes 36 b. -arat, for -vrat, 344 C.

dv€v^ w. gen. 518 c, 599. arc, w. partic. 593 a.

di/i}p, declined 106, 107 ; avrjp^ drepo'S 36 C.

36 b. -aro, for -vro 270 a, 344 c.

dvOpayjros 62. drra 217 a.

-avo, suffix 412. av, diphthong 5 and a.

-avo:e-, suffix 261 b, c. avTLKa, w. partic. 592.

dvrexo/xat, W. gen. 510 b. avToOev 228 a.

dvTt, w. gen. 598. auTos 197, 198 ; meaning 199

dvvcra? 583 a. w. ordinal 558 a.

d^to9, compared 177; w. gen. ayro? 36 b.

516 a. avToa-e 228 a.

aTTtttS 145. avTov, adv. 228 a, 515.

dTTtt^ 232. avTov, for eavTOv 203 a.

ttTrAoo?, d7rAov9, declined 87-90 dcf>€L8y';, w. gen. 516 a.

compared 179 a. d<^ct8w, w. gen. 511 c.

ttTTo, w. gen. 598. dcfiLcrTrjiXL 363 a.

oLTToOvricrKo), as pass. 499. axo-pt-'S 147.

'AttoXXcov 104. dxpt 33 b ; w. gen. 518 c, 599 ;

dTrTOfiaL, w. gen. 510 b. dxpi clauses 631.

 GREEK INDEX 317

-aw, verbs in, contracting to ry yvixvrj<s 145.

instead of d 320. yvvrj 142, 1.

B 38 a, b, and c, 39, 44 a ; after A 38 a, b, and c, 39, 44 c ; after

,^,49. v49.
^eygao-t, ^efSwa-L, ^e/Jw?, root perf. -Bd, -i8d, -8, -(8, patronym. suf-
370 (2). fix 433.

/Se^rjKa 456 b. BaLjJiiov 102.

yScArtwv, declined 149, 150 SaKpvov, SaKpv 143, 1.
compared 182, 1. 8e, conj. 669.
-8e 19 e.

PovXevw, meaning of mid. SeSifiev, root perf. 370 (5).

500 b. SiSoiKa, 8c8ta, as pres. 456 c.

PovXofjiaL, augment 266. huKVVIXl 360.

jSovs 136. 8eiKi/vs 170 a.

8€tva 225.
r 38 a, b, c, and d, 39, 44 b BeX<^U 103 b.
nasal 3. 8evT€po9 188.
ya, yaia 86. Seo) 321 a.

ydp 672. 8>; 671 c, 673 a.

yaa-Trfp108 a. SryXowv, SrjXwv 168 b.

ye 19 e, 671 b. AyjfirJTrjp 108 b.
yeyws, root perf. 370 (3). Srjjxoa-La 526 b.
yeAaw 322. -877V, adv. ending 231.
yeXwS 112. 8>i7roi; 671 d.
yci/os 124. 8^Ta 671 d.
ycpatos, compared 178. 8ta, w. acc. and gen. 598.
y^85. 8tay(o 585 a.

ytyds 121, 122 a. 8(aK€t/>tai, as pass. 499.

ytyvojaat 257 a. 8ia;(eipt^(o 448 a.

ytyvwo-Kw 289 d ; redupl. 260 b. 8i8ao-/c(o, redupl. 260 b ; mean-

yAv/cv? 177. ing of mid. 500 a.

yovv 120. 8tya/>t/xa 27.

yovv 671 b. 8tKato9, declined 76 ; compared
ypac/xo 341, 345. 177.
yvjxvdt^oi 341. AtoyeVr/s 154.
318 GREEK GRAMMAR

SioTL clauses 626. ei-, as redupl. 291 b.

Sltttixv^ 159 b. c?, name of letter 1 b.
SlttXovs, declined 90. -€t, adv. ending 231.
8t? 232. ct yap, in wishes 470, 477.
StcfyOoyyoL 5. cl 8e /X7^ 656 c.

8tX«j ^f-XV^ ^dv. of number 233. ctSws 172.

Sfwos 101 a. ct^c 21 d ; in wishes 470, 477.
-86v, adv. ending 231. CIKOS -^v 460.
Bopo^ 143, 2. ct />t77, ct p.r] 8ta 656 a.

86pv 120. ctKcVat, cIkw^^ root perf. 370 (6).

SovXoo) 315. eifjLL, con jug. 384
enclitic 19 d ;

SvvafiaL 266, 365 and a, 395. in compound perfs. 456 d.

Svo 187 a, 188. el/XL 385 and a.

Svo--, prefix 441, 444. ei^'do-t, root perf. 370 (6).

Swpov 62. -cto adj. suff. 424 a place suff. ;

432 and a.

E, quantity 4 ;
pronun. 7 ; be- ctTTc 349 a.

comes ct 51 ; formative vowel ctTTov, w. infin. 658.

