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2015.12848.First Greek Grammar Accidence Text 2

The document is a Greek grammar textbook by W. Gunion Rutherford, originally published in 1903, which has undergone revisions to enhance clarity and usability for teachers and students. It focuses on the essential rules of Greek accidence and syntax, aiming to provide a comprehensive yet accessible resource for beginners. The text includes detailed explanations of declensions, grammatical forms, and examples to aid in the understanding of the Greek language.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

7 views

2015.12848.First Greek Grammar Accidence Text 2

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Vagner Tavares

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FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

Bacmilians Sreck Course

FiRST GREEN GRAMMAR

ACCIDENCH AND BYATALN

W. GUNION RUTHERFORD, ALA. DLD.

FORMERLY HEAUSASTLOER OF WESTMINSTER

Hondan
MACMILLAN AND CO., Livirep
NEW YORE: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1903

wléd rights reseried

Made up from “Acciidence” and “ Syntax” 1890
Furst Edition printed complete June 189%
Reprinted November 1891, 1894, 1896, 1898
Igoo, 1903
spacnitilan’s Greek Course

FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

ACCIDENCE

W. GUNION RUTHERFORD, MA, LLD.

FORMERLY HEADMASTER OF WESTMINSTER

London
MACMILLAN AND CO., LimItEp
NEW YORK THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1903

All rights reserved

First Edrtion printed 1878. Reprinted 1879
Second Edition 1880 Reprinted 1881, 1884, 1885, 1886
Third Edition 1888. Reprinted 1889, 1890, 1892, 1894, 1395, 1897, 1898
1900, 1903
PREFACE

Tuis Grammar has been revised and in part re-written, but

the general arrangement remains as it was. To change this
might have done away with something that commended it to
teachers ; for the success of a school-book is often due to the
fortunate accident of one man’s work happening to meet the
views of the majority.
Ii the book is larger, it is not that I have abandoned the
idea from which it first sprang, namely, that the part of an
elementary grammar is to state rules and leave exceptions
out ; but in response to the criticism of many who have used
the book, the presentment of the matter has been made more
clear and attractive by printing on two pages what before
was printed on one. Indeed far from relinquishing the first
idea I have carried it out more faithfully, omitting such
forms as occur seldom and selecting as examples of inflexion
the most common words that I could find. As the grammar
was written when men had but begun to urge the views to
which it was meant to give shape, I was glad of an oppor-
tunity of incorporating in a new edition the latest results of
the free discussion of the last ten or twelve years. And such
an opportunity came when it was proposed to publish a
Greek Course of which this First Greek Grammar should te
the starting point.
VI PREFACE

The aim of the new series is to bring into the fore

eround the great main lines of Greek accidence and syntax,
in short to teach the regular and ordinary modes of expres-
sion in use at the time when the most precise of languages
had reached its highest precision. Accordingly it was neces-
sary carefully to revise the Grammar if it was to take its
proper place in the series
T have to acknowledge a great deal of very generous and
valued help, not only from my colleagues and friends, but
also from many others who in using the book had detected
errors or observed ways of improving it. More especially I
have to thank my colleague Mr. Heard for many suggestions
and much assistance.
Perhaps I ought to add that though I have “atticized”
as far as possible, I have still remembered that the compiler
of an elementary grammar must be governed more or less by
the texts which are in use, and have retained such spellings
as TéGexa and eipyatouny even if stone records prove that
réOnka and yjpyaouqv are the true forms.

W. GUNION RUTHERFORD.

WESTMINSTER, 1888.
PREFACH TO THE SECOND EDITION

This Fins: GREEK GRAMMAR differs from others jn some

important respects. It is compiled on a new principle, and
contains much matter which has hitherto not appeared in
elementary books, and some facts that are the fruits of
independent research.
The First Part comprises only such forms as it is necessary
for a beginner to know, and these are put as clearly and
succinctly as the nature of the case allows. Every effort was
made to avoid the necessity of explanations in English,—to
make in fact the lesson for the day appear as short as
possible to the jealous eye of the pupil, while at the same
time the local memory of the eye, which is so strong in youth,
might be brought as largely as possible into play.
In the teaching of a synthetic language like Greek or
Latin, practical schoolmasters are not likely to underestimate
the importance of drill in grammatical forms. In such
languages the relation between the different words of a
sentence can never be clearly understood till the learner
becomes thoroughly familiar with the principal inflexdons.
Familiarity with the accidence is the first step towards ap-
preciative translation. It is true that some boys can learn
vill PREFACE

inflexions with ease who are never able to acquire facility in

translation, but it 1s equally true that without a precise
knowledge of grammatical forms even an intelligent boy
loses much of the crispness of the thought.
My original design was thus merely to provide a drill
book for beginners, more accurately compiled than those
generally in use. Further information each master might
impart for himself. But the success of the book prompted
me to add a Second Part which should supply remarks on
the forms included in the First Part, as well as additional
matter of a more advanced kind. In this way much has
been added which is not to be found in ordinary Grammars,
and the relegation of the paradigms to a separate part has
enabled me to discuss interesting points of Grammar in a
way which would otherwise have been impossible. Such
Chapters as the Third, the Twelfth, and the Seventeenth
will, it is hoped, be specially useful in awakening an in-
telligent interest in a subject too apt to become dull.
Different teachers will have different methods of teaching
the Second Part. My own system is gradually to impart
additional information contemporaneously with the drill in
inflexions. If this is done the pupil finds that little is left
for him to learn when he comes to the Second Part.
T have thought it prudent to leave unaltered many forms
which usually, though wrongly, find a place in Greek para-
diggs, as few Greek texts have yet been brought into
harmony with the latest results of critical scholarship. I
have even retained for the sake of old association such absurd
PREFACE ix

forms as the Imperative AéAvxe. The time will come when

they will disappear from Greek Gramuinars, but an elementary
Grammar 1s not the place in which first to omit them.
I regret that an accelerated sale made it necessary to
reprint the First Part before any corrections were made, but
all errors will be carefully eliminated as soon as another
opportunity occurs.
W. GUNION RUTHERFORD.

January 1880
CONTENTS

PART £.
PAGL

Letters i

First declension 4

Second declension %

Third declension ‘ 11

Irregular forms . : , 25

Declension of adjectives : : . 338

Comparison of adjectives. : . , . 51

Adverbs d : : ; . 654

Numerals . , , : : : 54

Pronouns . ; : ‘ : , : 55

The verb . : z : 2 : : 62

Verbs in -Q ' ‘ ‘ ; . : . 65

Verbs in-MI . ‘ ‘ , : = “BG

Prepositions =. : é : : : » 4100
xii CONTENTS

feca toe

Remarks on the letters and signs ‘

Contraction, asstiailation and dissimilation

Dual number : . : P

Vocative case, : : : :

Gender ; ; : : 5

Accentuation . : , é ’

Remarks on the first declension . :

Remarks on the secoud declension :

Remarks on the third declension . :

Remarks on adjectives ° ‘

Remarks on comparison . : ;

Adverbs, , : ‘ :

Numerals . ; : : ; ‘

Pronouns , : ; ‘ . ;

General. remarks on verbal forms .

The tense-system of regular verbs in -2Q

Verbs in ~MI . . . ° *

List-of irregular verbs . :

Verbs forming their tenses from different roots

FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 3

Thus pa was pronounced /éra, and the sign is always so

written over the vowel to which it belongs. This sign is
called spiritus asper, or rough breathing. The letter rho is
the only consonant with which it is used, and when rho
begins a word it is never without it. Ji the vowel upsilon
begins a word it has always this sign.
The sign ’ simply marks the absence of the spiritus
asper.

DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES AND

ADJECTIVES.

ViI.—The inflexion of nouns and pronouns is called

declension. The fixed part of the word 1s called the stem,
the changeable part is called the case-ending or termination.
The nominative case must never be confounded with the
stem.

Vil.—The Greeks distinguished in declension :—

(1) Three numbers :—The singular for one, the dual for
two, or a pair, and the plural for several.
(2) Five cases :—nominative, vocative, accusative, geni-
tive, dative.
(3) Three genders :—masculine, feminine, neuter.

VIIT.—AIl these, except the vocative case, are seen In

the declension of the article “the.”

Vowels long by nature, ercept 4 and w, are marked long, wnless they carry
? +h the crrcumfples accent
4 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

masculine feminine neuter

nom. 3
3 ace. TOV
"ow
= gen. TOU
~% A
; dat. TO

nom. acc
dual gen. dat,

nom.

plural

Obs. 1.—The iota written under the long vowel in the

dative singular is called eta subscript. It is not pronounced.
Obs. 2.—The dual number has only two forms to serve all
genders and cases.

IX.—Declensions are arranged according to the last

letter of the stem. The First Declension includes all
stems ending in alpha or Gta: the Second Declension most
stems in omicron or omega; the Third Declension stems
ending in other letters.

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they earr
the curcumysie. accent :
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR an

FIRST DECLENSION

X.—A. FEMININE STEMS

STEMS. yopa, land; paya, batile, Gadatra, sea

nom. | yaoa ayn Oaratra

= | Yoo. YoOpa ayn Oanatra
= | ace YMOpay ayn GaNatrrav
‘= | gen YO pas Layns Ganatrns
dat. yopa bayn Oararry

S | nvia.) yapa paya Oaratra

"S ood. VW PALy payaL GanatTra

nom. | yapae payat Oaratras

3 | You. YOPat pbayat Oaratrat
8 ace, ya pas [Lay aS Garatras
“| gen. VO EOv HAayOv Garatrav
dat. YOpaes [ayals Gararras

Obs. 1.—Alpha after a vowel or rho is kept in all cases of

the singular.
Obs. 2.—Eta of the nominative singular is kept in all
cases of the singular.
Obs, 3.—Alpha after any consonant but rho is changed to
eta in the genitive and the dative singular.

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and a, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcunrylex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

AJ.—B. MASCULINE: STEMS

STEMS. veavia, youny man; “Kpun, Hermes ;

TONTA, CUlZzen

S nv veavia “Kowa TONTE

S ood. VEQV LAL ‘Hppacy TOALTALY

nom veaviat “Kppat TONTAL

VEAVIAL “Eppat TONLTAL
veavias ‘Eppas qTOALTaS
plural VEAVI@Y ‘Eppov TONMTOV
VEAVLALS “Eppats TONTALS

Obs. 1.—Alpha after a vowel or rho is kept in all cases of

the singular, except the genitive
Obs. 2 —Eta of the nominative singular is kept in the
accusative and the dative singular.
Obs 3 —Eta of the nominative singular is also kept in
the vocative singular, except In nouns In—7ys, compound
words, and names of peoples. In these cases we find a
slfort alpha.

Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, wnless they carry
the circumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 7

SECOND DECLENSION
XIL—A, UNCONTRACTED WORDS
STEMS, Yoyo, m. speech, épryo, n. deed

f v
nom, AOYOS epryonv

voc. rove
= ,
S ace Noryov
.s
7 f
gen. Noryou

dat. oye

i
ee n. Vv. a. AoYo
= g. d. Noryouv

nom. Norvyot

voc. Aoryot
=
S ace. Oryovs
=
os f of
gen. AOYOV Epyov

dat, AOyous Epryots

— —

Vowels long by nature, except wanda are marked long, unless they curry
the curcunlez accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

XTIL—B. CONTRACTED WORDS °

STEMS. wA00, m. voyage, daTeo, n. bone

een re A A TL

I
wAOOS TAOUS OoTEOV OaTOUY
TAdeE TNOV doTEoVv oaTODV
widov mAOUY doteov §oarovY
3 / 3 al
wrAé6ov mTrov COTEOU OO TOV

core = OTTO
5 ca 3 lanl
7rOw TNO

be] b] /

n. V. a. TAOW TAD OO TEW OOTM

singubur
dual wrOow TXOLV 6aTéo tv OCTOL

wroow WAOL

woot aWAOL

wAoovs WNOUS
plural wOWY TAY
moots TNOLS

|
ge LL

Obs 1.—In the plural of neuter substantives -ea contracts

to a.
Obs. 2.—The accent of the unconttacted éoreov is unknown, '
4

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the crrcumplerx accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 2

XLV —Words in -oy are always neuter. Words in -os

are generally masculine, but names of trees, lands, cities,
and islands are feminine. Also the following words :—

abidos rd jbL0s mrivOos oT 000$

pebble sand biick ashes
Kérxevbos =aTpamos and 050s
walk path wel
ANvos gopos yvabos vOoOS
vat coffin JW diseuse
BiPXos pasos Tappos dpowos
book: stuff ditch dew
S0K0S TELPOS Pacavos
beam continent touch-stone
VTOS KA[PLVOS ryepavos
island oven crane

XV.—The following nouns vary in the plural number

between the masculine and the neuter gender, In one case
with a difference of meaning. When actual bonds are spoken
of decpa is the form used, but bonds in the sense of bondage
or imprisonnient is translated by derpot —
dec uos, fetter pl. depot or decd
AvYVOS, lamp pl. Avyvoe or AVyva
orabwos, stable pl. cra@woi or crab ua
One word has only neuter forms in the plural :—
citos, Jood pl. cita

XVI.—The vocative case of Geos, god or goddess, is

always the same as the nominative.
Towels long by nature, excent 4 and a, are marked long, unless they carry
the cireumfpler accent
10 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

ATTIC DECLENSION

XVII—A few stems instead of o have w. This » takes

the case-endings as far as possible.

STEM.—vew, m. temple

e
~ a) @y4)
=
ww
~~
~~
o~

a
=>
oo

plural

Obs.—There are no neuter substantives in this declension

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and a, are marked lony, unless they carry
the crreuniflex acent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR il

THIRD DECLENSION

Jl. CONSONANT STEMS

A—STEMS IN PALATALS, «, y, x

XVIIL—StTEMS, durXax, m. guard, wrepury, f. wing ;

ovuy, mm. mid

purak wrépve
vf
OVU

buraké TTeEpue
, of
OVU

PUNAK-A TTEpUy-a ov
OVUN-a

PUAAK-OS TTEpUY-OS dyUYX-0S

|
PUAAK-b wT Eepuy-b OvUY-t
Te
ee el

puUAK-e
| WTépuy-€ dvux-€
singular
dual
/
PUAGK-OLv WTEPUY-
OLV avuy-ou

pudaxes WTEpuUY-Es ovuy-€s

hbUNAK-ES TTEQUY-ES OVUY-ES
DPUAAK-AS TTENUY-AS Ovux-as
7

plural DPUNGK-OV TTEPVY-OV OVUY-OV

hvura&(v) Wrépvel(y) dvuki(v)

Obs. 1.—All these stems are masculine or feminine.

Obs. 2.—The form of dative plural ending in nu 1s used
when the next word in the sentence begins with a vowel.
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumflex accent.
12 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

B.—STEMS IN LABIALS, x, 8

XIX.—STEMS, yi, m. vulture» dre, f. vein

nom. yur pré

. vo. yor bre
= ace yor-a brEB-a
” gen. yumr-0s breB-os
dat. vuTr-b preB-i

‘= The ete Ve yUT-€ hréB-€

a g. dd yUTT-OLV bre G-otv

om. YUTT~ES préB-es

3 voc. yDir-es préeB-es
5 ace. yUT-as pré8-as
- gen. yUT-OV br€B-av
dat yuyi(y) prevri(y)

Obs, 1.—All these stems are masculine or feminine.

.bs. 2.—They are very rare.

Powels long by nature, ereept 4 and w, are marled long, unless they carry
the errcumflex accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 13

C.—STEMS IN DENTALS f, 6

1, MASCULINE AND FEMININE

XX.—STEM, épwr, m. love; varpio, f. nutive land ;

épuo, £. strife

Epws TAT pi-s

S
he
voe. Epw-s TaTpl-s épl-s
S|
=
ace. EPWT-a
”
TaTplo-a
/
Epl-V
y

a gen, EPWT-OS TAT PlO-OS Epl0-o¢

was He

dat. Epwr-t TaTpio-t Eplo-t

MV.a) épwr-e | TaTpio-e Eplo-e

a / v

9. d. épwerT-ow , matplo-ou
H /
épid-ouv
cd /

a aA
; |
MY is ” |
nom EPOTES TAT PlO-€5 Eplo-es
Ve. Epwr-es TAT PlO-€S Epto-es
ace, épwt-as | maTplo-as Eplo-as
gen, épot-wv | tatpid-wv épto-wv
dat. épw-ollv) | martpi-culv)| Eps-cu(v)
|
Obs. 1.—All stems in 16 not accented on the last syllable
have their accusative singular in nu like épuy, This is also
the case with the one stem in -c7, namely, yapir, ydprs, f.
favour.
Obs. 2.—The dentals are dropped before sigma. Hence
f ° 4
warpts for warps, and warpics for TAT pPLoce,

Obs. 3.—Stems in 6 are very rare except dpvis and the

poetical képus, which are given among the irregular nouns. ®

Vowels long by nature, except x and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumlex accent
14 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

2, NEUTERS

STEMS, owpar, body; Kepar, horn

a ‘4
= TW KENQ-
€p $

Ss , a
= TMOULAT-OS KEPAT-OS
“3 , / ~

COMLAT -b KEPaT~b

iF
rae
TWOMAT-E Képar-e
L
od. TWAT -OW Kepar-owv

TWOMAT-a KépaT-a
==~
3 gen, TOLAT-OV KEPAT-OV
f

=
dat. ToOpLa-ot(y)
,
Képa-ou(y)
/_ =

Obs. 1.—Words like xépa-s are very rare.

Obs. 2.—As military terms are found a genitive cépws and
a dative xeog, which come from a bye-form of this stem.

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, wniess they carry
the or *curfles aecent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

DENTAL STEMS IN pr

XXI—STEMS Avayr, m. dyuz, yepovt, m. old-inun ;

ooovT, m. tvoth
ee

Ala-s ryepav ed0v-s

Ala-s ryépov 6do0u-s
Alavr-a ryepovT-a Od0VT-a ee
ter
ee
Pe
ee

singular Alavt-os ryépovt-os OOOVT-08

Alavr-t ryépovT-t OOOVT-b

TL. as V,. Alavr-e ryépovT-€ OOOVT-E€

\ A? /
Atavr-ou YEPOVT-OlV 6O00VT-OLV

nom | Alavt-es ryépovt-es 600V'T-€5

voc Aiavt-es ryépovt-es 6d06VT-ES
acc, Aliavt-as yepovT-as OOOVT-as
plural gen.
Aléayt-av (yepOvT-@v OOOpT-aY

dat. Ala-ow(v) ryépou-cu(y) Gd00-cu(V)

ree
re
nr
Or

Obs. 1.—AlIl these stems are masculine.

Obs, 2.—When 17 is dropped before sigma, a, 4 vu are
simply lengthened; ¢« and o become e: and ov.
Obs. 3.—The vocative has sometimes the pure stem as
nearly as possible ; sometimes it is hke the nominative.

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumfies acunt,
16 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

STEMS IN DENTAL py

XXIT.—Srems, “Edrnv, m. Greek; rrotpev, m. shepherd

nom. “EXAnV TOLL

a voc. “RAAnY TOLLyv
=
= ace “EAAnU-a TOLLEV-A
% gen. “EAAnY-0s TTOL{LEV-OS
dat. “EXAnv-6 TOLLEV-t

~ ae "EAAnpv-e TOLLEL-€
'S g d. | “EAAHY-ouv TOLLE =OLV

nom. “EAANV-€s TOLLEV-ES

Vos, "EAXnv-e5 TOLMEV~ES
==
Mh
ace, d
EAAnv-as :
TOLLEV-aS
a gen. “EX jv- wv TTOLLEV-@V
“EAAn-oe(v) Tole-Ti(v)

Obs.—With the exception of the poetical word ¢pjy,

dpeves, f, heart, words of this class are masculine,
o

Vowels tong by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumfler accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 17

STEMS, ayo, m. contest, nyewov, m. leader; derdiv,

m. dolphin

ayav I'VE LOY derpis

ayo HVELOV deddis
Yyau-a Try ELLOV-A deXdtv-a
singular LYOV-OS
5) a
nNYELOV-05
ec f
| dENHev-oS
a ~

AYOV-b YEMOV= deddiv-t

AYOU~€ Try {LOV-€ dendiv-e

ayév-ow | nyEepwov-ow | deXdty-o
> / € / Z

GY QU-ES aryewov-es | SerHiv-es

GY @V-€S aryeuorv-es | eddies
GY DV-AS aryepov-as | Serdly-as
plural
ayav-wv | nyenov-wv | derdtv-av
/ Z

aya-oulv) | Hryeno-cr(v) |derpi-cu(v)

Obs. 1.—Words in -wy are almost all masculine.

Obs, 2.—Words like deA dis are rare or poetical,
Obs. 3.—In two proper names the last vowel of the stem
is shortened to form the vocative case, viz., "AwoAAov (stem,
"AroAAwyv), O Apollo; Idcedov (stem, Hovedwv), O Poseidqn.
Vowels long by nature, ercept y and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent,
8)
18 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

STEMS IN LIQUID p

XXITI.—STEMS pytop, m. outor, kparnp, m. wine bout ;

Onp, m. wild-beast.

gfOoP pytop ES OoQ 7) 3 as) D= >

“3 |TV. a | pxTop-e KpaThp-€ Onp-€

TS
=
i gd. | pntrop-ow
¢ f
| kparnp-ow | Onp-otv
“ / mn

nom. | f7Top-es Kparnp-es | Onp-es

Obs. 1.—Of these the stems in-t7p and-ropare masculine.

Obs. 2.—All stems in rho form the nominative singular,
without sigma, but epsilon before rho is lengthened to 6éta,
and omicron to Omega,
Obs, 3.—The vocative singular has the pure stem, but
tke stem cwrTnp, saviour, shortens eta to epsilon, cep.
Vowels long by nature, except - and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 19

STEM IN LIQUID X} AND SPECIAL CLASS IN p

XXIV.—STEMS, aX, m. salt; unrep, f. mother

in-s pnrnp
& dN-§ LATEp
= an-a penTép-a
2 GN-0S UNTp-OS
an-i pntp-t

dn-€ LNTéep-€
Gr-otv penTép-ouw

GN-€5 [NTED-ES
a GA-~€S [LNTED-€S
E adr-as MNTEP-as
ah-@v pnTep-@v
an-ol(y) pentpa-cuy)

Obs. 1.—In poetry aAs has a feminine singular in the

sense of sea.
Obs, 2.—Like paryp are declined rar%jp (st. warep), father;
Gvydrnp (st. Ovyarep), daughter; yaorijp, f. (st. yaorep),
belly ; Anpajrnp (st. Anunrep), the goddess Demeter.
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the evreum flex accent.
20 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

STEMS IN ¢s

XXV.—StTEMS, Anpocbevec, m. Demosthenes ; yevec,

n. rue

Anpoobévns
Anpocbeves
Anpoabévn
singulur Anpuocbévous
Anyocbéves

hm
8
in
—
~~
i
ot

Obs.—The final sigma of the stem is lost between the

vowel preceding and following it, and contraction ensues.
Thus from the stem yereo a genitive yéveo-os (cp. gener-is)
should arise, but the sigma being lost, we get yévous con-
tr&cted from yéveos,

Vowels long by nature, except + and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the cuz cumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 21

i. VOWEL STEMS

XA VI.—STEMS in narrow vowels , and v

MASCULINES AND FEMININES

STEMS, sods f. city; ov, m. or f. yng, myxyu, mM. forearm.

TONL-S THYXV-F
TON THY
TONL-D THYU-V
singular TOAEWS THYXEOS
,
TONEL THVEL

TOAN THX]
dual TONE-OLY
-
THY E-OLV

TONES TYE
}
TONELS TH VELS
/
TTONELS aus TI XELS
plural 4
OU-@Y TY E- WY
TONE-OV

Tone-ou(y) ov-oilv) THYE-TV)

-—

Obs —The nominative of these nouns is generally used

instead of the vocative. Thus we almost always tind @ wo2ks,
Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the cureumfles accent.
22 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

NEUTERS

STEM. aotvu, city

ular
S
on
i)
w

bla
aoTN
9 f
AaCTE-OLV

”
agT?

? la
ATTE-OV

adore-cu(v)
7
Obs.—The vowel upsilon changes to epsilon in all cases
but the nominative singular.

Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, unless they oarry
the curcumyfles uccent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 23

XXVIL—STEMS IN ev

STEMS, Bacidrev, m. king; Awptev, m. Dorian

nom, Bactrev-¢ Awpset-s

ts voc. Bacirev Awpued
& ACC. Bactré-& Awpta
% gen. Bactréws Awpias
dat. Bactret Awpret

~ nv.a | Bactry Awpsy

= g. d. Bactré-owv Awptotv

nom BaowdHs or -ets| Awpuns or -ets

ia! voc. Baorrhs or -ets | Awpins or -e%s
g ace. Baciré-as Awpwas
= gen. Bactré-wv Awpiov
dat. Bactred-ou(v) Awptedou(y)

Obs. 1.—These stems are all masculine.

Obs. 2.—All lose the upsilon of the stem before vowel
case-endings, and when a vowel precedes the epsilon, contrac-
tion commonly takes place between it and the case-endings.
e

Vowels lony by nature, except y and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the cricumfler accent
24 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

XX VIII.—STEMS in o and w

mevo, f. persuasion; atdo, £. shume; apm, m. hero

Tebow TP@-s
, ¢

qmetGor HPO-s
A e/

meiba Tp@-a, How

singular
qetGous How-os

qellbor Apw

TP@-€
7P@-Oww

not used | not used 4

Bees
TP@-aS

plural 7P@-OVv

Hpo-ou(v)

Vowels long by nature, ercept 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

XXIX.—OTHER IRREGULAR FORMS IN ALPHA-

BETICAL ORDER

IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER

ack5Stem
OSL Sek
avep, M.
oP REES RL
Bod, m. £. yovaT, 0.

English mun ox, cow knee

nom. | dyrp Bob-s ryovu

- | VOC. aVvep
4
Bov ial
yovU
t

—
= OCG: av-6-p-a Bod-v ryovu
S / /
*® | oen, av-6-p-0s Bo-os YyOVvaT-0S
dat. ay-b-p-t Bo-t yovar-t

jv. av-O-p-€
of
{o-e
,
YOVaT-€
/

= |g d. | av-d-p-otv (0-otv yovar-ow

Kot GV-0-P-ES Bo-es ryOvaT-a@

S| ace. ay-d-p-as Bov-s yovaT-a

= [se av-d-p-Ov Po-av yovaT-ov
dat. ay-b-pa-orlv) | Bov-cilv) | yova-cu(v)

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, uniess they carry
the curcumflex accent.
26 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES
IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER
gta ea Saat

Stem | yaXaxr, n. YEPas ynpac ypau, f.

English molk privilege old age old woman

ae a oe aE (A ee ee oa Se Re

nom. | ydXa YNpas ypav-s

_ |voe | yana ynpas
S
=, |acc yana ynpas
‘Ss
YP@S
= "4
gen. | yaXaxT-os

dat. | yadNaxnr-t ype

nt | |e a a rar |ae a er |

i Te,
S
=
=. Po. d:
ites | eee ere | te |Se EE Yt rere

n. Vv. | yaAaxKt-a yépa

3S jace. | yaAaKnT-a
mos is
yépa
=
S ,
S| gen. | yadanr-ov YEP@V
dat. | yara&:(v) yepace(y)
&
Powels long by nature, excent 4 and a, are marhed long, untess they carry
the curcumflex accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 27

IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES
IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER

dap, and Zev,

yuvatk, I. Sopar, 0. Bo, De Ac, m.
——————— a
rns
| nr

English woman spear spring Zeus

C—O | TS |SY RE, | A RS, ee

nom. | yuv7 Sdpu

voc. | yuvast
-
dopu
aCe, YUVatK-a ddpu
"= | ven.
See VQALK-0
YUVALK-0S dopar- os,
% Sopos
dat. | yuvare-e ddpat-t,
Sopé, or
Sopet

yuvatk-e Sopar-e
g.d. | yuvacx-otv dopat-ou

pb. V. | yuvacK-es dopat-a

"= |acc. | yuvaix-as dopaT-a
SS| gen. | yuvace-ov
‘
Sopdt-wv
yuvatet(y) ddpa-or(v)
5 /

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent.
28 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES
IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER
——
KvEepac,
Stem KNELO, f. | icdea xopud, f. | Kxpear, n.

English yloom helmet meat

KNEL-~S Kvépas | KOpus Kpéas

“= |Mv.a | Kretd-€ Kopud-e

"= |g. d. | «Xresd-oly xopvd-ow

KNELOES, ;
nom iis a
xopud-es | epéa f

voc. | KAE€tO-Es, xopud-es | Kpéa

Oo f

Vowels long by nature, excert y and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumfles accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES
IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER

Kuoy and
APTV, LAPT
Stem ite [oe pau, f.
mt
and f.

English dog 2wliness ship

nom. KU@Y LLAOTU-S Vau-§

voc. KVOV peapTv-s van
= i
oS

S| 206. KUV-a paptup-a vav-v

a
-S | gen. KUV-0S [LapTUP-0S VEWS
= /

dat. Kup-b MapTup-t yne

= Te ahve KUY ~€
/
Up-€
papTup
/
vy, €
“

S| g. KUD-OWV peapTup-oLv veo

n. V KUV-€S [apTUD-€S YNES

KUV-as pLaptup-as Vavs
KUY-@V papTup-ov pea
Kv-ob(v) paptu-olly) | vav-cilv)
f

Die
tele= ee
e

Fowels long ty nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent,
30 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES

IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER

Stem 6pvid, dpi, m. f. OT, Nk

English bird ecur

nom. épvt-s
gf =
0U-S
o

voc. Oput ov-S

~= ace. dpui-v,
ba 2
rarely
]
0v-S$
is

sRS épviGa
5 es

gen dpvtO-o¢ @T-OS

- /

dat épvt0-t OT-b

3 n. a. V épvid-e OT-€
sS g, d dpvtO-ouv OT-OwW

ree dpvd-es, Opvets OT-a

5
=
ace. dpuid-as,
af tO
dovers
”
OT-a
5

yy gen. opvt0-wy,
? Z£
dpvé-av OT-OV
dat. épvt-ou(v) o-ci(v)

Vowels long by nature, ercept 4 and w, are marked long, wnless they carry
the crrcumflex accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 3]

IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES

IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER

dup, Tupo | voar for

Stem Too, IW. pee :
n. vdapT, 2.

English
nelis
6
foot a
watch-fires
wateter

Tou-s Top idawp

? foal oO

S Tou-s up Ddap
/ An ”

S
‘3
TOO-a
t
Top
A
vowp
50

3S ’ ! ey
TrOO-0S Tup-0s UdaT-0S
moo-t Tup-t VOaT-t

3 T0O~€
i TOO~Olv

TOO-€S
?
Tupa , boat-a
er

3 TOO-as qupa VOAT-a

S 108-@Y TUP@V VOAT-OV
SS A al t /

dat. To-ci(v) Tupots voa-ou(v)

Vowels long by nature, except 1 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the ewrcumflec accent.
32 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES

IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER

ih ate ppear for | yep, ep

dpeapT, Nn. ty

son cistern hand

ppéap xetp
ppéap NEtp
ppeap xelp-a
ULE-OS ppéGT-0s ELp-OS
ULEL bpéar-t yelp-t

vin ppéeat-€ YEtp-€

VLE-OLV hpeat-ow YEp-olv

VLELS ppear-a VELP-ES

VIELS VELO-AS
t A

VLE-WY
t?
VELp-@Y
vlé-o UV) xep-oi(y)

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the errcumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 30

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES

A.—ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION

XXX.—SIMPLE

THE MOST COMMON CLASS OF ADJECTIVES

ayabos, good

ayabos ayaen | ayaboy

S aryabé ayaby aryabor
=, ace, ayabov ayadny ayabor
i gen, ayadod ayabns ayabot
dat. ayabe ayaen ayaba
——— ee

nv.a | ayade ayade ayabe

ge. d. ayaboity | ayaloty | ayadoty

n. V. ayabot ayabat ayaa

ace, ayabots | dayabas ayata
gen. ayadov ayabov ayabay
ayabots | ayabais | ayabols

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumfer accent,
D
84 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

dhirsos, friendly

masculine | feminine neuter

nom hirsos hiria di tov

Voc. birse biria direov
S pirov pertav hirvov
S ace
=
=
gen.
eo tdvou hirids dhirtou
dat. pirio piria piert@ |

ee EN NS ese

birt pido pirio

pediosy pidiouv pedtow

pirsot hirvat pidta

dtdiovs pirias birea

dirtov didiov dirtov

pirloes htrtaus derLots

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, untess they carry
the chicumflex uccent.
RIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION

XXAL—CONTRACTED

xpuceos, golden

masculine
Sil Meoril
feminine

|
neuter
pate
eerie

VvpuUTOUS xpven VYpUTOUY

YpuToUsS xpuon VpucoUY
VpucouY ypvaony YpuaoUY
singular VPUTOU ypuens ypucoD
xpuo@ xpuen KPvT@

Ypuce YpuTw KpUT@

dual ypua ow VpucoLl Ypuvaolv

He VpucoL ypvcat NpvTea

ace. YPUTOUS VpUTas VpUvTa
gen. V PUTMY YPUT@V KpUT@V
plural
dat. VPUTOLS ypucais Vpucols
on

Obs.—The feminine singular of adjectives in -eos con-

tracts to eta when a consonant precedes, but to alpha
when a vowel or rho precedes, as: ypucea, ypuon but epeéa
(woollen), épeq apyupéea (silvery), dpyupa.
Vowels long by nature, except x and w, are marked long, untess they carry
the circumflex accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

amdoos, simple
>
masculine feminine neuter

ATROVS arr QT AOUV

QT NOUS aT} amrNOvDV

ar Nouv aT MAY QT OUY

singular
ATNOD ATS ATNOU

aTrND aT ATO

ATO ATO

QTNOLY GITAOEV

QWTNOL TANG

ATNOUS TAA

plural ATAOV CTT NOY

aTNOLS ATAQALS ATNOLS

XXXIL—Many adjectives belong solely to the second

declension having only two endings, -os for the masculine
and feminine and -op for the neuter. This is the case with
afi compound adjectives.
Fowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, wnless they carry
the circumslen accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR of

XXXTIL—ADJECTIVES OF THE
ATTIC DECLENSION

tNEw@s, Jrucious

mase. and fem. neuter

¢ ad
nom. tLAEWS LNEWV
¢ ae
we voc. ENEWS LNEWY
= cr cr
= ace. LNEWV UNE@Y
= ¢ u
% gen, tNEW LNEw@
tr
brew

e
tN€EW
eh
LNE@V

4
tNE@
e Y
= ace. LNEWS tNEW
= gen. LEWD LNEWY
24
LNEWS

Obs.—There are very few adjectives of this class.

Vowels long by nature, except x and w, arc marked long, unless they carry
the cuicumslex accent
ba FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

B.—-ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD ANID FIRST

DECLENSION

AXXIV.—Some adjectives follow the third declension

in the masculine and neuter and form a feminine in the
suffix .sa, which combines with the stem in various ways.

HOUS, sweet
|
{

| :
|

masculine feminine neuter

|
oe use biti ute
| |
| / nom. NOUS HOLA HOU !
\ e 4 e a ¢ Fa

| & |
Voc. |
NOUS
eges
HOELA
¢ nn
OU
ea é

| > ace. HOUV HOELAV OU

i
| ~ | gen déos dels | ASéos
| dat 0€e
e
noid
id j=
HOE
€ a

|
ae Ne
fe
hale

|= Ay Ve Bs nocd OEE

| y |gd NOELaLY OO
| |

DV 1)O€ (AL 106A

3 ace, nOELAS 7 0€a
|
| = gen. NOELOV HOEWV
| dat. 7 O€LALS noéot(y)

Vowels long by natwie, except , and w, are marked lony, unless they carry
the evrcumflexe aecent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 39

eras, black

masculine feminine neuter

[LENGS (LENGE, perav

«
os peXNaY pédauva péeXay
3
Ph)
™~
oN
RS [LENAUG [LENGLVAY peXay
=
[LENGLYNS [LEABVOS
eo
A)
[LENQAVOS
[ENAVE pedaLY pérave

[LENGVE penaiva
dua peenavow penatvaw

MENGVES pedaevat pérava

pEAAVAS peralvas LEAAVA
MENAVOY [LENALVOV [LENAVOV
péract(y) [ENB LVALS pérace(v)

Obs. 1.—Adjectives like wéAas may have the vocative the

same as the nominative.
Obs, 2.—Like péAas is also declined répyv, repecva, Teper,
tender.

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they ear ry
the ciroumpler accent.
46 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

yapless, graceful

masculine ferninine neuter

nom. yaptlels yapleroa yd plev

= VOC Ya / plev i
yaplecoa 4
| yapuev
mS

S ace. yaplevTa yapieroay Ya plev

% gen.
cen yaplevtos
aot | xapléoons
a £ | yaplevTos
4

dat.
lat YaplevTe
; yaprecon
; | yaplevTe
;

2 nh.. aa Vv V. |yaplevre
; ADLEC OU
VapLE ‘
VAP levTEe
S i gd. | yapsévrow |yapreooaww| yaprévrow

nee yaplevTes yaplercat yaplevTa

Obs. 1.—This 1s a very rare class of adjectives in Attic.

Obs, 2.—The formation of the dative plural masculine and
neuter is to be noted.

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are maried long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 4]

xXXXV.—PARTICIPIAL STEMS IN -yr.

Avoas, loosing (with reference to past time)

masculine feminine neuter

ae ee
Avoas AUC ACTA AVTAaV
a
AVCOaVTa Avoacav AVTAV
z

sengular AUVUCQAVTOS AVTATHS AVCQAVTOS

Si ee
Avoaoyn
Z£
AUVCQAVTL AUCQAVTEL

= Z “ £
AUGAVTE Avecaca AUVCAVTE

dual re
AVoaVTOLY
~ 7
AUC QAVTOLV AUC ACALY

Ze 4 ws
AUCQAVTES AUC ACAL AUGQAYTAa
= Zz - Z
AUC QAVTAS Avoacas AUVCAaVTa
— tA

plural AVOAVTOV AVCAaATOY AUCAaYTOV

NUcaoL(v) NUcaci(V)
- Zz
AVC aTALS

Ols.—In the dual number Atcavre and Avedvrow may be

used as feminine.

Powels long by nature, except x and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the crrcumflea uccent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

rvbels, loosed (with reference to past time)

masculine feminine neuter

rAvEELS AvGEetoa rNvGEéV

rAvbGevTA AvOEtoav rvGév

sungular NvbGEevTOS AvOcions AvGEévToOS

AvOEevTet AuUGEion AVOEVTE

AvOEvTE AvGcioa rAvOEevTE

dual rAvOEV TOL rAvGeicaty NvEEV ToL

NvbGEevTES AvGEtoat AvGEvTa

Ro
~~
=
AvGEvTAsS rvbeloas AveévTa
S
Lad
fount
oy AvOévTOV AvGELC
av AvGévTa@V

AvGEtau(v) AvEEioc ats AvOEioe(V)

Obs.—In the dual number AvGevre and AvGéevTow may be

used as feminine.

Powels long by nature, ercept 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the errcunrflex uccent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 43

Aviov, loosing (of present time)

||
masculine feminine neuter
|

Z £
AVOV AVOUCa AVOV
Z

|
Zz
AVOVTA AVOVOaV AVOV
- +? Zz
AUVOUGNS
Z
NVOVTOS AVOVTOS
A
Avoucy
Z ” 7
gree
Saaai!||
peace,
a
ee
AVOVTt AVOVTL

L£ as A ~- Zz
AVOVTE AVOUCa NVOVTE

mane
-/ - 7 —_—/?
ANVOVTOLV AVOUG ALY AVOVTGLY

|
ZL iT
Fes Z£
AVOVTES AVOVCat AVOVYTa

AVOVEaS
Zz
AVOVTAS AVOVTAa
~ } = f
AVOVTOY AVOVTOYV NUOVTOV

Novol(V)
~ f
AVOVO ALS AWovai(v)

Obs.—In the dual number Avovre and Avovrow may be

used as feminine.

Vowels long by nature, except n and w, are marhed lony, unless they carry
the evreumpler accent.
44 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

did0ve, offering (present time)

masculine feminine neuter

dL00us OLOOUCA SL00v

OtOovTa OLOOUT
AY 8vd0v

songular SLOOVTOS d1d0vTNS SLO0yTOS

OLOOVTE duoovey OLOOVTEL

OLOOVTE OLooUca ud0vTE

d. OLOOVTOLY dLO0ovc ALY OLOOYTOLY

n. Vv OLOOVTES S.O0vCal OLOOVTAa

oe d60vTas é.60v0C
as OLOoVvTa
S
SS SLOOVTOY
/
SLO0UTOV OLOOYTOY

didovat(y) SoovcaLs dd0vau(v)

Obds.—In the dual number é.dovre and d.d6vrTow may be

ysed as feminine.

Vowels long by nature, except » and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the crrcumfler uccent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 45

decxvis, showing (present time)

masculine feminine

SetKvis OELKVUTA S€LKVUY

OELKVUVYTA O€LKVUOAY SELEV UV

O€LKVUYTOS Sekviens S€LKVUVYTOS

Sexviion
f
O€LKVUVTE SELKVUVTE

O€LKVUCA
/
O€LKVUVTE
,
SELKUUVTE
Z
O€LKVUY TOW O€LKVUT AW O€LKUUVTOLW

O€LKVUVTES dSetxvucat OGLAVUVTA

? /

O€LKVUYTAS OCLKVUVYTA
e f -
Setevicas

O€LKVUC
OV
/
O€LKVUVTOV O€LKVUVTOV
VA

decxviioe(v) OCLKVUTALS devxvocd(y)

Obs.—In the dual number decxvivTe and deckvdvrow may

be used as feminine.

Vowels long by nature, except y and a, are marled long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent
£6 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

XAXXVI—PARTICIPIAL STEMS IN -or

AeruKws, having loosed

~ 2
. 8 |
masculine feminine neuter |

A 7
n. VY. NEAUKOS NEAUVKVLA NENVKOS
t / an /
S |ace. AEAVKOTA NEAVKVLAY NEAUVKOS

=> |gen. | AedkuKoTOS

/
| AeAUKVIAS
fm
| AEAUKOTOS
/

? aa /
dat. NEAVKOTE NEAVKVIG NEAUKOTE

f -_ ft
— |. Vv. aj AX€XUKOTE NEAVKVLA NEAVKOTE
=

"Sig. d. | NedkuKoTow | NedXvKVIaLY | NEAVKOTOLY

~ , /

NeAUKOGL(Y) |NeAUKVIALS | NEAVKOTL(Y)

f / f

Obs.—In the dual number AeAvedre and AeAvKOTOIW may

Be used as feminine.
Vowels long by nature, except » and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 47

C.—ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION

XXXVIT.—Some adjectives follow the third declension

entirely.
evyevns, well-born

masculine and | |
neuter
feminine |

n. V. | EvYyEVvHS | EUYEVES
| BI ,

S| ace. evyevy} EvyEVES |

=
= gen.
ae
EUYEVOUS
ce
EVYEVOUS
|
|
dat. EU EVEL EUYEVEL |
> a > o |

aed :
| | | | |
oS |nv. a : Eevyevy | euryevi} |
I z | i)

7 od, EUVEVOLY | EVvYEVOE |

ie EUYEVELS | euryen7) |
S| ace. EUTYEVELS | EvtyeVs} |
3 |gen, EVIYEVOV EUYEVOV |
dat. evryeve-oi(v) evryevé-ot(v)
|

Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, wntess they carry
the cvrcumflex accent
48 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

evdpav, kindly

masculine and
; neuter
feminine

i. V. evppov evppov

aS ACC. | evudpov-a evdpov

S
S gen, eVPpov-os evppov-os
dat. eVpov-t evppov-b

= n. Vv. 2. evppov-€ eudpov-é

v bf

os ge. d. evdpov-ouy evdpov-oLv

n. Vv. evppov-es evppov-a

7 ace, eUppov-as evppov-a
—
S
Sy gen. eUbpdv-wv eUpov-ov
dat. evppo-ol(y) evppo-ary)

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumfler accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 49

peifay, greater

masculine ancl feminine neuter

pelC@y poerCov
poetCova or peil@ precCov
perCovos peiCovos
weiSove
,
pelCove
1 be

jueifove petCove
prec Covowv wecCovowy
/ ,

peioves or welfous | merfova or werlw

wetCovas or peiLovs | petfova or peifo
pha
pwerCoveay pwerCovov

peiloot(y) peifoos(v)

Obs. 1.—Only in comparative stems have we the shorter

forms like pei(w alternating with long like weifova,
Obs. 2.—The shorter forms are found only in the accu-
sative singular masculine, and the nominative, vocative, and
accusative plural.
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, untess they carry
the circumfpiex accent.
E
50 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

XXXVITL.—Many adjectives have only one termination,

the neuter being alien to their meaning, or not Gompatible
with their stem. Thus as there are no neuter substantives
with a palatal stem, so the adjectives in palatal stems have
no neuter forms. iAc&, of the sume age (st. Aux); aprag,
rapacious (st. apray).

XXXIX.—Certain adjectives are irregular in declension.

Of these the two following are most commonly met with ;—
monrus, much, stems gorv and voAXo

masculine feminime neuter

nom. ToNUS TON TON

acc, TONY TONNHY TON
gen. TONAOU TOANNS TONKOU
TONA® TONAH TOAN®

Obs.—The plural meaning many is quite regular roAAoi,

ToANal, TOAX.

péyas, great, stems weya and peyaro

0s.—The plural is quite regular peydAou, peyctrAat, peyara

Fowels long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumplex accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 5}

XL.—COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
(1.) The most common method is to add to the stem the
suffix -repos, -repu, -Tepov to form the comparative, and -raros,
-ra71, -raTov to form the superlative degree. In omicron
stems the stem-vowel is lengthened to Omega, if the pre-
ceding syllable is short or common.

positive stem comparative superlative

— ee pd

xodos, light | xovdo | xovdd-Tepos | Koupd-TaTos |

Some stems in -aso seem to drop the omicron as:

ryepasos, aged yepaso yepal-Tepos = yepat-TaTos
Tarkalos, ancient tarato Tadai-Tepos Tadal-TaTOS
oyoratos, slow ayorato cyoNal-TEpos ayONai-TATOS

Some other stems seem to change o into az, as:

Tp@os, early Tpwo TpMat-TEepos TpPMal-TATOS
drrvos, late deco = ONruat-Tepos §— Ortai-TaTOS

Vowels long by nature, except 1 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent
52 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

XLI.—(2) Stems in -ov, and a very few others, have

-ETTEPOS and -éoraros.

positive comparative superlative

—_—

codpar, prudent |cwdpov |cwppov-értepos |cwppov-éoTtatos

euvous, kindly | etvoo | etvovarepos (for |ebvotcraros (for
EUVO-ETTEPOS evvo-éoTATOS)

XLIT.—Another ending is -twy for comparatives, and

-caros for superlatives. This is very rare, but the words in
which it occurs are commonly met with. The mode of
formation from the stem must be taken on trust for the
present.

positive comparative superlative

HOoUS, sweet 9 0-LOV NO-LOTOS

TAYUS, Swift Oarrav TAY-LOTOS
eeryas, great pelCov [Ley-bOTOS

Obs.—For the inflexion of the comparatives of this class

see p. 49.

Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, wnless they carry
the evrcumfler accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 58

XLU.—IRREGULAR COMPARISON

positive | comparative superlative

dryabes, good
ALELV
OV
a pLeTos
Berxtior BéxticTos
KpElTT@Y (superior) KPATLOTOS
KaKos, Old KAKLOY KAKLOTOS
yelpav (deterior) yelpratos (dete: rimus)
HrT@v (inferior) HxioTa n.pl. as adv.
| pixpos, small LLiKPOTEPOS LLKPOTATOS
peelov
6rLyos, little OIYLETOS
ENATTOV EXMLY
ITTOS
qrovus, much TAELOV TNELT TOS
Kanros, beautiful KANATOV KANNLOTOS
pad.os, easy stow pacTos
évOpos, hostile éyvO-tov éyG-taT0s
aicypos, base aicy-tov LiTY-LTTOS
aryeuvds, painful aXytov AN YLOTOS
(rpd, before) mpotepos (prior) TpaTos (primus) ~

Fouets long by nature, except x and w, are mailed long, unless they carry
the circumfplec accent
54 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

XLIV.—ApvERsS. Adverbs are derived fronradjectives

by affixing -ws to the stem. Stems in omicron drop this
vowel: diAo-s, adv. dfA-ws. In stems of the third declension
the -ws is affixed to that form of the stem which occurs
in the genitive singular, rayi-s, genitive tayéos, swift;
adverb rayéws; cadys, genitive cadé-os, clear, adverb
cadée-ws, contracted cadas. Contraction occurs only when
the genitive also is contracted.

XLV.—CoMPARISON OF ADVERBS. As a rule the com-

parative of an adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the
comparative of the adjective, and its superlative the neuter
accusative plural of the superlative of the adjective, as:
copus, wisely, ropurepov, more wisely, coparata, most wisely.

XLVI—NvumMeERALS. The first four cardinal numerals are

declined: «is, one, Sto, two; tpets, three ; rérrapes, four.

nom. ei-s ula

ace. év-a piav & n. a. dvo
gen. EV-OS fLlas EV-0S g. d. dvotv
¢ f a ¢ / n

dat. ev-b la é
Et

nom. TPELS tTpi-a | TéTTap-es TéETTAP-a

ace. TpEts Tpl-a | TéTTap-as TéTTAp-a
gen. Tpl-@V TETTAP-OV
dat. TpL-ol(v) TéTTap-ou(y)

Like «is are declined ovdeis, ovdeuia, ovdev, and pdeis,

fndeuta, dev no one, both of which negatives have a plural.
Fowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, wnless they carry
the cercumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR |iiaan

XLVIIL—THE PERSONAL Pronouns

Se ,

L, me, we, us thou, thee; you

hom eyo ony

> ft -

a . s
= Voc. — ov
“S eA ee / /
= ACG. EWE, [LE exe
. gen, ELLOD, [LOU oxen)
ao a o ~

dat. EMOL, [LOL TOL

Pe] f / f

ium

| dual gd.

hm
S
o~
boned
ws
Laan}
~
oy

XLVIII.—There is no true personal pronoun of the third

person in Greek. The nominative is expressed in various
ways, and for the accusative, genitive, and dative we find the
following :—

sungular plural
> f > + > f 5) f > 4 1S
QUTOV QaUTHVY avTo QUTOUS auTas avTa
avTod avTnS avTov | avToy atTav avTar
fal a ? la 3 “ al fa)

a > OA 5) A > n ’ A A
avT@® avTy AUT@ avTois auvTais avrots

The nominative (sing. atrds, avr), avrd, pl. atroi, atral,

atra) has the meaning self, a sense which it also receives in
the oblique cascs in certain circumstances,
« . e . ny

Vowels long by nuture, except x and ow, are maried long, unless they carry
the curcumflex accent
56 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

XLIX.—The possessive pronouns are éuds, eu}, Euov, my,

mane, WuerEpos, a, ov, our, ods, oF, TOV, thy, thine» UyétEpos,
a, ov, your. They are declined like adjectives, but ods and
DueTepos have no vovative.

L.—The principal demonstrative pronouns are de, 10¢,

r60e, this; obtos, atitn, Toto, this, and exetvos, éxetvy, Exelvo,
thut, yonder. ode is dechned lke the definite article, the
suffix de being added to each case. €xetvos is declined hke
aurés. The forms of otros are :—

OUTOS avuTn TOUTO

8 ace. TOUTOV TAUTNV TOUTO
~ n / rn

=
=
a
gen. TOUTOU
f
TAUTYS
/
TOUTOU
/

TOUT@ TAUTY TOUT@

- ? ,

- / /
TOUT TOUTW TOUTW
f 7 f
TOUTOLV TOUTOL TOUTOLV

OUTOL AUTAL TAaUTa

f f — nw
Fe TOUTOUS TAUTAS TAUTA
= , ; ;
S TOUT@V TOUTOV TOUTOY
f f f
TOUTOLS TAUVTALS TOUTOLS

Vowels long by nature, except » and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the crrcumples accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR cimJ

LI.—The reflexive pronouns are declined as follows —

FIRST AND SECOND PERSONS

sing. myself sing. thyself

pl. ourselves pl. yourselves

’ ? / : f /
q Acc. ELAUTOV, -1)V CEAUTOY, ~7)V
=
= gen. ELAUTOU, -15 TEAUTOU, =1S
“ ia fal lanl
~ 2

=
dat. EUAUTO, -7) TEAUTO, -7}
“” > A ia ta) “

ace. NAS AUTOVS, -AS | UpLasS AUTOUS, -aS

¢ “ 2 f £ e a“ 3 f £

=eed
E Gen. NLOV AUTOY ULOY AUTOV
¢ fa 3 Tat e a % a

dat. NW AUTOLS, -als | ULL AUTOLS, -ais

=a € A >) nn nw e cal ? lal

Obs.—The contracted forms cavrdyv, carvTjv, cavTot, cav-

THS, TAUTD, TuvTH are mn Attic writers the more usual,

Vowels long dy nature, except y and w, ae maried long, unless they carry
the crrcumflex accent
58 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

THIRD PERSON

sing. himself, hersclf, riself ; pl. themselves

Fe rey ty SS }
ial |
7

INDIRECT
| | DIRECT REFLEXIVE
REFLEXIVE

| e t id f ¥. /
; EQUTOV = EAUTHYD EaAVUTO
= t al
= EQUTOU = EAUTI}S
= e ~ ct a)
EQUTOU

EAUT@
i ¢ “a ¢ nt
EAUT@ EQUT }}

¢ td e - ¢ ,
EAUTOVUS EAUTAS EQUTAaA
mh
S ¢ a @ an € “
S EAUTMY EaUTOY EAUTOYV
hm
sy

a3 e “A id an € An
| EAUTOLS EQAUTALS EAUTOLS

Obs. 1.—The contracted forms avror, atiryy, otrot, airis,

ete., are in Attic writers the more usual.
Obs. 2.—For plural eavrov has sometimes these forms :—
acc. odas avrovs, auTas,
a 3 7 a

gen, choy abrov.

dat. odiow avrots, avrTats.
? 3 fant > fal

Obs. 3.—The indirect reflexive pronoun is used, e.g. when

a person speaks of somebody else doing something to Azm.
The singular forms when not in an emphatic position are
enclitics.
Fowels long by nature, cacept and w, are marled long, unless they carry
the curcuniflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR BY

LI.—.The forms of the reciprocal pronoun each other are -—

3 ace. GNAjLO GNAHA@ aAAHL@

s gd. | adAnow ANAHAOWW — GAD ow

= ace, GXANAOUS GAN)ANaS dAANA|

s gen, a\AjX@v GAARAM@Y aAAHAOY
= dat. GA\AnNOLS = GANAS ~—GALS

LIII.—The forms of the relative pronoun are -—

masculine feminine | rreuter

as ere

nom. os 4 0
? of

a acc. ov WV 0
SS va ef ee

S ; @ @ e
& Sen. ou WS ov
oe e e
dat | @ my) @

roe { ec cf ef
= nom. a) a) w
Ss dat. olv otv oly
; bes =
nom. | ol al a
iA if

3 ace, ous ° as a
tA

eS gen. @Y COV
os 4 -

dat. |

Obs.—The enclitic wep is often attached, giving a stronger

sense as domep, who just, or precisely who.
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are maihed long, unless they carry
the crewm flex accent.
3G FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

LIV.—The interrogative pronoun has the same stem as

the imdefinite pronoun, from which it is distinguished only
: 4 /
by the accent. Interrogative, ris, m. and f.; Ti, n. Inde-
MIG, TES, DN “ali tS Ft. My,

— ,
= TLVGA Th

== gen. TiVvOS
‘g
Cr TOD
nw /
TLYUOS OF TGV

cat.
pa
Tive
7
OC TO
A
Tit OF Te
}

= 1s he TLUE
/
TLVE
f

S Yo cd. j =
TLVOLV TiVOLV

4 Sn
ee er

nom TILES tiva | tevés tivd OF arTa

: 4 , , f
"3 ace, TLUAaAS TLVa Tivags = TiVva
af
OY aTTAa
oN
~S 4 , =
=, | gen. TLU@YV TLV OY

dat. Tiot(v)
f
TiTi(y)

Vowels fang by nature, except 4 and w, ere marked long, unless they carry
the crrcymfler accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 61

The relative pronoun os and the indefinite pronoun 7rs are

declined together to form a relative pronoun outos, iris, 0 TE,
whosoever, whatsoever ; often also with the same meaning as
the Latin phrase guzppe que.

ev v4
OOTLS TLS

aS OVTLWA
ete
HVTLVA
of

=w%= | OTOU
ee
HOTLVOS
iG

dat. OTH QTWL

ee *®

= n. a. QTLVE OTLVE WTLVE

cf iz 4

S
= g. d, OTOW OTOL OTOLY
Prem e/ a cf

ee er
nom. OLTLVES AIT LVES
= ace. OUTTLWAS ATTLUAS
=
a gen. OT@Y
ef
OT MY
ef

dat. OTOLS aiatici(v)

Obs.—The irregular forms of this relative should be care-

fully noted.

Vowels long by nature, except x and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumpier accent
62 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

THE VERB
LV.—There are two conjugations in Greek—verbs in -a,
and verbs in -j1t.
The verbl-stem is that simple form which is modified to
express relations of time and mood
The tenses, moods, and verbal nouns are classified
according to the stems (tense-stems) from which they are
derived.
LVI.—A complete Greek verb has :—
(1) three numbers: singular, dual, and plural.
(2) three voices :—
active, éAtoa, I loosed. middle, edtodpyv, I loosed for
myself. passive, €Av@nv, IT was loosed.
(3) two classes of tenses, ¢.g.—
Principal
present, Atiw, I loose,
future, Atow, I shall loose.
perfect, AcAvka I have loosed.
Historical
imperfect, eAtov, J was loosing or used to Loose,
aorist, eAtou, I loosed.
pluperfect eAeAvxy, ZT had loosed.
(4) four moods, ¢e.g.—
indicative, Atw, TL loose.
subjunctive, Avw The meaning of these moods can
optative, Avot, ae be learnt by use.
imperative, Ave, loose,
(5) three verbal nouns, e.g.—
infinitive, Avec, to loose. participle, Atwv, loosing. verbal
adjective, Avréos, that must be loosed.
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the cvrcumylex accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR G3

LViL—The following forms of efvas, to be, will serve as an

example of the conjugation in -p.,

TENSE INDICATIVE weet

wens

3
present imperfect
present S el- Li 7) OL 7V
and 9 él no-Ga
imperyf. 3 éo-Ti(v) HW
D 2 eo-Tov 1}-T OV
3 éa-TOv H-THY
1)- [LEV
>

Eo~ [LEV
,

a!
3

2 éo-TEé 7}-TE
3 misc. To -ay

eS S 1 Eo-Ofae
z) 2)
éo-€b
4

3 éo-Tat
| D 2 éo-ea Gov
| 3 éx-eo Gov
. Bd éo-opeba
D éo-eabe
3 EO-OVTAL

IMPERATIVE
singular dual plural
to-Os EO T-OV éo-TE
3. éo-TH ECT-OV OVUT-@V
long, unless they carry
Vowels long by nature, ercept 4 and w, a7é mar hed
the circumflex accent
64 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

mes SS ————
TENSE SUBJUNCTIVE OPTATIVE

present S 1 a elny
| and
[. imperf.
2 AS eins
3 7 ein
D2 “TOV elToV
3 7}-TOV eltny
in G)- LeY elev
2 A~TE eiTe
3 O-o6(V) elev

future Sl ég-oipny
2 éo-0L0
3 éo-0LTo
D 2 éa-owc Pov
3 éo-otaOny
ice éo-oipeba
2 éo-oLaGe
3 Eo-OLYTO

INFINITIVE
present future
el-vat éo-eo Oat

PARTICIPLES
present Suture
av ovca dv | éo-dpevos, 7, ov
? 5 f f

Vowels tong by nature, except x and a, ore marked long, untess they carry
the wricumpler accent,
FIRST GREE! GRAMALAR 65

VERBS IN O

LVIIL.-—Verbs in -w are classified according to the final

letter of the verb-stem in the same way as we arranged
the substantives. Thus we can form at once two great
Groups, &.9.—
(1) Verbs whose verb-stems end in a vowel.
(2) Verbs whose verb-stems end in a consonant.

The former of these classes is much more simple than

the latter. Consonant stems are often so altered in the
present and imperfect tenses that you will not be able at
first to assign them to their proper classes. The succeeding
pages will give you examples of verbs in -m arranged in
groups of which the following is a synopsis.

I. VOWEL-STEMS
narrow vowels 4, v, av, ev, ov uncontracted.
open vowels a, €, o contracted.

II. CONSONANT-STEMS
palatal mutes, x, y, x.
dental mutes, r, 8, @.
labial mutes, 7, 8, .
liquids and nasals, A, p, uw, v.

NotTe.—The expressions strong and weaA which you will find applied
to tenses may be best explained by examples from Enghsh. Thus bore,
took, sank, are the strong past tenses of bear, take, sink, but neared,
baked, linked, are the weak past tenses of near, buhe, dink.

Vowels lung by nature, eacept x, and w, are marhed long, wnless they ceri y
the crreumfplcr accent
F
66 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

VERBS
VoweEL-Stems. I. Uncontracted
roa, L loose

)
TENSES | INDICATIVE
camino Ba a Ae a ts a ee

: present wnper fect |

AU-C-ETE |
oo
bo AU-o-oves(v)
|

PRESENT IMPERATIVE

singular dual plural

n tes £
2. AU-€ AU-€TOV AU-€TE
3. NU-éTM NU-ETOV NU-OVTwY
~ - ~-~ ff

Fouels long by nature, evcept y and w, aie marked long, unless they carry
the exrcumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 67

IN &
ACTIVE VOICE
verb-stem Au

SUBJUNCTIVE OPTATIVE |

AU- AU-OL fe
ro-NS NU- 04g
rU-7. AU~o8
U-nTOV dU-oeTov
NU-NTOV U-oiryy
U-w ev AU-oLev
| AU-NTE U-oLTE |
| AU-war(v) AU-oLev

ameeceamanaias aaa |
U-T~Objt
NU-G-065
| U-c-08
AU-o-oLTov
AU-o-OlTHV
NU-o-OLpev
: AU-o-oLTE
| NU-o-oLEV
Ue a eee ee ae ee eB
INFINITIVE
present Suture
w-euy Ni-o-Euv
PARTICIPLES
present future
Av-wv, NU-ovea, ND-ov | NU-o-w@v, AU-c-ovca, AU-G-OV
st. NuoVT st. AUTOVT |
Vowels long by nature, except y and wa, are marked lona, unless they carry
the circumflex accen’
68 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR
VERBS
VOWEL-STEMS. I. Uncontracted
Avo, I loose
TENSES ee INDICATIVE |

|Wanting in vowel-stems. Has the same

stro
ees | endings as imperfect in indicative and as
aor ist
the present in other moods

strong Wanting in vowel-stems.- Have the same

perf. and endings as weak perfect and pluperfect
pluperfect | respectively

Fowels long by nature, excent 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR
IN Q
ACTIVE VOICE
verb-stem Av
[| SUBJENCTIVE { OPTATIVE

NU-o-w AU-C- Alb

NU-o-79 NU-C-€LQaS
du-o-eve(V)
Lf.
U-o-7
Z
AU-o-nTOV NU-C-QALTOV
- /
NU-o-N TOV NU-O-AiTHV
AU-T-ALpLeEV
Z2
NU-o-w LEV
Z
NU-o-NTE AU-O-QLTE
AU-c-waolv)
4
AU-O-€tay

E-AU-K-@ NE-AU-K-OLLL
NE-AU-K-7S NE-AV-K-OLS
Ne-AU-KN NE-AV-K-OL
NE-AU-K-N
TOV NE-AV-K-OLTOV
NE-AV~K-N
TOY Ne-AvU-K-OlT
NY
Ne-AU-K-@ LEV NE-AV-K-OL
{LEV
NE-AU-K-TE NE-AU- K-OLTE
Ne-AU-K-waoelv) | NE-AU-K-OLEV
Aorist IMPERATIVE
singular duh plural
Z 4
2 \U-o-ov AU-C-ATOV AU-CO-QATE
- /
3 NU-o-aT@
= ?
NU-O-ATOV AU-O-QAVYT@V

. INFINITIVE
aorest perfect
NU-o--at NE-AU-K-EVa
PARTICIPLES ;
aor ist perfect
Z A wa
AU-o-as, NU-c-aca, NEe-AU-KOS, NE-AU-KULA,
NU-o-av Ne-AvU-KOS
70 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

- - VERBS
VOWEL-STEMS. I. Uncontracted
AVowar, I loose

TENSES | INDICATIVE
| pr ese sib ! Lin pies fect
| present Sl | Ad-opae
and 2 NU-EL
ape? fect, 3 NU-ETaL

3 Nt-ec Gov
Pl | dv-opeba
2 : NU-ecGe
3 | AU-ovTaL
: |
Juluie, S 1 AU-O-OMab
stem AVEO “2 M-o see
3 AU-O-E€TQL
D2 At-o-ecGov
3 AU-o-ec Gov
irae Nv-o-0eba
0 AU-o-ecbe
2 AU-C-OVTAaL

IMPERATIVE
singular dual plural
2 rt-ov ND-eo bor NU-eaGe
3 rAv-ér Ow Av-éc bay Nu-éc Gav

Vowels tong by nature, except 4 and w, are mared long, unless they carry
the curcumyflex accent
FIRST GREEK GRAAITAR 71

IN 0
MIDDLE VOICE
for myself

x SUBJUNCTIVE | OPTATIVE

AU-w Las NU-OLuNY

o-n AU-oL0
U-NTA XU-OLTO
-no Gov NU-otc ov
NU-no Pov Av-oig Ony
hv-wweda Nu-ol(ueGa
| duU-no Ge v-o1cGe
AU-@VTat NU-OLVTO

NU-o- olny
AU-o 060
U-C-oLTO
NU-o-o1c Gov
NuU-c-olcOny
u-c-olueba
| AU-c-o1o be
Z
AU-G-OLVTO

INFINITIVE
present future
Nv-eo Bat NU-o-eo Oat
PARTICIPLES
present Suture
NU-OMEVOS, -7), ~OV U-C-OMEVOS, -7, -OV
Vowels lony by nature, except 4 and a, are marked long, untess they carry
the cricumfier acce mt
72 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR
VERBS
VoOWEL-StremMs. I. Uncontracted
AVowat, I loose,
TENSES INDICATIVE
weuk Qorist
01 wt, S 1 €-AU-o- ayeny
stem Uo 2 | é-NU-o-w
3 é-hU-c-aTo
D2 é-t-c-ac bow
3 | é-Av-o-acGnv
P1| é-d-o-dpeba
2 é-rv-c-acbe
3 | é-AU-c-avTo
| pei fect plupes fect
perfect Sl | 2A€-rv-pas é-Ne-AV-pNV
and 2 Né-Av-Cat €-XE-AV-CO
pluper fect, 3 | dé-Av-TaL é-Né-u-TO
stem D2 é-Av-o Gov é-Né-Av-o Gov
EAU 3 Né-Av-o Gov é-Ne-AU-o On
Pt de-AV-wEeFa é-Ne-AU-pweda
2 NE-Av-oOE €-Né-u-oOe
3 | A€-Av-vTaAs é-Né-u-yTO
Future Sl | NE-AV-T-OLAL
perfect, 2 | Ne-Av-o-eL, &e.
stem ANeAUo |

stiong aorist wanting invowel-stems

IMPERATIVE
singulur dual plural
aoe {2. NO-o-at MU-c-acbov =—-_»v-a-acbe
3. AU-c-dc08w = =AvV-c-aoPwv = rv-o-adcOwy
a, { 2. X€-Av-co é-Av-cOov —-Aé-Av-oGe
| 3. Ae-Ad-cOw = Ae-AV-cPov —Ae-AV-TOav
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 73
IN QO
MIDDLE VOICE
for myself
SUBJUNCTIVE OPTATIVE 7

L
AU-T-W LAL NU-o-aipeny
NU-o-7n AU-o-aio
NU-o-NTAL AU-o-atTo
Nd-o-no bor NI-c-atc
Gov
U-o-Nno Gov NU-o-aloOny
Au-o-a pela Av-o-aipela |
Ad-c-atabe |
NU-o-noOe
NU-G-wVTAL NU-c-aLyto

NE-NU-[LEVOS oO Ne-AU-WEVOS ElNyY

8 Els
7 ein |
e-AV-LLEVO TOV Ae-AU-pév@ elTOV
7TOV eltnV
Ne-AU-MEVOL @Lev NE-AU-LEVOL ELEY
re elite
acl) elev
Ne-Av-o-OluNy
Ne-AU-o-o10, &C.

INFINITIVE
aorist perfect Suture perfect
Jf
rAU-c-ao Gat he-Av-c Gas Ne-AV-o-Eeo
Oat
PARTICIPLES
aorist Future perfect
NU-T-G{LEVOS, 1, OV e-AU-LEVOS, 1, OV wanting
Vowels long by nature, eacepl ~ and w, are maried long, unless they carry
the cirewmflex accent
74 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR
VERBS
VowEL-Stems. I Uncontracted
identical with the middle except in
Pa
AVEO,
| TENSES INDICATIVE
i———
weil: Sl é-Av-O-np
aorist, 2 é-Av-O-5
stem | 3 é-AU~-O-7
AVE | D2 é-\U-8-n Tov
| 3 é-Av-O-n rn
| weed é-Nv-O-nwev
2 é-Av-O-nTE
3 é-XU-6-noav
weak Sl v-O7j0-oMas
Suture, 2 Av-OHo-e4, Se.
stem AvOnS
strong worst | Wanting in vowel-stems. Has the
same endings as weak aorist
stiong Future Wanting in vowel-stems. Has the
same endings as weak future
IMPERATIVE
singular duct plural
2. Av-8-nTe v-G-nTov v-O-nTe
3. Av-O-7Tw Nu-O-HTOV Nu-G-évtTwOv
Obs.—The termination of the second person singular im-
perative of the strong aorist passive is -@..
Verbal adjectives
hu-rés, Av-7H, Av-Tdv, able, or ft to loose, or to be loosed.
Xu-réos, AU-Téa, Av-Téov, necessary to be lvused.
Vowels lony by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 75
IN QO
PASSIVE VOICE
aorist and tenses derived from aorist
f am loosed
_—_ SUBJUNCUTLIVE ; OPTATIVE |
| Nu-B-@ Au-O-elny !
| Au-O-75 Au-G-elns |
l hu-O-7 Av-G-eln |
| hu-G-frov Nu-O-elrov |
| du-O-Frov du-O-eltny
du-O-a wey u-O-etpev
| Nu-O- re Av-6-eiTe
| Av-O-dau(v) |
|
Nu-6-eley

Av-Eno-olwny ;
Av-OHo-o10, Ke.

(ur ist ee uenk future

du-O-Hvat Au-Oro-erOat
aurist pee future
Av-6-els, NU-Geioa, Nu-Oev Au-O-NTOMEVOS, 1; OF
THE AUGMENT
The ¢ which is prefixed in the historical tense of the undica-
tive mood of Ave 1s called the augment. All verbs beginning
in a consonant have an augment of this form. It is called the
syllabic augment.
When a verb begins with a vowel, the vowel is lengthened
in the historical tenses of the mndicative mood. Thus
a becomes 7 e becomes t au becomes yu
€ 3 7) e ” U Ob oy) @
O “ @) ae 1 EU " yu
This 1s called the temporal augment
n, @, t v, and 1, ov, remain without augment,
Vowels lung by nature, eacept 4 and w, tre marhed long, uniess they carry
the crrcumfler uccent,
76 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

VERBS IN Q
VOWEL-STEMS. If. Contracted
ACTIVE VOICE
Tipaw, contracted tind, I honour ; roréw, contracted
Toto, J make; Snow, contracted nro, I show
PRESENT AND IupERFrecT TENSES

TL LG) TOL) OnrXO

TLULGS TOLELS dnd0l$
TLL TOLEL dnat
TLLATOV TOLELTOV dn XOUTOV
TLULATOV TOLELTOY dénXOUTOY
TL {LG [LEV TOLOUMLED Onrodwev
TLMATE TOLELTE OnNovTeE
TLaG LY) Totovauy) dnrodoi(y)

ETE MOY éqrolouv é07 NOVY

> eee ? f PANees

f= > / oO /
ETL Las ETOLELS éONNOUS
Lo=- 3 / 2 /
ETL LA ETTOLEL éd7 ov
ETLLATOV ET OLELTOV é€OnNOUTOV
3 ~ o“ 3 “ 3 mn”

ie ? / ? 7
ETLULATHV ET OLELTNV édnAouTHY
ETL UM LEV emotovev edn NOD LEV
ETLUATE CTOLELTE éOnNOUTE
f= ~ > on > ray
LO

ares ? f Oo /
SN) ETLU@Y ETT OLOUY €52)Xouv

Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR ~T“I

VERBS IN O
VOWEL-STEMS. Il. Contracted
PASSIVE VOICE
Tiudoual, contracted tiuaduar; coréouas contracted
Tovovuas ; Snrdopas contracted Syrodpat
PRESENT AND IMPERFECT TENSES

(2 TL LG) Lab TOLOUILAL dn AOD UAL |

|ro
oe
a
Tied ITOLEL dnXot
TIMATAL TOLELTAL SnNOUTAaL
es) 09
bo Tipacbov ToLteto Gov dnXovc Gov
Tia Gov qoL.ete Gor dn XovGOoy
Tip@pela mo.tovupeba dn Noupe
da |
- - ,

Tipacbe qrovetaGe dyNova Ge |

TLUOVTAL TOLOUVYTAL dénNOUVTAL |
NE TE ES TS SU

CTL
LO LNY ET OLOULV eOnroupny
?

ETLU® ET OLOU édnXov

ETLULATO ETTOLELTO édnNOUTO
eri pac Gov émrotetabov édnrove Gor
3 Fant

éTiacOny érrotetc Ony édnroveOnv

> f @ 9 /

éripwweGa errotoveba édnroupela

> f

éripacbe édnrovaGe
5° a
évroteto
be
| “a

ETLUL@YTO ET GLOUYTO éONNOUYTO

Vowels long by nature, ercept 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the cricumfles accent.
~Ico FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

VERBS IN GQ

VOWEL-STEMS. Il. Contracted

AcTIVE VOICE
Tide, contracted tina, LT henour, movéw, contracted ro
I male, &nrOo, contracted yr, I show
SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE Moops

Sl | rived TOL) bX)

2 | tipas TOUS dnrots
3. | Tia ToLy dnAOL
D2 | tipadrov TOLNTOV dnXNOTOV
3 | Tlhwarov TOLNTOV dnX@TOV
Pl | tipadpev TOLD {LEV SN. [Lev
2 | Tiwate TOLNTE OnNA@TE
TibaTtY) Totaly) SnN@oUV)

Sl | tipeadny ToLoiny dnoinv

Touels long by nature, cacept y and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumfec accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

VERBS IN 0
VOWEL-STEMS. II Contracted

PASSIVE VOICE

Tiadopat, contracted Tinadpmar, Ge. &e.

SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE Moops
—

Sl) rtpepas TOL Lat SNA@Lat

Th Ton OnKOb
- m~ aA ’ Ca)

3) Tiaras TOTAL OnNOTAL

D 2 TiwacOov Towno Gov onrxacGor
3 TiyuacOov =rouno@ov dna or
Pl} vina@uela Trotwpeba SnrAomeOa
2 | TipacGe moinade dénrwaGe
3! Tiuadvrae TWOLOUTAL ONAGVTAL

S1 TE@LNV TOLOLLny énoiuny

2 TLLLWO TrOLOLO 67.000
3 TLUL@TO TOLOLTO dnNotro
D2 | ti@ocGov rototcGov dnrolobor
3 ric Onv rototcOnv dsnroicOnv
~” ft la /

io Tin@pwela rocoiuefa dnroipeda

- ? / f

2| Tip@oe woLota Ge dnrotcOe

3 | TéwovrTo WOLoLvt o dnrawrTe

Vouels long by nuture, eacept yand o are marhed long, unless they carry
the vercunfirr Ucce ii
80 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

VERBS IN Q

YowEL-STEMS. II Contracted
ACTIVE VOICE

tiwdo, contracted tiweé, I honour: zoréw, contracted grow.

L make; dndéw, contracted nro, I show
IMPERATIVE Moop

' S2.‘ | tipa

| PARTICIPLE
TLUOV, OTA, TOLOV,TOLODCA, OnADY, OnrODCA,
| TLLOV TOLODV d7NOUV
fecesee ota

fuime Tipjow 4
TOO ,
bnAOTW ?

perfect teTlunka TeTolnKa dednAWKA

Pouwels long by nature, errept +, and w, are ma hed long, unless they carry
the cercumflec accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMALAR <1

VERBS IN OQ

VOWELStTEMS. II Contracted

PASSIVE VOICE

Tipaopat, contracted Tiu@yas, &e. Ke.

IMPERATIVE Moov

INFINITIVE
Timactas moveta Gat dnrotabar

PARTICIPLE
TEL@LEVOS, ToLovpevos, dnrovpeEvos,
, OV 1%}, OV Ty, OV
ea eee ees

future = Tipenoopas TOT oat SNA@TOMAL

perfect teTiunuat Trerolnmas SEO
AW LAt
Fowels lung dy nature, except x and w, are marhed long, unless they carry
the crrcumsples accent.
G
ro ee
ee ere es IE
rtlo-olig Xvdvt (syvo.m)tlig-Nodnts rptlo-Z3p JoL-d4 mdl-Andv1- -9.L|Alurtp- 3nd 01-9) ro7lo- SpdnL mlo-LLvdne
b=

‘
roilo-oliy Xo (Qpeom)tlig-Xodz3} 1rorlo- Sod .-“DAL inl nies“Dt aley-3Spd 1-3 rorlo-Spdx wro- Lindt
voilo-oloy
ite : ny 2)(BU01]S)
aS 1 Aly
A oy 49 rndlo-Sayat- a1) rorl--Aayu-3ue sled-3 DY 3 : rtlo-3ay 2 ryo-MaY te
aaaCecse teenseee fea Meets, LE :
Waitd SV GAN
COW aad esa ers DNASAUG.
“ecbenhanrt WAISSVYd CUI “Oy
MATISSVd | ‘HAT
WAISSVd DSTUOV
GNY
ITO
SUL
GRAMMAR

WIddliy
(yvoas) n-Nod pL-3L (yoo) v-3ndp1-2 pL pd o-3 mM-Lind pL
([vo.n) n-Xvd.t-3.1 (yuom) v3 nd.2-9 o-3pd 2 o-LLpdt
(3[v0..) —NoVte-3tt (VOM) p-59yV 4-2 O-J3VL O-MDVE
GREEK

Nreyc Rub Kel LsTaov SEU OAD OE NASH UE

WOIOA
an
FIRST

WALLOV

Avdve,
TVA
(49th
hyd
SWS
‘asnfuor T ‘MLLndvt

speyeped
¢ ie,
‘MLLpd
T ‘op jug
f ¢
[ ;
SOHN
‘SINLLQ-LNVNOSNOX

uy
*T
SUA

NI
O
[ ute:
r1o-oliy.orsox
ct Alig-oyon-3
+ rpr-orrion-9y | Aleriy-orrlon-s
ell
rortaorom + aydo-jirlom
rp do-oliyor9e Ali)-.079.1t-3 C
rod-orat-3 | ler! p-019.4-9
é ‘
mndo-oa2 | rnrlo-g739"
mmido-oliorap Ali g-o.rap-a rod-onap29 | aletly-onad-> rprlo-onagr | rorlo-guap

:
MVOIAL CSSVdb SEQ Vd UEOY | Loto
| SEVOPALSS MVOLA. “COIN SdOy PUA LAL DNASUd.
G RAMALAR

WIadit
UNV
WGAISSVd
SHDIOA
|
(:[RAM) pe dox-ay (vam) n-0r7/!0n-9 oro om Sirlow
(3)QOM) 9-13-31 (3[BAM) 9-099.-3 O-099L m-p 190
EER
G

LOWE LSRIOY Chigannert LNASTUd

FIRST

ce ine mernt NR ered are a ae —-+--

MOTOA GATLOV
giro ‘pias ganas ‘SIaEstVENGA | ean 7 ‘@ggrion Supnnsiad 7 ‘Mpa Foy 7“TDMOgnasy
‘T[ Ul s(rquop
‘SINSLLS-INVNOSNO,)
nilo-olugpay om alig-paynn-3 Ml0-Puyny-om 7 onl-rlayDy-9M Alurlp-payon-> m1lO-Parynwm rprlo-Luay or
rorlo-oligpiay | alig-p)9y-3 | vorlo-~Pry->y | rorl-hay-sy |(Stu0I4s) alilo-z1y-3 | rorlo-pr3sy INMO-LIIY
milo-oliggpHaz Alig-cprla.-3 rtlo-prlau-3.0 ronl->u-34 alurly-prtaz- morlo-prlau vordo-urlaz
poues ieee ‘WW
} NG WALA
t } | LOCVEU
Ash} T% Ned
VLC MIGdIN
u LSTov
; WU OL Oei“
it NASH
rh GS Hed
“SSVd WHA 'SSVd “UOVY
GRAMMAR

STOTOA HAISSVd ANY WIddi

: ’ 7 oe: =
(va) D-paypy-3 o-fayom M-LUQY OM
(GUOLYS) 0-LI0Y-3¥ (SUOIYS) A0-LIy-2 O-przy (-LI9Y
(Rom) D-Arls1t-9 w-prirlae w-serla
FIRST GREEK

(B110148) v->rlou-a
LOW dL iLSTUOV Hie Ba gtyeenul DINASTET
a AT
DH HR RR ARENA AR rn RA
i
HOIOA PHALLOV
glayon ‘21 Sura SICULLS-TV GUA "La000 J ‘MLuAy Dy £ 30nd) T ‘m9 “puas J SORIA LESH
s[RIqe] UT TT] ‘SIGLLQ-LNVNOSNOXD)
84
Lise)
GA

SWwO0Iys) alt-dn.st.o-9 pro-doso-9 alerip-diau0-39 | araodsu0|

(SU01jS) m0-.0lid nao [5 rrlo-d19..0
yuo) anlo-oligyaddn (qvaar) alg-yaddle [anr-yakdle ‘alirty-yrakhl pndaoysddn irorlo-yyahdn
(BUu0148) Mr/0-lrdoy (d10.138) al-dng-> |a7l-dng-29 |Aliily-d13Q-3 rorlaodag rorlo-daQ
HAGSS

| SEVELAN
OO

OL Def INASHUd
Al

Vek WSRLOV LOOT TL,

MLALSS
“dik “dO¥
RAMMAR

SHOIOA HAISSVd UNV Widdiv

Rene ne Ee or
tH EL
f p-vdn1.03 (9-0)92.0-3 od> 3.0 (9-1-da.t.0 AOJ) «-d739.0
YOM
r
mt

alee \ w-Myahile yuo MM? p-yrhalt ayakan (m-1-yahho 10}) a-vyaddn

| n-J199-9 od3Q md3Q
GREEK

: een ee ee
LOTT d TSULOV TUALOT | DNA SUM
Pon
FIRST

WOTOA GhLATDIOV

“SINULSG-LNVNOSNOS)
|

SReT Rape er ak Pra tereetedeaenee

TIGA ‘aos f *odran0 Saunouun J ‘oyyakdn Surys 7 ‘md39

¢
‘yakdnJ31.0 dag
STWOLLS-TV
spmby uy “AT
86 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR
LIX VERBS
FIRST
ri-On-pt, Lpluce. Verbs
a

E
TENSES INDICATIVE
ne
| qnesent imperfect
mesent 2 jt Ti-On-put
and Ti-On-s
Ve

unperfect ti-On-ot(v)
stem Ti-Ge-Tov
TiGe Ti-Ge-Top
Ti-Oe-wev
/
arp

Ti-Ge-Te
/

— ree
vi-0€-a-cu(v) Mos -ri-Ge-cayv
?

Uorist é-On-K-a |
“

strong é-Gy-K-as
weak
oe,
stem Oe
é-Ge-Toy
AA
{|
Fr
bo
Oo
Fr
bo
OF
LO
oo
LY
Oo

é-é-Tny
> /
On

é-Ge-Lev
»

é-Ge-Te
é-Ge-cayp or
/
bo
Co

é-On-K-av
ee
ee
aee

PRESENT IMPERATIVE
singular duul plural
2. Ti-~Oes Tl-Ge-Tov Ti-Ge-TE
3. TL-Oé-TH TL-O€-TOV
/
Ti-Gé-VT@Y
/

AorISsT IMPERATIVE
2 dé-s
t Gé-Tov Gé-Te
. b6-TH
qw 6é-Tev Oé-vrev
INFINITIVE
present aorist
TL-Gé-vat Get-vat
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR ore
LNs jhe
CLASS
stem O¢.*-AcTIVE VOICE
ner
rr a Sa Se ees ES ethPNAP

c SUBJUNCTIVE Sle OPTATIVE ss

PARTICIPLFS
present aorist
wi-Oer-s, Ti-Qei-oa, TL-Oé-v Get-s, Gei-ca, Oé-v
st, Te-Oe-vr st. Ge-vr
future perfect
Onow TéGeika

Vowels long by nature, ercept x and w, are mmied lona, unless they carry
the corcumfles uccent
88 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

VERBS
- First

ti-O@n-t, [ place. Verb-stem Ge

TENSES INDICATIVE
present anuper fect
present | S 1 Ti-Ge-wat é-71-0é-pny
and 2 Ti-Ge-cat é-Ti-Ge-co
imperfect 3 Ti-Be-Tat é-Tt-Ge-T0
stem 1 ti-Ge-cOov €-Ti-Ge-cOov
TLE 3 vi-Ge-cOov é-71-0é-c Obny
| Pd 71-0é-weba é-T1-0é-peba
} 9 Ti-Ge-abe é-Ti-Ge-cOe
| 3 ti-Oe-vTat é-Ti-Ge-vTo

ali ony é-Gé-puny

cur ist é-Gov
stem é-Ge-To |
Ge &e as imperfect

PRESENT IMPERATIVE
singular dual plurat
2. tt-Ge-co ti-Ge-c Gov Ti-Oe-cGe
3 Ti-0é-cbw Ti-0é-cbav Ti-0€é-cOwv

Aonist IMPERATIVE
singular diel plural
2. Bod 3 Gé-cbov Gé-cbe
3. bécbw 3. Gécbwv Gé-cOwv
INFINITIVE
giresent QOTUSE
rl-Ge-cbat Gé-c Gat
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR $9
IN - ye
CLASS SY

MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE

————

"
SUBJUNOTIVE OPTATIVE

ca TL-OG)- ae
71-07
T1-OF-Tat
Tt-On-c Gov
|
Tt-Get-ny
t1-Get-o
Tt-Gel-To
rt-Get-o
ov

wb peb
Ti-O-c Gov vi-Oei-c Ony
vi-Gei-peGa
T1-O9-c be Ti-Oei-obe
|
Ti-O@-VTat
rong Ti-Get-vTo
————|
}
Cad- Lae Gel-pnv
'
Gn
| Gei-o
Gel-ro
~

ee N,N
ES tn NA

PARTICIPLES
present aorist
TL-é-wevos, N, OV Gé-“EVvos, 7, OV
a /

aorist passive, éréOnu. weak future passire, reOrnoopat.

perfect middle, réOerpas.

Obs.—i-y-pt, L send (verb-stem ¢), is inflected throughout

like Tt-On- pat.

Vowels lony by nature, except 4 and a, ae marked long, unless they carry
the circumflet accent.
pa)co FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

VERBS
Fir: , Lmuke to stand
[ TENSES =
iccatienert ae INDICATIVE

present ine perfect

|
present | Sl (-OTN- [Lt (“OTH AV
and | 2 (-oTN-S L-OTN-S
tf

imperfect a i-aTy-ou(v) I-oTY

¢/

stem D2 | (-OTA-TOV i-o% &-TOV

| fora 3» |i (-OTA-TOV b-OTA-THV

€ /

| Pl | i-~CTA-LeV l-O
TQ eV
/

| 2 | i-OTA-TE (-OTA-TE
ts

oo HS [-oTa-oulv) [-TTA-CaV
a

! strony Sl
aor ist 3
| stem 3
CTA D2 é-O'TN-TOV
3 é-TTH-THV
eae -TTN- LEV
2 E-TTN-TE
3 é-oTN-CaV ee

PRESENT IMPERATIVE
singular duitb plural
¢?
2. L-OTN
vd v4
t -OTA-TOV [-OTA-TE
¢e / /
3. t-OTA-T@
¢ e
L -OTQA-TOV i-OTQ-VT OD

AORIST IMPERATIVE.
2. xth-Oe OTN-TOV OTH-TE
3, TTY-TH
/
TTH-TOV CTU-VTOV

INFINITIVE
present OTist
l-OTA-Vas TTH-VAL
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR Gy

IN = [Lb
Verb-stem ¢7ta.—ActTivi Vorce
ee Se ere RE ae nT ae EN
SUBJUNCTIVE OPTATIN E |
{
|
(-o7® | (-cTalny
i-OTI-S i-oTains
i-o TN (-oTAin
b-OT -TOV (-oTalTor
(-CTH-TOV l-oTAITHY
(-O'TQ) Lev | [-oTAlpwey
i-OTH-TE | L-OTQITE
| (-6T@-o6(1') | i-oTatev
CTO | oTainv
| TTHHS | oTains
| OTH | oTain
| OT-TOV OTALTOY
OT H-TOV | CTALTHY
OT O)~ [LEV CTULMEV
OTH-TE OTALTE
oTM-ouy) | oTatey

PARTICIPLES
present aorist
(-oTd-s, (-oTd-coa, (-o7dy oTd-$, oTa-ca, oTdy
stem, (-cTavT stem, oTavT

future, ornow. week uorist, ornoa. perfect, éarnKa,

In the present, future, and weak aorist the meaning is

transitive, make to stand; but in strong aorist and pertect
intransitive, J stood and J stund,
Fowels long by nature, evcept rand w, aie maried long, unless they carry
the circteneflex ucceit,
92 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

VERBS

FIRST

i-oTn-p, IT make

MIDDLE AND

| TENSES | INDICATIVE |

7| present umper fect

strony aos ist wanting

PRESENT IMPERATIVE
singular ducal plural
2. -cTa-co
7
i-ora-o Gov
‘7
i-oTa-obe
£
3. b-ota-cOw l-ora-cboy i-oTd-cbwv

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and a, avo marked long, unless they carry
the crrcumflen accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 93

IN ~ [bb

CLASS

to stund. Verb-stem ora

PASSIVE VOICE

SUBJUNCTIVE OPTATIVE |
eS i nie eee REPS

[-OTO-Lal (-oral-ny
(-OT} (-oTat-0
(-OTH-TAL (-oTal-TO
i-oTn-o Gov (-otat-cGoy
i-orn-oOov (-oTat-oOny
-oTra@-peda i-cTat-weba
i-oTn-obe (-oTai-oBe
OT M-UTAL (-CTAl-VTO

| wanting

PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES

t-ora-oGas [-OTA-[LEVOS, 1, OV
future, ornoopmas. ueuk aorist passive, doradny.
weak future passive, crabnoopas
éornoduny, the weak aorist middle, is always transitive

Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the ercumfles accent,
o4 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR
VERBS
FIRST
di-6@-pt, L offer
wees a
| TENSES INDICATIVE
| l
present uinper feck
qgiresent Is 6L-O@- [ut é-d(-dour
and 2 O1-0@-S é-b{-d0usS
dmperfect 3 6(-d@-cu(v) é-di-dov
| stem D2 61-60-TOV é-6(-d0-ToY
6160 3 &{-00-Tov é-61-60-THV
| Pod | d1-60-pev é-di-d0-jwev
2 di-d0-TE €-01-60-TE
5) | 64-00-doulv) é-6/-00-cav

PRESENT IMPERATIVE
singular dual plural
2. dé-dou Ot-60-ToV 6i-00-TE
3. d6-d0-T@ ~—-8u-80-T@Y 81-O0-VTOV
Aonist IMPERATIVE
2. 00-5 O0-TOV 80-TE
3. 80-Te 60-ToOY 60-VTOV
Vowels long by nuture, ercent «and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the crrcumfpler uccent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR g or
IN-<
CLASS .
Verb-stem 60.—AcCTIVE VOICE
a a 8
SUBJUNCTIVE | OPTATIVE :
—
66-60 dt-dolny
61-80-$ 61-d0iNS
do- 88 o1-d0in
Ol- ie TOV | Ol-O0lTOV |
6l-0@-TOV 61-d0i(THY
|
| 61-60)- an 6(-O0 LEV
| Ot-00-T O1-O01TE
61-6@-Cboy) = O-O0 LEV !