263 a changes to
; o 403. cts(e?), proclit. 17 b; w. ace.
€- augment 265 a. 598.
€, enclitic 19 a. CIS declined 187.
cav re . . . cav T€ 653. ciTc . . . ctrc 653*.

cavToO 203. ctco^a 456 C.

cyyvs, w. gen. 599. iKi see c^.

cyKoAw, w. dat. 520 a. cKaoTos, w. art. 554.
cyK/oarrjs, w. gen. 516 a. cKct and iKeWev 236.
eyv(DV 367. cKcti/os 208 , correl. pron. 227
cyw 194. pred. position 553 ; in pred.
eycoyc, t/Aoiyc 195 C. 561b.
18a 460. CKCtVcDS 236.
c-8i5v 367. cKelcre 236.
I^ei/ 196. iKeXeva-c, in indir. disc. 663.
€1, diphthong 5 ; and digraph iKTriTTTd), as pass. 499.
27 a. iKTToSwv 448 a.

el, proclitic 17 c; ct clauses iKTos, w. gen. 518 b.

477, 645-656. e/cwv, as partic. 589 a.
 GREEK INDEX 319

iXcvOepos, w. gen. 516 a. ctttJkoo?, w. gen. 516 a.

'EAeucrti/a^e, 'EAevo-tvt, 'EAevcrtvo- eVt 598.

eev 228. iTnOoLfxcOa, cTrt^wvrat 377.

iXei 349 a. iirLfjLeXrjS, w. gen. 516 a.

-eAo, suff. 412. imopKeo) 268 b.

^TTtS 114. iTnTLfjLWj w. dat. or ace. 520 a.

i\Q> 322 c. ipya^ofiai 291.

ifxavTov 203. Ipyo), dat. 526 b.

e^d? 204. 'Epfxrj^ 85.

c/x7ro8t'^(o, c/u,7rd8t09, Ifxirohuiv 448 a. -epo, suff. 412.

t^TTpoa-Oev, w. gen. 518 b. ipp(Dfx€vo^, compared 179 b.
cv, proclit. 17 b ; w. dat. 598. cptu, w. gen. 511 c.

IrSo^ev, €vSo6l, ei^Sov 228. €5, proclitic 17 b; w. ace.

ci/e/ca, w. gen. 518 c, 599. 598.
Iv^a, €v^€v 236, 238 ; e^Oa clauses -€0- following vowel in adj.,
620. resulting contraction, 152 b.

ivOdBe 236. -69, suff. 407, 413 b.

ej/^cv, w. gen. 518 b; li/^ev -e-o-at, becomes -rj or -et 263 b.
clauses 620. -€-(To, becomes -ov 263 b.
IvOivSe 236. . eoTripds, gen. 515.
ivOvixeoixai, augment 268 b. ea-rafxev etc., root perf. 370 (1).
ivLOT€ 614 a. ea-re clauses 631.
ivavTLoofxaL, augment 268 b. -cc-Tcpos, comp. ending 179.
-€VT, adj. suff. 427. tcTT-qv 367.
ivravOa, ivravOoL 236. eoTrjKo, as pres. 456 b.
ivT€v6€V 236. lo-Tt 20 e 384 b
; eo-rt, ; cto-t,

€vrd9, w. gen. 518 b. omitted 493 b.

ivrpeTTOfxaL^ W. gen. 511 0. etTTtv OL (ov, ^) 614 a ; Io-tlv

c^(eK), proclitic 17 b; w. gen. oo-Tt9, interrog. 614 a.

598. kcTTUi'S 173.

-€o, adj. suff. 426. e(T)(aTO'S 184.
-€o:€-, fut. suff. 324. co-o), w. gen. 518 b.
€OLyfjLev, root perf. 370 (6). £rcpo9, in crasis 36 c; correl.
cotKa, redupl. 291 a; pres. in pron. 227 ; w. gen. 516 a.

meaning 456 c. cTcpco^t, crcpw^ev, kripoicrf. 228.

iireL, iTrciBrj clauses 629. cv, diphthong 5.
320 GREEK GRAMMAR

ev 231; prefix 441, 444; w. 17, correl. adv. 236 ; clauses 620.
gen. 518 b ; w. ttolw 530 a. ^8et 41.
-€v, suff. 405, 430 and a, 434 riv K eyw, ^ 8' os 383.
and a. 178^?, compared 181.
-cr-, verb-stems in 257 b. 17/cw, as perf. 454 f
evSatfjLOiv 146 ; declined 147 tjXlko's 215 ; correl. pron. 227
compared 179. clauses 620.
eveX-n-LS 146. Yjiiai 388 a.
evrjOrjs 146 ; declined 151. T7/xcpa, declined 66 gen. 515. ;

€vOv<s, w. partic. 592. rjfJi^Tepo^ 204 W. avTOiv 559.

;

cwAery?, Compared 177. rjiiL, rjv, 5 383.

cwov?, declined 82 ; compared T7/xt-, insep. prefix 444.
179 a. rjpiLV 196.
ev Trao-xo), as pass. 499. y/xL(rv<s 159 b.

€vp€ 349 a. -^fjLKfieyvoovv, double augm. 268 d.

-CVS : see -ev. rjvcLxojj^rfv, double augm. 268 d.
€VT€ clauses 628. rjvLKa, correl. adv. 236; clauses

€vu>xovixaL, w. gen. 510 e. 630.

e<{>r}, e(f>7) xPW^h i^i indir. dis. rJTrap 120.
663. -rjpes, neuter forms in 153 a.

i<j> w or e<^' (St€, w. infin. 567. -rjpo, suff. 428.

cx^po's 181. yp(o<i 141.

ixpw 390, 460. -r;s see -eo".

€xo) 565 b mean, ; of mid. 500 a. rj(T(TMv, compared 182, 2.

€xwv 583 a. rj(TT€ impf. 384 c.

koipoiv 267 a. rjcrvxp'S 74.