= , |
| da dolny
| O@-S | dolns |
| @ | doin |
@-ToV | dolTov
S&-TOV doltnv
Sa)- wey Solpev
OW-TE SotTe
b60-c(Y)
Ow A
OOLEV

INFINITIVE
gn esent Aorist
5.-80-vat OOU-VAL
PARTICIPLES
present (Or ist
§-S00-s, 64-b00-ca, 66-80-v dov-s, d00-ca, d0-v
stem 61-d0-yT stem do-vt

future, docw. perfect, dédmxa.

36 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

VERBS

FIRST
6i-de-ji, I offer
MIDDLE
peeks ee ee ee ee er
: TENSES | | INDICATIVE
!

| pi esent imper fect

strong corist | é-O0-pnv

stem do | é-dou
| é-O0-Te
| etc. as imperf. !

PRESENT IMPERATIVE
singular dual plural
9. di-d0-co df-60-0 Gor dt-d0-cbe
3. b1-d0-c@w = 8-5 0-c Gav 6-60-cbav

AORIST IMPERATIVE
d00 60-c0w &e. as present
Yowels tong by nature, except n and w, are marked tong, unless they carry
the errcuniflex accent,
FIRST GREER GRAMMAR a7

IN -pe

CLASS

Verb-stem 6o

VOICE

| Tussi
ies eo ee a |
SURJUNCTIVE | OPPATIVE |
Sa ca cca oa a a

6-6 @- Mas | d£-00t- ny

| OG- [LAE dol-unv

@ dot-o
O@-TAL O06-TO
etc as present etc. as present

INFINITIVE
present aorist
Cs f
6L-d0-c9at 60-0 Gat
PARTICIPLES
present Qorist
dt-O0-eves, 7, OV O0-LEVOS, 7, OV
perfect bédonat weak aorist passive, édoOny. weal:
future passice, So@noopar.
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, winless they carru
the circumpler accent.

H
98 FIRST GREEK GRAMALAR

VERBS IN -ye

The forms of the verb ets, I shall go (verb-stem ¢)

are as follows :—

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE OPTATIVE

D 3
2 | ¢-Tov
3/
TOV
5 :
inTov
”
LOLTOV
ov i

i-TOV HT inTov LoiTny

3 ” ov v > +

i~ ev 7 LEV (a) {LEV Loupev

Pp 1 BY Vv a xv

2 | j-rTe
3) ” |
TE
>
inTe
”
LOLTE
4 j

9
3 | i-aouly)|
v=
noav >
loot(v)
”
lovey
”

IMPERATIVE
singular duct plural
2. (Ae LTOV UTE
3. tw LTOV LOVTOV

INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE
Leva idv, tovea, Lov (st. covT)
s/f > 7 7 or s/ 9

Late and incorrect forms for this imperfect are, singulur

(1) jeu (2) news, >
dual Herrov, netrny.
? >
pluial Hetper,
_ HELTE, HETAY.
bowels long by nature, except , and w, are mathed long, unless they carry
the evrcumflex accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR $9

VERBS IN -ps

Second Crass —Verbs which form the present stem by

adding pu to the pure stem.

devx-vu-pt, L shew. pure stem, deve. present-stem, dere-vyu

resent indir. actire resent dudir, anid. and !pts.

O€LK-VU- put Sele-vu-pat

sing. < d€(K-vU-S5 Seix-vu-cat
devk-vu-ouV) O€lK-VU-TAL
S€(K-VU-TOV delx-11u-c Gov
f /

duat ;
Sete-VU-TOV b€lx-vu-c Oop
O€K-VU- LEV decK-vu-peda
? f

plur. < detx-vu-Te delx-vu-cbe

SeLK-VU-ao UV) SelK-VU-VTaL
amoper fect imperfect
é-d€lK-VU-y, ete. é-detk-vv-puny, ete.
wnuyper ative amperatire
O€LK-VU, ete. detKx-vu-co, ete.

Infinitive active detx-vt-vor. middle decx-ve-cOar. The

other tenses and moods are hke those of verbs in -a. Sub-
junctive devx-vi'-w, ete ; and even in the present and imperfect
indicative and the imperative, forms hke dece-vt-ers for deca.
vu-s are very common.

Powels long by nature, ercent 4 and w, are marked long, wnleas they carry
the evrcumfler accent,
100 FIRST GREEK GRAMAILAR

PREPOSITIONS.
The more common prepositions and their simplest meanings.
A.—PREPOSITIONS WITH ONE CASE.
I. With the accusative: es (archaic and poetical és).
II. With the genitive: dvri, a6, éx, wpo.
IIT. With the dative: ey and ctv.
I, With THE ACCUSATIVE.
(1) es (Latin ix with the accusative), to, dato.
(a) Of place: épvyor ets "AGiqvas, they jled to Athens.
(6) Of time: eis éorépav, towards evening.
(c) Of measure: eis duaxociovs, up to two hundred.
(2) Two other prepositions in this class you will once and
again meet with: ws, to (always used with a personal
object), and avd, up, along.
il, Wire THE GENITIVE.
(1) avrl, in place of, for. xpvods avtl ydAxov, gold instead
of bronze.
Compounded with a verb it conveys the notion of
an action counter to some other action.
(2) and, from, away froin.
(a) Of place: dx’ ’A@yvav, from Athens,
(b) Of time: am’ éxetvys THs yépas, from that day.
Compounded with verbs it has besides this meaning
also that of back—umvevar, go away from y droddovat,
give back,
(3) &, before vowels €&, out of, from.
(a) Of place. €€ “A@nvay, out of Athens.
(b) Of time: éx tovror, after this.
(c) Of origin: é« Avs, from Zeus.
Vowels iong by nature, except , an? w, are marked long, unless they curt
the cercunsler accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 191

Compounded with verbs, usually carries the nution

of removal from or out of.
(4) apd, before, Tur
(7) OF place: spo TOY Oupen, befor fi. dour
(b) Of time: wpo THs eiphjiays, Uifore the pruce
(c) Of preference: zpo tortor, suoner than this
These meanings are all found in compounds
¢
fit 2 Vette tee Dati
(1) & (Latin in with the ablative), cz, in answers to the
question where ?
(a) Of place: ev “AG jAvots, tn Athens.
() Ot tune. ér 77) eopTy, an the fetes.
Compounded with verbs 1t has most frequently this
SCUse,
2) odty (earlier and in poets Evv), with, common in poetry, but
in Attic prose only in a few phrases, its place being
taken by pera.
This preposition, however (and not perc), is used to
compound with simple verbs to add the idea of associ-
ation or fellowship.

B.— PREPOSITIONS WITH TWO CASES.

Genitive and Accusative.
(1) 8d, through.
I. With the Genitive (Latin per)—
(4) Of place: 61a ris woAenets yopas, through the
enemy's country, but also often ut an rwuterval af,
ON “ ° 7
as 61a woAAov, at a long interval,
(6) Of time. cc’ apépus oAns, through the whole day,
but also commonly at an interval of, as dua wodAon,
ut a long interval.
(c) Instrumental: dc’ dyyeAou, by a@ messenger.
Vowels long by nature, ercept x and w, are marked long, uniess they carry
ihe cereuntfies. acceic
102 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

fi. With the acctsative (Latin propter)—

dud voror, owing ty illness s Ov Eue, owing tome.
Compounded with verbs 16 adds the meanings
(1) thoroughly, right through, or (2) parteny (Latin
dis).
(2) ward, down.
{. With the GENITIVE—
(v4) Of place: xara Tov wetpov, down from the rocks ;
Kara Tav yempov, down over the hands, Kara yijs
teva, to go under the earth.
(4) Metaphorically: xara Birtarov WetéerOar, to tell
lies against Philip.
Tl. With the accusaTive—
(a) Of place—most general in its meaning: Kara yjv
Kat Kova Gararrav, by lund and seu; Kata to be€vdy
Képas, at the place where the right wing was, on the
right wing.
(5) Of time—most general in its meaning: Kar’ éxeivov
Tov ypovor, about that tame.
(¢) Metaphorically : kara tots vépovs, according to the
laws.
Compounded with verbs it adds the meanings of
downwards and agaist, and also sometimes gives a
transitive force to an intransitive verb, as cuwrdy, to
be silent, but kataciwray, to silence.
(3) taép, over.
T, With the GenrTIve—
(a) Of place: trép xehaAdrjs, over-head.
(6) On behalf of : urep tis rarpisos, for one’s country’s
sale,
Tl. With the accusaTIve—
Beyond in various relations : trep tyv OaXarray oixeiv, to
live beyond seas, wrep dtvapuy, beyond one’s power, ete.
Vowels long by nature, except rand w, are marked long, unless theu carry
the crrcunrtfler accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 103

Compounded with verbs it adds all these senses to

the simple verb.
(£) perd.
I, With the Genirive, wrth, together with—
peT, TOU Pidtrrou iy, he was wth Philip » per éArri00s,
with hope.
If. With the accusaTIvE, after—
peTa TA Madiuxd, after the Persian war,
When it is desired to add to a simple verb the
notion of participation or fellowship avy, not peru, is
used; eg. cvvatofvicken, to die with, but he deed
with his friends cvvameduve peTa THY ETU Lp!

C.—PREPOSITIONS WITH THREE CAsEs.

(1) apopi.
I. With the GEnrrrvE—only poetical = zepe with the
genitive.
It. With the patrvE—only poetical = vepc with the
dative.
Til. With the accusaTrve—
(a) OF place: ot audi IlAarava, the followers of (lit
those around) Plato.
() Of time. audi tov yepare, for the winter,
(c) With numbers. dudi 7a tpiuxovta ery, ubout thirty
YOurs.
Compounded with verbs it most commonly adds
the meaning of uround.
(2) emt.
I. With the GeniTiIve—
(a) Of place: (1) in answers to the question where?
of rest on, ézi Tis vews, upon the ship, (2) in answers
to the question whither? ext KopivOov wAeiv, to sau
in the durection of Corenth.
Vowels long by nature, except x and w, are marked lung, unless they carry
the ecrcumylers acrent
104 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

(6) Of time: évt tOv torepur, in the time of our fathers.

(c) Other relations: ci évt tov éaAtrdv, the officers of
the infantry.
IT, With the parrveE—
(a) Of place (rest near). evi 77) Ourdrry oiKety, to Live
oy the sea.
(6) Of time: ért rotrows, upon (i.e. after) this,
(c) Other relations: éf’ ipiv éoriv, vt is an your power,
ext TouToLs, On these conditions » ext picOm oTparevec-
Gat, to serve for hire = tvo picou Tvywc..
tii. With the accusaTIVE—
(a) Of place: (1) motion to, uporn—dvaBatvew édr
immov, to get on to horse-buck ; (2) motion over—ért
Tacay Tv “HAXaéa, over all Greece.
(0) Of time: ért roAty xpovor, for a long time.
(c) Of aim or object: exi EtAa weurev, to send for
wood , eri payny éfsevar, to go cut to sight = os
,
PEXOVTGL.

Compounded with verbs it adds the ideas of res¢

on, motion over, motion agarinst, oF seyuence in time,
feeling at, etc. It also often gives a transitive sense
to an intransitive verb—icyiverv, to be strong ; ériw-
Xvev, to make strong.
(3) wapd.
I. With the GENITIVE: from the side of. wapa Tuv
“AOnvainy yey, to be come from the Athenians. Tapa.
Tou watpos AapPaves tov ixrov, he receives the horse from
las father.
IJ. With the DATIVE: by the side of. wapa ta Puctreé?,
with the kung. In Attic prose only of persons.
TI. With the accUsATIVE. to the presence oy. mapa Tov
Pactréa, ayew, to bring before the kung.
In more general senses—
Vowels long by nature, except x and w, are marked lony, wnless they carry
the crrcuinfler accene.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 205

(a) Of place, past, bye tupa sip wodu wrap joer, the,
weet must the cy; 4 mapu Gadrutrur Munecor cg, the
seaboard of Afucedonia.
(5) Of time: wap’ cAov roy Plor, daring my whole life.
(c) Beyond, and so contrary to. wupu Tors vopavs, con-
trary to the Jaws
Compounded with verbs it adds the notions of to
the side of, afonyside, past, or aiiss.
(4° sept :
I. With the GENITIVE: cept roU azpityparos Kpivey, fo
devide about the buscness,
IL. With the DATIVE: qwepe 7) yerpl cuxttAuov exer, he
hos riany on his arm, Cedvevar wept TS Yopty, to fear
jor the pluee,
ill, With the acctsaTrrvE—
(a) Of place. wept to retyos payer Gas, to sight round
the wall.
(b) Of time: wept pecos rv«ras. about midnight.
(.) With numbers wept 7a e€yxovtu, about sivty.
Compounded with verbs it adds the notion of
round, or of exceedinryly.
(5) pds.
I. With the Genitive: (1) of directions, our wards—mpos
Poppe, northwards, mpss ris Gararras, secwurds ;
(2) in adjurations—pos vor Gear, by the yods.
Ii. With the DativE. (1) of place at—pcs BafvrAduis, at
Pabylon , (2) in addition to—zpes tovrous, besides this,
TUL. With the accusative—
(a) Of place: mpos rey Boppay, northwards (as with the
genitive) , 7jA@ov mpos ypas, they came to us, mpus
Tov Oiuov Aeyetv, to speak to the people.
(6) Of time: wpos TV apépav av, wt was towards day.
(c) In other relations: woAcpotor pcs tous “APnvaious.
Vowels long by nature, eccept 4 and w, are maried long, unless they carry
the crreunrjiee accent
106 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

they make war against the Athenians. Of comparison

iorep TevTE TPOS Tpla, as sive to three. ©
Compounded with verbs it adds the notion of
towards, of 1 addition, or of near.
(6) ta.
I. With the GENITIVE—
(a) Of place: td yas, under the eurth (a rare use).
(o) Of the agent—the prose Greek equivalent of the
Latin a, wb, with persons: 7 réAus Aw fxd Tov
“AGnvuior, the city was tuken by the Athenians.
IT, With the DativE—
(a) Of place (rest under) : ivod devdpm, wader a tree.
(b) Of subjection: tx “A@nvutow our, they were
subject to the Athenians.
ITI. With the accusaTIve—
(a) Of place (motion under): of roA€pioe AGov vad
Tetyos, the encmy came under the wall.
() Of time: td vixra, sub noctem, at nightfall.
Compounded with verbs it adds the notion of
under, or of gradually, or of underhand,

Vowels long by nature, ercept nand w, are marked long unless they carry
the curcumslex accent
PART II

CHAPTER I
ox §I-V
1. THe forms which you have learned in the preceding part
of this book belong to the Attic chalect of the Greek language.
Other dialects were the Doric, the Tonic, and the Aeohte.
The poems of Homer are written in the Tonic dialect, and in
the history of Herodotus we see a later form of the same.
The Attic is really an offshoot of the Ionic, as the Athenians
who inhabited Attica belonged to the Ionian race. Put
Attic writers struck out a path for themselves, and by the
number and excellence of their writings, gave so great im-
portance to the refined Ionic in which they wrote that the
Attic must be regarded as distinct from the Ionic. The
chief writers in the Attic dialect, taken in its widest sense,
were the orators Antiphon, Andocides, Lysias, Isocrates,
Tsaeus, Aeschines, and Demosthenes, the historlans Thucydides
and Xenophon, the Philosopher Plato, and the Comic poet
Aristophanes. The Tragic poets Aeschylus, Sophocles, and
Euripides, wrote in Attic; but in Tragedy, as in imaginative
poetry generally, many words and forms of words were
allowed which would have been rejected by any pure writer
of prose.
Voucts long by nature, cacept n and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcunifier accent.
108 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

2. A very small portion of Attic literature has come down

to us, but it is surprising that so much should, have been
preserved. For the difficulty of multiplying the copies of an
ancient book was very great. All books had to be copied
by scribes, and the only letters known were the large and
clumsy capitals which could not be written quickly. The
small or cursive letters in which Greek books are printed did
not come into general use among manuscript copyists till the
eighth century after Christ, cr about twelve hundred years
after the great Attic authors named above wrote.
3. The Alphabet.—You will observe that, although there
are twenty-four letters, there are not twenty-four distinct
sounds in the Greek alphabet. There is no essential difference
of sound between epsilon and eta, omicron and omega. In
fact 7 and w did not exist in the early Attic alphabet, but E
and O served to represent both the long and the short sound
of the two letters. The other three vowels have each only
one letter-sign, which is used indifferently for their long and
their short sound. Moreover x1 1s simply «xo and psi is zo,
and the sound of zeta might probably have been given by éc,
while v7, which 1s as much a double letter as x1, psi, or zeta,
has no separate character. On the other hand, gamma has
two distinct sounds—a palatal and a nasal. When used
as a nasal [ayyedos, dyxipa, ’Ayxions| 1b is sometimes called
dypa.
One letter which was in use when the Jliad and Odyssey
were composed disappeared at a later time from the Greek
alphabet. Its existence is proved by the metre, and in old
stone records it is represented by the symbol F. It was
pronounced lke our /’or V and has received the name
digamma.
The distinction now made between o and s was not
known till books began to be printed in Greek. The form
Pouels long by nature, except y and w, are mailed long, wnless they canny
tre curcunyler accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMALAR 109

s 18 of couse only the ordmary o with the last turn directed

downwards instead of upwards. When the first part of a
compound woid ends mn sigma, s Is sometimes used, as
mposiyw [apus, aval, The forin $, which is often used for
theta, 1s only a shorter way of writing 6
4. Vowels.—.\ttic Greek had twenty-two vowel sounds,
WMEls: Oy Sey: ys EF Uy OE ARS OR ely Ore ens 60S
ee He es Uy gt tu. The diphthongs were produced by the
union of the open vowels a, €, 7, 0, w with the narrow vowels
cand v. When the open vowel is long the diphthong is
called improper, and if the narrow vowel is 1ota it is written
underneath the hard (ota subscript), as ¢ 7, @ When
written in capitals, 9, 7, @ appear as AI, BI, QL; or if a
word beginning with such a diphthong reqimres a capital, the
iota is still brought into line, as “Accs for gos. Indeed in
all but the latest manuscripts the iota which we now write
subscript was written in line with the other letters (adscript).
By the union of the two narrow vowels the diphthong vs is
produced.
5. Consonants.—The dentals are also called linguals,
which is a wider term, and in a wide sense may be said to
include not only the mutes, but also o, A, v, and p. The
letter p, though not belonging to the mutes, is a labial
We may now arrange all the consonants in three classes.

Labials WT
Palatals «
Linguals +

6. Signs.—Besides its use to mark the absence of the

spiritus asper, the sign’ is also used to indicate the elision
of one vowel before another, as tavr ey for tutta éd¢y, and
to show that two words have been run together, as xara for
Vowels long by nature, except x and », are marked lung, unless they curry
the eireumples uccen:
110 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

kat etra, In the first case it is called apostraphe, in the

second coronis,
In writing Greck we use the same marks as in English
for diaeresis, the full stop, and the comma; but in Greek
there is no note of exclamation, and the colon or semicolon
is represented by * as @pa while the English semicolon
supplies the place of our note of interrogation, as 7/ Tatra;
what is this? There are also three signs used to mark
accent. In the sentence éy® ratra Aéyw, the accent of the
first word is the grave, of the second the circumflex, and of
the third the acute. Accents are written to the left of
capitals, and on the second vowel of a diphthong, as “Opnpos,
etorouos. It must be understood that all this last paragraph
refers only to Greek as now written, and not at all to
ancient Greek, which had no system of punctuation, and
did not mark accents

CHAPTER II

on § VI

7. Tue real difficulty of inflexion consists in the collision

of the stem and the ending. Vowels collide with vowels,
and consonants with consonants to form discordant sounds,
Such discordancy is removed by the four methods of con-
traction, assimilation, dissimilation, and vowel compensation
for consonantal loss. Contraction is used in the case of
vowels ; by the other three methods consonants are brought
into harmony.
8. Contraction.—The Attic dialect used contraction
wherever it was possible, and in a natural way. If you
Vowels long by nature, except y and w, cre marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 111

know the first part of this Grammar well, you will have no
further diffgulty with contraction. But you will have noticed
a few inconsistencies, and some apparent difficulties. One
striking inconsistency is that in the plural of the first declen-
sion, and in neuter nouns of the second, ea contracts to a
and not to »: as ypuoeas yproas; dorea, cord. In other
cases, aS in the third declension, this happens only when
the ea is preceded by a vowel or rho, as wyiys, healthy,
accusative ty.a for vyvea, In eas, of the accusative plural
of the third declension, we find ea contracted to es, as 77)xEus
for mhyeas, tperPers for mpéer Peas.
In the dual of the third declension in Attic ee becomes 7,
as doty, evyevn. In the nominative plural this happens only
in masculine nouns in evs, as BaowAns for foctAees, It is
true that the broad sound of omicron generally prevails over
other sounds, but in contracted adjectives it disappears alto.
gether before a, n, a, 7; as Ourdda, Surra; SirAdy, urd;
durAdat, Siurdat; durAon, durAg.
9. Assimilation.—When two mutes come together, the
latter of which is a dental, the former must be changed to
the same order as the dental. Before a hard dental the
other mute becomes hard, before a soft dental soft, and
before an aspirate it becomes aspirated , or, referring to the
table on page 2, the former letter must be changed so as to
be in the same vertical position as the second, Thus :—
Before 7 palatals become x, labials become 7.
9 6 9 ” Y; 3 ice
oy) 0 2 2 Men 38 D.

It is to assimilation also that the following changes are

due. Before p, palatals become y, labials », and dentals s.
When v comes before a labial it is changed into pu, before a
palatal into y, and before A and p into A and p.
Vowels long by nature, except x and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumflex accent.
12 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

Hxamples of these changes are—

pemiy-Tat tO méuiK-Tas TeTpLB-Tar
/
to férpum-Trat
'

yéypad-ras to yéypan-tai
?
EY-TEOS to éK-Téas

TrEK-Onv tO whéy-OnV NeLT-dnyv to Net B-Snv

vuy-ony to vury-Syv Kpud-dnv to Kpus-onv
érréx-Ony to étmhey-Ony éréum-Ony to éréud-Onv
eCevy-Onv to elevy-Onu érpiP-Env to érpid-Onv
wemThex-par to qWérey-uas
TETUY-MOU to -TéTUY-Lae
NeNELT-uat tO RAéAELW-Was
ypa- pi) to -ypape-por}
UVT- [Lal tO vUT-pat
1O~pev to lo-pwev
were-wa. to Wérreic-wat
/ f

EV-TAEKO to éu-rANéx@
éV- Badr to éu-Bdrdr@
év-Pvo to éu-diw
év-miyvuue to Eu pelryvypt
EV-KPATHS to éy-KpaTiHs
év-ypado to éy-ypada
€V-VaTK@ to éy-yarKa
év-NeiT OD to éA-Aelrr@
TUV-péw to oup-péw
10, Dissimilation.—By this is meant all such changes
as O-Oyye into Tens, and AVOn-e into AVGy-7. When a
dental comes into collision with a dental, the first is changed to
sigma, as wéreOrae to wéreorar, Hlision may be regarded
as dissimilation extended. By elision we understand the
Vowels long by nature, ercept y and w, are morked long, unless they carry
the curcunilex accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 113

simple disaypearance of one of the discordant letters—as in

Adparas fox Aaprads, and ayepooe for ayenover,
Compensatory lengthening.—You already know what
is meant by this. In odotcs the second syllable is long by
nature, whereas in odorr-c1, which must have been its
primitive form, the same syllable is long by position. In
other words, to compensate for the loss of vr, the vowel-
sound was lengthened. In the case of a, 1, and v the vowel
simply becomes long instead of short, but ¢ like o is
lengthened to a diphthong, except in the dative plural of
the anomalous adjective yapiess—see p. 40.

CHAPTER II
On § VII
11. A striking peculiarity in Greek is the dual number.
Very few other languages possess it. In Latin there remain
a few traces of 1t as in duo, ambo, octo. Itis properly used
only of things which go in pairs, as, the ears, the eyes, the
feet, TH OTE, TO OPGaAUG, TW Ode, Or Of persons circumstanced
alike, as, TH ddeADa, pair of brothers, To iru, span of horses,
7® m7oAn, two cotves in league with one another, or in
some way circumstanced alike. Accordingly it is sometimes
used with a singular verb. Even in cases like those men-
tioned above the place of the dual may always be supplied
by the plural, but in the Attic dialect it occurs very frequently,
and often with 6vo or audw added. Thus we may use either
TW Tparela or TO Sto Tparéa, for the two tables. We may
compare the way in which puxpov is used with diminutives,
aS TO poKkpov wavdapioy, the little young child.
Vowels long by nature, except y and o, are marked long, wnless they carry
the curcurmfpler accent
I
114 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

12. But the dual has not that completeness which the
other two numbers have. Substantives have wever more
than two distinct dual forms—one representing the nomina-
tive, vocative, and accusative cases, and the other the
genitive and dative. In fact in Attic two forms serve to
express all the cases and genders dual of the article, of the
demonstrative and relative pronouns, and of all adjectives in
OS, 17, OV, OF OS, OS, OV.
Further, Avovre, wAéxovre and like forms are in Attic
preferred to Avotod, tAEKotcG, etc.
13. The Active voice of the verb has no first person Dual,
and the first person dual of the middle and passive never
occurs in Attic prose or comedy.! In the principal tenses of
the indicative and in the subjunctive there is only one form
for the second and the third persons. The imperative of the
middle voice has no distinct form for the third person dual,
but uses the plural form instead, e.g., AvodcOwy, let them
loose for themselves, or let them two loose for thenrsel ves.
Further, even when dual forms did exist, the Greeks often
preferred to use a plural verb with a substantive in the dual.
14. Of the cases you must pay special attention to the
vocative. The rules for forming the vocative of the first
declension hold good in all cases, but Attic writers could
also on emergency use the nominative, as @ xpitijs dpicre
tu the second declension the true vocative 1s much more
frequent than the nominative, except in the case of Geds,
which has never its true vocative form, In poetry, however,
it is not unusual to find the nominative used for the vocative.
1 It occurs in classical Greek only thrice, Hom. 7/2. xxu1. 485, sepi-
dwueGov, Soph. Hl. 950, AeAeluuePov, and Phil. 1079, dpudyedov We
cannot accept as true Attic such forms as are found only in tragedy, and
the fact that im these three cases the metre would allow ot the plual casts
a doubt on the existence of words differmg so httle from the plural forms,

Vowels lung by nature, except +, and a, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR chal

In the third declension it may be set down as a general rule

that the nominative may in all cases be used as a vocative.
Some words have no vocative form distinct from the nomina-
tive, and others, though possessed of a special form, rarely
use lt,
15, The following rules will help you to form the vocative
case :—
(1) Stems which end in a mute preceded by a vowel have
no vocative form distinct from the nominative, as dvAak,
Aapirad, etc., vocative, PiAag, Aauras.
Exceptions are stems in -16, as "Apreuis (stem “Apreps),
vocative, “Apreus; Tuparvis (stem, Tupavvid), Vocative, Tupavve,
power; mais (stem, asd, orig, mard), vocative, rat, Loy.
(2) Stems ending in nu or rho preceded by a Jong vowel
have no vocative distinct from the nominative, as “HAAnv,
Greek, Onp, wild-beast.
Exceptions are Iocedov, vocative, IIdcecdov (stem, Tove
dwv); “AmdAAwv, vocative, “AvoAAov (stem, “AroAAwr) ;
TwTHpP, saviour, vocative, carep (stem, gwTnp); and some-
times Xdpwv, Charon, vocative, Xdpov (stem, Xapwyv),
(3) Stems ending in nu or rho preceded by a short vowel
have no separate vocative form if the last syllable of the
nominative is accented, as ayeuwv, leader, vocative, yyeuwrv
(stem, ajyeuov) ; dijp, air, vocative, dijp (stem, cep).
The only word in common use which is an exception to
this rule is rarijp, father, vocative, rarep (stem, rarep).
(4) But if the last syllable is not accented, these stems
occasionally form a vocative, as daiuwv, deity, vocative, datuov
(stem, datuov), pijtnp, mother, vocative, pijrep (stem, payrep);
pijtwp, orator, vocative, pytop (stem, pyrop). Adjectives,
KaKooainov, unfortunate, vocative, Kaxddayov (stem, Kako-
Sayuov); tdéAas, wretched, vocative, Ta\av (stem, taAayv),
But in these cases the nominative is still very often used
Vowels long by nature, except i and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumpler accent
116 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

as avocative. Thus we may have 6 patnp, & Kiwv, o6 addc-

Twp, & Kuxodaipwv, & Tédas, @ péedus, as well as @ pyrep,
ktov, & dAucrop, @ Kakddupov, O TiAav, O peda,
(5) Stems ending in v7 have occasionally a vocative, but
by no means often. The nominative form, except in a few
words, is far the more common of the two. Thus Homer
uses Atay as the vocative of Aias (stem, Acavr), whereas
Attic writers invariably prefer the nominative form <Acas,
On the other hand yepwr, old mun (stem, yepovr), generally
forms a vocative yépor.
Adjectives are as uncertain as substantives; thus yapver,
O graceful one (stem, xaptevt), is occasionally found; but 6
Yapies is the more common,
Participles of the third declension have never a vocative
form,
(6) In stems ending in diphthongs, the vocative is gener-
ally distinct from the nominative, being the pure stem, as
& Purrred, & ypav, but even in this case the nominative
would not be wrong.
(7) In soft vowel stems the nominative is sometimes pre-
ferred, sometimes the true vocative. Thus w6Ac does occur,
but wéAus is far more common. So 4 otveois, or & civecs ;
@nN iyGi, or & ty us, ete
In the case of adjectives, the nominative is the more often
found, as @ yAuxts.
(8) Stems which elide sigma, as Anpooteves, generally
form a vocative, as @ AnudoGeves (nominative, AnuooGévys),
In the cage of adjectives the feminine and masculine have the
same form, as 6 dvorvxés dvep, & duotvyes yivat, O unhappy
man, O unhappy woman. But the nominative is also fre-
quently used, as @ dvorvyis avep, & dvaruyys yovas,
For masculine vocative, peyas, great, generally used the
nominative, as @ péeyus aiGyip, but peya is found once or
Towels long by netture, ercept 4 and w, are marled long, unless they carry
the ceuicunifes wceucnt,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 117

twice, peyaAe, which occurs once in Aeschylus, is probably

a licence..*
In short there is no limit in Greek to the use of the
uominative for the vocative. We may have 6 radavraros,
&”"Apys, ® yvv7), @ Kpirgs, or any other nominative form

CHAPTER IV
on § vit (3)
GENDER

_ 16. Tr gender of Greek substantives is ascertained some-

times by their meaning, sometimes by their form.
As in Enghsh, so in Greek, difference in sex may be ex-
pressed in different ways In some cases distinct words are
used, as 6 avip, 4 yuri, the man, the woman; 0 ratHp, 1)
patnp, the father, the mother, 6 vids, 7 Ovydryp, the son, the
duughter ; in others the distinction is made by means of
termination, as 6 Aéwr, 1) Aé€auvu, the lion, the lioness, 6 dec-
ToTns, 17) Serrdrtus, the master, the mestress ; in others again
the same form serves both genders, as 6, 7 Geds, the god, 6, 77
paptus, the witness, 6, 4 wats, the child.
17. Of the names of beasts, most are common, as 6, 7
Kvwv, 6, 1) Urmos, 0, 7 Sovs; but it occasionally happens that
a word signifying an animal with sex has grammatically only
one gender, as 0 deAdis, dolphin, 6 Aayds, hare, 7) dAwry€, fox,
xeAtoady, swallow. In such cases the gender when necessary
was expressed by the words appyv and @yjAvs, as 0 GAs
Aayds, the doe-hare, 6 Ondrvs deAgts, the she-dolphin, appnyv
yerdarv, the male-swallow, 7 appnv aAwrné, the dog Jou.
Vowels long by nature, except » and #, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumfler accent
118 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

18. Besides the names of masculine beings, Masculine

are the names of all winds and months, and of nyost rivers :
as 0 VapnAwy, the (month) Gamelion, 6 Poppas, the north
wind, o ‘IXtoos, the (river) Llessus. The reason probably is
that the Greek words for river, wind, and month—oras0s,
avepos, wyv—are all masculine.
Exceptions. —Diminutives are neuter, even when they
signify males; as, TO dvOpumuov, the manikin. 70 avdpazodoy,
the sluve, is also neuter.
A few names of rivers are feminine, Of these the most
notable are the fabulous streams 77 A7j6y, and 1 Zrv6.
Most names of mountains are masculine, but those ending
In -ov are neuter, and in -7 feminine. A few others are also
feminine, as 7) Ildpvis.
19. Feminine are the names of females, of lands, islands,
cities, trees, and plants, and of abstract words, as 7) ’A@podtry,
Aphrodite,» yvv7n, woman, 7) Aedvtuv, Leontion, % PAvxépoov,
Glycerwum, 7 ’Arric, Attica, 7 Kews, the (sland) Ceds, 4
Aaxedaipov, the (city) Lacedaemon, 1) wirus, the pine, 1) ducae-
ootvy, justice,
Euceptions.—Diminutives are neuter even when they
signify females, as ro ytvasoy, the little woman. Of names of
countries, “EXAjorovtos is masculine, and AeAra neuter, the
former being really “EAAys rovros and the other the name of
a letter of the alphabet.
Of the names of islands, those in -ov are neuter.
Of the names of cities, there are many which are not
feminine. Of these the most common are to "Apyos, 76
"TAvov, Ta”"ABSnpa, ot AeAqos.
Of the names of trees and plants masculine are otveé,
palin, perAXOds, cork, kitrds, wy, and some others; neuter are
those ending in -ov and -1, as mpdoov, lech, weweps, pepper.
20. Neuter are the names of most fruits, of the letters, the
Vowels long by nature, except nand w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumfles accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 119

infinitive used substantivally, and every word when referred

to merely as a word, as Tu pnAov, the apple, to olypa, segmu.
TO yovi), the (word) woman, to Gyv, life.
‘\ / - A aa

91. First Declension, masculine are all substantives

which end in as or ys; feminine all in a, 7.
22, Second Declension, masculine are all substantives
which end in os, ws; neuter those in ov, wv.
Ruceptions.—All words in ov, wy are neuter, except the
names of women, as 7) [Aveépiov , but there are many words
€ 7

in os which are feminine. The most important you have

learned on page 9. Others are -—

KEpKOS, bail.
pnpvOos, cord.
tplBos, footpath.
like «éXevOos, atparras,
apakitos, curriage-road
000s, Tadpos.
e t /

KaTeTos, ditch.

KiBwros, chest.
YNAOS; coffer.
xapooTros, knealing-trough.
‘hollow, like Xnves,
avenos, bathing-tub.
copes, yuados, Kapivos.
AnKvOOS, vil-flush.
Mpoyxous (00s), ewer.
aKkatos, oat.

opuaparyoos, emerald.
cambepos, lapis dazult. names of earths and stones,
LinTos, ochre. like Wijos, prappos,
aopantos, bitumen. mTrAivoos, o7000s, Ba-
MrEeKT pos, winder. TAVOs.
CLLos, sunid
Vowels lony by nature, eccept and w, are masked long, unless they carry
the cucunifler uccent
126 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

rapados, sand. P
tia Boras, sont. |
BaxXos, clod
names ct earths and stones.
varos, glass.
KOT POs, dung
yurwros, chalk.
And others.
Notr.—o 2Xifos, stone, but 7) AMGos of some particular
stone, like the diamond, 6 xkptoradAos, ice, Kplora\-
dos, erystel,
Other words are merely feminine adjectives, the substan-
tives originally attached to them having dropped off; as—
4 avreLos (OUpa), the house-door.
n StanrexTos (hovn), diulect.
% cvyKANTOS (€xkANala), senate.
n OvapeTpos (ypappn), diumetes.
9 avudpos (yo@pa), desert
» BapBapes (¥4), foreign land.
Tepiy@pos (yh), neighbourhood.

23. Third Declension.—Masculine are -—

(1) All substantives in Gv, as (gen. avros) and evs.
(2) All substantives in yy and yp, except the poetical
words 1» piv (gen. dpeves), spirit, 7) jp, doom, and 7d Kijp,
heart.
(3) All substantives in ys except éo67js (gen. éoOAT0s),
raument, and abstract nouns In rys, as Tayvrys (gen, TaXI-
THTOS), speed,
(4) All substantives in evp and ovs, except 4 yelp (gen.
yeepds), hand, and ro ots (gen. ards), car.
(5) All substantives in wv (gen. wvos and ovros), wp and
Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, wnless they carry
the cercumfes accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 121

ws (gen. wros and wos), except To Udwp (gen, Udaros), water,

and 76 dus gen, furs), light, and the rare words 7 Kwdwr
(gen, kwdwvos), bell, and TO cap (gen. cxards), dirt.
24, Feminine are :—
(1) All substantives in avs, ws, (gen. ovs) and as (gen.
ados).
(2) All substantives in «us and ws except 6 oduis (gen.
ddews) snake, and the rare words 6 xreis, (gen. Krevds) com,
6 deApis (gen. SeApivos) dolphin, and 6 exis (gen. exews)
adder.
(3) All substantives in us except 6 Gdrpus (gen, Borpvos)
grapecluster, 6 ty@is (gen. txOvos) jish, 6 pts (gen. pvds)
mouse, 6 ordyus (gen. ordyvos) ear of corn, 6 vexus (gen.
vexvos) dead body, 6 wixvs (gen. iXews) fore-arm, and o
méAekvs (gen, TeAéKews) are.
(4) All substantives in wv (gen. ovos) except 6 dkjwy,
anvil » 6 Kaveév rule, and 6 ktwy, pillar.
25, Neuter are :—
(1) All substantives in a, ay, 1, ev, €5, OV, Op, OS, v.
(2) All substantives in op, as, (gen. atos or ws) except the
rare words 6 Wap (gen. Wapds) starling, and o Ads (gen. Ados)
stone.
26. Substantives in € are partly masculine, partly femi-
nine; those in w are masculine, with the exceptions of 7
AatXaw, hurricane (gen. AatAaros); » PAey, vein (gen
preBds); 7) xépvil, water for the hands (gen. yépviPos) ; and
the defective 7 dy, vorce.

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marled long, unless they carry
the vrrcumflen ccecent.
123 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

CHAPTER V

ACCENTUATION

27. Or the three marks of accent mentioned on p. 110 the

grave is not written in Greek except when it represents a
subdued acute. Thus in the sentence oftos ence toy troy
(he tied the horse), the word tov has the grave accent simply
because there is no pause immediately after it sufficient to
allow of its receiving the full force of the acute. But otros,
edynoe, and trrov have really the grave accent on those
syllables not already accented, and might be written ofrds,
cone, UrTov.
28. The acute can stand upon any one of the three last,
the circumflex upon cither of the two last syllables. <A
word is called oxytone, perispomenon, or barytone, ac-
cording as the last syllable has the acute, the circumflex, or
neither. A word having the acute upon the last syllable
but one is called paroxytone, upon the last but two propar-
oxytone , ¢.g., Ur7os is paroxytone, edyoe proparoxytone. A
word having the circumflex upon the last syllable but one is
called properispomenon, as otros.
29. The acute may be on long or short syllables, the
circumflex only on such syllables as are long by nature.
The acute accent can be on the last syllable but two only
if the last is short, as evjopdos, but not evyopdov.
The circumflex can be on the last but one only if the last
be short by nature, as cdKor, but not ovKov.
The diphthongs as and ou are treated as short, as av@pwror,
povrat, and if the last syllable is long by position it
does not prevent the preceding syllable from having the
circumflex.
A last syllable but one when long by nature, if accented
Pouwels long by nature, eccept yand 1, are marhed long, unless they carry
the evrcumfler acce it.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 128

at all, must have the circumflex whenever the last syllable is

short Ly nat&re, as 7yov, not yor, yuvatxes, not yuvaixes.
Exceptions like aare are only apparent. See iafru, §$ 35
(£) Obs.
30, The accent of a word is altered by the changes which
a word undergoes in inflexion, contraction, ete.
No syllable requires an accent from the mere fact of
contraction.
A contracted final syllable has the circumflex if the first
of the uncontracted syllables was accented, as, Tuder, Tune,
Xpuréov, ypuoou; but the acute if the last was accented, as
yEeyaus, yeyas.
31. When an oxytone word undergoes elision, if a pre-
position or a conjunction, it loses its accent altogether, but
in all other cases throws it back upon the previous syllable,
as mop’ éuod for mapa éuot, odd’ éyw for otde eye, but deiv’
ei) (for dewva €7).
32. In the case of crasis, the accent of the first word
disappears, as téyaGa for ra ayabd. But if the second word
is paroxytone, and its accented syllable becomes through
crasis long by nature, that syllable acquires the circumflex,
as Tdpya for Ta Epya.
33. When placed after the word to which they belong all
dissyllabic prepositions except dui, avti, ava, dud, throw
their accent back on to their first syllable, as kakav azo for
Grd KOKO.
34. As in Latin we find some words which always adhere
to the word which precedes them, so in Greek there are
certain words which have so little individuality that they
throw their accent on to the preceding word. These Greek
equivalents of the Latin -gue, ne, ete., are called Hnelities,
and are as follows —
(1) All the forms of the indefinite pronoun rus, re (see
Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marhed long, unless they carry
the curcumfples accent
124 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

p. 60), and the indefinite adverbs rov, wow, 7, Tws, Toler,

TW, TOTE. $
(2) The particles ye, re, vuv, wep, Tot, and de (meaning
towards, and always attached to the preceding word).
(3) Of the personal pronouns the forms pe, pov, pot, and
also (unless emphatic, or after a preposition) oe, cov, cou, €,
ol, ode, chu, odio(y).
(4) The present indicative of eiyé (except in the second
person singular), unless it be emphatic, or stand at the
beginning of a clause, or follow dAAd, ovK, pur), €t, OS, Kal,
totro. In these cases éors is always paroxytone, as ¢or:
yap ToUTo, pelCov obK ert KaKdY, etc.
35. Enclitics throw their accent back on the preceding
word in the following way —
(1) A preceding oxytone does not subdue its accent to
the grave, as kaddv 71, something beautiful.
(2) After a perispome the accent of the enclitic is entirely
lost, as kadws te, and beautifully.
(3) After a paroxytone, enclitics of one syHable lose their
accent, enclitics of two syllables retain their accent on their
last syllable, as, Adyos vus, a certain speech, but Adyou Twwes,
some speeches.
(4) Proparoxytones and properispomes receive from a
following enclitic an additional accent on their last syllable,
as, det&dv pot, show me, avOpwrds Tis, a certain man.
Observation.—By these rules are explained such apparent
exceptions to § 29 as wore for ws Te, aowep for ws rep, etc.
(5) When several enclitics follow one another each throws
its accent upon the preceding, as ev ris wot duct wore, Lf any
one ever says to me.
36. Certain words have no accent. These are :—
(1) Of the article the forms 6, 4, ol, at.
(2) The prepositions év, eis or és, ws, ex or €6.
Vowels long by nature, eacept x and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumfler accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 125

(3) The conjunctions e and as.

(4) The negative ov, ovx, or ovy.
These may be accented, but only when they are at the
end of a sentence or precede an enclitic, as dys 7 ov; do
you say so or not? ov dno., he denies,
37. The accent of words changes with inflection. In
regard to substantives and adjectives, the principal rule is—
Knowing the accent of the nominative singular, accent the
other cases on the same syllable if the last syllable permits ;
otherwise accent the following syllable. Exceptions to this
rule will be given as they occur.
38. But verbs throw their accent as far back as the last
syllable permits, with this reservation, that in compound
verbs the accent must not precede the augment, Advoper
NeXicapev, éA€Avvto, but rapéryov, not maperyor, Tapetyov
not maperyov.
The main exceptions to this rule are these :—
(1) Accented on the penult, the first aorist active
infinitive, the second aorist middle infinitive, the perfect
middle infinitive and participle, tyjoas, rifeoOar, AedAvo Oar,
AeAvpevos.
(2) Oxytone are the second aorist participle active;
participles in «is, ovs, vs, ws, and present participles in -as,
as wiav, AvOeis, Sidods, decxvis, AeAvKas, iotas (but Avoas).
(3). Perispomena are the second aorist active infinitive,
and (except in verbs compounded with a dissyllabic preposi-
tion) the second person singular, second aorist imperative
iniddle, as wiGely, wuGot, mpodot, but taparAdGov.
Observation 1.—Participles in their inflexion are accented
as nouns, not as verbs.
Observation 2.—The diphthongs a: and os are in the
optative mood regarded as long, not as short.

Vowels long by nature, except 1 and w, are marhed long, unless they carry
the circumflec accent.
126 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

: CHAPTER VI
cNGEES CEE
FIRST DECLENSION

39. OF the words you have already learned, ‘Epyjs 1s really

a contracted form of an older'Epyeas. There are also a few
feminine nouns contracted in the same way, as ov«%, fig-tree,
for ouKed.
_V. cuxh
TUK.
CUKIS.
pe
G2 TUKY
But a few contract the ea into a, which they retain
throughout, as pa, mina (a sum of money), for pyréa,
Boppas, north wind, for Popeds.

N. wva, Poppas.
Vo pa. Poppa.
A. pvay. Poppav.
G. povas. Poppa
D. va. Poppa
The plural is always the same whether for masculine or
feminine, for contracted or uncontracted nouns.
40. The dative plural was originally formed by adding wr
to the stem, as, stem vtuo, dative plural viya-we, and this
longer form you will find in Attic poetry, and occasionally
in elevated prose.
The genitive plural was formed by adding -wv to the
stem, ag Tiud-wv, which became by contraction riudv. It 1s
due to this fact that all nouns of the first declension have
Pounls long by nature, evcept y and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 17

the circumflex on the last syllable of their genitive plural

Adjectives de not follow this rule, and two rare substantives
are exceptions, namely, ypyorys, @ usurer, XpyoTev, and
evyotot, trade-winds, ernolor.

4]. additional examples for practice.

FEMININE
Bupa, door. d0€a, opinion. payn, fight.
Hmépa, uy. TpaTrefa, tuble. Tpopy, nite.
polpa, Jute. axavOa, thorn. boyy, soul.
yéedupa, bridge, péptuva, Cure. TvAN, gute
payatpa, sword. Oepamrava, hundmuid. MoT, pain.
hiria, fiiendship. DAéaeva, lines. KXLY, bed.
- ’ ° . ex

evvola, goodwill, diva, thirst. apérn, virtue

matoeia, educution. yatva, cloak. poophn, fori
‘ e A 7

otparela, expedition Siavta, way of life. Kap, villuge.

MASCULINE
Aoklas, Loxius. TexviTns, artificer.
mTposoTns, traitur. evepyerns, benefactor.
TOunTHS, poet. Anas, robber.
pwadnris, scholur. omAtTns, heuvy-armed soldier.
otpatiorns, soldier. BovreuTys, councellor.
deotroTns, muster. abrxnTHs, chumpion.

CONTRACTED
yh, earth "AOnva (the goddess) Athena.

£2. If you examine the above examples you will fnd—

(1) That a remains in the nominative singular after ¢, ¢,
p, o, G & wv, 77, AA, and in the feminine designation ava,
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, mre marthed long, unless they carry
the crrcumpler aucent.
128 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

Iixceptions are xopy, girl; the rare word Kdpp2), temple (of the
head) » and the poetical €pry, dev. :
(2) That after all other letters, whether vowels or con
sonants, a is changed to 7, Exceptions are orod, culunnace ;
ypod, colour, ToApua, boldness, Siaira, way of life, exysdva,
adder, and the poetical wépivu, care.

SECOND DECLENSION

43. The dative plural was originally formed by adding

wrt to the stem, as Adyo-1or, This longer form you will find
in Attic poetry, and sometimes even in prose.

44, Additional exanuples for practice

6 Tovos, labour TO METPOV, Measure.

povos, time. delrrvoy, dinner.
dhos, people. Tedtov, plain.
oiKos, house. S@pov, present.
mrovTos, ucalth. cuyov, yoke.
dpOarpos, eye. rofov, bow.
iaros, horse. yoptov, place
aprOwos, number. Trepov, wing
ToTaos, river. iwatiov, cloak.
TONEMOS, War.
f a

For feminine nouns, see page 119, § 22.

CONTRACTED

6 pods, stream. 6 OuvyaTpidods, daughter's son.

vous, mind. To Kavour, basket.
xpicoyods, goldsmith.
Vowels long by nature, except x and a, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcwmfler accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 129

In these contracted words there are some irregularities of

accent, names
(1) The nominative, accusative, and vocative dual are
mace oxytone, contrary to § 30.
(2) Compound words have the accent on the last syllable
but one, contrary to § 30; as, eto7Aw for eiowAdm,

ATTIC DECLENSION,

45. The forms like vews have been called Attic. Ad-
ditional examples are—

0 Nayes, hare.
rews, people.
"AOas, Mount Athos.
Mivas, Afinos.
% Gros, threshing-sfloor.
Kéas, Ceos (island).
Kos, Cos (tslund).
Eas, dawn.

Of these words all but Aews may have their accusative

irregular in omega, and ews always has, as Aaywv or Aaya,
but Aewv and dw.
46, The-accentuation is irregular: (1) ew passes as one
syllable as regards accent ; (2) in the genitive and dative the
last syllable when accented has the acute, in violation of the
rule that, In genitives and datives of all numbers a long jinal
syllable when accented takes the curcumflex.

Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked dong, wuless they carry
the curcumplex accent,
K
130 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

CHAPTER VII
s§ XVIII. ff
THIND DECLENSION

47, Worps belonging to this Declension violate the general

rules of accentuation in this, that words of one syllable
accentuate the genitive and dative of all numbers on the case-
ending,repr] as ots, fuot ; wodds, wot, wodoty, rodav, rool,
i - , Va fal

Exceptions to this are—

(1) The common words ots, n. eur; wuts, 6, 7, boy or
gul,; and pas, n. light » together with the rare or poetical
words das, f. torch» pws, f. blister, Suds, m. thrall; Odds, m.
and f. jackul, Tpos, m. Trojan. These are all paroxytones
in the genitive and dative dual and in the genitive plural.
The adjective was has the same peculiarity, wavrds, ravti,
but mavrwv.
(2) Monosyllabic participles accent the genitive and dative
of all numbers on the last syllable but one, as dovs, giving,
gen, dovtos ; av, beang, gen. dvros.

PALATAL AND LABIAL STEMS

4.8. Additional examples for practoce
STEMS IN «. STEMS IN vy.
6 Oépa&, breastplate, st. wpak. o dpTvE, quail, st. dpTury.
Kopak&, raven, st. KOpaK. rétTuE, grasshopper, st.
ohnk, wasp, st. aby. TETTLY.
ehpv&, herald, st. nnpix. 1 Pro€, flume, st. proy.
n cape, fiesh, st. capK. mTrépv€, wing, st. 1TEpvy.
cantruyé®, trumpet, st. car-
TT bys

Vowels long by nature, except, and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcunyler avent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 131

STEMS IN qr. Stems in 7 are rare.

There are no stems in d
” atravr, hurricane, st,
NatraT.
except caTndid, nom. KaT%-
6 Kova, gnut, st. KoveT. Nery, defective, and of uncer-
tain meaning.
STEMS IN £,
6” Apa, Arab, st. Apa.
A xépvir, water for the hands, st. yepveP.
Observation.—ararné, f. fox, Kipvé and potvg, palm tree,
from dAwrex, Kypix and govvix, are anomalous, the stem
vowel being in the first case lengthened, in the others
shortened to form the nominative. The stem tpsty, f. har,
forms a nominative singular Opié, and a dative plural 6p:i(v).

STEMS IN DENTALS

49, Additional examples for practice

STEMS IN rr. STEMS IN 6. OXYTONE.

6 Spas, sweat, (Oper. 4 odpayis, seal, st. ohpayis.
Kerns, ‘riding horse, st. éxaris, hope, st. dared.
KENNT. yrauus, cloak, sb. yap.
NEBs, caldron, st. NeByr.
Stems IN 6. Not OXYTONE.
Kops, Cretan, st. Kpnr.
4 ec Ons, ramment, st. érOnr.
¢ 3
n “Apres, driemis, Sb. "Ap-
yapes, favour, st. yapir. TEfLLO.
Bpadutns, slowness, st. qoniTis, free woman, st.
BpadutTnt. TONLTLO.
pv, night, st.vuKr. avdpovitss, men’s chamber,
-d dvopa, name, st. ovopar. st. dvopmviTwo.
Vowels long by nature, except , and a, are marked long, unless they carry
the cireumfles accent,
132 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

STEMS IN 7. STEMS IN 6, Not OXYTONE.

TO xphua, thing, st. ypnuat. 7 vmnpéris, fuindmaid, st.
KULA, WUle, St. KUWAT. UTPNPETLO.
€

mpeg sores, old womun, st

T pec PTL.
There is one neuter stem in sv, namely, peAs, honey, gen,
péXderos, dat. pérXere,

DENTAL STEMS IN yt
50 Additional examples for practice
o éhédas, elephunt, st. éXehavr.
iwas, thong, st. (wave.
yiryas, giant, st. yuyayr.
avopias, statue, st avdpiay.
dpaxay, dragon, st. Spaxovt.
Geparonr, servant, st. OeparrovT.
=evohav, Xenophon, st. Eevoport.

STEMS IN DENTAL NU
51, Additional examples for practice
e 3 ¢ b]
0 Aiwy, age, St. aimy. 0e avyny,
3 f
neck, st. abyev
b)

aptmeov, vineyard, st. ap-

3 / : >

ALY, haven, st. Arpev.

TEND, e ¢ 3
0,7 adextpuvav,
/
cock, hen,
KNOY, tuig, st. KrwY. st aNextpvov.
Netpwov, meadow, st Netuwou. 0,n yeiTwv, neighbour,
e ¢
st.
HXetwov, winter, st. yveomoov. YeLTOV.
Twatay,
Z =
battle-song, st. racav. €
0 Kavey, Tule, st. Kavov.
Env, month, st. unv.
f
é
a) VLOV, SLOW, Sb. yveov.
Terav, Titan, st. Tiray.
~ eA ta ~- -
¢ 4 ~e
” AKTLS, ray, St. AKTLv.
@OtS, pang, st. @&iv.
> aZ in

r +
Vowels long by nature, except x and a, are marked
long, unless they carry
the cercumfpler accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 138

52. The words Tocewdor, ’Awé6AAov not only shorten their

stem in the Vocative, but also form their accusative from a
stem without nu, as Hooesdé, ’AwdAXAw. The forms ’Azr6A-
Awva and Hoceidova are poetical and very rare. The accent
is drawn back in the vocatives "AwoAXov and Idvedor, and
in a few others, as “Aydpepvor.

STEMS IN LIQUID RHO

53. Additional examples for practice

6 Coornp, girdle, st. Cwarnp. 0 arp, air (no plural) st. dep.
hap, tuef, st. hop. TpaKtTwp, taa-gatherer, st.
TavOnp, punther, st. trav- TPAKTOP.
Onp. alOnp, ether (no plural) st.
Kdp, Curiun, st. Kap. aep.
oixnt@p, Colonist, st. otxn-
TOp.
6 dotip, stur, is declined like aiéyp, but the dative plural
is agtpaot(v) by metathesis.

STEMS IN NARROW VOWELS

D4, Additional examples for practice

n dvous, nature, st. duos O mds, mouse, st. pv.
moinaw, making, st. mrow- Bortpus, giape-cluster, st.
NCL. Botou.
Svvapus, power, st. Suva. oarayus, ear of corn, st.
UBpss, insolence, st. vBpt. TAY.
oraots, faction, sb. crac. ivOus, Jish, sb. tyOd.
O muvres, Seer, St. wavTe. 7% Spus, oak tree, st. dpv.
odpus, brow, st. odbpv.
Vowels long by nature, except rand m, are marked long, uniess they carry
the curcumylcn accent.
134 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR
. ’ bs

56. Like wjyus are declined, o wéAcxus, axe; mperBus,

a“ = n ce -
-— or

old man; and the plural of 7 €yxeAvs, eel.

N. géNexus. N. A. wedXexn N. enréxess.

A. WéXEKUD. A. TeNéxKeELS.
Gh. awrenéKEws. G. D. werexéouw G. merexewr.
D. menéxer. D. weréxect(v).
N. apéoBus. N. A. rpéo8n N. mpéa Bees.
V. mpéc Bu V. mpéo Reus.
A. mpéo Bur. ‘a Tpéo BELs.
G. mpésBews G.D. rpecBéow. G. rpécBear.
D. mrpéa Per. D. mpéaBeor(y).
The singular is only used in poetry, but the dual and
plural have in prose the meaning of ambussadors, for the
singular of which mpeofevr7s is used.
N. éyyedus. éyyenets.
A. éyyedup. EY YVENELS.
G. éyyédvos. éyyéreon.
D. éyyédue * éyyedeo ty.
Observe the fact that the long final syllable in the genitive
singular and plural of soft vowel stems does not prevent the
accent from being on the antepenult.
57. Neuters of this class are very rare, dorv being the
only fully-declined word in common use. The genitive of
aorv is generally given as aoreos, but dozews is the only form
found in stone records and though there are many lines in.
poetry which require aorews, there are none in which doreos
must be read. Other words, like varv, mustard, only occur
in the nominative and accusative singular. There are in
Attic no neuters ending in iota,
Vows long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, untess they carry
the evroumfplex wevent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 135

STEMS IN ev

59, Additional examples for practice

eo , E
Oo Lmmmevs, horsemun.
e f .
LEPEUS, 71 181.
/ ’
ypadeus, painter,
EvBoevs, Euboean.
ILecpaevs, Piraeus (no plural).
"Epetpsevs, dweller in Hretria.
60. The accusative plural of masculine stems in ev ought
not to be contracted to -evs or ns. The contracted form does
not occur in stone records or in Attic comedy—the only true
criteria. It is possible that Xenophon used it, but he often
sins against his native tongue.

STEMS IN OMICRON AND OMEGA

61. Words from stems in omicron have naturally no plural,
and Topy«, which has, forms its plural from the stem Dopyov.
Anté, Leto. st. Anro. matpews, patemnal uncle. st. ratpo.
nyo, echo. st. nyo. pyTpes, maternal uncle. st. wntpo.
‘La, :d0.-8t. lo;
STEMS WHICH ELIDE SIGMA
62. Proper names in -xAgjs contract in all cases, and
doubly in the dative singular, as “HpaxAéeys, Heracles (the
hero).
N. “Hoaknrjs.
V. ‘Hpaknrets.
A. “Hpannréd.
G. ‘“Hpaxdéovs.
D. “Hpaknrei.
Vowels long bu nature, evcent rand a, are marked long, unless they carry
the crrcumflex ucce it
136 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

63. When proper names like Anporbans require a ,plural,

.
in
they take the first declension forms, as of “Apiorodavas
Plato, Sympos. 218, B.

64. Additional examples for practice.

6 Swxpatys, Soci ates.
Sodonhijs, Sophueles
TO dpos, mountain.
avOos, flower.
wrevdos, lie.
vos, ution
TELYOS, wall

CHAPTER VIII

So) Xk it,

65. THERE are also some contracted adjectives with only

two terminations, as evvous, evvovr, well-disposed, etrvous, airy,
evppovs, fluent. They have this peculiarity, that they do
not contract their nominative or accusative plural neuter,
€.g., «UT Aoa, EVITVOG, E’ppod.
66. Like tAews are declined dyijpws, exempt from old age,
afvoxpews, substantial, and a few others, among which are the
compounds of wAéws, full, as dvdrAews, repirrAews, Euardews.
The neuter plural is very rare. Plato has fAea as neuter
plural nominative of tAews. The simple aAéws ig itself
irregular.
Vowels long by nature, eacept 4 and a, are marked lang, unless they carry
the curcumfples acent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 137

SINGULAR PEURAL
mn. wréos? mwAéa. TArAéoV. TAM TWrEaAL TEA.
a mwrAéov. wArAéaVY. TAEAY. TAéWS. TAEGS. TEA.
& wrew. WAGES. TACO. THEOV. TACO. TAEOD.
d. wAé@. WEG. TED. TEOS. TWAEALS. TAEDS.
For ods, safe, see infra, p. 140, § 74.
67. Like dvs are declined yAvkts, sweet, evpts, broad ;
Bpaxis, short, taxts, swift, Gjrvs, feminine» and others.
Unlike substantives, adjectives do not contract «a: as
dor, but 7déa.
The compounds of myyvs are exceptions to this rule, as
SutqXn, TPeTHXy, etc., Not dur/jyea, TpuTi) yea.
Like péAas is declined raAas, rdAawa, taAav, wretched.
68. The adjective yapéess is anomalous in retaining oo
in its feminine forms in Attic writers. The feminine of
dovyers is not found in Attic, but the feminine substantive
pedttouTTa, honey-cake, is really the contracted feminine of
peditoeus, as TAaKods, flat-cake is the contracted masculine of
wAaxéeus. The class is altogether rare in pure Attic though
in other dialects it is not uncommon, ¢9., vides snowy,;
Tiuyes, precwous » DAnes, wooded ; wrepdes, winged.
69. In adjectives like evyersjs, if the ys of the nominative
is preceded by a vowel, ea contracts to a, not to y, as vyuis,
healthy (stem vy.ec).
SINGULAR PLURAL
n. wryens. uyLes. D.a.V. UytEts. uyla.
Drytes. g. VYLOD.
a. Ula. UryLes. d. Dy vert.
g. UY LOS. Duan
d. DYLEL, av. UylH.
gd. vaoty.
Vowels long by nature, except x and a, are marked Tong, unless they carry
the cercumyfles accent,
138 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

Barytone adjectives have the accent in the genitive plural

on the last syllable but one, contrary to p. 12%, § 30, as
ocuvijOuv for cvvrGewr,

70. Additional erumples for practice

cadis, clear. evwdys, fragrant.
evTerns, cheap. éripauns, notable,
avdadns, self-willeil. evnOns, sinuple.
abrapKns, self-sufficient. évoens, deficient in.
evduns, well-made. wirodens, mferror.
Tpinons, triply-sitted. evoalLorv, prosperous.
HOL@V, Ssuceter. TrElwy, MOTE.
Of these tpujpys is only used in the feminine (sc. vais,
a trireme), and wAeiwy is, as stone records show, somewhat
irregular, retaining et before long vowels or diphthongs only
and showing « before short vowels.
The forms with the diphthong are however used in poetry
when required by the metre.

SINGULAR
n. wArelov. TNEOV, TEL.
Wréova, TrElw. TEOV, TEL.
g. THEOVOS.
d. TNEOVE.

PLURAL
n. wAéoves, wrelovs. TNEOVA, TrElw.
a. WA€OVaS, WAElovS. TAE€OVa, TAELO.
g. TEOVOV.
d. TréootV).
71, Many of the adjectives of one termination ought
Powels long by nature, eucent 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the errcumfplex accept
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 139

rather to be considered as substantives of common gender

as puyds, 0, 7, (stem dvyad), exiled, avtoxpatwp, 6, 1%,
7 or ¢ f 6 3 , e a

plenipotentiary, arbitrary , prdorohis, 6, 1), patriotic ; (stem

e ta € e . .

diAoroAtd). Occasionally the poets formed a neuter even

to these, as neuter plural avroxpatropa. The compounds of
ydpis haye a neuter even in prose, as etyxapis, 6, 7, evyaps,
76, WINNING.
SINGULAR PLURAL
n. evyapls. eV apt. EVYAPLTES, evyaplTa.
a. EVYapLv. evyapl. Evy apiTas. evyapiTa.
g. EVYAPLTOS. EVvYApiTaD.
d. EeVYapLTL. eVYApLel,

72. The compounds of wrovs form a neuter in -rovy, eg9.,

dzrous, without feet, halt.
SINGULAR PLURAL
Yd 7 7 y
nh QITOUS. QTTOUY. TOES. aTo0od,
bd x ” v
ae arrood. QTrOUD. arrooas. aTOOa.
g. mr 080s. amodwv.
d. ATOOL. aTrooty).
Some compounds prefer to form their accusative singular
masculine in -rovv, as movAtrovs, many-footed, acc, movAv-
TOUV.

73. apaos, gentle, has some of its forms from a stem mpav
of the third declension.
SINGULAR
nh. wpdaos. T paca. TTpaov.
a. Wpaov. T paeiay. Tpaov.
g. Tpaov. Tpacias. Tp dou.
d. wpao. T pala. Ta.
Vowels long by nature, eacept ,and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcumflex accen:.
140 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

PLURAL
n. 7paos. Tpaelat. T paed.
ral -_ 4 w f

= - - —/
a. Tpdaous. Tpaeias. Tpaea.
g. mpaéwv. TPaeLwv. TPaewv.
? a waa £
d. mpdous or rpdéas. TPAciass. Tpaots OY WHAéar.
~~ f

74. cas, safe, forms most of its cases from the stem cwo
SINGULAR

n TOS. TO. OW).

a TOV. COAL. TOV.
g oaov. THRs. TWOU.
d. TOW. cod. THO.

PLURAL
n. TWOL Ol OOS. TWAL Coa Or ca,
a. TWOVS OY TAS. Twas. TWa Or ca,
g TOMY.
d TWOLS
f

CWA. TWOLS.

CHAPTER IX

& XE SEI
COMPARISON

75. Tae words radauds, ancient, and cxoAatos, slow, seem also
to have the forms in omuicron, as Tahatorepos, oyoAadTEpos,
precisely as the greater number of adjectives in ato.
76. Like wpqos, early, and duos, late, are also compared
Pouels long by nature, except rand w, are maried
1ong, unless they carry
the crroumflez accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 141

the poetical adjectives zArjouos, near, and etdios, calm. The

words pecos, meddle, and wos, equal, which from their mean-
ing are rarely compared, have once or twice the forms LETOL
TEPOS, [ETULTATOS 5 io alTEpos, (ToQiTUTOS.

The word dios has mm good writers the analytic com-

parative uaAAov pidos, and superlative uddiora didos. The
form iArepos is purely poetical and ¢tAraros is in prose
almost entirely confined to the vocative 4 ¢iArare, my dearest
friend, and the neuter plural ra @iAtara used as a substan-
tive, our nearest and dearest.
77. Of adjectives in -wv, the words riwv, fat, and wérur,
ripe, form their comparative and superlative irregularly, but
they are very rare indeed.
z ec} ae
TLOV. TLOTEPOS. TLOTATOS.
/ /
TETOV. TETAITEPOS. TeETALTATOS.

78. A few adjectives in os are irregular in taking -éorepos,

-~€OTUTOS, VIZ., GKPATOS, pure, Eppwuevos, strong , &PpOovos,
abundant,
UKPATETTEPOS. AKPATETTATOS.
Epp wwever
TEPOs. éppwpmeverTaros.
abGovertepos. addovértatos.
3 / $ /

79. The words tPpurrijs, cnsolent (man), and ériyapis,

charming, form their comparative and superlative as if from
bBpiords and ertyapiros.
UB pLoTOTEpos. UB pLETOTATOS.
e / e f

eTLYAPLT@TEPOS. ETLYAPLTOTATO S.

80. Of comparatives and superlatives formed from ad-

verbial, prepositional, or indeclinable positives, the following
are of most frequent occurrence—
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent
142
oad FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

wépav, on the other side; mepaitepos, further.

baréptepos, upper, further ; wréptatos, uppermost (from
prep. U7rép, over).
batepos, latter, luter , totatos, lust, latest.
Tpovprylairepos, more serviceable ; rpovpytattraros, most
serviceuble (from apotpyou, 6, 7), TO).
81. As in all languages, there are in Greek many adjec-
tives, which for euphonic or other reasons do not form their
comparatives and superlatives by inflexional change. These
generally use poAAov and paAwra, as magis and neaneate
used in Latin; as padAov djA0s, more plan, SijAos padwwra.
or pudriora dpAos, most plain.

CHAPTER X
§ XLIV
ADVERBS

82. THERE are many adverbs besides those formed from

adjectives. They may be formed from substantival or verbal
stems, and many are of a formation now difficult to trace.
Some are simply cases of adjectives or substantives, Thus in
forms like diAws we really see the remnants of the ablative
case In Greek, as in oikow, at home, we see the locative case of
oikos, house. The dative supplies a great number, as—
Syuocia, publicly, from Snuoctos, public.
idia, privately, from (dcos, private.
ocrovdn, seulously, from omrouds, zeal.
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and wa, are marked long, unless they carry
the ewrcumflez accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 143

83. Some are formed from substantive stems by the

suffix -dovjeas Kuvyddv, ike a doy, and a great number from
verbal stems by the suffixes -dyv and -r1, as ptpdayv, maredly,
from dipey, to mir, eAAnviori, mm Greek, from “EAAnrvicery, to
speak Greek. Others are really phrases like the English ad
random, as exmodav, out of the way (for ex 7odGr).
84. For a large class no general principle of formation can
be given. Such are aXus, enough » atOrs, again » radu, back ;
abrixa, immediately , éxet, there.
85. But many adverbs of place are formed by the three
suffixes -1, -Jev (attached to the stem or the modified stem),
and -de (attached to the accusative), as ocxot, at home, oikoGer,
from home, from ofkos, house. In Attic prose we do not find
-Se attached to the accusative singular. With the accusative
of plural names of places it is often found, and then combines
with the plural sigma of the case to form -(¢, as °"AG@ijvafe, to
Athens (for A@rvasde).
86. The chief adverbs of time are wore, when? o7orte,
when? (indirect), TéTe, then, Ore, omdre, when,

CHAPTER XI
s XLVI
87. The cardinal, ordinal, and adverbial numerals are as
follows
sign. Cardinal. Ordinal. Adverb,
la eis, pla, év one 6 mparos, the first Gmrak, once
2B’ vo SevTEPOS dus
3 Tpets, Tela TpiToS Tpis
Vowels long by nuture, except y and w, are marked long, unless they curry
the circumyler accent,
144 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

Sign Cardinal, Ordinal, Adverb.

48 vérrapes, rétTapa TéTapTos TETRAKLS
Se wévre TéWTTOS TEVTAKLS
65 & EKTOS EEAKLS
10 énra E8500 ETTAKLS
Sx éxTa dy000s$ OKTAKLS
90 évvéa EVaTOS EVAKLS
1027 béxa O€KATOS OEKAKLS
ll ca’ &vdexa EVOEKATOS EVOEKAKLS
12 68 dddexa dwdéKaTOS OWSEKGKLS
13 uy’ Tpels(Tpla)ealdéxa Tpitos Kal déxaTos TPLOKALOEKAKLS
14 48 TETTAPES KML 6éxKa TETAPTOS KAI O€KATOS TETTAPET KALOEKAKLG
? f \ f f

15 te’ revrexaldexa TEWT TOS KAL OEKATOS WTEVTEKALOEKAKLS

/ \

16 uw’ éxxaidexa EXTOS KAL O€KATOS

vd \ /
EKKQLOEKGKLS
17 0! érraxaibseca EBdou0s Kat déxaTos ET TAKALOEKAKLS
18 un’ éxtwKaidexa bydoo0s Kal d€KaTos OKTMKALOEKAKLS
19 8 évveaxaidexa EVAaTOS Kal CEKATOS EVVEAKALOEKAKLS
20K etkoou(v) ELKOTTOS ELKOTAKLS
25 K€ elxoot wévTe ELKOOTOS TWEULTTOS ELKOO AKLS TEVTAKIS
30 X’ TpLaKovra TpLaKoaTOS TOLEKOVTAKLS
40 terTapaKovTa TETTAPAKOTTOS TETTAPAKOVTAKLS
50 vy crevtnxovTa TEVTNKOGTOS TEVTHKOVTAKLS
60 £ é&nxovta éEnKOoTOS EENKOVTAKLS
700 6éB8dopunKovTa EBdounKkorTos ESOouNKOVTAKLS
80 w éydonKovTa dySonKoaTos OY OONKOVTAKLS
90 ¢’ évevjxovra EVEUNKOOTOS EVEUNKOVTAKLS
100 p’ éxarov EKATOOTOS EKATOVTAKLS
200 or’ Staxdotot, al, a OLAKOT LOO TOS OLAKOCLAKLS
300 7 TPLAKOT LOL, at, a TPLaAKOT LOG TOS TPLAKOTLAKLS
f /
400 vu TeTpaKkocLol, at, & TeTPAKOTLOTTOS TETPAKOCLAKLS
f f
500 f° wevraxdcvot, at, a TevTaKoctocTés TEVTAKOTLAKLS
vowels long by nature, except x and w, are marked long, uniess they carry
the crrcumflen accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 145

Sign. Cardinal. Ordinal. Adverb.

600 y é£axdotor, at,a é€aKxoovocrds éFAKOTLAKLS
700 we’ ETTAKOGLOL, Gl, @ ETTAKOTLOCTOS EM TAKOTLAKLS
800 w é6KTaKOCLOL, al, a OKTAKOCLOCTOS OKTAKOTLAKLS
900 DB évaxociol, at, a e€vaKkootocros EVAKOCLAKLS
1000 a ytrAu0b, al, a YINLOTTOS YIMAKLS
2000 8 disytrsos, as, a dusytrLorTos SUSYtALAKLS
3000 TplsytAsoL Ql, & TpLsxXtrALocTOs TPLSVEALAKLS
10000 2 peviprot, as, a [LUpLoa Tos [LUPLAKLS
88. The letters of the alphabet were used, as is shown in
the second column, as signs of the numbers. To form com-
pound numbers cai was often used, in which case the smaller
number was put first, as elkoow €&, twenty-sir, but €& Kat
eikoot, stx-und-twenty. So eixoords éxtos, twenty-sexth, but
éxtos Kal elkoords, six-and-twentieth. Compounds of 8 or 9
are often expressed by means of the participles of dew, L lack,
as dvoly d€ovTa Tpidkovra, thirty lacking two, t.e. twenty-eight,
Evos d€ov Tpiaxoorov eros, the thirtieth year save one, — the
twenty-nenth year,
89, Fractions were expressed in different ways. Frac-
: ; It ;
tions with the general formula jy OUr quarter, Sifth, ete ,were
expressed by compounds with pop.ov, as Tpurnpopwv = 4,
n
TeumTynpopiov = 3, etc. Fractions with the formula — were
expressed by phrases like tov wévre Ta tpia pepy = 4, TwV
éxnra at Ovo polpas = #. Fractions with the general formula
m—-l1_,
———— might be expressed as the last, or in a shorter way.
Thus tov érra Ta e& pépy, or simply ra € pepn = F.
90. The most important general adjectives of quantity are
Exacros, each, éxdrepos, either; was, all; Toords, ororrds,
Vowels long by nature, excert x and w, are marled long, unless they carry
the cricumfler accent
L
146 FIRST GREER GRAMMAR

which in a series? (Lat guotus 2), woAvs, much, dAvyor, few.

The adverbs are éxuordkis. every time, moAXKaxts, often,
‘ * ? ,
wrKeoTuKis, very often, oAvyaKes, selon.
91. When arrds comes between an article and substantive
it acquires the meaning same, as 6 avrds arp, the same man.
It often coalesces by crasig with those forms of the article
which end in a vowel, as—

SINGULAR
n. avuros. aut). TAUTO, TAUTOD.
a. TOV avTor. THY AVTHV. TAUTO, TAUTOD.
g. TAaVTOD. THS AUTNS. TAUTOD.
d. tavTo. TAUTY. TAUTO.

PLURAL
Nn. avroi. avuTat. TavTa,
2 TOUS aUTOUS. TAS aUTas. TAUTA.
g. TOV AUTOV.
d. ols avtots. Tals avtTats. TOUS AUTOLS.

DUAL
Da Ve. TAaUTO. g. d. vroly avtoty.

92. Like otros are declined—

TOC OUTOS. TOTAUTN. TocovTo(y), 80 great.

TOLOUTOS. TOLAUTN. ToLOUTO(Y), such.
THALKODTOS. THNLKAUTN, THALKODTO(Y), so old.

But the tau of the forms of odros beginning in that letter is

dropped, as tavta, but roc-atra; and the nominative and
accusative singular neuter may end in nu.
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked Tong, unless they carry
the carcumflec uccent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 147

With the same meaning as these forms we also find tocos-

Se, rowds-de, and ryAuKds-de declined regularly, except that
they have the suffix -oe appended.
93. In the following tables the pronouns and the adverbs
formed from their stems are arranged so as best to show
their relations to one another.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES
se ee gy

| interrogative indefinite | demonstrative relative |

|
tis, who? TLS, some One | Bde, OVTOS, this |6s, dsTus, who
eee eee ee

TOTEpos, uber ?| ToTEpos, One Of |repos, the one omoTepos, which

which of two? | two (alteruter) | of two (alter) | of two

wécos, how! moaods, of some |rocos,Toadsde |ba0s, OTdCOS,

great ? how) size or number | rocovTos, 8o| how great, how
much ?(quantus, great, so much| much (quantus,
quot) (tantus, tot) uot)

m / rn f ~
motos, of what| motos, of some |Totos, ToL0sSe, |ofos, OTrOtos, Of
quality? (qualis)| quulty ToLovtTos, of) which quality
such a quality) (qualis)
(talis)

anricos, how |wndtKos,ofsome, THALKOS, THAL |AALKOS, OT NAL |

old ? age KOSOE, THALKOD-| KOS, of whichage
Tos Of such age
___
Vowels long by nature, except x and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the evrcumfpler accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

PRONOMINAL ADVERBS
——
; interrogative | indefinite demonstrative relative

ae
| éve aoe here
larov, where # gov, somewhere ov, Omrov, where
évTavba there
fiom from
évO évoeE }
qobev, whence ? ToGev some- here
évrevbev (
3 a

where there
some
rol, whither ? 77 Ob “évtavGot, thither ot, OTroL, Whither
whither
v4 ¢ /
ToTe, sometime Tore, then OTE, OTTOTE, When
/ f
mote, when ?
at THVLKabE ) at e of |at
NUL
anvica < uhat tThvikauta > that e / which
OTNVLKA I
| hour? TNVIKG hou hour

Tas, how ? Tos, somehow anes \ts MS, OTAS, US

OUTMS
TavTn in thas inwhich
wn, inwhat way ?|mn, in some way
THOe | wayd way |
{

CHAPTER All

SS LY: ff

GENERAL REMARKS ON VERBAL FORMS

94.—Double Forms.
Besides the third plural imperative active forms like Avdév-
Vowels long by nature, except x and w, are marhed long, untess they carry
the eircumfled accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 149

tov, Avedvrwy, and the middle forms AvécOwv, Atodc bur,

NeAiobuv, and the passive AvGévrwv, we find in late Greek
Aveturay, Avedrwcav, AvérOucav, Nedobuwray, eAvobucer,
AvOjrwoav. Such forms, however, are never found in stone
records or in verse till after Alexander the Great, and are
therefore when found in Attic prose texts to be regarded as
late alterations of the shorter forms.
95. Such optative active forms as Adous, Adour, Atdoarev
for Atiwesas, Atoese(v), and Atceiav, are equally suspicious m
Attic prose; as are also forms of the passive optative such as
AvGeinyrov for AvOeirov. They are not found in Attic verse.
96. The ending -y for «s in the second person singular
present and futures, indicative, middle, and passive is certainly
late.
97. In late writers the pluperfect indicative active is thus
inflected—
SINGULAR PLURAL
NeAUKELY NEAVKEL LEV
NEAUKELS NEAVKELTE
NEAVKEL NeAVKELTAY
99. Auxiliary Tenses.—The perfect and pluperfect
active indicative may be expressed by the participle and the
substantive verb, as AcAvukis eipt, AeAvKWS FV.
The same is true of the middle and passive, as AeAvpuévos
cit, AeAvpevos iv. The subjunctive and optative perfect
active are more frequently expressed in this way than by
AeAtKo and AeAvkoinv, namely, AeAvKas G, AeAuKas etinv.
For future perfect, AeAvKws eoopae was used.
100. The Perfect Imperative.—This tense is not used
in the active voice except when the perfect has a present
meaning, and then the second person singular always ends in
-6.. Thus from kéxpaya, I shout, we have the imperative
Vowels long by nature, except 1 and w, are marked long, wnless they carry
the crrcumsler accent
150 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

(2) Kéxpay@.,
(3) nexpayaro.
Pl. (2) kexpayare.
In the middle and passive the third person smgular is
common in such phrases as Tatra elpyjoOw, let these things be
saad. The second person singular is hardly used except when
the perfect has a present meaning, as, peuvynoo remember ;
from péuvnpos, LT remember ; réexavoo, quiesce.
101. Future middle and passive —There is no lack of
futures with a passive meaning seeing that in addition to the
future tense common to both the middle and the passive
voices we have also forms like AvOjcouar and AcAtoopas,
and in the case of verbs from consonant stems sometimes
another like tpadjoouas from the strong aorist erpadyy.
102. Future middle in form, active in meaning.—
Another peculiarity of the future is that a very large class
of verbs have a future middle in form but active in meaning.
In fact, almost all verbs which denote the exercise of the
bodily functions have this peculiarity. Many of these verbs
are already deponents, and are not included in the following
list. The most important are.
103. adew, sing, dcopas Kéxpaya, cry aloud, cexpaé-
ararate, shout, ar- OfLal.
andEopuat. KéxNayya, scream, KexNaryE-
Body, cry, Bonoomat Oat.
a 74 ‘
yerav, laugh, yeNac- Kaxiewy, wail, KOKUC OMaL.
OMGL. . oiuocev, lament, oipw€-
ynpvew (poet.) cry, Oat.
ynpucouat, orodv ev, shrick, dNOAVE-
euler, grunt, ypve- OfbeLl.
OMA. oToTucey, wuil, 6roTvEO mat.
Vowels long by nature, erce)t, and w, are marlhed long, unless they eurry
the curcunciles accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 161

axovew, hear, axovcouas.

}

» Giyyavery, (poet.) touch, O/Eouas.

104. daxveev, bite, dyFopar. TTVELY, Spl, TrVTOMAL.

écOiew, eat, Edouar. podgeiv, gobble, podijcopat.
Nat Tety, lap, Navrouat. TpoyEew, gnaw, Tpw€opat,
mivew, drink, miopar. YaATKEW, Jape, yavodpas

105. amavrayv, meet, arrav- OpdcKey, leap, Gopodpac.

THT OAL. velv, swim, vevoopar.
Badifecv, walk, Bade- wydav, leap, mndjoopar.
OUMas. Trev, sul, TAEvTOMAL.
-Batvewy, go, -Byjcopmar. petv, flow, pevoopat.
(Br\wooxevv), (poet.) go, omovdabew, hasten, omov-
MONOD MAL, ddcopat.
amro-o.bpacKev, run (Tpéxyery), 1UN, Spapoduae.
uway, aro-Spacopar. every, flee, bev€opuar.
Suwkewv, pursue, OwmE- ywpeiv, proceed, yapr-
OMal. COpat.
Octy, run, Oetdoopat. Tailew, play, tratcomat.
ainrew, fall, recodpat.
Kapvetv, be weary, Kapodpar.
hbaverv, get before, hOjncopar.
batepety, be behindhund, tberepjoopar.

106. (Grdsvacaor.), lve, Bid- eivas, be, éropac.

Copal. avroOvnocKew, die, atro-
-ynpacKev, grow old, Javov pat.
-ynpacopas. Taoyely, suffer, Teicopat
(TAnvas aor.) endure,
TANTOMAL,
Vowels long by nature, excent 4»and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflea accent
152 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

107. Aayydver, obtain, AHE- Tuyyaverv, obluin, Teve-

OMaAL. ¢
OL.

apmraleww, seize, apTavopar.

e / ‘ ¢ 4
NauBadvery, take, Ayrb-
/ ft
OMal. KNETTELY, Steal, KNEYromal.
xuyyaverp,
; (poet. )find, meovertely, be grasping,
,
KLY NT Opal. TANEOVEKTNTOMAL.

108. Intellectual or emotional activity is expressed by

dpaptavery, er, dpap- TwOalew, mock, raPacomas.
THTOMAL. Gavpalew, admire, Oav-
ylYVOOKELD, know, [ag Oma.
YUOCOLAL ATONGVELV, enjoy aTroNav-
pavédve, learn, pa- TOMaL.
Oncopuas. UBpiew, wsult, UBprodpuar.
CKOTTELYD, jeer, TKOW- GuYUVaL, SUeUT, OMOTMAL
Oat.
109. There are many more, some of which oscillate
between the active and the middle.
110. Remarks on Contracted Verbs —The following
irregularities are to be remembered :—
(1) The verbs (0, live; xpo, answer (of an oracle) ;
ypouat, use, oa, thirst, mewo, hunger; cpo, smear ,
though from alpha stems contract in eta, as, (0, (js, (%,
(auev, (re, (oor, subjunctive, (@, Gs, ete ,infinitive, (Hv.
Kv, scrape, and Wa, rub, occasionally contract in eta
also.
(2) The verb piya, shiver with cold, contracts in w and ,
instead of ov and oz, as, infinitive pryov; subjunctive third
singular pry ; optative third singular piydy ; participle pryar,
ptyooa, plyOr, gen. plyavTos,
(3) Words like xé only contract when the vowel epsilon is
Vowels long ty nature, except 4 and w, are maried long, unless they carry
the evrceunfier uccent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 158

followed by another epsilon and before the endings es and e

of the active. In all other cases their formation is identical
with that of Atw, The only exceptions are déw, I bind: and
fw, I smooth, which in Attic always contract like poly-
syllables, 60, de@s, det, Sotuer, Setre, Sotor, £0, Fets, £e?, CoBuer,
Ecire, Eovcr; imperfect edovy, efovr, etc. But dé, I lack, is
like all other dissyllabic verbs in -ew, déw, des, de, S€oper,
detre, O€over; imperfect éeov, eis, ede, ete.
The verb Aoew, wash, contracts in Attic to Aotw, but
those persons which have a short connecting vowel are
formed as if from Adw, and then contract ; eg,

Noowev becomes Aodev.

/ fa)

f fal
AOETE ee NOUTE.
éNOOV - EXOD.
NOecGas ,, Nota Gar.
f A

/
NOOMEVOS ,, NOVMLEVOS.

CHAPTER XT

THE TENSE-SYSTEM OF REGULAR VERBS IN OMEGA

115. You must carefully observe that in no tense of Atvw is

there any stem-form shorter than Av, which we call the
present stem. It may therefore also be called the verbal
stem, as there is no part of the verb in which the syllable Av
is not found. The same is true of all pure verbs, that Is,
verbs which have the omega of the first person singular
present indicative active preceded by a vowel. Of course con-
tracted verbs belong to this class, as tio, dAdo, and b7A0
Vouels long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the curcunrler accent.
154 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

were originally rico, diréw, and dnAdw. This is a very m-

portant class of verbs, and far more Greek verbs, belong to it
than to any other.
Many impure verbs also belong to this group, that is,
have their present stem and their verbal stem identical, such
as Aéyw, I say, and wAéxw, J plait. But with most impure
verbs the case is different Thus of the verbs which you
have learned, if you take gdevyw or A¢eiw, you will observe
that the present stems gevy and Aer are not the shortest
stem-forms in the verb. For devyw has for aorist epvyov,
of which dvy is the stem, and Aeizrw forms an aorist eAuroy
from the stem Azz.
116. We may now go further than we did on p. 65 and
may divide our verbs in a better way than by the letters in
which their stems end, for we have learned that some verbs
have no stem-form shorter than the present stem and that
others have.
This at once separates all Greek verbs in omega into two
great groups—
I. Verbs in which the present stem and verb-stem are
identical.
II. Verbs in which the present stem and verb-stem are
different.
To the former of these groups belong the vast majority of
Greek verbs. The latter embraces a comparatively small
number of verbs, but from the nature of their meaning the
verbs which belong to it occur for the most part very
frequently, and so appear to be more numerous than they
are.
117. If we examine the verbs which belong to the second
group, we shall see that the present stem may conveniently
be regarded as enlarged from the shorter stem-form or verb-
stem, but in different ways. We may thus divide the second
Fowels long by nature, earcept y and w, are marked lonad, unless they carry
the errcumfplex accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 155

group into smaller groups according to the way in which the

present steny, differs from the verb-stem.
118. I. The vowel of the present stem is longer than in
the verb-stem.
dhevya, flee. verb-stem, duy.
Aelita, leave. n OTT.

119. IL. In cases when the verb-stem ends in a labial, the

present stem is increased by tau.

Branrra, hurt. verb-stem, Braf.

TurTe, stroke, i TUT.
KpUTTO, hide. x Kpud.

120, III. The present stem is longer than the verb-stem

by certain letters which arise from the coalescing of the final
letter of the verb-stem and the semi-vowel y represented in
Greek by iota.
(1) The palatals kappa, gamma, chi unite with this iota
to form 77 (oc).
KnpvTTe@, proclaim for xnpuK-t-w.
TaTTMO, order for Tary-t-o.
opuTT@, dig for dpuy-l-w.
(2) Delta and occasionally gamma coalesce with the 1ota
to form zeta.
Kowil@, carry for xoptd-6-o.
oipala, bewail for olumy-l-o.
(3) Lambda by union with the iota becomes AA,
Barro, throw for Par-t-o.
oTEANO, CqUlp for oTéA-l-o.
Vowels long by nature, ercept n and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the evreumplex accent.
156 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

(t) When the verb-stem ends in nu or rho the seml-vowel

is thrown back into 1t. e

relve, stretch for tev-l-@.

dOcipw, destroy for Pbep-t-o.
121. IV. The present stem is longer than the verb-stem
by nu or a syllable containing nu.

(1) by nu alone—
Baivo, 90. verb-stem Ba.
TELVO, Cui; . TEL.

(2) by av—

paviave, learn. verb stem pad.

BracTave, grow. . Pract.
(3) by ve—

Kuvem, Kiss. verb-stem xv.