€ws, declined 94. comparcd 180.
rJTTov, 7]KL(TTa,

€0)9 clauses 631. 77V, diphthong 5.

Z 38 a and e, 39. ©, pronun. and sound changes

-^€, place ending 228. 7, 38 a, b, c, 39, 42, 44 c
added to verb-stem 400 b.

H, quantity 4. Oakaa-aa 70.

^, proclitic 17 a ; as pron. 18 a. Oappuiv 583 a.

5, interrog. 668. Oarepov 36 d.

lyt, iy, diphthong 5. -^e, becomes re- 47 c
 GREEK INDEX 321

-Oev, place ending 228. -10, suff. 424, 431 a, 432 and a.

^eos, vocative 62 b. -to:e-, tense suff. 259.

-6ri:€, passive suS. 302. iTTTrev?, declined 136.
0^\v? 159 b. -L(TKo, suff. 431 b.

-^i, becomes -n 47 b ;
place -L(TKo\€-^ tense suff. 260.

ending 228. terra?, declined 162 b.

Otyydvo), w. gen. 510 b. IcTT-qixL 362, 363 ; fut. perf. 364
Ovrja-KO), fut. perf. of 364. root-aor. 367, 368 ; meaning
OoifidTLOV 36 d. of mid. 500 a.
epL$ 111 b. lo-xw, redupl. 257 a.
-Opo, -Opov, suff. 408. -tb-w, forms in 346 a.
6v-, becomes tv- 47 c. -tTtS, ending 432 c.
6v-^ verb stem 312. IxOis, declined 132.
Ovydrrjp 106. -\uiVy -LG'TO'S 181.
OvpdOev, Ovpd^e, Bvpdcn 228.
K 38 a, b, c, 39, 44 b.
I, quantity 4 ; adscript and Ktt-aorist 378.

subscript 5 b ; disappearing -/ca-, tense sulf. 288, 378.

27 ; final, in crasis 36 a KaOi^ofxai, augment 268 c.

changes produced by 56. Ktt^evSw, augment 268 c.
-t, place ending 228. KaOrjfjLaL 389.
-t, demons, ending 210. KaOc^w, augment 268 c.

-t-, -te-, -177", mode suff. 270, 306, KadiorTrjixi 363 a.

319. Kttt', in crasis 36 b ; in numerals,

-id, suff. 406 and a, 429 and b. 190 ; w. par tic. 593 b ; adv.
-taSryS, suff. 433. 670 a ; kol ydp 672 d ; /cat t6v
-i8, suff. 434 and a. and infin. 549 c.

iSe 349 a. KatVep, w. partic. 593 b. 670 c.

iSta, dat. 526 b. Kairoi 670 b.

-t^to, verbs in 346. KttKo?, compared 181, 182, 2.

jy^ixi 371, 374, 375. KaK(09, w. TToiw 530 a.

-iKo, suff. 413 d, 425. Kafcws 7racr;)(<i), as pasS. 499.

t"A.ea)9, declined 92. KoAew, fut. 322 c.

-t/xo, suff. 413 f, 428. AcaXAi-, insep. prefix 444.

Xva clauses 640-642. KaXo9, compared 181.
-tvo, -tvo9, suff. 426. KttF (Kttt ev) 36 b.
21
322 GREEK GRAMMAR

KaTaytyvtocTKO), W. gen. 514 a. AeW, declined 121.

KaTa\}/r]cf>Lt,ofxaL, w. gen. 514 a. \LfX7Jv 102.
KaTTjyopd), w. gen. 514 a. -Ao, suff. 412.

Kapd 143, 3. Aoyo), dat. 526 b.

Kas {kol €s) 36 b. Ai3-, verb-stem 312.

Kara, w. acc. and gen. 598. XwWV, AwCTTOS 182, 1.

Kci 36 b.
KeKTrj/xaL 456 b. M 38 a, d, 39.

Kct/xat 387. -/xa : see -fxar.

K€LVO<S 208. fxa, in oaths w. acc. 532.

-K€-vat, inf. suff. 296. -fjid, suff. 406.

/cepa?, declined 126. /XOLKap 145.

KepSatVo) 327 a. /xaAAov, fidXtcrTa, to form comp.
Kews, acc. of 94. and sup. 180.
-KT)-, -KiL-, -Kc-, tense suff. 293. Mapa^wvt, loc. dat. 527 a.

KTjpv^ 111 a. fidpTvs 142, 4.

KXato) 259 e ; KXatW 583 a. -jaar, Suff. 407.
kAwi/^ 112. Ixa^ovjxaL 322 C.

-Ko^ siilf. 425. /x€, enclit. 19 a.

-Kot-, suff. 295. fx€ya<: declined 175; compared
KOLvrj, dat. 526 b. 182, 3.

Kpa(n<s 35. flCLiDV 182, 4.

Kpea?, declined 124. />teAds, declined 156, 157 a, b
Kpetcrcroiv 182, 1. compared 177.
-KT, dropt 119. MeXiTy, loc. dat. 527 a.

KTaofxai^ perf. redupl. of 289 d. /xcAAw, augment of 266 ; w. in-

Kuwv 142, 3. fin. 570 b.

-K<o:7;-, suff. 294. pjfivrjixai, as pres. 456 b.

-K0)9, -KVLd-, -K09, -KOT-, Suff. 297. /x,e/x<^o/>tat, w. acc. or dat. 520 a,

530 c.