122. V. The present stem is longer than the verb-stem by

ok or, when the verb-stem ends in a consonant, by wk,
and sometimes by redupliation also.
ynpacKko, grow old verb-stem ynpa.
yiyvacKka, come to know. 5 yo.
evpicka, Jind. ‘. Eup.
The last two classes must be regarded as quite irregular.
Still more irregular are the two remaining classes.
123 VI. A short stem alternates with one enlarged by
epsilon.
(1) The enlarged stem in epsilon belongs to the present,
while other tenses are formed from the shorter.
Pouels long by nature, except 4 and a, ore marked long, unless they carry
the curcumfex accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 157

dox@ (éw), seem. verb-stem Sox.

future d0£w@ (not doxncw).
(2) The shorter stem belongs to the present, while the
other tenses are formed from the enlarged stem.
€GéXw, Wish. verb-stem éOer.
future éGedyow.

124. VII. The verb draws upon quite different stems to

form its different tenses, as 690, J see; oWopar, L shall see ;
cidov, LT saw, from dpa, oz, t6, see p. 184.

CHAPTER XIV
THE TENSES IN DETAIL

125. Present and Imperfect.—The imperfect is formed

from the present stem by prefixing the augment and adding
the personal endings.
Verbs when compounded with a preposition have the
augment immediately after the preposition, as eicadAw, I
throw into, elc--Barrov , eiodyw, I introduce, eta-yyov. The
prepositions ovv, with, and év, in, which become assimilated
to the first consonant of the simple verb, resume their true
forms before the augment, ovyPdArw, L throw together, cvv-é
Badrrov, exubdrrt{w, I throw into, év-e-fardAov. ék, out af,
becomes é€ before the augment.
126. When the preposition ends in a vowel, the vowel is
elided before the augment, tro-ypédw, I subscrobe, v7-e
ypapov. But qepi, about, and apo, before, never lose their
Vowels long by nature, ercept 4 and w, are marked long, wnless they carry
the erreumflen uccent.
158 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

vowel, although wpd may contract with « to form ov, as

rpotPavov, for azpo-é-Bawwov, L went forward. There are
also some irregularities in augment.

127. (1) « becomes «, not 7, in the verbs—

éav, leave, elov. éreabat, follow, eiromny.
nw /

ebifew, accustom, elOcCov. Eyeuv, have, etyov.

c a . ¢ / tx / . tf.
éeotiay, entertuin, erorimyv. eéediTTEeLV, Toll, etXLTTOV.
EAKEeLW, GTUW, EtNKOV. éprei, creep, elp7rov.

128. (2) Some verbs beginning with a vowel have the

sylabic augment—
aveto Oat, buy. E€@voupny.
adeiy, push. ewOour.
obpeiv, make water, éovpouv.

129. (3) Some verbs have a double augment in Attic—

avTiBorety, entreat. HYTEBONOUY.
avTLouKxety, dispute. HVTEOLKOUD.
audio Byretyv, dissent. nudes SnTouv.
apdiyvoety, doubt. nupeyvoour.
dtaTtay, diet. EOLN TOV.
OLAKOVEL, SCTE. éSunkovouv.
aveyer Gar, endure. NVELY OLD.
évoynrety, trouble. VOY NOVY.
avolyety, Open. avewryov.
aumexyer Oat, have on, NLTELY OUND.
130. The second or strong aorist active and middle.
—Pure verbs cannot form this tense, and few even of impure
verbs possess it. It is consequently very rare in Greek,
Powels long by nature, errept » and a, are marked long, unless they carry
the cuicwmflec uceent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 159

hardly occurring at all exceptin such verbs as have a root for

their stem. * That it is often thought a common tense is due
to the fact that the verbs which form it, though few in
number, are in very frequent use. Its infiexion is for the
indicative the same as that of the imperfect, and for the other
moods the same as that of the present. Thus from A«izw we
have the active aorist ¢Aurov, and from veifw the middle
aorist eriOduny,
ACTIVE
IMPERFECT PRESENT
oH —
“™
Indicative. Subjunetive. Opitative.
S. ENELTTO.
le S
NELTO.
f
NElTOLLe.
ENELTTES.
of.

oo
bo ENELTFE.
sf

Imperative. Injfinitwwe.
o bo ENELTTETOV.
P
. ;
NELTITE. NELITELV.
ENELTPETHD.
éN€ LTO pe.
Participle.
2

ENGLTTETE, Was,
leaving.
were
oY
op
&Lo ENELTTOV. Nelrwv, AEiTroVcAa, NELTTOV.
”

oeeee
eee

AORIST
ENLTTOV. NTO. NLTOLWL.
/ ,

”
2 ENLITES,
ENTE.
o ENLITETOV.
Cian Alqre. ETELD.
go
bo
wo ENLTTETND. Left.
rd . EN LTTOpED.
EN LITETE,
gobo
ENLTTOV. NLTOV, ALTOUGAa, ALTrOV.
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflers accent.
160 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

MIDDLE
IMPERFECT PRESENT
A
‘ eed Peta a el
es
Indicative. Subjunctive, Optative.
érretGounv.
9 f
\ reiPopat. — resBotpnr.
érreiGov.
>) /
=
érrelOero.
? ,

= Imperative. Infinitive.
éreiGec bor. 3
= -Teifov. meiGeo Oar.
érretGéc Onv.
=
érretOo weba.
3 Participle
érreiGea Ge, =NS pie.
érreiGorTo.
f
weLGomevos, ], OV.
3 f

AORIST

émvdcuny. F Subjunctive. Optative.

3 Ul

eto. wim wat. mTidotmny.

3 /

em iGeTo.
3 t

émtGec Gov. E iina ate rga

émibéa Onv. 3 To0ov. mOéo Gar.
ém.Ooneba.
erridec Ge. Participle.
bO. ertGorTo.
bO
OO
DO
GO
Rt
G2 TLOOMEVOS, N, OV.

13]. Future active and middle.—The inflexion of the

future is the same as that of the present, except that the
future stem forms no subjunctive or imperative. The con-
tracted future has the same inflexion as contracted presents.
L.g.—

Towels lung by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, wnless they carry
the circum fles accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 16]

PRESENT FUTURE
Indicative
S. 1. Pir@, L love. otepo, I shall sow.
2. pirers. omepels.
3, Dorel. OTTEpel.
D. 2. didretrov. OTEPELTOD.
3. dedelTov. OTEPELTOV.
P. 1. derotpev. OTEPODMLEV.
2. hiretre. CTT EPELTE.
3. dtNOVGL. CTEPOUCL.
Optative
S. 1. hirodnv. OT EPOLNY.
2. derolns. omepolns.
3. htroiN. omepoln.
D. 2. didottov. oTrepotToy, etc
Infinitive
piretv. OTEpELV.

Participle
hir@v, -oVTa, -ovV. TTEPOV, -OUTA, -OUY,
And so with the middle.

132. All stems ending mm a vowel or a mute form their

future by adding sigma to the stem. The sigma combines
with gutturals to form xi, and with labials to form psi, while
dentals are dropped before it. wAeK-w, L plait, wrEEw;
Brdr-tw, I hurt, Addo; ad-o, I sing, grouar; mparro, do
(zpay), mpagu.
Vowel stems have their vowels long before sigma, that is,
epsilon becomes eta, omicron becomes omega, alpha becomes
eta except when preceded by epsilon, iota, or rho, in which
Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marhed long, unless they carry
the cercumfplen accent.
M
162 a FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

case it is not changed, as row (éw), touwjrw; dy (dw),

énddcw 3;€6 (dw), allow, dow; tWpue (idouar), heal, (oops ;
dupd (dw), knead, pupicw; but Pow (dw), shout, Poiropar ;
Tipo (dw), TYpLyow. f
133. The contracted future is formed by adding ew to the
verb-stem, and then contracting ; as rev (verb-stem of reéve,
stretch), future revew, tevw. Stems ending in A, p, v, p, form
their futures in this way. The syllable preceding the con-
tracted syllable is always short, véuw, assign, veo; puraive,
pollute, prava; oreipw, sow, orepw; ayyéAAw, report, dyyero.
134. Not a few stems in e€ (present é), most stems in 1d
(present (fw), and a very few in o6 (present aw), throw out
the sigma in the future. Those in « and ad at once contract
the colliding vowels, cao (éw), call, future caro (for
kahérw): PBiPdlw, bring, future Pi8o (for BiBdow). But
the stems in vd after dropping sigma add epsilon and con-
tract, as wopi(w, provide, ropww for (roptéw),
135. The first or weak aorist active and middle.—
The stem 1s simply the future stem lengthened by alpha.
The stems in A, », v, p which form thew future without
sigma do not employ that letter in the aorist, but in com-
pensation lengthen their vowel; short alpha becomes long
after iota and rho, after other vowels and after consonants
it becomes eta, faive, sprinkle, ¢opava; xabaipw, purity,
EKO nod,
Exceptions are—
paiva, pollute, éuinva.
Tetpaiva, bore, érérpnyva.
KotNaive hollow, éxotNava.
NevKalvo, whiten, drevKava.
opyaive, enrage, dpyava.
Loxyvaive, dry, iayvava.
Powels long by nature, except y and w, are marked lon g, unless they carry
the crcumfles accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 163

Epsilon begomes et, and iota and upsilon are simply

lengthened, as péva, remain, euewa; Kptva, decide, éxpiva.
136. The perfect active.—The same stem supplies the
pluperfect active, the perfect and pluperfect middle and
passive, and the third future, which has a passive sense.
The characteristic mark of the stem is its reduplication.
The rules for reduplication are—
137. (1) Verbs beginning with a vowel have no redupli-
cation proper, but simply lengthen the vowel, as cpu (do),
Urge, WPLNKa.
138. (2) Verbs beginning with a consonant followed by a
vowel or by lambda, nu, or rho, repeat the initial consonant
with epsilon, as Avo, AeAvKa—ypada, write, yeypada ; wAEKU,
plait, weTAeyu; KVaw, scrape, Kéxvatka. But an aspirate is
represented by the corresponding tenuis, as drAw, repiAnka.
139. (3) In all other cases a verb beginning with two
consonants takes only epsilon for its reduplication, as xreivw,
kill, exrova; Cn, injure, eCnpiwmka.
Exceptions to (2) are all verbs beginning with p, yA, yy,
pv, which follow (3), as, pirrw, throw, epptpa; yAvda, carve,
éyAvppas (passive); prvnpovedu, mention, éuvnpoverkas yvupiCo,
point out, éyvapiKa.
140. There are a strong and a weak perfect active.
The weak perfect active.—Kappa is added to the
reduplicated verb-stem, the vowel following the rules laid
down in § 132.
Spa (dw), do, Spacw, dépaxa.
TiUL® (AM), TLLNTH@, TETLUNKA.
- “A - f JL

141. Stems in tau, delta, and theta throw out these con-
sonants before kappa. as dvewdifw (doves), reproach, aveiduca;
zelOm (xO), persuade, werecxa. The vowel is occasionally
changed, as POelpw (bOep), destroy, ebOapKa.
Vowels long by nuture, except n and w, are marhed long, unless they carry
the crrcumfples accent
164 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

142. The second or strong perfect.—This is an old

and comparatively rare tense, formed directly from the verb-
stem. The vowel of the stem undergoes change, and a few
stems in kappa, gamma, pi, and beta change these letters
into the corresponding aspirates, as pevyw (pry), flee, TEepevya;
weurw (Trew), send, Teropa.
143. The perfect middle and passive.—This tense is
formed by adding the personal endings of the principal
tenses of the middle directly to the perfect-stem without any
connecting vowel. Stem Av, perfect-stem AeAv, perfect middle
AeAv-yar. When the stem ends in a consonant, the con-
sonant 1s changed according to the rules laid down in page 111.
The ending -vrac of the third person plural is incompatible
with consonantal stems, and in this case the periphrasis with
eit ig always used. The following table gives an example
of each class of consonant stems—

PALATAL LABIAL DENTAL LIQUID

Singular
TéeTACYLAL. Yyéeypanpat méeTecwa oTrappar.
meTreEat. yeyparrar. Wérevcat. éomapcat.
TETAEKTAL Yyéeyparta. Téreocta. eoTapTal.
Plural
meTreywela. yeypaupeba. TemreicpueOa. éeordppeba.
mweTAeyvGe. yeypadle. reéreobe. éorrapée.
/ / f 4

TeTASYMEVOL YYEypaypevoe TeTrercpéevoe eamrappévos

eto. Elo. elo. elo.
144. The future perfect is formed by enlarging the
perfect stem by sigma and adding the inflexions of the future
middle, as AeAu-c-opat, from AcAv; AcAelWouos, from AeAeur.
145. The second or strong aorist passive stem.—
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the ercumflez accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 165

This stem supplies the second aorist and the second future
passive. iis formed by adding epsilon to the verb-stem,
the stem-vowel being sometimes changed, as zijxw, meld
(verb-stem tax); érdxny (stem take); wAékw, plait (verb-
stem wAex) ;érAdkyy (stem wake).
1416. The first or weak aorist passive stem.—This
stem supplies the first aorist and the first future passive, and
is formed from the verbal stem by adding 6. Before this
syllable the vowel of vowel stems is lengthened as in the
future, aorist, and perfect active, riya, éeriujOny ; reipa, try,
ereipudny ; futures, tiunOjcopat, reipabyjcopas.

CHAPTER XV

VERBS IN -y.

147, Tues verbs differ from the verbs in omega only in the
inflexion of the present and second aorist stems, and oc-
casionally in that of the perfect and pluperfect. Many verbs
belonging to the -w conjugation form their aorist active
according to the -ws conjugation.
148. They are divided into two classes.
(1) Verbs which in the present add their person-endings
directly to the verb-stem or the verb-stem reduplicated with
iota; as, pij-ps, J say; ti-Onps, I place.
(2) Verbs which add vv to the verb-stem in order to form
the present stem ; as Seéx-vv-pu, I show (verb-stem deux).
We shall add a few more verbs conjugated in full to those
already given, The rest you will find in the list of verbs
on p. 170.
Vowels long by nature, except x and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the cvrcumflex accent.
166 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

149. typu, L sen’, make to go, is inflected lke ri@iyue.

6
ACTIVE

present fqps, ts, fnos (v), tener, tere, taore(v).

subjunctive tw; optative teijv; imperative tec; infinitive
tévat; participle eis.
imperfect tjjv, tess. ter, tepev, tere, teoar.
aorist Aka, Kas ake(v), elwev, cite, eloay OF KAY.
subjunctive 3; optative e«¢yv; imperative és; infinitive
e(vat; participle eis.
future 7jow ; perfect efka;

MIDDLE
teat, IT hasten subjunctive twpuar, 7 tyras, ete.
optative teiunyv ; imperative teoo; infinitive feoOar; parti
ciple teyevos.
imperfect téuny, tero.
aorist eluny, eioo, etro, etc, ; subjunctive Guas
optative etury.
future joouae; perfect efuar; pluperfect etuny.
aorist passive «(Onv ; subjunctive €60; future Ojcopar.
verbals érds, éTéos.
It differs from riOnue in its perfect middle which has,
unlike reJetuar, a passive as well as a middle sense.
150. The three aorists €Oyxa, jxa, and édwxa are (with
the rare ¢¢pynxa) the only Greek aorists in -Ka.
151. dypi, [ say; dis, dyoci, papev, haré, hac.
subjunctive @w; optative day ;imperative daG/ or Pd.
infinitive ddvac; participle fas.
imperfect epyv, eyoGa, epy, ehapev, eure, EPacay.
152. Besides the regular forms the perfect active of for
has also the following—
Fowels tong by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, Unless they carry
the curcumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 167

p. 1. éorapev, we stand.
% ECTATE.
- v4

3. €CTACL. plupert éotacayp, they stood.

¢ a

Subj. éora I may stand ; ertopev, exroor; opt. eoratay;

imper. éorafi, errdtw, €orarov, eorare; inf. éordvar; part.
éotiss, €oTGou, ExTds 3 gen. EsTOTOS, E>TUaNs.
153. Similarly reOvynxa, the perfect of droOvijoxw, L die;
has the forms réOvapev, reOvurte, TeOvacr, 3 plural pluperfect
éreGvacay ; imperative réOvabi, TeOvdtw ; infinitive teOvdvas;
participle reOveds, TeOvedoa, TeOveds.
154. dédca or dédoixa (stem 62), I fear.
PERFECT PLUPERFECT
déd0LKa, dda édedolKn
d€00LKaS €dE00LKNS
déd0rKE (S60:E) édedoixer (v) (édedLeu)
(SedoiKkapev) Séd.peev €O€OL LEV
Sed0LKATE, O€OLTE COEOLTE
Sedoieace (v), dediace (v) edédicav
subjunctive dedi
imperative d€0181, Sedita, dédcTe
infinitive dedsévace (Sedocxevar)
participle deduds, dedevia, d€dL0¢
dedo0LKw@s, SEdOLKUIA, SES50LKOS
155. The following verbs are from consonant-stems
otda, IT know
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE OPTATIVE
present
sing. 1. oida €l0a) eloeinu
2. otc ba ELON ELoEins
3. ot0€ (v) E107 eloein
Powels lony by nuture, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the crrcumfles aceent
168 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE OPTATIVE

present :
d. 2. leroy ELONTOV eloEelToV
4 nA oO al

3. laoTov €LONTOV eloelTny

‘ 3¢ 3 a PO /

p. L. topev LOG [LEV ELOE LEV

al a a“

2. iote eLOnTE ELOELTE

3f IQA oO tal

3. loadoe (v) eld@at (Vv) ELOe lev

3 - POG 6 fal

past IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE

s. 1. #67 elOgvat
2. 7dncba toe
3. 70€l (V) ioTw PARTICIPLE
d. 2. #orTov tOTOV EL0M@sS, ELouta, Eldds
S a“ f

3. ROTH LoTOV VERBAL

> : f
p. 1. yopev LOTEOV
2. NOTE
9 *
loTe
”

> v
3. NOaV LOTOV
Suture
ELT OMaL
156. The forms oidaper, otdare, oidacs, for the plural of the
present are still found occasionally in some texts of Attic
writers, but ought undoubtedly to be removed. The same is
the case with the past forms given below.
They are dialectical or late.
s. 1. qéecv
2. 7detcOa, FoEvs or Hdns
7169
7 O€LTOV
by

noelTny
TOELLEV
t

7)O€LTE
7

3. HOeTay
Powels long by nature, ercept 4 and w, are marhed long, wrless they carry
the curcumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 169

157. éouxa, IT am like

INDICARIVE SUBJUNCTIVE OPTATIVE
present
s. 1. €ovxa E0iK@ EOLKOLND
2. &o.Kas regular, or regular, or
3. éorKe(v) ELEOS O, 49, etc. Eelxaws elny, ete.
d. 2. éoteatov
3. €olKaTov infinrtive participle
p. 1. Gouypev ELKEVQL ELKWS, ELKULA, ELKOS
2. éoixate
3. elEace(v)
past
> f/f > 7 t
EWKN, EWKNS, CLC.
There is also a 3 sing. 7«eu(v)
Suture
elEw, regular
The forms coixapev for eovypev and éoixaci(v) for eifaci(v)
as well as é€ovxévas and éovxds, for eixévar and eixds, are
probably un-attic.

Fowels long by nature, except xyand w, are marhed long, unless they carry
the curcumflec accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

CHAPTER
IRREGULAR
IN ALPHABETICAT,

ACTIVE MEANING

verb MEANING imperfect Future worst perfect

dow sing FOov dio omar joa
praise qv ou aivésw HWweod Avera
“

avolyvape open | dv éwryov avol&w avéwea dvéwya

&arropae touch awréuny | &Wouar qWwapnv FTUpLaL

arre kindle HIT OV aww qwa
apTrata selze Hpma Cov LPT ATOLL | hpraca. Hptraka
€ *

apy opat begin mpxdumy |dpEouae — |npEduny —|Fipryprat

dpxo rule, start! Hpxov d pew Apea Hpxa
avtave make to |»vfEavor avinow nucnoa nuénka
giow
adixvod- come agixvovuny |adlEoua. | adixdunv | adtypar
pect
“Batya £0 -¢Batvoy “Bhcomat reBny} -BéBnka
Barro throw é€Baddov Bare éBadov PEBXnka
BAg«rre hurt éBrarrov |BAdww éPrhava béBrapa

look EBrerov | BréWoua. | €Breba me

‘ Indicative €@yv, subjunctive B&, optative Balny, imperative BHOc (in

compounds -6%), infinitive Bfvac, participle Bas.
Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 171

XVI
VERBS
ORDER

MIDDLE MEANING PASSIVE MEANING

SU eR ee
Suture aorist perfect future | aorist perfect
doOncomat ho Ony FO Uae
awvedroouae gveOny ypc

aKkouvg Ojco- | nKkoue ony HKOUT LAL

[Lele
aeapTnen- neapT ndny AMApTyk.cu
gTomar
dvahwéjco- avnrAwony Cui Nae
[cee
avorxOnao- avegy On
fae

APOnoopa APSay FMLpecee

aptracéijco- npTdc ny UpTac pat
[ae

&pEouar HpxOnv iprywau

AvENTOMAL nucouny UE pau
oendny

-Babjcomar -€Badny -BéBauat

Barodpa éBarduny |BEBAnuat BAnOno oat EBANEnv BEBAnuac
sik BraYomar EBr\aPOny PéEBNaLLaL
BrAaBHoo- éBraBrp
La

Vowels lony by nature, eacept 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the crreumfiex accent
172 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

| ACTIVE MEANING

verb meaning | mperfect | future aorist perfect

yopLotpar |nubo evyanoupny | yapoduar | eynuduny | yeydunuas
VAG laugh evyehwy yerao ope eyédaca, Ss
ynpadokw |grow old | éyipackor |ynpacowar | &ynpara -
ylyvopar |become | éyyvouny |yerjoouar |eyevouny | yeyévnpat
yéyova
yiyvooke |vet to) éylyrwokor| yrwoomat |eyrwr} EvyYWKA
know
Sakyo bite édaKvov dnEouar EdaKkov er
Selxvip, | show édelkvup delEw édevEa déderya,

Séx ope receive | édexydunv | défouar édeEduny | dédeyuau

Séw * bind édouv énow édnoa dédexa
$éw lack édeov denow edénoa dedénka
SisdoKw | teach édldackov | dddéu édldata dedldayxa.

Sivapat jamable |eduvauny | duvjoopar | eduvypOny | deddvnuae

éyelpw arouse Fpyetpov eyepa Hyetpa a

éBéro 4 wish #O€Xov ébehjnow | 7OéAnoa | 4Oédnka

e€Bl{w accustom | el@.cov FaetO) elOioa elOixa
éLatva rive #Nauv oY EX@ praca é\pAaka
éXKo draw el\Kov EXEw et\xuca etAKUKa
érlorapar |know qmiordpuny |ériorioo- | ymrierHOnv |
[oc
ETrOp.cLt follow elrouny EWouat éotrouny ® ;
épyafopar |work cipyafouny | éepydcouat | elpyacduny |elpyacua

etpioke | find nipicxoy | evphow nipov nionka

eX @ have elyov éw, oxjow| ~rxov © éoxnKa

éd permit jelwy édow lara, elaka

tevyvupe | yoke egevryvuy | CevEa éfevea

Sonar am glad | nddunv noajncopa |hoOny

ee aan
1 Indicative @yywy, subjunctive yr@, yrws, etc., optative -yvolny, im-
perative yv@é., infinitive yyavar, participle yvods.
2 See §110.
3 Strong perfect éyp7ryopa im a neuter sense am awake.
*+ In iambic poetry loses 1ts initial epsilon becoming 6édw, Oedjow,
but even in poetry always #edov, HOEAnca, AOEAHKA.
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the cercumplen accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 173

MIDDL% MEANING PASSIVE MEANING |

Suture aorist perfect Suture aorist | perfect

do bnv
eyed
aes |

yruobnco |éyracbny |éyvwopat

[octe
ves on dnxXOjooua) €dny Any dédnyuar
delEouat edegapny |Séderyuar |derxOjoo- |edelyOyy | €deryuan
Moe

ONT OAL €dnodunv | 6édeuar dePjooma | €6ébqy Bedeuat

éryepotuar |aypouny | eyiryepwau |eyepOjoo- |tyépOnv | eytpyepuan

[cle

i : ; ‘ ae elOro mae
ase 36 Fhabrjaomat |AAGOny EXnAGLLAL
: ; me elAKUG
aL

épyacbijco-| elpydcOnv | elpyacuat

° In compounds éordunv, and even in simple veibs the subjunctive is

oTrapat, optative oroiuny, ete.
§ Indicative érxov, subjunctive cx, ox7s, etc., optative cxolny (in com-
pounds oxo), imperative cxés, mfinitive cyeiv, participle cxdr.

Vowels long by nature, except » and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the crrcumflex accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

ACTIVE MEANING &

verb meaniny amperfect Suture aortst perfect

barre buy edawrov Gaww €bava

Kabalpw | purify €h AOatpov Kabapw ExaOnpa

KaGéfopat sit down exabefouny Kabedovmat Exabdecouny
Kadypau sit Kaen env
Exadnuny
KaA@ eall ExaNouv KaAN® Exddeoa KEKANKG

KaLLVO labour exa vor KaLoU Lae EKALOV KEKLLNKA

KL@ or burn exo Kavew Exavea KEKQUKG,
Kata KAUT OMG
KEepavydpLe mix EKEPAVYUL KEep@ éxépaca
Kepdalve ealn EKE POGLVOY Kepdava éxépdava
KAGe
?
or weep éx\aov KAavo oat éxhavoa
KAalw KAaHTw
KACTrTW steal éxX\errov Krewe or éxrewa nekNopa
kréWouae
KpeLavyope hang EKPEMAVYUY K peu Expé nace,
Kpty@ part, &xpivov Kpwa@ Expiva KEKPLKG
judge
{

KT OU acquire EKTWULNY KT HO OMAL éaTnoduny | KékTnuac?

AayX ave obtain by €EA\AYXavov AnEomac Ehaxov etinxa
lot
AapBave recelye éXGuBavov AHWomat Ea Bor einga
Aavedva he hid édAavGavov AHow é\ador A€Anba
AKavOdvo- forget EAdyGavo- ANT Oat ENadduny |AEANTAL
pa ? pny |
pavOava learn €uaybavor pabhoouas euadoy ) meudOnra
WX OPAL fight ELAXOUYY LAH OU LAL EUAKETH- | MEUaXn UAL
pny
pcyvope mix éplyvuy plew Eucca

-plvycKe |remind -éuluvnoKor| -uyjocw ~ELY NTH

1 kékAynuwar 1s used as a present, J am called and forms its optative

exceptionally kexAynuny, KexAjo, KeKARTO, KexNpueda, KexNToOe, KeKATVTO.
* xéxrnuat has the present force of J possess, and forms its subjunctive
exceptionally rexT@uat, xexrn, xexTynras, ete, its optative Kexrnuny, KexTNo,
KEKTHTO, KEKTHUEOG, KEKTHCOE, KEKTTVTO.
Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marked iong, unless they curry
the circumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 175
a a de Ae
MIDDLY MEANING | PASSIVE MEANING

, _ !
future aorist perfect Suture 01 ist per fect
TaAPycoua. |eradyy TEDG LAL
TEP awopat
Kadapobuas |é€xabapayy |xexadOapuar

Kahoduar | éxarecdauny| KexAynua | KANOjoomar) ExANOnY KénAnuas}

KEKA1TO-
[Laut

KavOyncomar! Exavny KEKQULGL

KEP@Uat exepacduny| Kexpaua. | Kpabjcomar'éxpabny | Kéxpayae

KNavoouar |exNavoduny, KexAaumar |KexAXavoo- | éxAadOnv | rxéxAaupar

[Lele
KNepOjoo- |EKAEDPOnY | KexAEMpa
Mae exaarny
expeucaoOny
Kpivodua. | explOny KEK PEULaLe
Kp.Onao-
fiver
EKTHO NY KEKTN LL
EAnxOnv —| etanrypa

An Woe édaBouny | eiAnupae | AndOAcopar EAnPOnvy Elna

Mex Ojoomar! €uiy ny [LEMLV [LLL

éulynv
euvhcouar| éuvncOny | uéuynuwae*
pn by-
COMAL

3 In the sense of forget we find mm prose always the compound form

emt\avOdvouat, etc.
4 The perfect passive wéuvnuwar is used as a present with the sense /
remember, and it forms its subjunctive exceptionally weuvGua, wenry,
ueuvyral, ete, its optative pweurjunv, weurtjo, peuv7To, Meuy peda, wep
ynobe, meuy7yvro. The umperative wéurnoo = remember thou.
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent, _
176 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

: ACTIVE MEANING

verb meaning | rmperfect | future aor ist perfect

|VELL distribute) évewor VED EvelUa VEVELLNKG
vite! wash (the | -évcgov -viw vipa
| hands)
voul{e think évdmrCov VYOMLLG) EVOMLT EA vevOULKa

olopar ? think ouny oijcona. | nOny

oly opat am gone | Qyouny oix}oopat ak a
-OhATpL =| destroy | -@Aduy -6A® -ddeoa -d\wEKa,
OLVU ELL swear Quvuv ouodmat @LOod GMO LOKa
écdpatvo- |smell aoppawd- |dcopphcoumat! drppduny
OLE pony
odelho owe wperhov dpehjow | wpeidnoa | wdhelknKa

ddrd.ckdve' incur (dis-) apNoKxavor| épdjow @pNov OprAnka

grace,
etc.)
mra({w play erat gov maicouar | €raca WETALKO,

TATK suffer tragxov | melcouat | éraboy mérov0a

mevavvope jexpand | eweravyyy | wero ETETATE

arnyvope. | fasten émiyyyuv THEW érnta z.

-wiparAnpet fill -emlumdyy | -wAnow -erhnoa -TETANKA

arlprrpye?| burn -éeriumpyny | -mpiow -Erpnoa

arty drink Errivov alomas émrioy TETWKA

wirro fall earurroy wecovumat | érecov WETTUKA
awhéw sail &mrdeov Trevoouat |érdevca TETNEVKA
TPaTTA transact, 'émparroy | apdtw émpaca TET PAX a
fare TET parya 6

1 The verb vigew is in prose used only in compounds.

* In prose the present ofowa 1s like the imperfect gounv, generally
contracted (oluaz).
3 dAduut is in prose always compounded with dé, viz., dardAXupe,

Vowels long by nature, except x and w, are marked long, unless they carry
the evreumfler accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

MIDDLE MEANING
a Of PASSIVE MEANING
a
Suture aorist perfect Suture aorist perfect
venoduat EVELLG Ln VEVELLN LAL vEeLovuat
-viwouar evennOny | vevéunuat
-eniwapny “VEVILMLAL

vouovuat évouloOny VEVOLUGT UCL

VouigOn-
gopar
eae

ait ve -dAoDLaL aXbuny -d\wrAa

dnobjooua wuddny OAWLOMAL

dperjoo- operynv
[eae
dogethn67-
TOLat
Gpanuat

on dif TacOnoo- :
emalcOnv
,
TET
ALG [Let
izen

TweTacOnco- ever
ac Ony WET TAMLAL
peau
Tayo OMe éra-ynyv Térnya
“Thoma |-erdnoduny| -rérdyno
ua -tTANTOACTO- érhycOny TwéTANS [Lat
[ete er hnunv
-™pnobnao- -empnoOnp TET
pHLAL
[eat
ToOncouat érdOny WET OMLAL

mpdzoua TET NEVE {LOL

| érpatduny TET paryLce wpacouat em pay Anu TEN pay Ace
wpaxdn-
TOMeL
wer paéo-
[cl

* alurdyue 18 mM prose always compounded with

év, in which case the
second mu 1s omitted éumimhnw.
> alumrpnue is in prose always compounded with
év, in which case the
second mu 1s omitted éumlrpnue
5 wémrpaya is always mtransitive I have Jared.
Vowels long by nature, except 4 and w are masked
long, uniess they carry
the curcumylex accent.

N
178 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

| ACTIVE MEANING

| werd meantng | tuperfeet future aorest perfect

|mvuvOdvo- | licar, in-|éruv@ave- |revoowar | émvbduny | wémruopar
PLO (quire kenny
pew ilow Eppeor pungomar | eppunv eppinka
PTYYVUELL break eppiyyvuy —|png Eppynta its
plate throw Eopimroy =} pla Eppiva Eppipa
oBévvip, j quench | éoPévvur oBéow égBeoa 2
okKaTT® |jeer trxwrrov |oKkwyoua | éoxwpa on

oré\kow! | despatch |éoredXov | oTehw éoreina EoTahka

TTPEDY tun éotpepoy | orpéeyw EgTpewa

relvo stretch | érewwov Teva Erewa, TETAKA

TéLVO cut ETE LLYOV TEULO érejoy TET ULNKG

TikTw bring ETLKTOV TéEoMae Erekov TETOKA

forth
TiTpackw |wound éritpwokor |TPwow eTpwoa aes

Tere turn érpemov Tpewe Erpewa? |rérpopa

Tvyxave [hit, hap-| érvyxavoy |revfouae | Eruxov TETUN IKE

bbelpw destroy | épdecpor dbEpd EpOerpa EpGapka,

E~Popa

bbw 3 produce | épuov duce Epuca

1 The verb oréAAw 18 ordinarily compounded in prose writers,
5
There is also found m poetry a strong aorist érpatrov.
eo
The strong aorist épuy has the two senses of I giew and I am by
nature. tis declmed é@gur, pus, Edu, Epusev, pure, Epucav. The sub-
Vowels long by nature, except x and a, are marked long, unless they carry
the circumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

MIDDLE MEANING PASSIVE eee

MEANING
|
Suture aorist perfect future worst perfect

Payycouar Eppayny Eopearya

pipOjoopar eppipOny Epptp pat
oPycoude eo Buy eo Bnka
TKWPOHTO- éoKxmpény
pa
oTENOU LAL éorerAduny |Eoraduar oTAhHTOMaL eordAny ECTAAMAL
oT peWome EoTPEWauny| Eorpapyprae orpéwopat éeaTpagyy ECT PAM ULal
oTpapyoo- éoTpeg-
peat
TEVOULAL ETELVA NY TETALLAL TEVOULLAL TETA LAL
Tabio-
[Aa
TELOUILAL ETaMouny TET
UN ULAL TELOU LCL TETUNIAL
TUNnO}TO-
fixen
TETULNCO-
par
TéEOMAL éreKdunv eae

TPWTOMAL érpwodny TET PWILAL

TpPwbHnco-
[cle
TpeWouat érpeWduny TpéWomat érpatéuny TET PApLLLCLL
eT aTNY
er pépé ny

pavovpnar env duny dav oduar TEDACT LOL

pavico- wepnva
poche
Pbepodpat Epbappar
pbapyco-
eas
picoua gee |

Cee
ean

junctive 1s pUw, mys, vy, etc. The infinitive Pivac, and ti.2 participle
pus. Neither optative nor imperative is found m Attic, The perfect
mépuxa has a present sense, £ um by nuture.

Vowels long by nature, except n and w, are marked long, wnless they carry
the curcumfpler accent,
180 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

ACTIVE MEANING a

neaneng | imperfect future aorist perfect

rejoice éxalpov Yaipnow eyapny Kexapnka
yawn EXATKOY yavotuat evavoy Kexyva, 1
pour Eyeov XEW éxea * KéxuKa
there is] éxpjv XpHoTaL
need or yphy
use EX pwn XPHcowar expngdpny |Kexpnuan,
push éPouv (30 éwoa

' The perfect céyynva has a present sense. Owing to this 1t has some
imperative forms, as aex7jvare yape in Aristophanes
“ The third person singular of éyea 1s not contracted but remains
éxee(v), thus being easily distinguished from the same person of the imper-
fect, éxe he used to pour.

Vowels long by nature, excent » and », are marked long, unless they carry
the crrcwmylex accent,
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 1&1

MIDDL® MEANING PASSIVE MEANING

Suture aortst perfect Suture aorist perfect

VEoMaL EXER LYY KEXULAL xuenoomar |exvOny KEXULLOL

xpnodjnao- |éxphoOnv | kéxpnua

jae
Orouat éwo dun Ewo mat acbhjcopa. |éwoOny Ewouat
saa a gt asltee ae De
* The subjunctive yp7 is yp? (ue xph #), the optative ypely (ie. xp}
ely), the infinitive xphvat (1.e xpy efvat), and the participle ypedy (1.€,
xen or).

Vowels tong by nature, ercert y and w cre marked long, unless they carry
the curcwumflec accent.
18 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

CHAPTER AVIL

VERBS WHICH FORM THEIR TENSES FROM DIFFERENT

ROOTS

(1) Speak, say

ayopedw, I say, and its compounds have future épo; aorist
etrov; perfect eipynxa;perfect passive elpyyar; aorist éppiOnv;
futures py Oycopas and eipycopac.
The aorist e¢rov is particularly irregular, the second person
in both singular and plural being formed as if from eéra.
Thus—
cimov, elmas, etre(v), elratov, <imdryv, elropev, irate,
civov. So in the imperative we have eiwé and eirdyvrwy, but
ciate, eivdtw, and etrarov. The alpha does not appear in
the optative, infinitive, or participle.
Aéyw is more frequent than ayopedw when the simple verb
is requred, ayopevw taking its place in compounds; eyo,
AgEw, eAcka, eAeyOny, Never gods NeeFopun,

(2) Take, choose

aipo, L take; imperfect ipovv; future aipyow; perfect
ypyka; aorist efAov. Most of the passive forms come from a
third root :—
arioxopat, LT am taken, imperfect nAwKkdopnyv; future
iAdropnar; aorist éiAwv, or WpéOnv; perfect édAwKo. or
HON phat.
°
The middle of aipd has the meaning I choose.
atponpar, L choose ; imperfect ypovpyy ; future afpjoopars
perfect nonua I hae chosen, and I have been chosen ; aorist
mpeOnys I was chosen; future aipeOicopat, I shall be Gissen
npjoopat, I shull ee been chosen ; aorist etAdpunv, I chose.
Vowels long by nature, eocept y and w, are marked long, unless
they curry
the curcumflex accent.
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 183

Verbals atperds, that may be taken, ov thet may be chosen,

atpeTeos, to be tuken, or to be chosen,
€ - by

(3) Go, come

epyopat, I go, subjunctive iw; optative fouw; impera
tive (01; infinitive evar; participle iav.
imperfect ja, see p. 98.
future efur, see p. 98.
aorist 7A@ov. €AGw, eAGoipt, eAGe, eX Oetv, EXOav
perfect «AjAvda, or t}ko, I aim come.
pluperfect esAnAdOn, or FKov, L was come,
The future é€Aeioouva: is not Attic, but occurs in other
chalects and in tragedy.
(4) Hat
érbiw, IT eat: imperfect 7o6.ov.
future gdopat; aorist epayov.
perfect éd7dorxu; participle edndoxds or BeBpaxds.
perfect passive éd/derpat, or Kata PEeSpopar.
aorist karederOny,
(5) Love
(6, [ live; see p. 152, § 110 (1).
subjunctive (6; optative (ony; imperative (7; infinitive
Gv 3 participle (av.
imperfect wv; future Pudcopa, rarely (yom; aorist
ePiwv.
perfect SeBinxa; perfect passive impersonal BeSiwrat

(6) Kill
Kreivo, aroxteiva, L kill.
fA e

future KTEvV@, GTOKTEVO.

Vowels long by nuture, evrept » and w, are marhed long, wnless they carry
the crrcumfles accent
184 FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

aorist exTeuia, ATEKTELVG.

perfect dexrova.
pluperfect awexrovy.
3 f

The uncompounded forms are the rarer, and are quite

un-Attic in the perfect and pluperfect. Xenophon uses
KaTakaivw, KaTréxavov and xatoxexova, but he is not to be
/ 7 7 .

imitated. For the passive Attic writers used the forms of

dmoObvickw, I die, imperfect areOvycKxov; future arobar-
ovpat; aorist améBavov ; perfect reOvnka, never compounded ;
pluperfect éreOvijxn never compounded

(7) See
6p@ (aw) L see, imperfect édpwv; future cWouar; aorist
etov, tw, iSotus, tO€ or ide, idetv, iddbv; perfect édpaxa or
omwra; perfect passive edpapar or Gupar; aorist dd@nv,
future ofpPijoopac,

(8) Sell
wor (éw), L sell; more rarely drodiSouar; imperfect
erwhovv, amedidounyv; future twAyjow or more frequently
] / > ‘4 ,

droéwcouat; aorist aredduny; perfect téxpaxa,

passive wwAotpac
future twArjcouar; aorist érpadnv.
perfect werpayas; pluperfect érempapynv
future exact rempacopar,

(9) Consider
TKOTO, ETKOTOUY, OY TKoTotpat; future cKéLopuar; aorist
éoxeddunyv ; perfect eoxeupar.

Vowels long by nature, except y and w, are marked long, wnless they carry
the Gircuniiex accent
FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR 185

(10) Strike
rimrto, I strike, I wound.
future matdgw ; aorist erdraga.,
perfect wer Anya.
passive TUmTopar, aorist érAnyyy (in compounds érAdyyv),
perfect wérAnypar; future wAqyjcona.; future exact
TweT AREAL
But when timrw means J strike with the hand or cane,
different forms are used. Thus: future rurtjocw; perfect
wréerAnya; future passive turticouar, The other tenses are
generally supplied by a periphrasis, e.g., aorist active tAyyas
eveburov; passive mAnydas éhaGov; perfect passive wAnyds
etAnga.

(11) Run
TpEXwW, ETpexov, Hew, eOeov; future PpéEouar, Hetoopar,
Spaprovpoae; aorist edpamorv; perfect dedpdynuac.

(12) Bear, carry

péepw, epepov, future olow; aorist WveyKov, veyK-as,
f » » . yy yy

-€, -ATOV, -dTHV, -apev, -aTe, aveyKov; perfect éenjvoya,

4 . 9 7 : Z »” 3 r
éviveypat; aorist yvexOnv; middle Pépopas, oivomat, veyKa-
ENV, EVIVEY Ua,
(13) Buy
avovuat, L buy » imperfect ewvotuny; future avacoua ; aorist
érpidpnv ; subjunctive rpiwuar; optative mpiaiuny ; impera-
tive mplw,. tpiacOw, &e.; infinitive mplarGac; participle
mpoidpevos ; perfect edvnuas; passive aorist éwv7Oynv, perfect
éwvnuat; verbals avyres, avnreos,
The present passive would be supplied by a periphrasis
such as mpacw etpiore,
Vowels long by nature, ercept y and », are marhed long, unless they carry
the vurcumfles aecent
APPENDIX
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apacniullan’s Oreek Course
a ec EE POEL Yn

FIRST GREEK GRAMMAR

SYNTAX

W. GUNION RUTHERFORD, M.A,, LL.D

FORMERLY HEADMASTER OF WESTMINSTER

Honda n
MACMILLAN AND CO., LititTep
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1903

All rights reserud

first Edition 1890. Retrinted 1894, 1898
1GO0, 1903
PREFACE

I po not know how far others wil think that this

book realizes the purpose with which 1t was written,
that of driving great maim lines through Greek Syntax,
but I have certaiuly tried to keep that object steadily
in view I have stuck to <Attic, and even in Attic
have passed over all that is rare and exceptional.
Now and again when poetical usage diveiges more
than ordinary from prose usage I have stated the
divergence, but never at any length, my wish being
rather to hint at the kind of difference than to describe
it in detatl.
Of course I have used freely all sorts of grammars
from the excellent books of Kruger, Rost, and Goodwin
to the dull and iN-ordered compilations of Kiihner,
but the Syntax from which I have got most lints as
to general plan and manner of arrangement is Riemann
and Cucuel’s Ltégles Fondumentales de la Syntaxe
Grecque which is itself based upon Lambere’s Haupt-
regeln der Griechischen Syntaz. My obligations to this
book it would be difficult to overrate.
V1 PREFACE

My pupil Ma. J. 8. Philimore has helped me with

the Index.
It was Dr. Johnson, I think, who ‘said ‘Greek is
like lace; a man gets as much of it as he can, and
certainly in this respect things have not changed
since Dr. Johnson’s time. I only hope that this
little book may make it easier for those who come
across it to see all the beauty and delicacy of the
speech which the world acknowledges to be the
createst masterpiece of its kind.

W. GUNION RUTHERFOND,

January 1890,
CONTENTS

CHAPTER [.—THE ARTICLE

PAGYy

The article as a demonstrative . . i}

The article with substantives ; : 9

The article defining substantives that are themselves

further defined in one way or another . : 5
Absence of the article before a complement of the predicate 8
The article with pronouns and pronominal adjectives . 10

CHAPTER IL—THE PRONOUNS

Possessive pronouns . ; ; 13
Reflexive pronouns. ; ; : ; 14
Relative pronouns. ; : : 15

CHAPTER III

ConcorD OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE : : : 19

Vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV -—THE CASES

The nommative and vocative cases : ,

The accusative care
The true geuitive case
The genitive mm senses and constructions that properly
belong to the lost ablative which it has replaced
The true dative case
The dutrve us defining verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
Dative of interest
The dative in senses and constructions that properly
belong to the lost instrumental case which it has
replaced
The dative of the rustrument or agency .
The dative of accompaniment
The datee of manner '
The dative of ineasure
The dative in senses and constructions that properly
belong to the lost locative case which it has replaced 68

CHAPTER V—THE VOICES OF THE VERB

The active voice ; ?

The middle voice

The passive voice ; : P F : .

CONTENTS 1X

CHAPTER VL—THE TENSES OF IHE VERB

PAGE

Meaning of the tenses of the indicative mood 2. “Bh

The future and the aortst , ; 83
Tenses formed from the present stem —. a 8d
Tenses formed fiom the perfect stem —. , g. “OU
Meaning of the tenses of the subjunctive, the optative,
the imperative, and the infinitive moods 2. . 287
Meaning of the tenses of the participle . » og

CHAPTER VII--THE MOODS OF THE VERB IN

INDEPENDENT PROPOSITIONS

Affirmative propositions —. é ; : ; 92
Expressions of a wish. : ; . 98

CHAPTER VIII—THE MOODS OF THE VERB IN

DEPENDENT PROPOSITIONS

A. Propositions introduced by ore coinpleting the sense of

verbs of saying, learning, knowing, thinking . oF
B. Dependent interrogative propositions ; . 102
C, Causal propositions ; . 104
D Consecutive propositions ; 105
i. Final propositions . : ; . 107
F. Propositions mtroduced by é7ws completing the sense
of verbs of striving and the like ~ 209
“4 CONTENTS
€

PAGE

cs t Propositions introduced by pz) completing the sense of

verbs denoting fear, caution, or danger . 110
H. Conditional propositions . 112

Present and past conditicns—

1. Concerned with purticulur suppositrons 113
2. Concerned with generul suppositions 114
Future conditions 114
I Relative and temporal propositions . 117
Present and past relative conditions—
1. Concerned with particular supposrtrons 118
2. Concerned with general supposrteons 119
Future relative conditions 119
Ix. Temporal propositions 120

CHAPTER IX —THE NOMINAL FORMS OF THE VERB

The infinitive 124

Infinatove with the artacle . 126
The mfinitive without the article as genitive after sub-
stantoves .
The wfinitive without the urtiele as the subject of other
veibs
The wnjfinrtue used as object to complete the sense of a verb
The infinitive expressing pwr pose
The anfiniteve definung the meaning of udjectaves
The infinitive absolute
The participle
CONTENTS XI
PAGE
The participle urth the arteele x. £39
The paenle without the artole . Idi
The participle limiting the meaning of certacn verbs erpressing very
generul notions . ‘ : . 150
The pai ticrple completing the meaning of certain verds me. (be

The verhal adjectives . 153

CHAPTER X—-PARTICLES

The negative particles 155

Interrogative adverbs . 157
Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions 159
Adversative conjunctions. 163
The causal conjunction yép. : ; 167
Ilative conjunctions or such as introduce an inference or
a conclusion . 168

ENGLISH INDEX : | y. Da
GREEK INDEX ; : : > be
CHAPTER I—THE ARTICLE

THE ARTICLE AS A DEMONSTRATIVE

1 At first 6, 4, To was a demonstrative pronoun, used

either with a following substantive: that man, that
woman, that thing; or standing alone, in the sense:
he, she, it. The second of these two uses has survived
almost unaltered in the higher kinds of poetry, and to
some extent even in Attic prose and comedy. °
2 In prose and comedy we find the nominative
singular aud plural so employed at the beginning of
a sentence and followed by dé: 6 oé but he, 7 de but
she, ro 6é but this, of 8é, af dé but they, ra dé but
these things: of & ody BosvTwy well, let them shout;
TO 8, Oipat, ovY OUTaS eyes but this, I imagine, is
not so.
3 In all cases and genders singular and plural
o mwéyv contrasted with o dé is used in prose and comedy
in the sense of: this... that, the one... the
other, some... others. So TO pév or Ta péy
followed by 7d 8é or ra d€ means ‘on the one side
on the other side, or ‘partly . .. partly,” and 77 wév
followed by 77 6é means ‘here ... there’: tous peév
évdov nipov; tovs 6 ov some I found in, others not;
& B
2 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

éumrepos etps THs Alonidos Ta mev Ova TO eKetOev Eivas,

Ta be dia TO éotpatetcbas év av7m7 I know Aeoha
well, partly because I am from there, partly because
I lave served-as-a-soldier in it; dpos TH pév padiov
avaBaivev, TH b€ yaderv@tatoy a lill at one point
easy to climb, at another very difficult.

THE ARTICLE WITH SUBSTANTIVES

4 The main uses agree in Greek and in English,

though in many cases there is some difference of
idiom which can only be learned by reading a great
deal of Greek.
Placed before common nouns the article either
narrows (individualizes) or widens (generalizes) their
meaning.
5 In its narrowing sense it designates a person
or thing already known or assumed as known: To
caviapo docw mei I will give a drink to the beetle
(already spoken of); aiperas ets tov aépa lie is lifted
to the heavens; so 6 otpavés, 7) yf, 6 HrLos, and the
like, all of them things assumed as known by every-
body.
6 From this use arises an idiom unknown in
English but very common in Greek. It is found five
times over In the sentence: Ktpos xatamrnéncas aro
Tov appatos tov Owpaxa évédv kal avaBas ért Tov
iNTOV Ta TANTG eis TAS Yelpas éXaBe Cyrus jumping
from his car put on das breastplate and mounting his
horse took his javelins in fis hands. The article so
narrows down the application or reference of each
noun in this sentence to Cyrus, the person spoken of,
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 3

that in each case the object designated becomes for

the time in effect the property of Cyrus, and in trans-
lating into English we must employ a possessive
pronoun to render the force of the Greck article:
ovde Kodhacat e&eort pou Tous oixéras I may not even
chastise my servants; tHy yetpa des give me your
hand.
7 In its widening or generalizing sense the article
designates a whole class of persons or things: 6 «dp-
Bapos Edov éori the beetle (the whole class of beetles)
is a living thing; 0 avO@pmmos Oynros éotw man is
mortal; of yovjs parents (as a class). The article
gives the substantive the character of an abstract
conception. Accordingly it is also naturally used
with abstract nouns like dper7, copia, cwhpocvvy.
In this use Greek and English do not run side by
side. Though we speak of ‘the horse, ‘the cow,’ or
‘the beetle’ when we wish to express the whole class
of horses, cows, or beetles, yet we cannot say ‘the
man’ for men as a class, nor do we use the article
with plurals or with abstract nouns.
8 Not even in Greek is the usage constant, <A
more general sense is actually sometimes obtained by
employing nouns without the article: sryetoAar Peovs
to believe in a heaven as distenct from jyeicOas Tous
Qeotvs to believe in the gods (commonly worshipped) ;
yovéwy amerety (for any one) to neglect father and
mother; ovdéror’ dpa AvolTEedoTEpoy aodiKla dLtKato-
cuvys after all, injustice (of any sort) 1s never more
profitable than justice.
9 Proper names may have no article just as in
English: Swxparns Socrates; Aiyumrros Egypt; “Adws
4 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

mount Athos. Dut they also may have the article, as

far as we can see with very little difference of mean-
ing, except that the general tendency is to attach the
article as often as a proper name is repeated after
previous mention or when the name is that of a well-
known person. How this varlety may have arisen
with names of countries we can still see in the prefer-
ence for the article in cases hke 7 “EAXds, 4 ’Acia, 4
"Arrixyn in which the name may well have been still
felt to be an adjective.
10 According as a common noun approaches by
frequent use to a proper noun, it tends to drop its
article: éruryyavov eis dotu aviwy Padnpober I was just
on my way up to town from Phalerum; ros édvero
the sun was setting. In this way is to be explained
Bactrevs for the King of Persia, a person at one time
constantly in the thoughts and mouths of the Greeks.
11 This tendency is most marked in prepositional
phrases—so much so that in a well-defined class of
these, the article is not found at all, namely in certain
expressions determining time and place: aw suépa
at daybreak , Gu’ é at dawn; Gu Alo avicyovts at
sunrise; ag éomépas since evening; xaTa& yhv kal
kata Oararrav by land and by sea; év de&a on the
right, év apsorepd on the left. So in the military
phrases évi dopv towards the right, ér demida
towards the left (the spear being in the right hand,
the shield on the left arm); él xéows in column
(ldtercily in the direction of the wing).
12 On the whole, the English usage coincides in
these cases with the Greek just as in many words
denoting time, even when used without prepositions:
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 5

vuk& ereyéveto TH éprym night fell on the scene; #uépa

imédhawe day was breaking.
13 The defining or limiting accusatives péyeGos,
mTAHGos, Urros, EvpOS, yévos, dvOLa, Tpopacwy, and the
like resemble the corresponding words in English in
having no article: péyefos wept mevtexaicexa cTadious
padicra in size about fifteen furlongs altogether; o:
Mavrivis mpodacw ért rAayaviopov é&eXOdvtes the
Mantineans going out on pretence of getting vegetables.
14 In the higher poetry the article
is often omitted in cases where
it would be essential in prose
and comedy, as, for example,
in the idiom, described in 6:
KelTas Koves ouvpovca dvorn-
vov kapa she lieth defiling
with dust fer unhappy head.
Indeed much depends upon
the exigencies of metre; and
in every idiom the usage is
more or less fluctuating.

THE ARTICLE DEFINING SUBSTANTIVES THAT ARE THEM-

SELVES FURTHER DEFINED IN ONE WAY OR ANOTHER

15 A substantive already defined by the article

may have a further specification added by means of
an adjective, participle, adverb, genitive, or preposition
with its case: 6 mpecButepos adehgpos the elder
brother; 7 mpoxeuévn uépa the appomted day; of
mara. Awpefs the Dorians of old; 7 éuavrod Kapdia
my own heart; 4 trav Hepcayv apyn the empire of
6 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

the Persians; 4 él 76 wotaye modus the town on

the river. Except in the order of the words and in
the extension of the idiom after the type of mddav
Awpifs, the English use corresponds pretty closely to
the Greek.
16 All such further definitions of the substantive
are normally placed, as above, between the article and
the substantive. Other arrangements are, however,
permissible, but vary with the form which the specifi-
cation takes, Thus, if the specification is expressed by
a genitive, the order next in frequency to the normal
order () trav Ilepcadv apy) is of the type 4 apy7)
rav Ilepoayv. But in all the other cases, the next
best order is to repeat the article and put the speci-
fication after it: 6 ddedghos 6 mperBuvTepos; 4 Hyépa
H wpoKkesevn; of Awpins of Tadar; % TOdLS H eri
TO TOTAL®.
17 When the defining genitive is a personal
pronoun, the order follows the types #uav 1) modes or
9 works quov. When it is a reflexive or demon-
strative pronoun, the best type is 0 éuavtod dderdos,
06 TovTov adeA@ds. Possessive pronouns rank with
adjectives: 0 GOs Tat1p OY 0 TaTHp oO ads.
18 When the specification takes the form of a
substantive in the genitive case, that substantive must
also have the article. The necessity of this is con-
cealed in the English idiom ‘the farmer’s horse, but
readily seen if we turn it into the wnidiomatic
equivalent ‘the horse of the farmer” Exceptions to
this rule fall under two heads~—(1) the genitive may
be without the article if it is a proper name: #
Diroxpatovs otxkia the house of Philocrates; or (2)
FIRST GREEK SYNTAN 7

the governing substantive may have no article if it

depends upsn a preposition: éy dpyy rod Adyou at
the beginning of my speech, érl BrAaBF rs woNEwS
to the hurt of the country.
19 When more specifications than one are appended
to one substantive, they are normally comprehended
under one article: o ’AXKiBiddou tovTov vedTepos
adergos the younger brother of this Alcibiades; ai
amo ths Sexerlas Tlerorrovynotay éxxaidexa vines the
sixteen ships from Sicily belonging to the Pelopon-
nesians.
20 A good many of this group of expressions
admit of an idiomatic abbreviation by which the sub-
stantive that is the true nucleus of the phrase dis-
appears, and the article and appended specification are
left to convey the full meaning: ’AXé£avdpos 0 tod
@irtraov Philip’s son, Alexander; 77 vorepaia ovx
éhbavncav és ot woréusoe the next day the enemy
were no longer visible; 7 povetxy the art of music.
It is bad Greek to write in full “AXéfavdpos o Tod
Dirimwou bos, tH torepaia Hyépa, OY povaorey
/
TEX.
21 On the other hand we must not conceive of a
lost substantive in such expressions as of éml Tov Tpay-
uarev the men in charge of affairs; t& THs moAews
the interests of the town. In these cases the gender
of the article, whether masculine, feminine, or neuter,
furnishes of itself the required notion of men, Women,
or things.
22 Here also poetical idiom is
very fluctuating, the article
being omitted or expressed
8 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

almost at will But, on the

whole, poetry inclines to a‘
very sparing use of the article,
as will be seen from the
following extract from the
Antigone of Sophocles I.
415 ff
xpovoy T40 Tv tocobrov Eat’ év aidépe
péoy naréoTn Aammpos NALou KUKNOS
Kkainaly €Gadme Kal ror’ é£aigyns yGovds
Tupws delpas oxnmroy, ollpdviov &yos,
miur\yo. wedlov, wacay aixifwy poPyv
tins wediddos, ev 6 e€uecTwOn meéyas
albip ptcavres 3 elyouer Oelay vocor.
‘Thus was it for a time until
in mid heaven stood the sun’s
bright ring and fas heat
burned us; and then on a
sudden from the earth a whirl-
wind lifts Ais force, to torment
the firmament, and fills the
plain, dishonouring all the
foliage of the woodland there,
aud besides, great heaven was
filled; but closing lips and
eyes, we sustained the porten-
tous scourge.’

ABSENCE OF THE ARTICLE BEFORE A COMPLEMENT

OF THE PREDICATE

23 A substantive or adjective which forms part

of the predicate never takes the article: 7d @avywdleuw
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 9

apxyn éoti THs codias wonder is the beginning of

wisdom; *’Adé£avdpos edackev eivas Aros bds
Alexander used to assert that he was the son of Zeus.
24 To this idiom is due great refinement and
compactness of expression, as will be seen from the
followmg examples: ¢@ Away TO oTopa eyes ebpv
literally the harbour has its mouth wide Hnrglish the
mouth of the harbour is wide; BéRavov dé&eus Tov
GBiov Sixatos dv if you are upright, you will lead a
tranquil life Jiterally being upright you will lead your
life tranquil.
25 In this construction are specially found certain
classes of adjectives :—
1) Such as express little or much, hke modus
and ddiyos: odd Eyes TO apyvpsov he has
money in plenty ; peylcrny éyouce THY Svvaplw
their power is very great.
bo— Such as express relations of place, like pecos
and goyaros: év wérn TH yooa in the middle
of the country; ém’ éoyatm To Auweve at the
extremity of the harbour.
3) Such as express order in time, like sporepos
and teAevTatos: mpotepor érjcay of APnvaior
of the two the Athenians attacked first;
mpatos adixero 0 Kovwy Conon was the first
to come.
4) Such as express circumstances in time, like
devTepaios and cKotatos: cKoTaios €T OpEevoVvTo
of “KAAnves the Greeks marched in the dark;
peonwSpwvol HArAGov ot avdpes the men came at
midday.
5) The adjectives éxov, dxwv, and dopevos:
10 FIRST GREEK SYNTAN

dxwv iméotn 0 Zevoddy Nenophon promised

unwillingly; dopevos éxotunOnoav of vadrat
the sailors were glad to go to bed.
() The adjective povos: povos éc@On 6 Bevodav
Nenophon was the only man saved.

THE ARTICLE WITILT PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL

ADJECTIVES

26 Ifthe preceding paragraphs have taught us the

difference between an adjective that qualifies a sub-
stantive and an adjective that forms part of a predicate,
we shall have no difficulty mm using the article rightly
with pronominal adjectives.
27 «A pronominal adjective that qualifies a sub-
stantive is placed between the article and that
substantive: of tovodtoe avOpwrot padiol eiow é&a-
marav men of this sort are easy to take in; 5 aAdy
mons ovdev Fdeo the rest of the city knew nothing;
o €repos orpaTnyos amérdevoee the other general sailed
away; 7 avr dvois TavToiovs Toles Tos avOpaTrous
the self-same nature makes men of all sorts; 6 ads
aptOuos TorovTos éyévero the total sum reached so
high; To édov orparevpa eis TevtaKxicytrlous Av the
total force was as many as five thousand men.
28 A pronominal adjective that has a predlicative
force takes position in a sentence just like any other
adjective so used: tosodtos jv o ayéy the struggle was
as-I-have-described-it; 0 aywy éyéveto rotocde the
struggle took place in-this-way;! wécav tyuty hv
* In prose and comedy ofros, rovofros, rogoiros are used to take up
or resume something already said, while 6de, rovdcde, and togdede serve
to anticipate something still to be explained
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 11

adndecav épo) I will tell you the truth entire tr, without
reservation ; 6A9 1) odes érapayéy the town was in
confusion throughout.
29 Even pronouns themselves may stand in this
relation to the verb of a sentence: avtos 6 Bactrevs
tour édpa the king did tlus in-person; éxrdvto ry
Tiny tavTny the privilege they acquired was this;
TovTo TO épyov érpdyOn this was the deed that was
done. In sentences lke the two last we miss the true
relation of verb and pronoun, if we translate, as we
ought to do m English: they acquired this privilege ;
this deed was done. Yet we can easily see the
reasonableness of the Greek idiom, different as it is
from our own. As a rule, however, we cannot
represent at all in English, whether idiomatic or
unidiomatic, the Greek idiom in regard to obros, dé¢,
and éxetvos. All we must remember is that these
three pronouns take invariably the position of a
predicative adjective: obtos 0 dyip or o avnp ovTos
this man; de 7) yvv7 or 4 yur7 Hoe the woman hete;
éxeivo TO Tpayua oY TO mpdyua éxeivo that thing.
30 The words dude (which can only be used with
the dual of a substantive), dudorepoe aud éxdtepos are
constructed like otros, d6¢, and éxetvos: apdoiy rot
modo evyouey we run away with both feet, ae. as
fast as we can; aphdorepa ta otpatomeda eri Tov
Aodov Fv both the camps were on the knoll; ca@#
éxatepov Tov éomdovy @punoay éml Tous Toheplous
by the one inlet and by the other they moved against
the enemy. When ékagros takes the article, as it
does only when its meaning is greatly emphasized,
it also has the predicative position: mepl éxacrns Tis
12 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

Téyyns oTws éves this is the case with every single

art.
ol In regard to most of these
constructions poetical usage is
far less fixed. We have often
to let the context determine the
precise sense in which a word
is used, as for example, whether
we should translate daca
mons by ‘every city, or ‘the
whole city. In tragedy con-
structions like avnp 66¢, Ketvos
avnp are quite common.
CHAPTER JIJ.—THE -PRONOUNS

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

32 We have already seen (6 supra) that when a

person or thing is spoken of as belonging to the subject
of the sentence, the idea of possession is in Greek
conveyed by prefixing the article to the name of the
thing: 0 Képos é\aBe tra marta Cyrus seized his
javelins. For this reason the possessive pronouns are
not so common in Greek as they are in English.
33 At the same time, this construction cannot be
used if any stress is to be laid upon the personality of
the possessor. In that case, a possessive pronoun is
necessary. oruy@ mev dotu tov 6 euov Ofpov moda
I loathe town and yearn for my parish; nrets rovjoaé
Tapyuplov wreloy TO cov you seek to make your
money more; wdpeore eis TO VweTEpov aAoos come to
your sacred-grove. For this degree of emphasis there
is no possessive pronoun or its equivalent in the third
person.
34 If, further, a stronger emphasis is to be laid
upon the personality of the possessor, the reflexive pro-
nouns are used: aloytvomuas € Tas EuavTOD TuUumopas
but I am ashamed of my own misfortunes; dye 67,
14 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

KUTELTE [LOL GV TOV CavTOdD TpoTOY COME now you must

tell me your own character; tov éudov watépa érai-
velre Kat od TOY UueTEpoy aVT@Y you praise my father
and not your own; droxKteivovat Tovs éavTay Tatdas
they kill their own children. For the plural of the
first and second persons the normal construction is of
the type tov *pérepov, vuérepov avTay matépa, not
TOY Hud, Uwav avTav marépa, but for the third person
TOV éauTo@Y TaATépa.
35 When a person or thing is spoken of as
belonging to some one else than the subject of the
sentence, we can use nelther the article nor the
reflexive pronouns to bring out the idea of possession,
but we use either pov, cov, avTotd, wav, vuor,
avtav, or with more emphasis éuds, ods, éxedvou,
NUETEPOS, DpeTEpOS, ExElvaY : MEAAYYONAVT aTrétEeurbé
pov tov dearorny he sent my master away quite mad;
6 TaTyp cov wxee your father is come; of mporyovos
avtoay TodT émpaéay their ancestors did this; or again
more emphatically tov éuov Seomotyy, 0 cO$ TaTHp, OF
exelvav Tmporyovol.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

36 The pronouns éwavrov, ceavtov, éavtov, judas

avrous, wuds avtovs, éavtovs are used as direct
reflexives: tiUmrrtw éuauvtov I strike myself, rdareus
ceautoy you strike yourself, rumres éautov he strikes
himself, etc. The middle voice of the verb must never
be employed in place of this construction except in the
case of one or two verbs concerned with the toilet, such
as Novabac to bathe, and vier Pas to wash the hands.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 15

37
or
Besades this use directly reflexive, there 1s in
the case of the third person, a call for an increct
reflexive sense, aS when such and such a man says
that such and such another man did something to him.
Now in the plural this distinction is in Greek most
precisely made by reserving éavrovs, éavray, and
éautois* for the direct reflexive, and employing odds,
chav, cbios for the indirect :ééd:oav wy of “AOnvatos
diabbeiperay odds they feared that the Athenians
would destroy them. In the smeular the distinction
is not so well kept up, but here also the true Attic
idiom is to use 6 ov, of: ove ay devo 6 Kréwv Tov
Nexlav oc broywphoae Cleon did not think that Nicias
would give way for him; Aapelos éBovAeTo of Tw
matoe Tapetvat Darius wished lis two sons to come to
him; éxéXevce Tovs olKéTas € Trepipéverv he bade his
servants wait for him.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

38 The relative pronouns are 6s, da7rep, and daTus.

The two first, 6s and 6oc7rep, are definite, that is,
designate persons or things already to some extent
defined in meaning; but they differ from each other
in the degree to which they define the antecedent,
So7ep being much the more precise : idet ce Bovropas
TOV voy TOV wovoy by éym oii pwarvota I want you to
see my only son whom I am very fond of; é7rep andar
éyo, vov ov mpatres you do now just-what I did once.
"Ooris, on the other hand, is quite indefinite,
being used to designate a group or class of persons or
1 More rarely odds atvrovs, opwy atray ete.
16 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

thines rather than any particular persons or thing:

pakaptos ootis ovoiay Kai vouv éyes happy he who
has money and sense.
39 From its use in such a sentence as that just
quoted, doris acquired the meaning also of the Latin
quippe qui: a man is happy c¢nasmuch-as-he has
money and sense. Originally a misuse, it soon took
rank as an indispensable idiom: ampodorns ef tis
TaTpisos boTIs Ta TolaUTa Spas you are a traitor to
your country when-you do this.
40 From the nature of the case, doris and not 6>
must be used to complete negative statements beginning
with ovdeis éotwv, ove éotuy etc, and their equivalents
Tis éoriw; Ti éotiv; ett.: ovK éoTu ovdeis OoTIS Ov
TovTov ptret there is not any body who does not love
this man; tis éotiy Gotis ov ToUTOV dire; Who is
there who cloes not love this man ?
41 The relative pronoun agrees in gender and
number with its antecedent, but it assumes the case
required from it by its position in its own clause.
This, however, is not an invariable idiom. On the
contrary, When the relative ought to be in the
accusative, 1b 18 much more usual for it to take the
case of its antecedent, 1f that case is a genitive or a
dative: ofwos 6€ K@ARS Hs éy@ KaTHoOLoy Woe is me
for the ham which I devoured! This idiom is called
attraction. It can take place only if the relative
clause is essential to complete the sense.
42 When this attraction takes place, any pronoun
which should serve as antecedent to the relative is
omitted, as often as it is not joined to a substantive:
ToUTOV TOV olvav déopai cou TLety pel Gv uddtoTa
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 7

gerets pray drink this wine with the friends you love
best. If the antecedeut is a substantive 1t may be
placed in the relative clause, but without its article:
ws ToAU peléotny’ Gv TpoTEpoy eiyev TpoTTay how
much he is changed from the manuers he once had!
43 The relative adjectives ofos, oolos: 600s,
6mocos: aud #AlKos, omnAlKos take the place of the
relative pronouns not only when they are called for by
a preceding ToLtovTos: ToToUTOS, ToTOcbE: OF THALK-
odtos, but also as often as their special sense Increases
the precision of the sentence. They have the same
construction as the relative pronouns.
44 <A form of condensed expression is to be noticed.
The origin of ovéels bates od seems to have been
forgotten when the éoriy was dropped after the ovdeis ;
and it is treated just lke a composite substantive
meaning everybody, everythiny. Kab mefos kal vies kat
otder 6 Te ovK amewdeto both land force and navy
and everything were destroyed ; "AzroAXddwpos KAatov
oddéva OvTwa ov KaTéxXace TOV TapovTey Apollodorus
by his tears made every one of the company break
down.
45 Just as we might expect,
poetical usage in regard to
pronouns of every sort is much
less precise than that of prose
and comedy. By the side of
the prose idioms and vocables
are many antiquated forms and
modes of expression such as
are found in the higher poetry
of every language. If no
C
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

prose writer ever uses vy orr

ode for avtoyv, or oéGev for
cov, neither does he use tocos
for recodtos nor totos for
rotoutos. Ue leaves such
things to the poets. In prose,
d@uros éuos is a possible collo-
cation in the sense of ‘a friend
of mine.” In poetry, on the
other hand, it means the same
as oumos idos or 0 dhidos6
éL0S.
As to the relative, the most
striking survival in poetry is
the use as a relative pronoun
of those cases of the article
Which begin with tau: «rety-
oven TOUS Ov yp? KTAVErL
slaying those whom she ought
not to slay.
CHAPTER IIT—CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND
PREDICATE

46 A verb agrees with its subject in number and

person. An adjective employed to supplement the
verbal notion agrees with the subject in gender also.
Nevertheless a subject in the neuter plural always
takes a verb in the singular: ra wpayywat obyt dua ce
TavrTa yiryverar; are not things-that-are-done all done
through thee ?
47 When a verb has its subject in the dual number,
then it may either be in the dual or the plural:
éEnEarny obv dv0 dpaKkovT éx Tov vew now two dragons
came-swiftly from the temple. With equal propriety
we might have had é&fav. The dual of the verb
may also be used when there are two subjects, each of
which is in the singular: ottm Spdrov cv Kal o
aéderdos you and your brother so act. But as a rule
the plural is employed, just as if there were more
subjects than two.
48 When a verb has several subjects either singular
or plural, both it and its supplement are also plural.
If the subjects are of different persons, the frst person
dominates the second, and the second the third. If
20 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

the subjects are of different genders, then eny adjective

supplementing the verbal notion, is masculine, whenever
one of the subject nouns denotes a male person, and
neuter when all the subject nouns denote things: dpa
cupLhavodpev eyo Kal vuwels ; do you and I agree? 4
cuyn Kal Pidiros Foav tov épyov Kvptos fortune
and Philip were masters of events; @Odvos Kab goas
évavtia éoriv envy and Jove are opposite principles.
49 It often happens, however, that the verb and
its supplement agree only with the nearest or the most
prominent subject. This can happen, of course, only
when that subject is in the singular: ov “EAXny ei
Kal ners you are Greek and (for that part) so are we;
ovTe cv ovT adv GdXos ovdels OUVaLT ayTEeLTrety Neither
you nor (for that matter) any other could reply; réyv
KAKOV % oTadols Kab O TONELOS altos éotw Of our
misfortunes disunion and (above all) war is the cause.
50 When the supplement of the verb is a sub-
stantive of a different number or gender from the
subject, the verb generally agrees with the supplement
rather than with the subject: ai yopnylae tkavov
evdatpovias onwetoy éotiy the expenses of a choréeus
are a good indication of prosperity.
51 When the supplement of the verb is a sub-
stantive and the subject a neuter pronoun, the latter
often takes the gender of the supplement: avrn tyuiv
éotat cwtTnpia this-thing will be your salvation. Simni-
larly in relative clauses the relative pronoun may take
the gender and number of the supplement of the predi-
cate rather than of its antecedent: Tepaveov Eidos dv
akwaxny Kadodot & Persian sword which they call
acinaces.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX |

52 Whan used as supplement to the verb, a neuter

adjective has the construction ofa substantive: srovypov
6 cukodavrns ae the malicious-accuser is always an
unprincipled-creature: ypyotuadrepoyv vowifer yonuata
7) adeAqous he regards possessions as something more
useful than brothers.
53 In the case of subject and predicate just as
with other constructions grammatical rules are some-
times sacrificed to sense. When the subject is a
collective noun like wA#O0s, modus, oTpaTevpa, the
verb is often in the plural: aodv yéevos av@pamev Tots
pev ex THS YAS Huopévows els Tpopiyy ov ypavTas, aro
6¢ Booknudtav yaraKtt Kal TUE@ Kal Kpéace Tpedo-
wevoe Caow many a race of men do not use for food
the produce of the earth but sustam themselves in life
by milk and cheese and flesh got from beasts.
54 The sentence just quoted furnishes a second
instance of grammatical concord sacrificed to sense:
Toru yevos . . . Tpedopevot, This type also is not
uncommon.
55 But in such cases, that is, when adjectives or
participles qualify the subject or subjects, the normal
idiom is that they agree in gender, number, and case
with a single subject, and, if there are more subjects
than one, that they agree with the nearest or else are
repeated before each. Thus, we may say either é
capa Kab buyny éyo I have one body and soul; or &p
coua Kat play ~uynv éyo I have one body and one
soul; the latter being more emphatic and precise.
56 When there are more subjects than one, the
management of the article defining them is of the
createst importance. According as it 1s repeated or
22 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

no, the sense is much modified. If it ie placed only

before the first, then all are to be taken as forming one
ceneral conception: of XtOos Kal akovTia Kal ToEetmaTa
the stones and javelins and arrows; of TeXotrovyncios
Kat Xvupaxdcor Kat Evupayos the Peloponnesians,
Syracusans, and alhes. On the other hand we must
say ot leXorrovynovot kai of “A@nvatos unless the two
peoples are for the time acting in concert; and we
must say 4 Te mreipos Kal at vncos unless we are
speaking of a continent and the islands which politi-
cally go with it.
CHAPTER IV.—THE CASES

THE NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE CASES

O7 Every one who has learned enough Greek to

read a book such as this with intelligence, already
knows the uses of the nonnative and vocative cases.
On one point only is there any notable difference
between the Greek idiom and the English. When we
meet with constructions such as ot Opdxes ire dedpo,
which we rightly translate into Lnghsh idiom
‘Thracians, come hither,’ we must not think that oc
@pdxes is in the vocative case. It is in the nominative
just as much as in the sentence of Opdkes lace Sedpo
the Thracians will come hither. The real difference
between Greek and English here lies in the sense of
the imperative mood. That the meaning of this mood
differs im the two tongues is plain from the existence
of a third person in Greek, whereas in English we use
a composite expression ‘let him come’ ete. Indeed,
we should perhaps come nearer the true meaning of
the Greek imperative, if we translated it by expréssions
such as ‘you must come’ or ‘you shall come,’ ‘he
inust come’ or ‘he shall come’ ete. If we do so, we
shall find no difficulty in such constructions as ofc
24 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

ody 6 dpacov do you indeed know the-thing-which

you must do? dydpas tatrre: of dudabavtTwv Tipv
v , A of \

moAty he posts men who shall watch the city.

THE ACCUSATIVE CASE

58 The principal use of the accusative is to define

and complete the meaning of verbs.
When we use, for example, the verb ‘strike’ in
English, we may define or complete its sense in one or
other, or in both of two ways. We may say either
‘he strikes the man’ or ‘he strikes a blow, or again
‘he strikes the man a blow.” Now in Greek we have
all these modes of expression just as in English, only
that in Greek they are freer and more frequent.
59 To take the type tumres tov dvdpa first: the
accusative tov dvépa is said to be the direct object of
the verb tures.
Far the greater number of transitive verbs have for
object such an accusative to mark the peison or thing
with which the action of the verb deals. The idiom
of Greek, however, is In so many ways different from
the idiom of English that we cannot be sure of always
finding the two languages running side by side in the
matter of this construction. It constantly happens that
the same thing is looked at from such different points
of view in different languages. Accordingly, it would
be impossible to give any general rule by which to
know the verbs which in Greek are followed by an
accusative of the direct object. They can only be
learned by reading widely in Greek books. At the
same time, it may be useful to instance a few verbs
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX aswo

and classes of verbs, which if judged only by their

English equivalents might perhaps seem unhkely to
have this construction.
60 Verbs denoting emotions of one kind or another
are frequently followed by an accusative of the
direct object: aldetcOas to feel respect for; alayuve-
ofa: to feel shame before; doSeic@as to be afraid of;
Oappety to have no fear of; éxmdAjTrrerOar to be
amazed at; Gavydfev to wonder at.
61 The verbs ed qovety ‘to do good to’; Kakds
motety ‘to do ill to’; ed réyery ‘to speak well of’;
KaKosS Néyeuv ‘to speak ill of, have this construction.
62 This is also the case with the verbs Xav@aveu
to escape the notice of, and déavev to be beforehand
with, to get before, to forestall.
63 The verbs éuvivas ‘to swear by’; dropvevas
‘to swear no by’; ézcopxety ‘to swear falsely by,’
take an accusative of the person or thmg by whom or
by which one swears. Itis tls accusative which 1s
seen in the elliptical expressions v7 Alia yes, by Zeus;
ua tov Arovucov ‘no, by Dionysus’; val pa tov Nia
‘yea, by Zeus,’ and the like.
64 Many intransitive verbs acquire a transitive
meaning, and consequently the right to the construc-
tion with an accusative of the direct object, when they
are compounded with prepositions, especially with ova
across; meta after; mapa beyond, sepi round; viép
over; and tad under: d:a8alvew to cross; peTeévas
to go after; rapamdety to sail past; mepidetv to run
round; wtrepPaiverr to pass over; tdhictac@as to
undertake.
65 The prepositions éwé and xara when prefixed
26 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

to intransitive verbs sometimes give them a causative

force: ociwm7ay to be silent, catacwwrav to silence;
icxvew to be strong, émecyvey to make strong;
arynOevew to be true, éradnGevew to make true, to
confirm. A very striking example of this change of
meaning produced by cara is seen in the verb xarny-
ety to instruct. The simple jyetv is always intransi-
tive, being used of any person or thing that gives out
aloud or clear note or sound of any sort. Thus,
KaTnyei is ‘to cause a person or thing to give out
such a note or sound, and is therefore very properly
used of making a group or class of persons repeat
distinctly aloud after one any words or sentences,
Hence, ‘to instruct’ or ‘to teach’ becomes the ordinary
sense of the verb.
66 <A certain class of verbs take two accusatives
of the direct object, one of a person and the other of a
thing. Such verbs have the meanings to ask, to
demand, to remind, to teach, to clothe or unclothe, to
conceal, to deprive: rodte Tous mroditas épwrd he asks
the citizens this question; tovs Qeovs aiteite ayabd
you ask the gods for good things; ray elpnynv vuas
dvapiyyoKxowev we remind you of the peace: to
Tmpayua expvTTousy Tov matepa we hid the matter
from our father; 76 (wary ce évddow I will put your
cloak on you; tous veavias dudadoKes THY ovary he
teaches the young men music; cvAdo. tas Bods Tovs
Bovxorovs they rob the herdsmen of their cows.
67 When we use such verbs in a passive construc-
tion, the accusative of the person becomes the subject
of the verb, while the accusative of the thmg remains
unchanged: totro épwrayvras ot roNtrae this question
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 27

the citizen; are asked; thy elpiyny davapimyvnocKecbe

you are reminded of the peace; of veaviat Thy povasKny
ds0adcKxovTar the young men have lessons in music;
Tas Bods éovrnOncav of Bovxeoroe the herdsmen
were robbed of their cows.
68 In the case of some verbs, an accusative of the
direct object does not sufficiently define or complete
their sense. Accordingly, a second accusative is also
used, which is called the predicate accusative, because
though agreeing with the accusative of the direct
object, it is in effect part of the predicate. To this
class belong verbs signifying ‘to make,’ ‘to consider,’
‘to name, ‘to choose, ‘to appoint? and the hike:
Tavrwy SeaToTny éavtov weTolnKev 6 Didummos Philip
has made himself master of all; vrodrov evepyérny
nyovueOa this man we regard as a benefactor; tov
Kopov iyenova érroujcavto they made Cyrus com-
mander; mpéaBes eiAovto KXewilav wat Avoiay they
chose Cleinias and Lysias ambassadors; réyv caida
avopaca Diderrov I called the boy Philip.
69 Such predicate accusatives are often adjectives:
TovTo davepov roijoouey this we shall make plain;
Tas apapTias weyanas Ayetro he thought the mistakes
serlous; éNeuGépovs Katéotnoe Tovs Tratdas he set the
boys free.
70 In the passive construction of this group of
verbs the word that was the direct object of the active
verb is the subject of the passive verb, while the
predicate accusative becomes predicate nominative:
wavrov Seomotns 0 Piturdos éyévero Philip became
master of all; obTos evepyérns evouifero this man was
considered a benefactor ;rpécBeus npéOnoav 6 Krewilas
28 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

kat o Avotas Cleinias and Lysias were chosen am-

bassadors; évédv tov yeT@va he put his tunic on.
71 Let us turn now to the other way of defining
or corapleting the meaning of the verb, namely, that
represented by the type ruares wAny7v he strikes a
blow.
The accusative seen in tumrew tAnyjyv and the
like expressions has been called by grammarians the
internal or cognate accusative. Such names do not
explain the use but serve simply as dockets or labels
by which we distinguish this from other uses of the
accusative. It is called internal, because the idea
expressed by «aAnyyv may be regarded as already
implied in tumresv. It is called cognate, because the
notion of wAny7 is cognate to that of tumrresy.
72 The internal or cognate accusative takes the
following forms :—
1) It may be a substantive of the same origin as
the verb which it defines, or else the equivalent
of such a substantive. If its meaning is
narrower than that of the verb, it may be used
alone without any qualifying adjective or other
word: yoas yety to pour drink-offerings.
Otherwise it is defined in some way: Hdovras
Tas peylotas Hdovds they experience the
greatest pleasures; vieny évixnoayv KaddlorTny
they gained a most glorious victory; tov ody
hoBov od doBryceras he will not be afraid with
your fear; pwéurrbiy dixaiay péudouas I find
just fault.
2) It may be a substantive which has a meaning
of a special sort akin to the notion of the
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 29

verd, but so much narrower than that notion

as to define it well enough without a qualifying
adjective: vaupaylay o AvKotpyos évixa
Lycurgus conquered in a battle-at-sea; aury-
puny hyovicato he contended in boxing; tiv
yveuny évienoav they carried their view.
GO
—
It may be the accusative plural neuter of an
adjective: inka mndav to leap high; evay-
yédta Ovew to offer a thank-offering for good
news, literally to offer things relating-to-good-
news.
Once or twice in set phrases we get the neuter
sinoular of an adjective: péya dvvacGas to be
very powerful; 6&0 (Oréreyv to have keen
sight.
4) It may be the accusative neuter of a pronoun
or a pronominal adjective: rodro AvuTovpeba
this sorrow we feel; vodka ovy oporoyad coe
in many points I do not agree with you; ovdev
wiv ypnrac he makes no use of you.
73 Some expressions of this class admit of receiving
a passive construction. In such cases the internal
accusative becomes the subject of the passive verb:
thus ta rovadta of “AOnvato. Hrvynoayv ‘such mis-
fortunes did the Athenians experience’ becomes ra
rovabra Tots “AOnvaiow HArvy7On ‘such misfortunes
were experienced by the Athenians.” But as a rule
this idiom is found with participles: of tvo Oncéws
Toneunbévres modeuor the wars waged by Theseus ;
Ta col Kauol BeSiopéva the actions of your life and
mine.
74 Again we can combine the two types rumtet
30 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

cov dvopa and torres TAnyHY, and can say*TdTTEL Tov

dvépa TAnyyHv, Just as in English we say ‘he strikes
the man a blow.’ Instances of this construction are
common: éav éué drroxrelvyre, ovK éués weila Srarere
}) dpas avtovs 1f you put me to death, you will not
injure me more than you will injure yourselves; tavta
éyeoplavoucs THv Stkatocvyny such praise they give
to justice; rotro ovK« HvdyKkacé we he did not force
me to this.
75 When such expressions receive a passive form
the accusative of the direct object becomes the subject
of the passive verb, while the internal accusative
remains without change: radra évexwpiacOn 1 bu-
Katoavvn justice was thus praised; wokAa xal Seuva
HdeKnOnY I received inuch serious ill treatment; todTo
ove HvayKao@ny to this I was not forced.
76 Thus far, the verbs which have had _ their
meaning defined or completed by accusatives of one
sort or another, have expressed action or activity in
one or more directions. There remains, however, the
large class of verbs denoting states or conditions,
generally spoken of as neuter verbs.
Now in Greek even these may have their sense
defined and completed by accusatives: ta ocopata
Kauvovot they suffer in body; adyet ryv xehadijy he
has a headache; dysaives tiv Wy7v he has a whole-
some temperament.
77 In their passive voice transitive verbs may
express a state or condition, and when this is so, they
also may have a like construction: dsép@apras tiv
vrvyny he is corrupt in mind.
78 Further, any verbs whether denoting an activity
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 3]

of any kind-or a condition of any sort may have the

duration and extent of that activity or that condition
defined in time and place by the accusative case:
évravOa euevev juepas tpets there he remained three
days; OXnv Thy woAWw tTAavadras he wanders through
the city from end to end; tiv tacav hudpav édavver
he marches the whole day; rtpsdxovta érn yeyouds
beiug thirty years old; avéyes To dotu Tpla oTadia
the town 1s three furlongs off.
79 Even in other spheres than time and place is
the activity or condition expressed by a verb defined
in this way: Ta wey mapedOovra vets péev Kdpov
nuénoate, Ndpos dé evxreets buds éroinoev in things
past you aggrandized Cyrus, and Cyrus made you
famous; to AitwAcKkov maGos Oia thy Bryv pépos
ve éyévero the disaster in Aetolia happened to soine
extent because of the wood; To car éué oddév éd-
Neires nothing will be wanting if I can help it. In
all these cases it is noticeable that the accusative
defines the extent of the verb’s action.
80 From the two uses of the accusative last
described arise a great many modes of expression
which are generally regarded as adverbial. Seeing
that they mark hmutations of the verbal action, they
ought rather to be taken in each case directly with
the verb. They resemble adverhs only so far as they
serve the same function as adverbs. Of these accusa-
tives some of the most common are :—
1) Defining motive: 72; why? Todr’ atdro or
QUTO TOUTO, TaAUT avTad OY avTa radra, for
this very purpose: aura Tatra viv jew for
this very end am [ here.
32 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

2) Defining manner: Tpooy Ted Ip some way ;

tiva tpomov; in what way? wavta tporop
in every way; Tv Tayiotny in the quickest
way; wpotka gratis; mpodaciw im pretence;
yap for the sake of; apy or THY apynY
at all: év T& mapaypia ove éotiv apy
dpbas BovrcverGas at the moment it is not
at all pessible to form the mght determination.
3) Defining time: rd mwadae of old; ro mpiv
before; ro vdv meanwhile.
4) Defining order in a series: To mpaétov in the
first place; TO TeXevTaior in the last place?
Si But it is not only verbs that have their signi-
fication defined and completed by the aid of the
accusative case. In certain circumstances nouns also
may have a defining accusative attached to thein.
Perhaps in respect of nouns the idiom is an extension
from the use with verbs. It is an easy step, for
example, from such constructions as wacay décKlav
adixel to Tacay adixlay adcKos or from vyraivenw THY
pruyny to byuns Thy Wuyny.
82 Whatever the origin of the use, certainly the
construction is not at all uncommon in the case of
adjectives, or, within narrower limits, inthe case of
nouns: Tolovtos Hv To Gos in character he was as-I-
have-described-him ; Berrilovés eice THY yvounv Kal
thy tdéav they are better men in mind and make;
dmetpos TO TAHOGos endless in multitude; avip dyads
Ta woAuTiKd a man good at statecraft; sdewos ra
wavra clever at everything; dia péons ths todews
1 In such a seriation 76 devrepov is never used, but always érera or
érecra 5é for ‘in the second place.’
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 33

pet rotapos, Kudvos évoua, etipos dvo mAEO pwr through

the middle of the city flows a river, Cydnus by name,
in breadth two hundred feet; Avdds to yévos a Lydian
by race.
83 In the higher poetry the older
and freer usage, out of which
the prose idioms have, as it
were, crystallized, is still to
be seen. There is not the
same definiteness and preci-
sion of relation between the
verb and its accusative. The
accusative still defines the
meaning of the verb, but m
the loosest imaginable way so
as to be sometimes httle more
than a picturesque enlarge-
ment of the verbal notion:
mwoba wpoSativers thou step-
pest forward; dvcdAoyioTov
néev yepa he was impetuous
with misguided hand ; setpay
éu@pavev he acted foolishly in
the attempt.
Another ancient idiom found
in poetry is the employment
of the accusative case to
mark the direction mn which
a movement is made: Madea
mupyous ys érrheve “lorxias
Medea sailed to the towers of
the land of Ioleus. In such
D
34 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

a sentence a preposition must,

precede the accusative In prose
and comedy.