A 38 a, 39. jjiiv (fj-T^v) 669 a.

Aajge 349 a. -lx€VO<s {-fievrj, -fievov), partic.

Aa^wi/ 583 a. end. 300 d.
Xav^avw, w. acc. 530 a ; w. fjiivTOL 669 b.

partic. 585 a. -/xeo-^a, for -fieOa 263 C.

Xeyo), w. infin. 658. fierd, w. acc. and gen, 598.

 GREEK INDEX 323

/xera/xeAet, W. gen. 511 C. vat-^^L 21 d.

fji€Ta$v, w. gen. 518 b, 599 ; w. vav9, declined 136, 137.
partic. 592. vS, before o- 53.

fiixP'- 33 b ; w. gen. 518 c, 599 vedvtas, declined 71.

clauses 631. -veo:€-^ pres. suff. 261 e.

^^ 486-489 w. infin. 564, 572; ;

v€os, compared 177.
becomes /xr) ov 572 a; w. veto?, declined 92.
partic. phrase 582 c clauses ; VTJ, in oath w. ace. 532.
610, 611. v^, before o- 53.

-fjirj, suff. 406. vtKry, declined 70.

firj^e 667 ;
fJ^rjSe ct?, />i7;8ets, 189. vIkw, as perf. 454 f.

fxrjhinpo'i 224. viv 19 f, 196.

/xtJv, declined 99. -vo, suff. 412, 428.
/xtJv, particle 671 a. -i/o:€-, pres. suff. 261 a.
fMTfJTfjp, declined 106. v6o^^ declined 80.
fjLTjTLs, poet. 224 a. vT, before o- 53.
fuKpos, compared 177. -vrat, -i/To, after consonants
fJLLIJLVT](rKOi 289 d. 339 a.

fjiiv 19 f. -vv/At, verbs in 358.

MtV(o9, ace. of 94. vvv 19 f; or vw 673 a.

/xvTJ/xcoi/, w. gen. 516 a. vw 236.

-/xo, suff. 406. vu^ 111 c ;
gen. 515.
fjioi, enclitic 19 a.

fjLolpa^ declined 66. H 38 a, e, 39.

-fjLov, suff. 413. I^et, name of letter 1 b.

fxova^rj 233.
-/A09, see -fto. O, quantity 4 ; becomes ov 51.
/xou, enclitic 19 a. 6, proclitic 17 a ; as pron. 18 a.

fJLVpLOL [iXVpioi) 193. -o, suffix 403, 410.

/Awv 488 a. 6, rj, TO, declined 61 ; as rel.

pron. 205 a ; syntax 549-

N 38 a, d, 39 movable 31, 41 ; 556.
changes of 50; before o- 51. o8€, ^8e, T6h€, declined 206, 209 ;

-V, stems in 103 a neut. end. ; demons. 227 takes pred. ;

62 c. position 553 in pred. 561 b.;

-vai, inf. in 296, 308. 68t, ovToa-f, etc., 210.

324 GREEK GRAMMAR

68os, declined 62. oTToVos, 222, 227; clauses 620,

680VS, declined 121, 122 a. 621.
-o:c-, formative vowel 257. oTTore 236 ; clauses 627.
oOev 236 ; clauses 620. oTTorepos 222, 227 ; clauses 620.
ot, diphthong 5 ; effect on ac- oTTov 236 ; clauses 620, 621.
cent 14. oTTws 236 ; clauses 638.
ot, proclitic 17 a ; as pron. 6pd(x), double redupl. 291 a.

18 a. opiyofxai, w. gen. 510 d.

ot, ot, reflex, pron, 19 a, 194, o/ovls, declined 114 ; 143, 4.
195 a. 6p<fiav6s, w. gen. 516 a.

oT, adv. 236 ; clauses 620. -09 : see -eo-.

otSa 386. -05, -ov : see suffix -o.

OLKaSe 228. OS, poss. pron. 204.

oiKot, accent 14 a ; adv. 228. o(TaKi<i 232.
oio/Attt, w. infin. 658. OS, ^, 2, declined 213, 214 ; 227 ;

oTov, Ota, w. partic. 593 a. as demons. 560 ; indir. inter-

oTo^ 215, 227 ; clauses 620 a. rog. 621 a; os clauses 612-
oh 138. 617.
-otort, dat. pi. 64. ocros 215, 227 ; clauses 620, 621.
otxo/xat, w. partic. 585 c. oa-riov^ declined 80.
oAtyaKtS 232. oo-Tts 218, 220, 227 ; clauses 612-
oAtyo?, compared 182, 4. 619 ; as indir. interrog. 621.
oXtyw/3(o, w. gen. 511 c. 0(TTLa-OVV 221 C.

oAwAa 456 b. 6(Tcj>paivojxaL, w. gen. 510 e.

oixvvfjLL, w. ace. 530 a. 6t€ 236 ; clauses 627.

ofjLoioreXevTov 681 d. oTt 33 b ; clauses 588 a, 622-
o/Aws, w. partic. 592. 625, 659 and b.
ovap 142, 5. ov, diph. and digraph 5, 27 a.

ovctStto), w. dat. or ace. 520 a. ov (ouAc, o^x), enclitic 17 e ; neg.

ovetpos 142, 5. adv. 486, 487, 667 ; w. infin.
ovLvrjjxij w. gen. 510 e. 564; w. partic. 582 c; in
OTTrj, oTrrjVLKa, oiroOev, ottol 236 ; questions 668; changed to
clauses 620, 621. /xri 577 b, 579 a.

birrjXLKo^ 222 ; clauses 620. ov, name of letter 1 b.

oTTto-^ei/, w. gen. 518 b. ov, ov, reflex, pron. 19 a, 194,
oTToTos 222, 227 ; clauses 620. 195 a, 197.
 GREEK INDEX 325

ov, adv. 236, 515 ; oS clauses 7r6/D, enclitic 19 e.