THE T'RUE GENITIVE CASE

S4 We have seen that the accusative case 1s

principally employed to define the meaning of verbs
and very rarely to define that of nouns (substantives
and adjectives). The converse 1s true of the genitive,
its commonest use being to define or determine the
meanine of nouns, and only rarely that of verbs.
85 We learn the chief function of this case from
the name assigned it by the Greeks themselves when
they began to analyse their language. They spoke of
it as 2) yevurt) mra@ous, the case of the genus. And
such 1t is in large measure. For the ordinary way in
wlich it defines substantives is by specifying the
genus or class to which they belong or the general
conception of which they form part. For example,
when we say of vaides tOv éXevOEpwv, we clefine or
determine the scope for the time being of the sub-
stantive of maides by narrowing its reference to the
class of ot ékevGepou. In the same way, when we say
ypucoy aotépavos, We define the word otéepavos by
specifying that it forms part of the general conception
of gold, and not of that of any other substance—silver,
brouze, wood, flowers, or the like.
86 But though this is a true generalization of the
‘ The Romans who did so much to obscure the Greek science of
grammat, here also showed thew mability to grasp its uice distinctions.
By a very odd and very wrong translation, they converted 4 yevuxh
mTWos Into casus genetivus.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAS 35

We
force of the genitive case, it is only true in part.
still. When one
can reach a wider generalization
for the time
substantive is defined by another which
the
being stands to it as a whole stands to its part,
in the geniti ve
defining substantrve—the whole—is
yed some such
case because that case originally conve
of,
idea as ‘with the sphere off ‘within the space
of? We may
‘within the field of, ‘within the limits
our
readily fix this radical function of the case upon
memory by thinking of a black bounded superf icies
@ @
with a white spot at any point upon it. @ @
govern ing
The white spot represents what we call the
geniti ve
substantive, and the black surface is the
see this
which we say is dependent upon it. We
ias
very easily in such a phrase as O78a. Bovwr
, within
Thebes in Boeotia; the particular spot, Thebes
the country, Boeotia. But it is not really much more
s
difficult to see the truth of it in regard to such phrase
. Tn
as of maides Tav edevOepwv or crépavos xpvaov
mazes is the spot, and tay édhevO épwv
the one case, of
the surface enclos ing it. In the other, ypuco d 1s the
enclosing surface and orédavos the spot. With this
let
general notion of the function of the genitive case,
us take up special points in its use.
87 The use in which perhaps we grasp most easily
use, as
the radical notion is, as we have seen, the local
les
in @78as Bowwtias Thebes in Boeotia, Other examp
ATTL Ks eis Olvon y he came to
are: adixero THs
tiv THs Alrod ias cuppo pav
Oenoe in Attica; pera
after the disaster in Aetolia; caté«Anoay Llepdiccay
Maxedovias they shut Perdiccas up in Macedonia.
n
88 This local use of the genitive is very commo
36 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

with adverbs of place: sod ris yopas etiprrowev Tov

wraida ; at what place in the country shall we find the
boy ? mot yAs efus ; Where in the world shall I go to?
roArayooe Ths “ApKadias wéwres ayyédous he sends
messengers to many places in Arcadia; évtadda rijs
ireipov TO otparoTedoy éroujocavtTo they pitched their
camp at that point on the mainland; tyro yap ona
tev aypeav for I live far in the country. So with
wo0ev, évtaubol, éxet, éxeloe, TavTayod, ovdayod, and
the like.
89 The step from this strictly local use to place-
like relations is not ditficult: évrat@a tis rroderelas
in that branch of the administration; éxe? rod Noyou
at that point in his speech.
90 The pronouns todro and rocodroyv when pre-
ceded by a preposition take this quasi-local genitive:
cu & és TocodTov TOV pavidyv éAn\VOas but you are
come to such a pitch of madness; eis tocottoyv 7AOov
civduvou to such a pitch of danger did they come.
91 Even motion within a space is so denoted:
vrayeO wets tHS odo0 proceed on your journey;
TpotovTes THS oTpaTeias as they proceeded on their
expedition.
92 Asis usually the case, the usage in regard to
time follows closely on the hnes of the local use.
The genitive of any word denoting a space of
time conveys the notion of ‘some point within that
space’: éyeipetar ths vuxtos he wakes at some point
in the night; éovépas Sevmvet he dines at some time
in the evening; déxa imepayv pwayettar he will fight
at some time within the space of ten days.
93 So also with certain adverbs: éc@les wodraKLs
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 37

THS pEepas he eats often in the day; owe ris judpas

adixero lie arrived late in the day; tpis TAs vuKTos
jyelpero he waked thrice in the night.
94 And again expressing quasi-temporal relations:
Toppw $n éotl Tov Biov, Gavatou Sé éyyvs it is now
a late hour of life, and near to death; rpo ris Hreelas
early in life.
95 With a certain class of verbs we get the local
genitive—such as denote to reign, to be king, to
rule, and the like. That xparety, dpyew, Bacirevery,
Tupavveiy etc. were used with a genitive of place first
of all is plain from early Greek usage such as “l@dens
Bacrrevesv to be king in Ithaca; Tevédoto dvaccesy
to be prince in Tenedos. In fact Baciretver lGaKns is
one and the same thing with “l@d«ns éoti Bactrevs he
is king within Ithaca. Of course in later Greek this
usage became generalized, and such verbs take genitives
of persons, and of other things besides place, but the
origin of the idiom is in the local use of the genitive.
Examples are: 0 Eép&ns éBacineve trav Tepodv
Xerxes was king of the Persians; ap&ar oé de? yapas
amvaons you ought to rule over the whole country;
TOD THLATOS Yap OUK EA TOV KUpLOV KpaTeiy 6 Salwar
for fate does not permit its owner to rule over the
body; ob watpiov éorw nyeicPar Tous émjAvdas TOV
avToyOoverv it is not the-way-in-our-country for the
newconiers to direct the natives.
96 We have seen how common are such expressions
as mov yns ejut; Where in the (extent of the) world
am I? Well, from such a usage it is not a long cry
to idioms lke was éyess Tov ayavos ; how are you in
the field or sphere of the contest that is how do you
33 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

get on in the contest? We shall soon See how very

far we are carried by this easy transition from place
aud time to other relations, such as manner.
97 With was and its correlatives this usage is
common, and it is also found frequently with et, cards,
ixavas and the like: éyw dé tovtov Tov TpoToU Tas
ei aes 1 am somehow always within (the line of)
this description; éAeov ws eye Tayous Exacros they
sailed, each as fast as he could literally as each was
in the sphere of swiftness; xadas mapdmAou Keita 7)
Kopxupa Corcyra lies favourably in the matter of
coasting-voyage.
98 Precisely so also we find the genitive employed
with certain classes of adjectives denoting activity or
rest within certain limits suggested often iby the words
themselves. Such are all eee IN -4K09 2WpAaKTLKOS
yy Tov Otxaiwy he was active in the field or sphere of
just works; éfepyactixol joay Tay To.wvTwY Tpary-
patov they were able-to-accomplish (in the sphere of)
such actions.
99 But almost any adjective the meaning of which
may in English be defined by such a phrase as ‘in the
matter of such and such a thing’ may be followed in
Greek by a genitive: tuddos Fv rod wédAXovTos he was
blind in the field of the future, d&os Ay tuhs he
was worthy (in the matter) of honour; d&ol éoper
KAoTHS We are guilty (within the limits) of stealing ;
eTla TH Loves eyévoTo THY Oanarrns UaCY. became skilful
in (the sphere of) the sea; parapia 7 YEdk@OVN TOD
dépuaros the tortoise is fortunate in (the matter of)
lts Skin; ddéywpol elas THs elpyvns they are careless
(in the maaan) of peace,
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 39

100 From this it follows that a large class of verbs

—at all evéuts those derived from or connected with
such adjectives—are lkely to have a genitive of the
same description. Such verbs are:
1) those that signify ‘to congratulate, ‘to think
happy, ‘to envy’ ete. These have an accus-
ative of the person congratulated etc, and a
genitive of the thing for which he is con-
sratulated etc: codias POoviicas padrov 4
TrovTov KaXor it is well to be envious (in the
matter) of wisdom rather than (in the matter)
of riches; avroyv evdatmoviel THs Teplovaias
he will felicitate himself in (the matter of) his
superfluity; ai yera@var pakaptodcl oe Tod
dépparos tortoises will think you lucky in
(the matter of) your skin.?
2) many that signify ‘to accuse, ‘to condemn,
‘to absolve’ and the like. These are followed
by an accusative of the person accused, con-
demned, absolved etc., and a genitive of the
fault or crime of which he is accused, con-
demned, absolved ete: ytvacato Pidurroy
Kkrxomns he held Philip guilty (in the matter)
of theft; dvwHFouat ce decrias I will prosecute
you for cowardice Jleterally in the matter of
cowardice. The same construction is seen in
ypadecOat, eloayew, aipetv, amodvew Tid
vues to impeach, to cite, to convict, to acquit
a man of a charge.
3) those that signify ‘to remember,’ ‘to forget,’
1 This is the same use as we find with interjections, as ged roo
ka@AXous alas! for her beauty.
40 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

‘to be anxious, ‘to be careful, ‘to be careless,

and the like: tév voywy ov dpovrlfoucs they
have no anxiety (dpovTis) in the sphere of the
laws; ériAavOdveras tod rwatpos he forgets
his father /uterally he is unconscious (in the
matter) of his father ;* dv@pwaros av péwvnco
THS Kowwns Tvs thou art a man; remember
the common lot literally be reminded in the
matter of the common lot; caxds yap émepe-
Nelo Hudy tore for at that time you took
bad charge of us laterally you were éripedets
in the matter of us; similarly the verb adva-
pupunoKesy *to remind’ takes the genitive of
the thing of which one is reminded: dvéuvynoe
Tov av@p@rov Tod Kivdtvou he reminded the
man of the risk.
To this class belong the impersonal verbs
péreo oot and petapéres poe: ov Tov boxely
por THS O adrnOeias pérec I care not for
appearances but for the truth; 79 wore
TOANaKLS HON peTEeWeAnoEe TOV KploEewV OUT
country has often ere now repented its decisions.
4) certain verbs meaning ‘to hit’ and ‘to miss’
and the like : waxdpios bates Tuyyaves yevvaiov
dixov happy the man who finds a generous
friend diteradly who makes a hit in the matter
of a generous friend; yvauns duapraver he
errs In judgment, ébevcOncay roy édrridmv
they were deceived in (the sphere of) their

1 As \avOdvew means ‘to escape the notice of,’ then the middle
voice AavddverOar means ‘to escape one’s own notice’ if we may say
so, that is, ‘be unconscious.’
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 4}

hopes; ov« éodartas Ths adyGeias he has not

been fouled in (the sphere of) the truth;
oToyalopela tis tov Geav dvavolas let us
guess the mind of the gods leterally let us
take aim (croyos) 1n the matter of the mind
of the gods.
5) certain verbs with the general notion of
desiring, namely épav, émiOupeiv, apéyer Oar,
édiecbat: épa ths eipjnvns he is enamoured of
peace; érsOvupes Tav apictwy desire the best
things; wpéyvdn apyys he reached after power,
dia Tt Tay Kepd@y édiec; why are you set
upon gain? Now this class consists of verbs
which are either really neuter like éoaéy and
évcGupeiv, or in the passive voice hke dpéye-
cat and édier@ac, so that we naturally use
them with a genitive of the sphere within
which their action lies.
101 Recalling the type ©78ar Borwrias let us
substitute a person or persons for ©76ac and a class
of inen for Bovwrias, and we get the new type oi
maidses TaY éAevOépwy, one of the class of expressions
which led the Greeks to speak of 4 yevixn mra@ocs.
The genitive in collocations of this kind is most un-
reasonably called the partitive genitive, a name which
is so entirely misleading that it ought to be abandoned.
Indeed it 1s exactly the reverse of the truth to speak
in this way, seeing that genitives like rav éAevGépwr
really represent the whole, while nominatives hke
of mratdes might be called partitive nominatives.
102 This type of course may take many forms.
It may exist in any case in which we can conceive of
42 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

a distinction between a whole and the parts of that

whole: r&v mwoduTov of Kadoé Te Kayabot the better-
bred of the citizens; of yepaitatos tov “Ayapvewr the
oldest of the Acharnians; of ypnotot tév avépaTar
the virtuous among mankind; o¢ dAdo. Trav avOpd-
wov the rest of mankind; 6Xiyos Tov TohksTov few
among the citizens; otdeis Tav avOpeémwy no man in
the world, dynp rév pyropwy one of the orators; Trav
déca orpatnyov Aéwv xat “Epacavidns of the ten
generals Leon and Erasanides.
It ought to be carefully remembered that there are
but two orders of words in this type, either of satdes
tov eevSépwv or tdv édevOépwv ol maides; never ot
Tov édevOépa@v Tatoes.
103 A genitive of this sort can form part of a
verbal notion: Séreov tav érta codictaéy évopifero
Solon used to be thought one of the seven wise men ;
rovTay yevov pos pray become one of them.
104 An extension of tlis type 1s seen in construc-
tious like 6 fuscus rod yeovov the half of the time.
It seems to have been thought that just as you could
say tov “Ayapvéwy ot yepaitatot, you might also say
0 usous Tod ypovov. But the two things are not the
same, seeing that the masculine gender very naturally
suggests the idea of man or men, but certainly not of
time. Still the idiomatic Greek is 0 Awscus rod
ypovov rather than To fyucv rod ypovov. Similarly,
eri THS Husoelas THs ys upon the half of the territory ;
eTE“OV THS ys THY woNAHy they ravaged the most of
the territory; tiv mrelorny THs oTpaTias wapétaéke he
drew up the most of his army.
105 Once more let us travel back to O7Bae
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 48

Bowtias. ,If we ean conceive of a whole, Doeotia,

with a part, Thebes, we cau also conceive of a whole,
man, With a part, hand, 4 yelp rod avdpes or 4 rot
avopos yvetp the hand (as part) of (the whole) the man
Thus we get genitives of a good many kinds, labelled
differently by grammariaus, accordine to the modifica-
tion of this notion most promiment in each.
106 Some of these labels, marks, or dockets are as
follows :—
1) the genitive of material or contents: orédavos
ypucod a ciown of gold; moripsoy olvov a cup
of wine; ocwpos ayadaéy a heap of good things ;
n oTHAn ALGov éotiy the slab is of stone.
1 NS the genitive of possession: 3) rdv Aoxpdy yi}
the territory of the Locrians; 7d xparos éoti
Tov Paciréws the authority belongs to the king.
3) the genitive of amount: ox«T® cradiov Tetyos
a wall of eight furlongs; tpsaxovta TadavTev
ovoia an estate of thirty talents; tprav jwepav
ovria provisions for three days.
the objective genitive, the subjective veni-
tive: 0 Toy Torepniov hoBos either vbjective
the fear on account of the enemy, or sudjective
the fear felt by the enemy. An idiomatic
distinction should be here noticed. Contrary
to the English usage the Greeks employed 6
éuos PoBos, 6 huétepos poPos, 0 cds hoPos,
6 tpétepos PoBos and the like for ‘the fear
of me’ that ws ‘which I inspire,” ‘the fear of
us’ ete, but o oBos pov, 0 hoBos Hyadyv, o
poBos cov, 6 boBos twody for ‘my fear’ thet
as ‘the fear which I feel’ ete.
df FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

107 Now in all these examples, fowever we

docket theim, the genitive represents for the time being
a whole, and the nominative a part of that whole.
Even in an expression like 6 Tév woXewiwv does, the
general conception of vrodéucos involves a great deal
more than the attribute of inspiring fear (objective
genitive) or of feeling fear (subjective genitive) though
in speaking of 0 tév rodteulwy do8os we choose for
the moment to confine ourselves to one out of the
many attributes of of qoAémo..
108 Some of these special modifications of mean-
ing are also found with adjectives :-—
1) genitive of material or contents; especially
with adjectives meaning ‘full’: yvrpa Cwopod
mréa a pot full of soup or a full pot of soup;
ToTamwos TAHONS ivOvov a river full of fish;
jWhovetos ov ypuTiou GAN ov det Tov Evdal-
ova wovtety rich not in gold, but m what
the happy man ought to be rich in.
2) genitive of possession: 4 7oXss atrdvTey TOY
TodToY KoLvy éeotev the state is the common-
property of all the citizens ov belongs in-
common to all the citizens; kivnows Tov caa-
Tos olxeca motion proper to the body; cepdy
yap éore rov WnXovrov mwandaz for it has long
been sacred to Plutus; «ivdvye. trav épeotn-
xkoT@y idsos dangers peculiar to those in com-
mand; péroyos éAtridwy having part-posses-
sion In hopes that vs sharing hopes.
109 Now such a construction as that last men-
tioned can be best understood if we recall the radical
notion involved in the genitive case—-‘ within the
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 45

sphere of, ‘jwithin the limits of, ‘within the general

conception of, as, Kivyois Tod cw@matos oikeia motion
proper within the sphere of the body; k«ivduvoe téy
éheotncoTwy tévor dangers peculiar within the sphere
of those in command, and so on
110 As to verbs, we have already seen why some
of them have their meaning best defined by a genitive.
In regard to others it is not always easy to see why
this is so, or rather to decide in each case whether the
genitive with a verb is the true genitive, with which
we have hitherto been occupied, or the spurious
genitive, still to be discussed, which has taken the
place of the lost ablative. Still, as to most idioms
there can be no doubt.
111 We find pretty often that a common transitive
verb lke dépew or didovat, which normally has its
meaning defined by an accusative, is followed by the
genitive, when there is special reason for laying stress
upon the fact that its action does not for the moment
extend over the whole of its object, but 1s brought to
bear only at a point or points within that object.
Thus, we could not say dépew ris yutpas ‘to bring
the jar, because the bringing must refer to the whole
jar or nothing at all, unless the jar 1s broken into
pieces, but we may say very properly gepew trav
NLGwv ‘to bring some stones’ because we could not
expect any one to bring all the stones ina place. In
such cases we must be very careful not to think that
the genitive case im ztself means ‘some of anything,’
We get the meaning most easily by taking once more
the type OF8ac Botwrias, and by substituting for
@7Ba. the verbal action (here, ‘ bringing’) and for
46 FIRST GREEK SYNTAS

Boswrtias the general conception (here, ‘stones ’). So,

éveyxdtw tis évdolev Tov iaydd@y somebody bring
dried figs from the house; tév rayewv éveridess
B@pvarridwy you inserted coarse wicks. In both these
cases tle action of the verb takes effect within the
whole, ai ioydoes, and within the whole, ai mayetas
Povaryrices. Similarly, we say either kateayn tyHv
Keharynyv or Kateayn THS Kepadis ‘he had his head
broken, according as we wish to express generally that
aman had his head broken or to lay emphasis upon
the fact that the breaking took effect at a point within
the whole, 7 cehanrz).
112 Thus it happens that the genitive is in Greek
the right case for the object after verbs hke rAapGav-
exOae to take hold, &arec@as to fasten upon, to touch,
éyverGas to cling, dpyew to start, adpyer@as to begin.
The action of all these verbs necessarily takes effect
within a whole. We cannot take hold of, touch, cling
to, or begin a whole object at once: Tod Bwpov éraBero
he seized the altar; ovros tof dives Toy Axpwov dvev
movov you will certainly never touch the summit without
labour; vowev éyerOar ravta Sei Tov caHdpova the
wise man ought in all things to hold fast by the laws;
dpyer THY NOyov he starts the discussion; dpyeras
Tov Noyou he begins his speech.
113 All verbs with the general sense of ‘to fill’
are followed by such a genitive of the thing with
which something is filled: wiav vaby avdpav étrAjpwocav
they manned one ship; peuerr@pmévos tBpews filled
with pride; mAovra dfkwy I am rich in friends;
evTropet yonuatopv he abounds in riches.
114 The verbs yevew ‘to give to taste, yeverGat
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 47

‘to taste’ and ogppatver@as ‘to smell’ have the

genitive of the thing tasted or smelt: éyeure Diderrroy
rod pérctos he gave Philip a taste of the honey; o
Pirsrmos éyevoato Tov pérwTos Plnlip tasted the
honey ; dcdpawopue0a xpowpvev we sinell onions.
The verbs doves to hear, dxpodoGae to listen, and
aicbdvecbat to perceive are generally attached to tls
class, as they sometimes have their object in the genitive.
But it is much better to regard thein in the same way
as verbs like ér@éew and ives, that is, as taking the
accusative or the genitive just as the special sense
required from them may demand.
115 Certain verbs by being compounded with
peta have their meaning so modified that they have
their object in the genitive. Thus weréyerv, wetadap-
Bavew, aud petarayyavew, meaning respectively ‘to
possess, to receive, ad to have allotted one something
along with somebody else’ are followed by the genitive
because they necessarily express an action taking
effect within a whole: peréyowev tov gpyou we have
part in the matter; peraradBopev ris reias let us
share the booty; werarkayyaves trav ypnuatwv he has
a share in the wealth allotted him. So also pera-
didovae bas a genitive of the thing imparted: rijs
apyns meTédmxe TH VO he gave a share of his authority
to his son.
116 Of course the verbs just mentioned may at
the same time have the construction with the internal
cognate accusative of pronouns or pronominal words at
the same time as this genitive: perédmxé Te THs
apyns TH ve he gave some share in his authority to
his son; To wéumrrTov pépos petéhaBe tav Widay he
48 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

cot the fifth part of the votes. Here we see plainly

that ray wydey represents a whole.
117 It is not otherwise with the neuter verbs
dfew ‘to smell’ and aodavesy ‘to have enjoyment.
Both may have such a cognate or internal accusative,
which makes quite plain what otherwise nught have
been obscure that the genitive with them marks the whole
sphere within which their action hes: SBupons Kaxso-
tov o€ewv to have a very bad smell of leather that 2s a
very bad sinell within the capacity of leather; 7 yap
GNX ay atrodavcat ToD wabnuartos ; for what other
enjoyment would I have within the scope of lessons?
118 One important use still remains—the genitive,
as it is called, of value. This can best be elucidated
by such English expressions as ‘it is worth anything
within a pound, ‘I shall buy it for anything within
ten slullines’ Here again the genitive has for radical
signification ‘within the scope of, ‘withm the limits
of, that is, the notion of a whole not to be exceeded.
119 The genitive is thus employed with the
adjectives a@&os worthy, and dvafvos unworthy, and
with the verbs d&oby to judge worthy, tartew to
rate, Tewav to value, to assess, @vetcOar' to buy;
mTwrelv, amodicocGar* to sell; picbodv to let;
piaGoveda, to hive: wodrdrod dé&sos worth much;
Soka ypnwatwy ove @ynty reputation not to be
bought for money, tav tovey radodow uly Tavra

' ovotua I buy: imperfect éwvoduny . future dvicouat; aorist émpid-

pny ; perfect €wvnuae 5 passive aorist éwv7iAnv 3 perfect édvnua, verbals
Wy yTos, WYnTéos , present passive mpaow ebpicnw
* wwdrw £ sell, inore tarely darodidovat ; mperfect érddovy, drredid6-
uny ; future drodwcoua ; aorist dreddunv ; perfect mémpaixa ; passive
modroduar ; futuie rwdjoouar; aolist émpabtyy ; perfect rémrpaua.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 49

raya? ot Yeoi the gods sell us all good things at

the price of labour; ot« av dmedounyv moddod Tas
éxmidas I would not have sold my hopes (even)
fur a large sum; tov dopov tocovrouv érake he fixed
the tribute at so much; tivos Timijoesy avtT® tTpoc-
doxas TO dixacryptoy ; at how much do you expect
the court to fix-the-penalty against him? e¢ Bovarocto
Gavatov cot tiado@as (middle) if he were to chovuse to
fix-for-limself-the-penalty ¢hat 7s to assess the penalty
at death against you; mAola TeTiunuéva (passive)
yenuateov boats valued at a money-price; prcGodrae
Tadavrov Tov aypov he hires the farm for a talent.
120 Indeed we may have a genitive of this sort
with any verb denoting work for which payment is
made: d€ka wvov épydferas he does the work for ten
minae; mdcou diuddcKxet 6 Joatos; how much does
Isaeus charge for his lessons? wévte pvm@y dudackes he
charges five mae.
121 It is hardly necessary to remind the reader
that when certain prepositions bearmg a sense im
which they would be followed Ly a genitive case when
standing alone, enter into the composition of a verb,
they very often confer upon that verb the right of
construction with a genitive. This is the case with
compounds of card in the sense of ‘down over’ or
‘over, though the tendency of prose as against poetry
is to repeat the preposition after the verb: cara toty
Kopaw vimvouv Te KaTayeltrat yduKv a sort of sweet
sleep is shed over my eyeballs. The preposition 1s,
however, never repeated after compounds of xara in
the sense of ‘against’ or ‘at, a meaning which in
composition is often generalized imto a notion of
E
50 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

disfavour or hostility: @vOperre, madcat, KaTayerov

wou man, give over laughing at me; wrevd) KateyAo@r-
vefé wou he mouthed lies against me; catepporvncas
rod xuwodvvov you slighted the risk literally you were
minded agaist v7 in disfavour of, the risk,
122 A class of compounds with xara demands
special mention. These are the verbs KatayiuyvwcKkew
to acknowledge or decide against, catatrnpilerGar
to vote ayvainst, caradscalew to adjudge against, and
xaTaxpivery to give sentence against. All of them are
fullowed by an accusative of the penalty decided upon
and a genitive of the person who is to receive it:
KaTayiyvocKkew, KatalndivecOar, Kxatadsexdlew, or
KaTakpiverv, Enuiay or Oavatoy Kresviov to acknow-
ledge, vote, adjudge, or give sentence of a fine or of
death against Cleimizas. The two first are used also
with an accusative of the erime: xatayiyvooxKe
or Katabnpiver@a, Kror7v, dethiav, RAerotakiav
KyXewiov to acknowledge or vote the crime of theft,
the fault of cowardice, the crime of desertion, against
Cleinias.
123 The constructions of xatnyopeiy should be
eiven here. Its first construction is naturally that of
KaTHYyopos éivai Tevos to be an accuser of a person.
Then as naturally there arises from this carnyopely ré
Tevos to make a charge against a person.
124 Here, as always, poetry has
preserved many older and less
restricted uses. We see more
easily than in prose the radical
sense of the case; as, for
example, in an expression like
FIRST GREEK SYNTAN 51

aitios Tarpos guilty within-

the - meaning -of - all-that~-the-
word-father-imples, guilty of
sin against a father.
The vocabulary of poetry
being rich in old words, con-
tains many adjectives and verbs
not mentioned above which
still require constructions with
the genitive.

THE GENITIVE IN SENSES AND CONSTRUCTIONS THAT

PROPERLY BELONG TO THE LOST ABLATIVE WHICH
IT HAS REPLACED

125 The genitive rare in prose after yiyver@as ‘ to

be begotten ov born of, and efvas ‘to be sprung from,
is an instance of the ablative gemtive: o Kd&pos
éyévero KapBicov Cyrus was the son of Cambyses,
ro.outwy éoré from such men are you sprung
126 This genitive is also found with a large class
of verbs maiking modifications of the general sense ‘ to
be removed or separated from. Some of the most
common of these verbs are: d7éyew to be distant;
duéverv to be away; dvadépesy to differ; améyer@as to
abstain; deidecOas to be sparing; tavecPau to cease;
Aye to stop: 4 vTos ov TOAD diéyer (OY arréyes)
Ths ymeipov the island is not far distant from the
mainland; ovdéy duahépers RaipehbOvtos thy dvow
you do not differ in nature from Chaerephon ; aséyou
TeV aicypav noovey refrain from low pleasures; ¢i7
éya cov deicowar; shall I spare you? éravcato tov
52 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

cwévov he ceased from labour; Ayjyovow gptdos they

stop from strife.
So yapiferv to separate; Avecv to release; éXevPepody
to deliver; dradarrew to rid; wave to make to
cease; kwAvew to hinder; elpyew to keep. These
have an accusative of the person or thing released,
delivered etc, and a genitive of the person or thing
from whom or from which he is released, delivered
etc. Tod capatos ywplfew riv Wweyynv to separate
the soul from the body; ypeav édeuvPepot tH yuvatca
he frees his wife of debts; woAéuov kal KaKay ce
atranraéw I will rid you of war and suffering ; évrauce
Eevohavra ths apyns he deprived Xenophon of his
command; éxaArAvcapyev adtov ths odov we kept him
from the road.
127 A few verbs meaning ‘to yield’ or ‘make
way for’ have a dative of the person in whose favour
this is done and a genitive of the place yielded: Diréa-
To) TapakeywopyKamev THS éXeuGepias we have given
up independence in favour of Philip; tdetew coe tov
Noyov I yield the right of speech to you.
128 The same sort of genitive is found with é:a-
dhopos different, and with édevbepos free: devadopos
rourou different from this; édevOepos aitias free from
blame.
129 Certain prepositions, especially é« and dro,
when compounded with verbs give them a sense which
requires for its completion a genitive of this ablative
kind. The tendency of prose, however, as against
poetry is to repeat the preposition with the genitive
in such circumstances, to say, for example, éxBaives é«
THs woNews Lather than é«Baives THs mwoNews, atroaTay
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 53

amo tov (épav ‘to drag from the temples’ rather than
drrooray lepov, and drotpéresy ato TOU épeTHMaTOS
‘to divert from the question’ rather than drotpézesy
TOD €pWTNUATOS.
130 Verbs imvolving the notion of deficiency or
want ought not, as is generally done, to be classed
with those involving the idea of abundance or plenty.
The latter have the true genitive (see above§ 113),
whereas the former can be shown to take the ablative-
genitive. Such verbs are de@rOaz to need (for oneself);
amopety to be at a loss for; omavifew to he in want
of; xevoty to empty of; épywody to deprive of;
dmootepety to rob of; oréperPac to be without:
Seitas yap dpvis kab Ssaxovou tevos for a bird also
requires a servant; dzopets 68 rod ov; but what are
you ata loss for? dpyuptov ovavifw I am in want of
inoney ; wrdvrwv éxévwcayv tv vaty they emptied the
ship of everything; dmootepels tov Tatépa Tihs
tupavvldos you rob your father of the crown.
The impersonal verb de? belongs to this class: ov
Se? redyous there 1s no need of a wall. Its commonest
use is in phrases like moNAod de¢ far from It;
ddirvyou det all but: worrod Set ovTws Eyeev Tar trom
that being the case vterally it wants much to be so.
131 The corresponding adjectives, Kevds, eros,
yuuvos, éonuos have a like construction: vads xevy
avépav a ship without men; wvros dévdpov bare of
trees; yuuvos érA@v without arms. Here belong a
great many adjectives which by composition with alpha
privative acquire a sense like that of ypedos and its
congeners: dtywos yepav deprived of privileges;
dpotpos THs aperhs without part in virtue.
54 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

132 The venitive case is also the successor of the

lost ablative when it serves as an equivalent for 4 and
the nominative or accusative after the comparative
deyree of adjectives and adverbs: éy tals avayxais
ypnuatov kpeirtwoy didos in time of need a friend is
better than money; pelGova cé vopifopev eivas Tot
aéerdod we think that you are taller than your brother.
133 Similarly we find the genitive following
adjectives which convey the idea of comparison: ara
tov dixatwv other than just; éréopws tws Tov eiwOoTov
sumehow differently from the common; taorepos adi-
xovtTo ol Ocomifs Tov Wraratav the Thespians came
later than the Plataeans; 77 wpotepaia THs payns on
the day before the battle literally sooner than the
battle; To Tov rodewioy TwARGos TWoANaTAdCLOVY Hy
yuwov the enemy’s numbers were many times as great
as we,
134 This construction is also the normal one with
verbs which imply a comparison of any sort: 7déws
TAE€ovEeKTOUpEV TOY éyGpov we are glad to get the
advantage over our enemies; mwodAd éAaTToUTAL
Atoyivou he is ata great disadvantage with Aeschines ;
0 Ktpos taorépnoe tHe wayns Cyrus came too late for
the fighting; amedeihOn mpofupias he fell short of
zen,
Any compounds, however, of sepi, mpo, or vrrép
which have this description of meaning and take the
genitive, such as rrepuyiyveoOat, wooéyetw, UTEepBarrcuy,
must be ranked among verbs which are followed by
the true genitive. They may all have the preposition
repeated before the genitive.
135 In regard to this ablative-
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 55

genitive, poetical usage is most

instructive. It is constantly
used in answers to the question
whewe? s0nov éoyetas he
comes from the house, “OdAvp-
vou Trapeva flying from Olym-
pus; Bdlpev totacle rise
from the steps. It may even
be employed to express the
personal origin of an action:
TAnyels Ovyatpos THs eis
smitten of my daughter; dc-
daxta xeivov things taught of
him.

THE TRUE DATIVE CASE

136 The true dative has in Greek two main uses

It is employed on the one hand first, further to define
the sense of many transitive verbs already partly
defined by an accusative, secondly, to define the sense
of many intransitive verbs, and thirdly, to define the
meaning of certain adjectives and adverbs. It 1s
employed on the other hand to designate the person
who is interested in the action of the verb.

The dative as defining verbs, adjectives, anc adverbs

137 The dative is used to define further verbs

with the general meaning of giving, already partly
defined by an accusative or a genitive It is from
this use that it gets its name in Greek 7 6d0TtK)
56 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

mroows, translated into Latin by casus dativus. This

is a large class of verbs, including such words as
eye, ayyéArew etc. as well as dcdovae and the hke:
didwot picOov Tols oTpaTimtais he gives pay to the
soldiers; ypnuata diavéuw tots toditas I distribute
money to the citizens, thy wayny ayyéAdres TO Bacidet
he reports the battle to the king.
138 The dative is also used to define verbs which
have the meanings ‘to be like’ and ‘to be near, and
to define further verbs with the meanings ‘to make or
think like” and ‘to put near’ Such are eixévae to
be like; wanoiafew to draw near; tcody to think
equal; ouooty to make to resemble; wrAncdfew to
put near; eccafey to compare: Kal yap arew dptuye
for he was like a quail; ddopotwodpeba Tots pasvo-
pévoss we shall be made to resemble mad men ; 0 Kipos
émrnciale TH otpatoTédm Cyrus drew near to the
camp; (cot Ta éavTodD Kaxa Tots éwots he thinks his
own misfortunes equal to mine; KevTavpows FKacap
avrovs they compared themselves to centaurs, top
dvipa érrAnciace TO immm he made the man draw
near the horse.
139 This being so, it need hardly be said that
adjectives like icos, éuosos, and waparAjovos, and the
adverbs and adverbial phrases connected with them,
have also their sense defined by datives. This is also
the case with 6 adrds the same: (udtioyv TaparAHjovov
76 o@ @ Cloak like yours; rd adrov érpakev ‘Apevia
he did the same thing as Ameinias ; é& lcou éyevopeda
upev We were put on the like footing with you.
140 The impersonal verbs 6e2, wéres, and mpérres
are construed with what seems to be the dative in this
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 57

sense; def wos THS yUTpas I have need of the pitcher;

Eueré cos Tov épyouv you were concerned about the
matter; TO pndév adicety Tacw avOparols mpéres it
beseems all men to do no wrong. To these we may
add mpoonKes ‘it behoves, but that verb really belongs
to the following class.
141 Very many verbs compounded with preposi-
tions are followed by the dative because the preposition
retains In composition a sense in which it would even
when uncompounded require a dative after it: o Geas
Thy yuyny jyiv évébuce God breathed our soul into
US; Ta Epya cuudh@vel Trois roryous the facts are in
harmony with the statement; atcoyuvyy trepiamres TH
move. he shames his country literally fastens shane
round.
There is a great tendency to repeat the preposition
again before the dative. In this case it must be
remembered that for compounds with ovv, the successor
of that preposition, namely, wera must be used before
the substantive as cvvaroOuncKes peta THS yvvacKos
he dies with his wife.
Though dyré when uncompounded never has the
dative after it, yet verbs compounded with it normally
have when they mark opposition and the like ideas:
avrTetayOnoay Tots Toveniols they were arrayed against
the enemy. In this case, seeing that ayri cannot be
repeated before the substantive, pos with the accusative
very often does this duty.
142 It inust be the case that the dative after some
compound verbs does not belong here, but rather to
the instrumental or locative dative. The dative with
compounds of ovy is perhaps the instrumental dative,
or 8 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

and with compounds of éy, the locative daéive. Jn our

present state of knowledge we must leave many of
these points undetermined.
143 We are equally uncertain under which head,
this or the dative of interest, to rank the dative which
we find with a laree class of verbs in the meaning of
which the idea of reciprocity forms a marked element.
Many of these verbs have the inflexions of the muddle
voice—those used normally to convey the same notion.
Of this kind are wayer@as to fight; adywviferPar to
contend; dicafecGas to be at law; adusrArAacGas to vie;
Totewely to ake war; é€pvfew to strive; audio PyTelv
to dispute; d:@ mrodéuov or wayns tévar to be at war;
Ouoae OY eis yYelpas lévar to come to blows: dep
payecOat Sewor éote kat tvyn ‘tis hard to fight with
heaven and fate; of OnBator érorkéunoav roils TTra-
ravevot the Thebans made war upon the Plataeans ;
ésedlikacro av wot he would have been at law with me.
lit A small subdivision of this class deserves
special notice. It consists of verbs all with middle
inflexions and all compounded with éva@ in the sense
of ‘in two directions, ‘on the one side and the other.’
Such are dvadéyer@as to contend in argument; éza-
E.bifer@ar to contend with swords; dsaxiduvevec@ar
to play a game of risks; dsacxeémrec
Gas to contend in
jests; dvaxovrifer@a. to contend with the javelin:
SiaroyifecPar to balance accounts; dsadéperPar to
quarrel; Mydosoe dueEshicw rept Tis yopas Mapabav
at Marathon you fought for Athens with the Medes
sword against sword,
145 A true reciprocal meaning is also seen in
omévoec@as to make a truce literal/y to make a drink-
FIRST GREEK SYNTAA 59

offering on cme side and the other; tore éovescdpeba

Tois BapBapors on that occasion we made a truce with
the foreigners.
146 Most of the verbs mentioned in the three
preceding paragraphs are as often construed with mpos
and the accusative as with the dative: éonéwnce
moos Tovs Bufayriovs lie made war upon the men of
Byzantium ; omevdmpeba mpos addAdovs let us make
a truce with one another.
147 We may rank with the above verbs the
adjectives with meanings such as these: oXéutos
hostile; éy@pos inimical ; diduvos friendly ; edvovs well-
disposed ; évaytios adverse, opposite.
148 Poetical usage does not differ
in any degree from _ prose.
When prose, however, tends
to substitute some preposition
with its case for the simple
dative, poetical writers adhere
rather to the older use. A
good example is evyeoba ‘to
pray to” This verb has con-
stantly the dative in poetry
while in prose the normal
construction is with spos and
the accusative.
Similarly prose writers with
compound verbs normally re-
peat the preposition before
the dative.
60 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

Dative of vuterest
149 Another common function of the true dative
is to mark the person interested in the action of the
verb. A great many verbs, 1t will be seen, take this
dative when our ordinary English translation of them
completely conceals its presence.
150 It is this dative which we find with oirapyeu,
yiyver@at, eivar, marking the person for whom a thing
exists that is who possesses that thing: 7cav Kpolow
Svo maides Croesus had two sons; cod pev xpatouvTos
dovrEla Urapye AUTOS, KpaToumevou dé cov édevdepia
when you are master, their lot is slavery, when you are
mastered independence; yprwatrd pos yiyveras I get
money.
151 The dative also marks the person for whose
advantage or disadvantage anything is done (dativus
commod: et incommodi) This use is found with
adjectives as well as with verbs: airids eful cot
rourwy I am the cause of this (happening) to you;
ovTOS 0 OUpaVLOS Epws TOANOD GELOS eoTL Kal TONEL Kal
tovdtars this heavenly love is worth a great deal both
to a community and to individuals.
152 It is very common with verbs formed from
substantives, such as Son@ety to be a helper for;
vmnoerelyv to be a servant to; Tiuwpety to be a champion
or avenger for; émsxoupety to be an ally of; é8onOnce
Tots éyGpots he helped his enemies; émixovpjcw Tots
vowors I will succour the laws.
153 But in most cases such a dative after a verb
is much less easily recognised. Its frequency can only
be appreciated by familiarity with Greek. Some of
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 61

the commonegt constructions explained by it are these:

adaspetcOat tt tive to take a thing away for oneself to
the disadvantage of somebody that ws to deprive some-
body of a thing; pwéuder@ai ti Teves to censure some-
thing to the disadvantage of somebody that 1s to blame
a person for a thing; P@ovety revi to cherish envy to the
disadvantage of a person that 2s to envy a man; yphy
to be of service to! that 1s, of a god to answer an
inquirer, of @ man to lend; rodopeto fai tit to be
abusive to the hurt of somebody that is to abuse;
apvve TL rive to ward off something for somebody’s
behoof that is, with dative only to help somebody;
AUoLTENEsY TLVi to pay his way for somebody thaé ts to
profit; elesy tit to give way im somebody's favour
that is to yield; nryeto@at tive to lead the way for a
person that is to guide; yapifer@as to do a favour for
a person that is to oblige: adelrero poe Tov dypoy he
took the farm from me; rdde tuivy péeurbera he will
blame you for this; dacl tiv untpuayv ddovety odiar
they say that their stepmother envies them; 7i Xov-
Sopel juiv; why do you abuse us? o¢ yap PXEtrovTeEs
rois Tuddois HryovpeOa for we who see guide the blind ;
Gvvoopev tH modes We Shall help our country.
These are but a few examples out of a large
number, but they will suffice to set the reader on the
track of the whole class of datives so used.
1 By such a use the different meanings of xpicfa can be sensibly
explamed. From the meaning ‘to be of service to’ was developed the
general sense to ‘serve’ The passive of xp%v with an instrumental
dative xp#oGal tue would mean to be served, 1 if by God to be an-
swered, if by man to be served by ve. to borrow of a man or to use a
man orathing The earliest uses are in favour of thus, ¢.g. Homer
Odyssey gpeci yap xéxpnr’ dyadgow she was (a woman) served by a
good understauding.
(ms)bo FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

154 The dative may also be employed to mark the

person for whom or from whose point of view a thing
is true: TéOvny’ bwiv madras from your point of view
T am long since dead. This is the use of the dative
which we find so often in participles representing an
imaginary person in geographical descriptions: °*Eari-
dapvos éors worss ev bela eiomdéovts Tov *loviov
xoATrov Epidamnus is a town on one’s right hand
when one enters the Ionian eulf.
155 This use hardly differs from that seen in
the phrases rodro éorw éwoi Bovrouévo, ndopéver,
acpéva, axCowévm and the hke: Oavyafm ef pr)
acuévois vey adiywat I am surprised that my visit
does not please you.
156 Here also belongs what has been called the ethic
dative that zs the dative claiming sympathy: tovr@ mavu
pot TpoceyveTe TOY voov give your attention please to
this; am’ éxelvou ruddos epi coe since that time I am
blind, if you will let me say so. It is confined to the
personal pronouns, and is chiefly met with in pod or
1[Lev

THE DATIVE IN SENSES AND CONSTRUCTIONS THAT

PROPERLY BELONG TO THE LOST INSTRUMENTAL CASE
WHICH IT HAS REPLACED

157 The Greek dative as successor to the instru-

mental case is used to mark the instrument (whether
personal or of things) through which a thing is done,
the manner in which a thing is done, or the accompam-
ment of an action,
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 63

The dative of the rnstrument or agency

158 The dative as marking personal agency sur-

vived in Attic after certain tenses. It is sometimes
used with the aorist passive, it 1s frequently used
with the perfect passive, and it is always used with
the verbal adjectives in -ros and in -réos: Totatra
tots Kopuv@iows éempayOy such things were done by the
Corinthians ; radra cot eipntae this has heen said by
you; eb Te LoL ToLsovToy elpyaorto if anything of the
kind had been done by me; dpa ypuxtov éotev vpiv ;
ought you to grumble? 7 dpery coe aoKntéa you
ought to practise virtue; puyytéov éotly npivy rovs
ayadous we should imitate the good.
In all other circumstances w7é followed by the
genitive is normally used to express personal agency.
159 There is, however, a class of verbs which
owing to their acquirimg a modification of meaning had
this construction left to them when it was replaced by
vio after verbs about the passive meaning of which
there could be no mistake. An admirable instance of
this is the verb weiOec@ar. Of course this is simply
the passive of sreiMew ‘to persuade’ (which is followed
by an accusative of the person persuaded) and means
‘to be persuaded” In this sense it was originally
followed by a dative of the agent (to be persuaded by
somebody), and this dative it retained even alter its
meaning was modified into either ‘to believe’ or ‘to
obey” That in older Greek érifouny is used with the
meaning ‘I believed,” ‘I obeyed’ is not in any way
against this explanation, seeing that the middle and
passive voices were originally identical in form, and
64 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

so remained except in the aorist. Other verbs of this

class are dpyitec@ax (to be angered by) “to be angry
with; dy@ec@ar (to be burdened by) to be annoyed
with; @vwodcOar (to be put in a temper by) to be
provoked with; ov cot wefMowae I do not believe you;
vu ov meccoweda we will not obey you; “EXAncww
wpyic8n o Aapetos Darius was angry with the Greeks,
Kopuvdlows yderGe Kaxewvot yé cou You Were annoyed
at the Corinthians and they at you; Evpsmidn @vpod-
peda we are provoked with Euripides.
160 Of course many of these verbs have also a
dative used of things as well, while others of such
original passives have the dative of things only. Such
are HdecOar (to be sweetened by) to be pleased with;
AvTetoOas to be grieved at; ayadrXecOar (to be
gladdened by) to glory in; evdpaivecOas to be cheered
by: &mravtes nddpeOa TO ayovi we are all delighted
with the contest; éduvr7@yn te mpayyate lie was
orleved at the business.
161 What has just been said of passives is also
true of neuter verbs of similar meaning, only that in
their case the dative cannot be called a dative of the
agent, even when it represents a person. Thus use is
common even in Attic, though there is a distinct
tendency to replace it even in the case of things by
iro with the genitive or in certain cases by pos with
the accusative: yarerraivew to be anery; dyavaxrely
to be indignant; yaipew to rejoice; d@upety to
despond at: éyaspov 7H cowry they were glad at the
silence; yyavaxtes TH Kredpy@ he was vexed with
Clearchus; éyarkernva TO mpaywate I was angry at
the matter.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 65

162 It ys the same use that we have in phrases

such as voow amobvicKkewv, TAnyA TeXevTav. But in
such cases we normally find the old idiom replaced by
UTO vorov, vm wAnyHs and the like.
163 The instrumental dative expressing motive as
in dGovm todro épace he did it from envy; oB@
anméspauev he ran away from fear; edvola rH of for
love of you, 1s rare in Attic. It is constantly replaced
by prepositional phrases like edvotas évexa, dia hoor,
vTo hOovov ete.
164 It is very manifestly the instrumental dative
which we see used after such verbs as tyiyvaoKesr,
Texpaiper Oar, kpiverv to express the means Ly which one
knows, conjectures, or concludes: tovtows yoyvdones
by this he knows; ta pméAXovtTa Texpalpouat Tots
ryeyernuévors L judee what will be by what has been;
eUvola Kaip@® Kpiveras friendship is judged by a time-
of-diticulty. Here also, however, the tendency was to
replace the dative by the prepositions é« and dro
followed by the genitive.
165 After verbs denoting to punish the means
of punishment are expressed by a dative: mAnyais
éxoXace Tov dovAov he punished his slave by flogging;
EnLlodpEev TOUS TOLOVTOVS YPILATW, ATULIG, TOIS Eaya-
row, Javadto we punish such men by fining, by dis-
franchisement, by extreme penalties, by death.