620. -Trep 216.

ovSc, neg. of 8e 667 ; ovSe ets, 7r€/3d(v), w. gen. 518 b.
ovSets 189. TTcpt, not elided 33 b ; w. acc,
ovSeU 6crTL<s ov 614 b. gen., and dat. 598.
ovSerepo? 224. UepLKkris, declined 127; origi-
ovK £o-Ttv oTTws 614 a, 638 e. nally adj. 154.
ovKovv, interrog. 668. 7re<fiVKa, perf. 456 b.
ov firj 489. TTT} enclitic 19 c, 236.
o^v 673 a. Trfj 236.
ovv€Ka clauses 626. TTT^AtKo? 222, 227.
oSs 101 a, 120. TT-qvLKa 236.
oi;ti?, poet. 224 a. 7r^X^^5 declined 130.
o^Ito?, declined 207, 209, 227 7nKp6<s 1?7.

pred. position 553 ; in ex- TTtTrro), redupl. 257 a ;

perf.
clam. 561 a ; in pred. 561 b. redupl. 289 d.
6<^€tX(o 259 a. -TrAacrtos 192.
TrActo-TOi, ol TrAettrrot 556.
n 38, 39, 44 a. TrAeova/cts 232.
7rat9, accent 101 a; declined TrAeo), w. acc. 530 a.

116. ttAccus 95.

TToAato?, compared 178. n-Xrjv, TV. gen. 518 c, 599.

TTttj/, prefix 441. irX-qa-iov, w. gen. 518 b, 599.
TravTa)(rj 233. -ttAous 191.
Travra^ov, iravTa^^oOev, TravTa)(6(Te Hvv^ 142, 6.

228 a. TTo^ei/, enclitic 19 c, 236.

TrdvToOev, TravToae 228. TToOev 236.
Trapd, w. acc, gcn., and dat. 598. TTo^t, TTot, enclitic 19 c.

Tra? 160-162. TTOt 236.

Trao-xw, redupl. 260 b. TTotryrr/?, declined 71.
TraTrjp, declined 106. TToros 222, 227.
Travo-as, declined 162 b. TTotw, meaning of mid. 500 b.
Tret, name of letter 1 b. TToAt?, declined 130.
Tretvw, w. gen. 511 c. 7roAtT?75, declined 71.
Trei/iys 145. TToAAo, TO, TToAAa 556.
TreVot^a, perf. 456 b. 7roAAa/ct9 232.
326 GREEK GRAMMAR

iroXXaxrj 233. TTw, enclitic 19 c.

TToXv, TO TToXv 556. TTws, enclitic 19 c, 236.

TToXvs, declined 175 ; compared TTw?236 interrog. 481
; ; w. gen.
182, 5. 518 b.
TTovTjpo^, compared 177.
TTop^vpeos, TTop^vpov'i 87, 88. P 38 a, 39 ; doubled 48 ; initial
TToo-os 222, 227. 265.
TTOTc, enclitic 19 c, 236, 240 a paStos, compared 182, 6.

and b. prJTiDp, declined 102.

TTore 236. -po, suff. 412, 428.
TTOTCpOl/ . . . ri 668.
TToVepos 222, 227. 5 38 a, 39 ; initial 54 ; disap-
TTov, enclitic 19 c, 236. pears 55 from t 46a, b, c ; ;

TTov 236, 481, 515. lost except before p. and t,

TTOVS 117. 322 a added to verb-stem
;

Trpaos 176. 400 b.

7rpeo-y8v9, Trpca-jBevri^^ declined -o-a:€-, aorist suS. 280.

142, 7; compared 177. -a-ai, inf. suff. 285.

irpLv w. infin. 568, 643 ; tt/oiV -crai-a-o, becomes -a-aio 283.

clauses 644. ^aXafxU 103 b.

TTpo, w. gen. 598. cravTOv, for creavrov 203 a.

TrporjraL, Trpooivro, Trpootvro, tt/oo- (racf)7J<s, declined 151, 152 ; com-

oZto 377. pared 177.
TrpoOeort? 437. o-e, enclitic 19 a.
TT/aotKa, adv. acc. 539. -o-e, place ending 228.
7r/)09, w. acc. 521 ; w. acc, gen., creavTov 203.

and dat. 598. a-iOev 196.

TTpoo-yJKc, impf. 460. .o-€o:€-, fut. suil. 326.

TrpoarOrjTat 377. -o-^a, for 263 c. -5

Trpoa-Oev, w. gen. 518 b. -o-^at, inf. ending 300 d.

Trporepov -?, w. infin. 568 a. -o-t, place ending 228 ; suff. 406.

irpoTcpo^^ lacks positive 183. -o-ta, suff. 406.

Trpo Tou 549 C. a-lyrj, dat. 526 b.
7r/)WT09 183, 184. -o-tJ, suff. 406.

7rvv6dvop.ai, constructions 588 b. o-tT09, o-tra 144.

TrOp, declined 142, 8. o-Kta, declined 6Q.
 GREEK INDEX 327

-a-Ko-.e-, tense suff. 260. -T, dropt 119.

-a-o'.e- int. suff. 278, 310. -Td, suff. 405, 430 and b ; 434
trot, enclitic 19 a. and b.

-(Tov, -crat 284. rav 36 b.

cro?, poss. pron. 204. TdvSp6<s 36 b.

(TOV, enclitic 19 a. -raro?, superl. ending 177.

a-o(fi6?^ declined 76; compared TOLXOi, rax €0)9 231.
177. rax^?, declined 158; compared
a-TTovSr}, dat. 526 b. 181.
a-a- = TT 46. re, enclitic 19 e.

o-tolSlov 144. reOvafxev etc., root pcrf. 370 (4).

oTtts, declined 162 b. re^j/ew? 173.

-o-Tt, adv. ending 231. riOvrjKa, as pres. 456 b.

a-TOXa^ofxaL, w. gen. 510 d. -Tctpd, suff. 405.

(TV, pers. pron. 194. T€KixypLov, ace. 539.

a-vfjL^ovXevu), meaning of mid. reXevTuii/ 583 a.

500 b. -T€o^, verb. adjs. in 411.

o-w, in comp. 52 w. dat. 598.
; repas 119
-a-vvd, suff. 429 and c. repryv 157 b.
(TVvOoLTO, CrvvOoLTO 377. -repos comp. ending 177.
o-C?, declined 132. repTTO/xat, w. gen. 510 c.

o-(^e, enclitic 19 f ;
poet. 196. TcWap€5 187, 188.
crcf>eTepo<s 204 and a. T>J, TT^Se, ravrr) 236.

(r(f)i, enclitic 19 f. T^ aXrjOeia, dat. 526 b.

(T(f)iv, 196. T-qkUos, poet. 211 a, 227.

crcfiLa-L, enclitic 19 f. cr<^tVt 197. T7/AtKocr8e, 211, 227.
(r(j><i)v^ for iavTwv 203. TryXtKOvro?, 212, 227.
o-xoXato?, compared 178. TrjVLKdSe, TrjVLKavra 236.
iSwKparry?, declined 127 ; accent -T>7p, suff. 405.
128 a, 153 a ; orig. adj. 154. -rrypto, place suff. 432 b.
o-w/xa, declined 118. -Ty]<:^ suff. 405.
0-W09, o-w?, declined 96. -T>7T, suff. 429 a.

o-(o<^pa)v, compared 179. -TL, pers. end. for -6l 307.

-Tt, suff. 406.
T 38 a-c, 39, 44 c ; before t 46 ;
-TiS, suff. 430 and b ; 434 and b.
changed to a- 46. TiOcLS 165.
328 GREEK GRAMMAR

TiOyfTai, tlOolto, tlOolto 377.

-TLKo, suff. 413 e. -rpo, -rpov, suff. 408.
Tt/Aao) 313 ; TLfLaoiv, tI/xix)v 168 a. Tpws 101 a.

rlfirj, declined 70. Tfyxai'<*>> w. part. 585 a.

tI/aw, w. gen. 514 a. -Tw/a, suff. 405.
rl/JLiJipw, w. dat. 520 a.

Ttpws, 40 a. Y, quantity 4; pronun., etc. 27

Tt5, enclitic 19 b; indef. 217, not elided 33 b.
219. V, name of letter 1 b.
Tt9, accent 15 a ; interrog. 217, -•u, suff. 413 a.

481 ; declined 219 ; 227. vSwp 120.

-Ti5, suff. 406. VI, diphthong 5.

-To:e-, tense suff. 258. vto5 declined 142, 9.

Tot, enclitic 19 e ; in crasis 36 b vixiv, poet. 196.

particle 671 e, 673 b. -vvo's-, pres. suff. 261 d.
Totos, TOLoa-Se 211 and a, 227. vVaros 184.
TOiovros 212, 227. viripTepo? 183.

Toto-tSe, Tttto-iSc 209 a. vTT-jJKoos, w. gen. 516 a.

TO Xcyofxevov., appos. 539. vTTto-^^ov/Aat, w. dat. 520 a.

TO fteyto-Tov, appos. 539. I'TTo, w. ace, gen., and dat.

Tov Se and infin. 549 c. 598.
-Top, suff. 405. vTTOTTTevo), augm. 268 b.

'TO-?, verb. adj. 411. -vs, -€ta, -V, siiif. 413 a.

ToVos 211 a, 227. va-Tepos 183.

Too-oVSe 211, 227.

Tocrow-09 212, 227. <!>
7, 38, 39, 42, 44 a.

Tore 236, 481. (fiaLVOfJiaL 585 a.

Tore 240 d. cfiaLvo), meaning of mid. 500 a.

-rpa, suff. 408 a. <lid\ayi, declined 109.

Tpels 187, 188. <f)€i, name of letter 1 b.
-rpid, suff. 405. <^€iSo/xat, w. gen. 511 c.

-TpuS, -TiS, suff. 405. (fjipoiv 583 a.

TpLYipiq<s 154. <^r;yu.t, enclitic 19 d ; inflection

Tpts 232. 382 ; w. infin. 658.
-rpt?, -Ti9, suf[. 405. c^^avo), w. acc. 530 a ; w. partic.
Tptros 188. 585 a.
 GREEK INDEX 329

(fiOovio, w. dat. 520 a. ^I' 38 a, e, 39.

^iXiiiiVi <f>L\a)v 168 b. ij/avo), w. gen. 510 b, d.

«^tAo9, compared 178. i/^et, name of letter 1 b.
(f>oivL^ 111 a.

(f>vyds 145. O, quantity 4.

<^vXaTro/xat, meaning of mid. -o), adv. ending 231, 235.
500 b ; w. ace. 530 a. w, name of letter 1 b.
<f)vXa^ declined 109. w, interjection 61 a.

<^a>9 120 and a. wSc, OVTCUS 236.

-wSes, neuter forms in 153 a.

X 7, 38, 39, 42, 44 b. -wSt/s, from -oetSv;? 447.

^acpiov 583 a. -wiiy-, mode suff. 269, 305.

^afxai, ^afiaOev, ;(a/xa^€ 228. (ot, o), diphthong 5.

xapici?, declined 163, 164 a; -cov, place suli. 432 c.

179 b. -(OS, adverbs in 229.

Xaptv, acc. 539. ws, proclitic 17 d ; w. infin.

Xapi?, declined 114. 566 a and b ; w. acc. absol.

xa, name of letter 1 b. 591 a ; w. partic. 593 c, 594
Xctp, declined 142, 10. o)? clauses 632-636, 659 and b.
Xetpcov, compared 182, 2. (Ss, ws 236, 239.
xy 36 d. wo-TTc/), w. acc. absol. 591 a
Xot 36 d. just as, even d as 593
xpo-oiiai 317 a, 320. strengthened ws 633 a, 637
XP'^i 390. oicnrcp av el 656 b.

XP^v, impf. 460. Si(TT€, w. infin. 566 w. fut. ;

xpovos, gen. 515. infin. 578 b Sia-re clauses

;

Xpw?, xpoo'i 143, 5. 639.

Xpva-eo's, xp^^ovs, declined 87, -(0T->7?, suff. 434 b.
90. wv, diphthong 5.
)^o)fji,€vo<s 583 a. (S</)eXoi/ 470 b.
 ENGLISH INDEX
Accent, general rules 9-16 ; in 379 ; in -Ka 371 ; indicative
contraction 30 ; in crasis 37 462, 468 ; in a wish 470 a
in elision 34; of nouns 63, passive 501. See Tenses.
68, 81, 84, 93 b and c, 131 a, Apostrophe 32.
133 a of monosyll. cons,
; Appositive 502 ; to a sentence
stems 101 recessive in cer- ; 504.
tain vocatives 72 d, 104, 105, xiristophanes p. 2.

128 a, 153 a ; of adjs., fern, Aristotle p. 2.

plu. 77 b ; of contract adjs. Article 61.
89 b ; recessive in certain Asyndeton 600 a.

adjs. 148, 150, 153 a ; of verbs Attic dialect p. 2 ; Attic redu-

268 a, 296, 300 d, 349 and plication 291 c.
a, 362 (3), 379 (4), 384 d; Attraction, of rel. pron. 613 b ;

of verbalnouns 402 a; of of antecedent 613 c ; of mode

compounds 439 a. 642 d.

Accusative neuter as adv. 230, Attributive position 552 a.

234. Augment 264, 265-268 ; of

Action, suffixes denoting plupf. 293.
406.
Adscript t 5 b. Breathings 6.
Agent, suffixes denoting 405 Byzantine, empire and dialect
expressed by gen. 509 d by ; p. 3.
dat. 524 b, 596.
Aiolic dialect p. 2. Cases 59.
Aischylos p. 2. Chiasmus 682 a.

Aorist 247 ; system (sigmatic) Christian Fathers p. 3.

279 ;
passive 303 ; liquid 323, Circumstantial participle 583.
327 ; form, vowel or thematic Common dialect p. 3.

347,348; in -a 351; root 366, Composition 397.

330
 ENGLISH INDEX 331

Compounds, analysis of 435 Doric dialect p. 2.

syllabication of 8. Doric forms retaining d 69 b,
Conditional expressions 645. 72 e.
Conjunctions, coordinating Double augment 267 a, 268 d.
602; subordinating, see Ta- Double negatives 487.
ble of Contents. Dubitative subjv. 471.
Consonants, classified 38, 39
sound changes of 38-56 Eastern Roman Empire p. 3.
final 40. Elision 31-33 ; accent in 34.
Contraction, general rules 29 ;
Empire of Alexander p. 3.

accent in 30; in adjectives Enclitics 16, 19-21.

89 a. Euripides p. 2.
Correlative pronouns, table Exclamations 491 b, 509 c.

227 ; adverbs, table 236.

Crasis 31, 35, 36 ; accent in 37. Formative-vowel aorist 347,
348.
Defective verbs, supplement- Future, of vowel verbs 277,
ing one another 391. 278 liquid 323, 324 ; Doric
;

Demosthenes p. 2. 326 ; in -w 346 a ; mid. with

Denominatives 399. act. meaning 392 mid. with ;

Dependent compounds 446 a. pass, meaning 393 passive ;

Deponent verbs 394, 501 perf. ;

310. See Tenses.
of 396.
Derivation 397. Genders 58 ; diff. in sing, and
Descent, nouns denoting 433. plu. 144.
Descriptive compounds 446 b. Genitive absolute 589, 590.
Determinative compounds 445 Gentile nouns 434.
a, 446. Gnomic aorist 465.
Dialects of Greek p. 2. Greek language, dialects and
Digraph and diphthong u and periods pp. 1-3.
ov 27 a.
Diminutives 431. Headings and titles 491 c.

Diphthongs 5. Hellenistic dialect p. 3.

Direct middle 500 a. Herodotos p. 2.

Disappearance of close vowels Hiatus 31.
27. Historical tenses 246.
332 GREEK GRAMMAR

Homer p. 2. Middle, direct 500 a ; indirect

Hopeless wish 470 a. 500 b and d; participles,
Hortative subjunctive 472. declined 276.
Hypothetical indie. 461 c, 467 Modern Greek p. 3.
c, 468 b optative 479-482.
; Modes 242.
Mode-suffix, of subjv. 269 ; of
Imperative mode 245 ; endings opt. 270.
271 ; uses of 484, 485 ; tenses Movable consonant 31.
of 484. Mutes, sound changes in 42-
Imperfect 264, 459-461, 470 a. 47.
Impersonal verbs 493 a, 520 b.

Inceptive aorist 464. Nasal class 261, 356.

Inceptive class 260. Nasals, pronunciation 38 d.
Indicativemode 245, 281 pers. ;
Negatives, double 487.
endings 263 in simple sen- ; New Testament p. 3.
tences 452-470, 488, 489 b Nom. for voc. 62 b, 103 c.

in subordinate clauses 617, Number, adverbs of 232

618, 620, 622, 624, 627-635, nouns of 192.
636 c, 638 a, b, d, e, 639,641,
642 c, 644 a, 647-649, 655. Optative mode 245, 476-483,
Indirect middle 500 b and d. 485 in subord. clauses, 611
;

Indirect quotation 624 a, 657- c, 616 b, 618 b, 620, 624 b,

664. 627, 629-631, 636 b, 638 c,

Infinitive, endings 273 ; uses 642 b, 644 c, 651, 659 a.

245, 492, 562-579, 658.

Ingressive aorist 464. Participle 245 ; declension of
Interchange of open vowels 162 b, 164 b, 166, 168-173,
25, 26 of long and short
; 276; compared 180; end-
vowels 28. ings 275 syntax 580-595.
;

Interjections 491 a. Passive voice 244; fut. perf.

Ionic dialect p. 2. pass. 301 ^77-pass. 302-310
;

17-pass.334-337 pass, depo- ;

Liquids, sound changes in 48- nents 394, 395 use 499, 501. ;

53. Patronymics 433.

Liquid verbs 248. Perfect, Ka-perf. 287-297, 342
Lucian p. 3. a-perf 332, 333, 342 b root
. ;
 ENGLISH INDEX 333

perf. 370 ; mid. 298-301, 338, Quality, nouns of 429.

339 ; of some deponents Quantity of vowels 4.

396; rendered by pres. 456 Questions 488.

b and c.

Periods of Greek language p. Reciprocal pronoun 202.

2f. Reduplication, pres. 257 a
Personal endings, indie. 263 perf. 289-291.
impv. 271. Reflexive pronouns 197, 200,
Pindar p. 2. 203.
Place, endings denoting 228. Relative words as indir. in-
Plato p. 2. terrog. 223, 621.
Pluperfect 469, 649. Result, suffixes denoting 407.
Plutarch p. 3. Roman Empire p. 3.
Polybios p. 3.

Possessive compounds 445 b, Sappho p. 2.

447. Secondary tenses 246.
Possessive pronouns 204. Sociative 525.
Predicate nouns 502. Sophokles p. 2.
Predicate position 552 c. Speech-tune 9 a.
Prepositional - phrase com- Stem of noun or adj. 60.
pounds 445 c, 448. Subjective middle 500 c and d.
Prepositions 437, 440 a, 447 Subjunctive 245, 269 tenses ;

b. of 475 ; w. ov fxrj 489 a in ;

Present system, classes in 256- simple sent. 471-475 in ;

262, 356, 357. See Tenses. subord. clauses 611 b, 616 a,

Primary tenses 246. 618 a, 620, 627-631, 636 a,
Principal parts of verb 311. 638 c, 642 a, 644 b, 650,
Proclitics 16-18. 652.
Prohibition 485. Suffix in derivation, meaning
Prohibitive subjunctive 473. 402.
Pronunciation 1-7, 38. Syllables 8.

Punctuation 22.
Purpose, expressions of 565 Tenses 242, 247 of Xcrr-qiii 363
;

a, 576, 615, 619, 631 b, of indie. 453-470 of subjv. ;

634, 636, 638 a, c, d, 640, 475 of opt. 483 of impv.

; ;

642. 484 of infin. 563 of par-

; ;
334 GREEK GRAMMAR

tic. 581 ; in subord. clauses another 391 ; impers. 493 a

607. semi-inipers. 520 b omitted
;

Theokritos p. 2. 493 b depon. 394, 396, 501,

;

Thukydides p. 2. Verb-stems 248, in compounds

Titles and headings 491 c. 442 from nouns 415.
;

Tmesis 437 a. Voices 242, 244, 499, 501.

Vowels, open or close 24;
Verbal nouns and adjs. 399, lengthening of 28 b.
402-414.
Verbals in -tos and -reos 352- Wish, expressions of 470 a,
354, 411, 596. 476-478.
Verbs, accent, see Accent ; de-
fective supplementing one Xenophon p. 2.

V OF THE
U)

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