The dative of accompaniment

166 The instrumental dative is employed to mark

accompaniment——an idiom retained in Attic. It is
constantly so used in military operations to denote the
F
66 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

force a general has with him by land or sea: worr@

CTTPATO TopeveTas, otpateverar he marches, he goes
on an expedition with a large force; trios rots
Suvatwrdtos Kal avdpace topevduela let us proceed
with only the strongest horses and men; vauTieg@ or
vavoly opacGas to set out with a fleet.
In certain expressions aviT® or avtois is added
with much the same force as the English ‘and all’:
vaby eirov avtois avdpacw they took a ship crew and
all; coAXot 46n catexpnpvicbycay abtois Tots imrots
many men had been already precipitated horses and all.
To add the article is not common.
167 It is this dative which we find with the
verbs érecGat and dxorovdety to follow: éxetve
Ererat 6 dSeomotns my master follows him; ti rade
axoNovGotpmev mote, @ Sécrota; why do we follow
this man, master? Perhaps also we should place here
xowos and the words related to it: To $s dmace
xowoyv the light is shared in by all’

The datve of manner

168 This modification of the instrumental sense is

not common, but the frequency with which certain
examples of it occur makes it appear to be common.
The most important are rtpow@ Tivi In a manner;
THOE, TOUT, ExElLVM, TOLOVTM, TOLDOE, TO tpom@ in. this,
that, such, a manner; Gia by force; dorm by cunning;
orovdn with zeal; oyory by leisure, scarcely; cey7
in silence; dvayxn of necessity; Acyew in appearance;
1 The dative after cowwveivy, however, is to be explained by 152
‘to be a partner ior one.’
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 67

gpyo in fact; 7@ dv7e in reality; Snwooia, xowy

publicly ; éd¢a privately ; wef on foot.
169 Now and then we get exainples of a sort which
show that this sense of the dative was not by any means
lost to the Greeks, eg. of “A@nvaios atede? TH vixen
avéornoav the Athenians retired with their victory
incomplete; 7oAXO GoptSm@ érncayv they attacked
with creat uproar. But other modes of expression are
generally preferred to convey the manner or circum-
stances of an action, the commonest of all being
adverbs or prepositional phrases; cmoudaiws, mpodv-
LOS: MeTAa TOAMS crOVdHs, Ure mpoOvsias, and the
like.
The datwe of measure

170 Lastly the instrumental dative is employed

with comparatives or words with a comparative mean-
ing to mark the measure by which one thing is
inferior or superior etc. to another: moddA@ xpetrrov
éotiv éudhavis piros 4} movTOS adavys better far a
friend whom we can see than money which we cannot;
Suotv Hépaw vaTépnoav THs wayns they were two days
too late for the battle; tocovr@ mpoetye THY aAXwY 80
much was he superior to the rest; cépats vepetyov
Tay toteutoyv they outflanked the enemy by a wing.
Very common in this sense are wodA@, dAiy@, WaKpd,
rocovT@, pxp@. It must be noted, however, that
movv and é6riyov are very often used to convey the
same meaning, perhaps following in this respect the
analogy of ri, ve, ovdéy and pndév which are never
found with comparatives except in the accusative
neuter,
68 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

171 The words woAd@ and paxp@ are also used

in this sense with superlatives, woAA@ dpioros,
waxpo Bédrtiatos far the best.

THE DATIVE IN SENSES AND CONSTRUCTIONS THAT PRO-

PERLY BELONG TO THE LOST LOCATIVE CASE WHICH
‘IT HAS REPLACED

172 The locative case has itself survived in a

few words: yawaé lumi, on the ground; of«os at
home; Tv@ot at Delphi; Meyapot at Megara; IT\a-
ralacw at Plataea; “A@jvynow at Athens. These
may all be used in prose, aud are indeed more numer-
ous in prose than the datives of place proper such
as Mapafave which replaced the locatives. With a
few exceptions hke that just named the invariable
Attic idiom is to use the preposition év before the
dative.
173 In regard to time, which always in language
goes side by side with place, we find that here too
prose usage has replaced the original locative rather by
év and the dative than by the simple case.
The simple dative is permissible to express time
when only in the following cases :—
1) the words @épes in summer, yewave in winter ,
7oe in spring; wpe Yepous, yetwdoves etc. in
the season of summer, of winter ete.
LOww the words mépa, vuxri, wnvi, éres when they
are defined in some way such as 7H tpiry
nuépa on the third day; 77 mpotrepaia (12.
nuépa) on the day before; ro terdprm éres
in the fourth year.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAS 69

2) the names of festivals such as Tlavaénvaious

at the Panathenaea; Avovuciois at the Dio-
nysla; vouunvia at the new moon
In all other cases év must precede the dative.
174 In poetry we have constantly
the dative without éy with all
manner of words to denote
at a place: Muenvais pn év-
Gadde avaxddrer Geovs do not
here at Mycenae call upon
the gods; vdv aypotcs Tuy
yavet he is now in the fields;
"EteoxdXos = oTieloTas = Ties
éayev Apyeia yOovi Eteoclus
got many honours in the
Argive land.
CHAPTER V—THE VOICES OF THE VERB

THE ACTIVE VOICE

175 In Greek as in other languages the active

voice is often used to express not what the subject
himself does, but what he gets others to do: o Bép&ns
tov "A@wy dcopvée Xerxes dug a canal through Athos ;
Anpoobévns TIlvnxov é&ereiyooe Demosthenes fortified
Pylus.
176 Further, as in other languages, it constantly
happens that the active voice has both a transitive and
an intransitive sense. Sonietimes this is due to
ellipsis, sometimes not. Well-known examples of
verbs which have naturally the two meanings combined
are éyewv and mparrecv. Besides the signification ‘to
have, ‘to hold, ‘to possess, eyes is used especially
with adverbs in the sense of ‘to keep,’ ‘to be’: éyes
yap ovTws, eloly ov TavTes Kaxoi it is even so; all
men are not bad; éyes xara yadpav he keeps on the
spot. Its compounds also have an intransitive sense
as often as a transitive. The intransitive sense of
mparrew is also quite common, ‘to fare, ‘to succeed’:
TO yap KAS TpaTToyTs Taca yh} maTpis to a man
doing well any land is a native land.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX ia

177 Of verbs which owe their intransitive mean-

ing to ellipsis the following are perhaps the most
common: édravvesy properly meanmg ‘to drive’ is
used with the ellipse of tov otparov or the lke of a
general marching, and with the ellipse of froy of any
one in the meaning ‘to ride’ In a lke way dzaipeu
‘to lift away’ or ‘to carry off’ is frequently employed
with an ellipse of crparoy or vats in the significations
‘march away’ ‘sail away’ etc. The same explanation
serves for dvdyeev ‘to live’ and reXevray ‘to die, there
being with both an ellipse of roy Biov, and for mpoc-
éyvety ‘to devote oneself to’ with which there is an
ellipse of rov vody.
178 Of these two classes the second, namely that
consisting of words for which it is still easy to supply
the lost word, is in the history of all languages
constantly recruiting the first, namely that in which we
cannot see how the intransitive sense grew out of the
transitive. For example, let us compare mpocéyeuv
‘to devote oneself to’ with éxadvew ‘to march.” The
former word can still be used in good writers with tov
vooy expressed and is never used in a sense for which
Tpocéyes Tov vooy might not equally serve. On the
other hand, éxavvey never has its lost accusative
expressed in good writers of prose, but is sometimes
even used of soldiers marching, which would have
been quite impossible if its original sense had been
present to the mind of the writer.
179 Intransitive active verbs constantly serve in
all languages to replace the passive voice of transitive
verbs. But there can be few languages in which this
is so common as in Greek, or in which the usage Is so
fe FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

consistent. There are one or two instances in Latin

such as fio as the passive of facio, venire in aliquam
rem as the passive of adducere aliquem in aliquam
rem, and subjacére as the passive of deicere.
180 In Attic Greek we never find the passive of
atroxreivew ‘to kill’ Its place is invariably taken by
arobunoxey in all its tenses (except that for perfect
the simple réOvnxa teOvnxévas teOvavas etc. is alone
used) even when a person is sail to be killed by some-
body: dwé@avev td tod “AXeEdvdpov he was killed
by Alexander. The verbs ed or caxos rovety tive ‘ to
do good or evil to a person’ and ev or kaxkds éyeuy
twa ‘to speak good or evil of a person’ have invariably
their passive sense given by ed or kaxas macyeuv ‘to
suffer good or evil, and ed or caxk@s axovew ‘to hear
good or evil’: caxds axovowev bro TeV TokiTaY We
are in bad repute with the citizens. Compare the
Latin bene, male audire. Similarly we get phrases
hke YAéyee xab axoveww to speak and be spoken
to.
181 The verb Badrrey and its compounds have in
certain senses their passive represented by wimrew and
its compounds. No Greek would ever have said yup-
vos Ovpale é&eA8AHOnv but always with Aristophanes
yupvos Oupal’ éEerecov. In dice to cast is "Adpodirny,
etc. BadXeuv, the cast is ta wecovra.
182 Along with certain of its compounds dryetv ‘to
bring’ has for passive ¢évae ‘to come’: of woNiTas Tous
puyadas xata&ovewy the citizens will restore the exiles ;
ob buyaces UO THY TOMLToY KaTlacw the exiles will
be restored by the citizens. To a Greek it was as
impossible to say xatdfovras for xariagw in such a
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 73

sentence as it is for an Englishman to say ‘I goed’

instead of ‘1 went.’
183 The verb dvéxesv ‘to prosecute’ has for passive
not duoxecOar but hevyew vo twos: Medias édim£&e
dhovou Tov aderkdov Meidias prosecuted his brother for
murder; 0 aderhds vad Mesdiou ebuye govov his
brother was prosecuted by Meidias for murcler.
These are only examples of the tendency. It is so
persistent throughout all Greek that I can do no more
than illustrate it here.
184 It runs side by side with another tendency,
namely that of using an active like éyew or Tuyyaveu
with a substantive of like meaning to the active verb
as the passive of verbs like dvoyafew, olxreipew and
the like: olfxreipoyev tov taida we pity the boy; o
Tats tb av éXéov Tuyxaves the boy is pitied by us.
So cuyyveunv eye OL cuyyveuns Tuyxavew as
passive of cuyyiyvdoKey; éraivou tuyyavew or
érawov &yetv, aorist éraivou tuyxety or ératvov AaPetv,
as passive of éwauvety, or érawéoas, and go on in end-
less variety,
THE MIDDLE VOICE

185 It ought never to be forgotten that the middle

and passive volces were originally identical. Indeed
in all classical Greek one set of inflexions serves to
convey both the middle and the passive sense for
every tense of the verb except the aorist. Even of
the aorist this was true in primitive times, as is shown
by numerous instances in early Greek, and by not a
few survivals in Attic usage, such as daa@Aopnv I was
destroyed; éwAsjunyv I was filled; avyunv I was bene-
v4 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

fitel; érpavounyv I was turned, eEnypopay IT was

roused. These are undoubtedly all true passives, and
ought not to be confused, as they often are, with re-
flexive middles.
186 Some verbs have of course no middle voice,
just as some have no active and others no passive. It
is a matter entirely of signification whether a verb has
active, middle, or passive inflexions, The verbal notion
may be of a kind which precludes one or more voices.
Occasionally it happens that a verb which seems to us
to be middle because of its meaning, was originally
really passive, and therefore properly had the passive
aorist inflexions which now seem to us, and perhaps even
seemed to the Greeks themselves, quite anomalous. <A
good instance is BovrNecOas to wish. In Greek its
aorist is invariably éSovAndny. And why? There
is every reason to believe that the meaning ‘to wish’
has been developed out of a passive signification ‘to
be impelled,’ the root being the same as is found mn
Béros ‘a missile,” and Bory ‘a throw. I do not say
that all aorists passive in form, but middle in meaning
can be explained in this way, but a few words like
éBouvrnOny, themselves perfectly lecitimate, produced
by false analogy other forins not so legitimate.
187 The earliest meaning conveyed by the in-
flexions common to both the middle and passive voices
was undoubtedly reflexive. Not only has the passive
sense been generated out of the reflexive, but even the
reflexive sense itself has in the middle voice taken not
a few modifications.
188 The direct reflexive meaning of the middle
ig very uncommon. It is almost confined to verbs
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 75

ielating to ghe toilet: AodcPar to wash oneself;

dreidecOas to anoint oneself; Keipec@as to cut one’s
hair. To this class originally belonged xomreo@as ‘ to
beat oneself, the regular Attic verb for ‘to mourn’ a
dead person. With such exceptions, the direct
reflexive signification is normally conveyed by the
active voice and the reflexive pronouns: tUmres éauTov
he strikes himself; wAnyas éuavta@ évéBaror I foyoed
myself; even aitidtas éavtov ‘he blames himself,’ and
the hike.
189 The indirect reflexive meaning is much more
common. It marks an action done by a person for
his own behoof: ébuAdtrovto tovs Anotas they
watched the robbers for their own behoof that is they
were on their guard against; @dedelav Twa érEetpOvTo
ar avtaév etptoxerOar they tried to find for themselves
that is to get some assistance from them; paptupas
érropicato he procured for himself witnesses; otrop
npoovro they were taking their food; yuvatea nyayero
he took home a wife, he mained; odAvv ypovor
huvtvovto Tovs Tokeulous for a long time they defended
themselves against the enemy Jiterally they warded
off the enemy for themselves; éya 7H Bo TavTy
ge tTpévrouae I will rout you with this cry literally
turn you for my own behoof. It is this use of the
middle which we find in the very common Attic peri-
phrasis of srovetcOa with a substantive in place of a
simple verb m the active voice: mowaémeOa Tov modenov
equivalent to wokenapev let us wage the war; ézrou7)-
caro Tov Toby equivalent to érAevcer he sailed.
190 Another sense also indirectly reflexive is seen
in such middles as tapéyeo@ar to furnish from oneself
76 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

that ts from one’s own resources: KoAAaS vats

mapéoyovro they furnished many ships. It differs
from the active only in laying emphasis upon the fact
that the action is done willmely, or else that it is one
pecuharly one’s own. Other examples are: yvomny
amednvato he gave his opinion; dexpivravto ro
mpayua they took care to keep the business dark;
npEato Tod Noyou he began his speech. This is on the
whole a vanishing use in Greek. The earlier the
writer, the more instances are there of it. Indeed in
Homer the middle is constantly used when a person
does anything with what is his own and with what
concerns him. And there are in Attic a few survivals
of this in certain set phrases such as Ta 6mNa@ Tier Gas
to ground arms?
191 We have seen that the active voice may be
used with a causative sense: 0 Eép&ns Sumpv&e tov
"A@8ov Xerxes had a canal dug through Athos If in
this case Athos had been something over which Xerxes
had control in a natural way, the middle dcwpvEaro
might have been used. Such a causative meaning is
found with duddoKnecOar: ébuddEato Tovs vous lriTeveu
he had his sons taught riding. This use is very rare,
many of the instances usually given being altogether
wrong.”
t Namely to slip the shield from the left arm and let it rest upon
the ground against the leg, and to stick the spear by the orvpaé in the
ground, so leaving the hands free This was of course done at every
halt except with the enemy very near. Henve 1t came to mean ‘to
halt,’ ‘to take up a position’ even for battle, and also ‘to surrender,’
which was done by grounding arms and throwing up the hands.
* Such are the middles daveiferda: ‘to borrow’ and pichoicbar ‘to
hire’ as compared with davecfew ‘to lend’ and pucfovy ‘to let.’ Asa
matter of fact, davefew is simply ‘to make anything a édvos or loan’
that is ‘to lend,’ while davelfer@ac is ‘to receive anything as a ddvos
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX er

192 In a]l these senses we find middle deponents.

Thus the direct reflexive meaning is observable in
KkabéCec@at to seat oneself; dzrodoyetoPas to argue
oneself off, to defend oneself.
193 There are also deponents with the indirect
reflexive sense described in 189. Some of these are
unyavacia, teyvaoGat to contrive (for oneself);
xctaoGat to acquire (for oneself); paptdpec@ar’* to
seek a witness or witnesses for oneself; tAadcKxecGas to
propitiate (for oneself); oferfac to think literally to
take omens for oneself, to augur (from dus = avis) ;*
olmvilerOar to take omens (for oneself).
194 The largest class, however, of middle deponents
have that modification of meaning described in 190:
axpoagOa, to listen; OeacOas to gaze; werecOas to
fly; dpyelo@ar to dance; orodvpecOas to lament;
aicGavecOar to perceive; adixvetofar to arrive. A
glance at any Greek author will furnish examples by
the score.
195 For some reason or another, perhaps from the
notion of willing implied in the future tense, the middle
inflexions are In many verbs found in the future of all
moods, when the rest of the tenses are active in form.
Indeed in Attic Greek all verbs which express bodily
activity of any sort are middle deponents in the future,
or loan’ that is ‘to borrow.’ Mucfovv, on the other hand, 1s ‘to put
a ptoOds or rent upon a thing,’ and uchoveda ‘to lay a pwtoPds or rent
upon oneself.” These are the only explanations that accord with Greek
usage m regard to verbs in -ifew and -dew formed fiom substantives.
1 The ineaning of a very large number of Greek verbs will never be
properly understood till it 1s seen that they are substantives which
have been given verbal inflexions in precisely the same way as almost
any English noun may be converted into a verb; ¢g. to man, to desk,
to pen, to paper, to hand, to finger, to foot, to breast, to nose etc. etc.
* An origiual short o 1s in Latin short a when a v follows
18 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

even if they have the active inflexions in the present,

aorist, aud perfect: Bodv to shout bué Bonoouar I
shall shout; Sad«vew to bite but dnfouePa we shall
bite. A list of the more important of such verbs is
given on pp 150-153 of my First Greek Grammar.
196 The princrpal deponents expressing reciprocal
action of one sort or another have already been given
in 143-145. We may here add aorifer dan to jostle;
Kowvoroyeto Gar to commune with; dsveacodoyeto@ar to
dispute at law; (dvodoye?o
Par to converse In private;
émexnpuxéveo Gar to negotiate by herald; wapaxerevec
Oar
to encourage one another.

THE PASSIVE VOICE

197 With the exception of the aorist and the

tenses derived therefrom the passive inflexions are
identical with the middle. It only rarely happens that,
by false analogy with such forms as éGovAn@nv, the
aorist passive bears a middle sense. The majority of
the aorists in -@yv which are assigned in grammars to
the middle are undoubtedly true passives. For
example, oBetc@ar is generally called a middle
deponent, and surprise 1s expressed that its aorist is
éboByOnv rather than édboBncdaunv. The fact is, that
it 1s passive, and means ‘to be fright-ed’ So with
other aorists, such as @pu7Onv I was set in motion
that is I started; nvavri@Onyv I was made adverse that
ws I opposed; apyicOnv I was angered that is I was
anery. Dayhght is let into a great deal of Greek
usage by a proper understanding of this fact.
198 A good many middle deponents have signifi-
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX i2

cations whigh naturally call for expression mi passive

constructions. How 1s this managed if the inflexions
of middle and passive are identical? In the first
place, periphrases of the kind already mentioned in
184 are not uncommon, ¢.g. airiav éyew ‘to be blamed’
as passive of aitvacOas ‘to blame’ In the second
place, the special passive terminations of the aorist are
always available when circumstances admit of that
tense or any of its moods being used, ey. aipeto@as to
choose, eiAouny I chose, jpéOnv I was chosen , Biafec Oar
to force, éBracaunv I forced, é8:ac@ny I was forced.
Further, we do get now and then precisely the same
forms used both in a middle (fat vs an active) sense
and in a passive, eg. aipetras he chooses or he is
chosen. But this is naturally far from common.
199 Of the common periphrasis with croveto@as,
mentioned in 189, the passive is made by yiyveo@as :
dvaywyny totovueba we set sail that is dvayopeGa, but
H avayoyn yiyvetar sail is made; tyv mpddacey
Toveioe you make your excuse that is rpodacifecte,
but ) mpodacis yiyveras your excuse is mace.
200 In the construction of the passive voice there
is much more freedom than in Latin. In Latin an
awkward impersonal construction is employed in the
passive, if the sense of the active verb is defined by
other than the accusative case. Thus, invidet mihi ‘ he
enyles me, invidetur mihi‘ Iam envied. But in Greek
this is not so: ob« aperel TOV vooovvTwy he does not
neglect the sick, of nuednpévor avOpwmot améPavoy
men who were neglected diel; kxateyéXNacas tov
Knréwvos you laughed at Cleon, kareyeracOns vrro
Knrée@vos you were laughed at by Cleon; wucrevere Tots
80 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

move lois you believe the rich, wévns Néywu TadnOés ot

TeoTeveTat a poor man when he speaks the truth is
not believed; éreBovNeuvcavy TH Sho they plotted
against the democracy, 0 éjuos éreBovrevOn vr adTav
the democracy was plotted against by them.
201 Even such verbs as are followed by an
accusative of their direct object and a dative of their
indirect, such as éweTpérew ti reve ‘to entrust a thing
to a person, and érirarresy ti Tove ‘to enjoin a thing
upon a person, retain when turned passively their
object accusative while the object dative becomes
subject nominative; érétpeya latp@ tov vocodvta I
entrusted the sick man to a physician, larpds éretpamn
Tov voocovvTa a physician was entrusted with the sick
man; Tots Bowwrots irmov moocéraéay they enjoined
the Boeotians to supply cavalry, of Botwrol tormrov
mpoceTayOnoay the Boeotians were ordered to supply
cavalry.
202 Impersonal passives such as abound in Latin,
curritur, ambulatur, pugnatur and the like, are not
known in Greek except in the perfect and tenses
derived therefrom: wapecketacras all is prepared:
Tapecxevacro all was prepared; BeBorOnrai pos TO
TeOve@Ts my aid has been given to the dead; éreru-
opynro td Aewvidn vengeance was exacted for
Leonidas.
CHAPTER VI—THE TENSES OF THE VERB

203 The Englsh word tense, like so many others

used in schools, is a corruption of the Latin tempus,
which is merely a translation of the Greek name
ypovos. It will be a great help in understanding the
sienificance of the tenses 1f we keep in mind that tense
means time.

MEANING OF THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD

204 There are seven tenses of the indicative—the

present, the imperfect, the future, the aorist, the perfect,
the pluperfect, and the future perfect. In the first
place these tenses each express a definite idea of time.
They mark, so to say, that regarded from the point of
view of the speaker, the action denoted by them is
present, past, or future: Avw and AéAXvKa Mark an
action in present time; Avow and Aeduca@s Eromas
in future time; édvov, érvaa, and éredvxn in past
time.
205 But with most of the tenses this is not all
that they denote. It is all that is denoted by the
future and the aorist. These tenses express no more
G
§2 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

in regard to an action than the hare idea ef time past

and time future: éiuvcev he loosed, Avoes he will loose.
It is wud all that is denoted by the present, the im-
perfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the future
perfect. These tenses all convey a further notion than
the bare notion of time. They describe an action at
some point in its development. Thus Avw implies
that the action described by the verb 1s in progress,
and édvoy that it was in progress; while Aédu«a,
éXeruKn, and AeXvKEwS écowas Yepresent the action as
already passed into a state or condition in present, past,
or future time. We can bring out more or less these
meanings in English by unidiomatic periphrases such
as, I am loosing, Aww; I was loosing édvoy; I have
done loosing, XéAvea; I had done loosing, érerAven ; I
shall have done loosing, NedkuKws Ecowas; but the
English verb really presents the notion of time from a
different point of view? altogether.
206 It sometimes happens that the future and the
aorist pass into the class of tenses which tell us more
concerning any action than that it simply happened,
and, on the other hand, that the present lays aside some
part of its ordinary significance. These points will be
discussed under the heading of each tense. But to
1 Tt would be a singularly interesting study to inquire how far the
natural idioms of English have been mouified by the circumstance that
Latin and Greek have been the principal instruments of education.
To any who loves idiom, it 1s painful to have to listen to the tradi-
tional mode of turning Latin o1 Greek mto English, a specimen of
which 1s in the hands of all in the revisers’ translation of the New
Testament. Schoolmasters would seem to have invented an English
of their own in fruitless attempts to give the precise significance of
Latin or Greek tenses. Hence in ordinary English diction all such
monstrosities as ‘having gone to Greece’ instead of ‘going to Greece,’
‘he is walking’ instead of ‘he walks,’ and ‘he is being interviewed’
and the like
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 83

speak generally, the facts are as they are represented

in the accompanying table.

Riemer ena nares |

PRESENT | PAST | FUTURE

EXPRESSING THE PURE VERBAL NOTION

aorist | future
5 - | Ss: ~
amebavev dwoOuavetrut

EAL EV | Atvoret

IXPRESSING MORE THAN THE PURE VERBAL NOTION

A the action is represented in its duration

present imperfect
imoOvipr Ket améOyno
Kev
Avet eAvev
bc5 4 ae
B the action is represented in its results
perfect | pluperfect future perfect
TédvanKer eTeOvij Kew reOvijket
NeAvKev éNeAvKELV NeAvKOS EOTAL

The future and the aorist

207 The future indicative denotes no more than

that something or another will happen at some
moment in the future: drodavetras he will die; Avces
he will loose; Bacirevoes he will reign-as-king.
The aorist indicative denotes no more than that
something or another once happened at some moment
in the past: daé@avey he died; édAucev he loosed;
84 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

éBacikevoey he reigned. Now and then -the Greek

aorist indicative must be translated by the English
synthetic past with ‘have. This especially happens
with certain adverbs of time, namely, 76 already ;
morrakes often; od7roTe never; ovrw not yet; ovdéra
not even yet; ovder@more never yet: modddxus
ébavpaca I have often wondered; otarw evdov I have
not yet seen.
208 Such is the ordinary meaning of future and
aorist. Both tenses, however, sometimes mark more
than this pure notion of the time of an event. They
mark a point in the development of an action. This is
seen in such futures as Bacsdevoes When the context
requires us to translate it ‘he will become king’:
ratta mpaéas 6 Kidpos Bacrdetoes this done, Cyrus
will gain the kingdom, will become king. Similarly
the aorist may have the meaning of ‘he became so
and so, ‘he began to do so and so’: tadra mpakas o
Kipos é8acitevoev by doing this, Cyrus gained the
kingdom, became king. So é@appncev he took heart;
évoonoev he fell 1; npacOy le fell in love; éyéXacer
he burst out laughing.
209 A periphrastic future formed of the verb pér-
Nerv ‘to be likely’ and the infinitive of the present
or the future (never of the aorist), is by no means
uncommon: péAXoucL TroLely, wéXrNOVEL Tolncey they
are about to do; éwedrAe mpocRarddew, epedre
mpocParew TH Ilotesdaia he was going to attack
Potidaea.
We may also regard perhaps as periphrases of the
aorist such expressions as éyévero BactNevs he became
king.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 85

Lenses formed from the present stein

210 The present and imperfect indicative resemble

one another mm the mode in which they represent an
action, the one in present, the other in past time.
The present represents an action as going on in the
present, the imperfect, as going on in the past.
Two modifications of this simple sense are possible.
1) an action gomg on may be regarded as an
effort that perhaps will not succeed. Thus
we have the present ve/@m with the meaning
‘I try to persuade,’ éresfov ‘1 tried to persuade’:
meides éué ddixfoar he urges me to do wrong;
Exacros émeev avTov vrogTHvar THY apyny
everybody urged him to undertake the command.
2) an action going on may be regarded as for the
time being completed. Thus, devym I am
an exile; ébevyov I was an exile; vexed I am
victorious ; évixwy I was victorious.
Two instances particularly noteworthy are
neo Ll am come, f#xoyv I was come; and
olyouar I am gone, dyounv I was gone.
211 The present is often used to denote an event
in past time, not an action in the present. Because
this happens in narrative only, the present so used is
spoken of as the historical present Im such cases, it
no longer marks an action as going on, but simply as
happening once for all. It is graphic or picturesque
in so far as it puts a thing before the eyes of the
reader: at d€ TpidxovTa ves adixvodvTat eis Ta ert
Opakns Kal KatarawBavovot Loretdaay but the
thirty ships come to the quarter of Thrace and
86 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

surprise Potidaea; o¢ “A@nvator tovs mpatgus dira-

Kas ois évédpapov evs diadbeipover the Athenians
at once kill the first sentinels whom they van up
against.
212 A graphic effect not unlike this is produced
by the employment in narration of the imperfect in-
stead of the normal narrative tense, the aorist. It is
as though narrative gave place to description: +7 &
VaTEpaia ob wey TMpuTavers THY Bourn éxadovy, byeEls
S eis tHv éxkrnolay éropeverbe but on the morrow
the presidents summoned the senate, and you proceeded
to the assembly of the people. We seem to gee the
presidents actually giving the order to the messengers
to summon the senators, and we have before our very
eyes the crowds of citizens flocking to the Pnyx. The
aorist could not have given us this picture.
It must be carefully noted, however, that these two
ways of enlivening narrative, the historical present
and the descriptive imperfect, are produced in totally
different ways. The imperfect does not travel out-
side its ordinary denotation, that is, it stall marks the
action as a process. The present, on the contrary,
leaves its proper sphere, and actually denotes an action
as a point in time just like the aorist.

Tenses formed from the perfect stem

213 The perfect, the pluperfect, and the future
perfect denote that such and such an action is so
completed that its results are apparent: réOvnxev he
is dead; éreOyyjxew he was dead; re@v7jfe. he shall
have passed away. Té@vyxev, éreOvrjxevv, and tedunA
ter
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 87

all alike represent the process of 7d dmro8unoKety as

ended in the past, but réOvnxev represents the results
as being apparent in the present, ére?vnKew as having
been apparent in the past, and te@v7j&e, as about to be
apparent in the future.
214 This pecuharity of meaning explains why so
many perfects in Greek must be rendered by the
Enelish present—ré@yynxev he is dead; éornxev he
stands ; xéxpayey he shouts; céynvev he yawns, ceé-
onpev it grins; ceciynxey he is silent’ Indeed, not
a few of such verbs have no present.

MEANING OF THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE, THE

OPTATIVE, THE IMPERATIVE, AND THE INFINITIVE MOODS

215 We saw above that all the tenses of the

indicative mark the notion of time, but that some of
them, and in certain cases all of them, mark more
than this, namely at what point in its development
the verbal action is to be presented to us, whether at
its begiuning, In its duration, or In its results in pre-
sent, future, or past time. Now the other moods
(excepting the participle) just so far differ from the
indicative, that it 1s this second or subsidiary notion
alone which they mark, and not true time at all. Not
one of the tenses of any mood save the indicative can
in uself indicate whether the action which it denotes
took place in present, past, or future time. Thus
1 Many of such perfects were treated as middle perfects by g1am-
matians, quite erroneously of course, but still with some 1eason, seeing
that the corresponding future in many cases was middle in form, the
verb expressing some exertion of the physical powels.
2 As it happens there are no moods of the futme in use except those
which are, as will be shown, exceptions to this general statement.
88 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

arobavety means ‘to die’ the verbal notion pure and

sunple; Baciretcas ‘to begin to reign’ ; imobuiaKeny
‘to be on one’s deathbed’; Bacirevew ‘to govern as
aking’; reOvnxévas ‘to be dead’; XAeAvKévas ‘to have
done loosing’ But not a hint is given by the tense
of any of these infinitives whether the thing they
denote took place mm the present, the past, or the
future.
216 There are two exceptions to the truth of this
general statement.
1) In indirect discourse the tenses of the optative
and of the infinitive do mark past, present, or
future time, not indeed absolutely, but with
reference to the time of some other verb on
which such optative or infinitive is dependent.
Thus, in representing in Greek the English
sentence ‘he said that the woman was dying,
whether we say éde£ev 67s 4) yur) aroOvnaKot
or éhe£e THv yuvaika atrobvncKesy, the optative
amoOvncKko. and the infinitive dmodvncKesy
alike mark present time, but only in reference
to the time at which the statement 7 yuvy
amoOvnoKkes was actually made by the subject
of éxe&e. Similarly, with the same limitation,
we find the aorist optative or infinitive mark-
ing past time mn érefev Ore 7 yuvn atroGavos
and éde&e thy yuvaika amoGavety ‘he said
that the woman died,’ and the future optative
and infinitive marking future time in édefev
érte » yur? amoOavorto and éreke THy yvvatca
aToOavetc@as ‘he said that the woman would
die.’
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 89

2) The aorist infinitive with its subject in the

accusative and preceded by the neuter article
has a past sense (precisely that of the aorist
indicative) when the intention is to represent
the action as a fact the occurrence of which is
affrmed, and not as a mere conception of the
mind: 76 pndeulay Tay TOAEwU aGhOvat TON-
opkia péycotov éott onpeiov Tob bua TovTOUS
meccbévtas tovs Baxéas tadta radety that
not even one of the towns was taken by siege
is the strongest proof that the Phocians so
suffered because they were talked over by
these men.
217 It ought to be remembered that it must have
been often necessary to convey in indirect discourse
the notion of time represented in direct discourse by
such a sentence as 7) yuv7) Tore aréOvnoxey the woman
was at that time on her deathbed. For this purpose
the optative or the infinitive of the present was
normally used, a circumstance which shows plainly
that the moods of the present, as we call them, belong
indifferently to the present and the imperfect: évopscev
aroOvyaKkey TOTE THY yuVaika OY évopkicey STL YUL
rote amwoOvnocKxor he believed that the woman was at
that time on her deathbed.

MEANING OF THE TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE

218 Unlike the tenses of the subjunctive, optative,

imperative, and infinitive, the tenses of the participle
really mark time. According as a participle, in gram-
matical agreement with the subject of a proposition, is
90 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

present, future, or aorist, it expresses that the action

denoted by it, is simultaneous with, anterior to, or
posterior to the time of the main proposition, whatever
that time may be. Any one of the forms Avar, Wear,
or AVoas may be used in speaking of a situation which,
to speak absolutely, is past, present, or future, according
as the principal verb is past, present, or future; but,
on the other hand, according as the participle is past,
present, or future, it completely changes the relation of
tine which exists between the action represented by it
and the action represented by the principal clause
Thus Avev tov (rmov TUTTEL, TUTTHCTEL, TANYAS éve-
Barev iw loosing the horse, he strikes, will strike,
struck it; Avoas Tov troy TUTTE, TUTTNOEL, TANYAS
évéBarev on loosing the horse, he strikes, will strike,
struck it; XWowy Tov troy TUTTEL, TUTTHOEL, TANYAS
évéBarev before loosing the horse, he strikes, will
strike, struck it.
219 The present participle may in certain contexts
denote an action anterior to that of the principal verb:
érictacbe Kovwva pev dpyovta Nixodnwov b€ rovobvra
6 Tv éxetvos wpootatros Conon, you know, used to vive
the orders and Nicophemus but did what Conon told
hin.
220 The use of the aorist participle to denote an
action anterior to that of the principal verb is a sense
acquired by it, and cannot be explained as other than
a convention sanctioned by its utility. Still, there are
no exceptions of any sort to this convention, such
exceptions as are commonly recorded being no ex-
ceptions. Thus, in ed y éroincas avauvicas ‘you
did well to remind me’; rode wos yapioas aroKpivdpevos
FIRST GREK SYNTAX 91

‘do me the favour of answering’ the aorist participle

undoubtedly Las its ordiary conventional sense. A
person cannot be said to have done well until the
action is over which admits of praise, nor can a person
be said to have done a favour until the action regarded
as a favour 1s past.
221 I have reserved the participle of the perfect
for special mention, because it is so inportant that it
should not be confused with the aorist. Like the
participles of the other tenses, it takes its time from
the main verb of the sentence, but, still retaining its
own specific meaning, denotes an action in its results,
whether these results are spoken of as existing in
present, past, or future time: of & dvdpes Katamedev-
yores dOpdoe pds petéwpdv te EvvéBnoav but when
they were on the hill to which they had one and all
fled for safety, the men came to terms; ‘lorvatos
amédpa Bactrtéa Aapetoy éEnrarnxes Histiaeus made
off, now that he was in the position of a man who had
deceived King Darius. These clumsy sentences show
plainly of themselves how foreign to English idiom is
the peculiar signification of the Greek perfect.
CHAPTER VII—THE MOODS OF THE VERB
IN INDEPENDENT PROPOSITIONS

222 Independent propositions fall naturally into

two classes :—
1) affirmative propositions (negatived by ov).
2) expressions of a wish (negatived by yy).

AFFIRMATIVE PROPOSITIONS

223 Affirmative propositions and the corresponding

interrogative propositions are expressed sometimes by
the indicative, sometimes by the optative with av, and
sometimes by the indicative with dv.
Given the differences of tense-meaning already
described, the Greek indicative without @y ordinarily
answers to the English indicative. It is the mood in
which most simple statements of one kind or another
are made: o veavias Oef the young man runs; ovx
iste you do not know; dméotn 4 Mévon Mende
revolted; dmodevf£ovras they will escape; ¢¢ Kadrds
éyet, yalpw if it is well, I am glad.
224 The optative with ay as forming part of a
conditional sentence, though properly belonging here,
had better be reserved until it may be explained
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 93

together witl» its protasis when we come to discuss

conditional sentences as such.
There is one use, however, of the optative with
dy which may be conveniently discussed here. The
optative of the present or aorist tense may be employed
without any definite condition either expressed or
implied, simply to give a less absolute tone to any
affirmation relating to the present or the future: 7déws
dv éyory époiunv Aertivny: Tis abtH 1) aTérecad éoti;
I should like to ask Leptines What is this exemption
from taxes? ov« &v Néyous OTL palveras You would
not say that he is mad; BovAroiunv av todTo ovTwS
yevéo Gas I should like this to fall out so.
225 As I reserved the discussion of the optative
with dy in the principal clause of a conditional
sentence, so I shall reserve also the consideration of
the indicative with dy in similar clauses, until I can
explain it in its relation to its dependent clause.
But there is a construction of &y with the aorist or
imperfect indicative, which may readily be compre-
hended here, namely its employment with the one or
the other of these tenses to convey the notion of a
customary occurrence: édacKe pos autov av Tade he
would thus speak to himself; aveppuyar av eis Tov
odpavoy he used to clamber up to heaven; woAddxes
HKOUTAMEY AV TL KAKWS BovAEevoapévors péya Taya
we used often to hear that they had decided an
important matter In a wrong way.

EXPRESSIONS OF A WISH

226 A man may express his wish or intention to

96 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

do them a service nor you honouring your, benefactors ;

ef yap €X@oe oh that he would come.
231 On the other hand, when the wish, being
concerned with the present or the past, can no longer
be realized, it is expressed in the imperfect or aorist
indicative always preceded by e/@e or ef yap. The
lmnperfect refers to present time and the aorist to past
time: «(Ge mapfoGa would that you were here (now) ;
ele avréeGaves would that you had died (then); e« yap
un améOaves would that you had not died (then); «70
é£exomn mpotepov tov obOaruov U6m would that his
eye had been knocked out with a stone sooner.
232 There is an alternative mode of expressing a
wish of this kind—that cannot be realized—namely
by @pedov, wderes, wberev ete., pa) adhedov, wheres
etc. followed by the present infinitive if the wish is
concerned with the present; by the aorist infinitive.
if with the past. This form may also be introduced
by e?@e or e¢ yap: «iO adheres Chv or adheres Chv
would that you were alive (now); ci@ aderes
avoGaveiy or @deres atroGavely would that you had
died (then) ; un adeXes arrodavety would that you had
not died; e¢ yap werov arrorécGar would that they
had perished.
233 The meaning of course of eife Sans, e@ ens,
el? amréGaves, and of ef yap Cans etc. was originally
‘if (only) you were to live, ‘if (only) you were alive,
‘if (only) you bad died, each expression being, as we
shall see, the protasis of a conditional sentence with
suppressed apodosis. Similarly, @deXov being second
aorist of ode’Aecy ‘to owe,’ an expression like ddheres
¢yv originally signified ‘you ought to be alive (now).’
CHAPTER VIIL—THE MOODS OF THE VERB
IN DEPENDENT PROPOSITIONS

234 Dependent propositions fall into ten classes,

some of them retaining the form of mdependent pro-
positions, others having special forms of their own.

A. PROPOSITIONS INTRODUCED BY 67s COMPLETING THE

SENSE OF VERBS OF SAYING, LEARNING, KNOWING,
THINKING

235 This class includes almost all verbs with the

general notion of saying except gavas and dacKeww
(which are construed with the accusative and infinitive
as Néyew also may be). After such verbs 67s corre-
sponds to the English ‘that’* The propositions
which it introduces complete the sense of the prin-
cipal verb much in the same way as it might be com-
pleted by a substantive in the accusative case: dyyéAXex
éTt HKovew ot avdpes he announces that the men are

1 An alternative for dr: 1s ws. It 1s far less often used, and has a
slightly different meaning Originally the 1elative adverb ‘how,’ it
retained much of this force in its new function: elré wor ws eypawep
he told me how he wrote.
H
98 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

come; avéxpayev dT ot Tror€eutos T por epyovTat he

cried aloud that the enemy were approaching.
236 In any such case the 67 clause may retam
the mood in which it would have been expressed if it
had been an independent proposition, no change being
made, unless such change in the person of the verb as
is necessary: Aéyes OTe ypades he says that he is
writing that is he says ypadw; réyes OTe éypadev he
says that he was writing (at the time) that 7s he says
eypadov ; éyes OTe ypdryes he says that he will write
that ws he says ypaya; reyes O70 eypawrev he says
that he wrote that is he says éypavra; Réyeu bre
yéypadev he says that he is done writing that ds he
says yéypada; Néyes OTe eyeypaddewy he says that he
was done writing (at the time) ‘that is he says éye-
ypadn. The ore clause will remain quite unaffected
if In any of these exaniples we substitute efrev or
éheEev for Néyeu: eirev bts ypades he said that he
was writing that 1s he said ypadw ; etrrev Ore éypadov
he said that he was writing (at the time) that is he
said éypadov; and so on.
237 But in the latter case, that is, if the principal
verb is a past tense, or its equivalent the historical
present, there is an alternative form for the érc clause.
The indicative’ may be replaced by the optative of
the same tense* as that indicative: efaev dre ypddou
he said that he was writing; elev Orv ypdwrerev he
oO?

* But no other mood :f in the corresponding mdependent proposi-

tion such were required.
> Except that the present optative is used as the optative also of
the imperfect, and the peifect optative as the optative also of the plu-
perfect: elev d7. ypddou he said that he was writing (at the time)
that ws he said éypagoy.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 99

said that lke wrote. The two constructions may even

be combmed in the same sentence: otros éXeyor ét1
Kodpos pev tébvyxev “Aptatos O€ medevyws ev TA
cradue ein these men said that Cyrus indeed was
dead, but that Ariaeus being escaped was at the halt-
ing place.
238 We saw that davas and dackew did not
follow this construction, and there are a few verbs
like them, but far the greater number of verbs with
the general notion of saying have their meaning com-
pleted in this way:-—Goay to cry, Kexparyévas to cry
aloud, aoxpivecOar to answer, déyXovy to make plain,
doatew to explain, avoXoyetaGas to say in defence,
didacKew to instruct, enpvTtewy to proclaim, ypadety to
write, ayyéAXew to report, méuiew dyyerov to send a
message, dsaSadrewv to calumniate ete ete.
239 Further, the large class of verbs which serve
as sort of informal passives to verbs of saying and have
the general notion of ‘to be told’ are so construed.
Some of the more common members of this class are:—
axovety to hear, aic@avecOat to perceive, muvddvec
Oar
to learn, pavOavey to learn, yiyvwoxety to get to
know: fxoucey bts H patnp TéOvnKev oY TeOvyKoin
he heard that his mother was dead; éwvOero éti oF
Aaxedarpoviot pérdovow or péddovev eis THY YoOpav
elo PaXrety he was informed that the Lacedaemonians
meant to invade the country.
24£0 In many of their uses even verbs of knowing
may also be regarded as informal passives of verbs of
saying. At least they can often be best translated hy
‘to be told’ They also follow the analogy of verbs
of saying: dew ovdeis broL oTpaTevovdly OT oTpa-
100 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

Tevotey nobody had been told where they were march-

ing to; ove HricTavTO bTL OF ToANtTaL évdm@aovcLY OY
évdaoorey they did not know that their countrymen
would yield; joav bts eiomAéovocw OY eioméotey Ot
Torétoe eis Tov Auwéva they had been told that
the enemy were sailing into the harbour; uwadev ore
peMaynvrar Or pewaynwévoe etev he was told that they
had fought.
241 Here also we sometimes find the alternative
constructions side by side in the same sentence: yvous
6¢ 6 Bactrevs bTe écouro Tepl THs Kabddou Adyos Kal
ote ob AOnvator évdéEovtas adrny x.7.r. but the king
learning that there would be talk about the return of
the exile and that the Athenians will approve it ete. ;
ovdéva EBovreTO eEldévar OTL TOV TOD KrA€wvOs Lov
érrovetTo ovd OTL b1abyKas KaTaXirot he wished uno-
body to know that he (once) adopted Cleon’s son or
even that he left a will.
242 Verbs of thinking range in construction with
verbs of saying, that is, have their sense completed by
a proposition imtroduced by 6ve, either identical with
an independent proposition, or else, when the principal
verb is past, converting at choice its own verb into
the optative: vouifer ore avip Heew he thinks that the
man is come; évousoey STL avnp HKee or Kot he
thought that the man was come; vsevoetre OTL TavTa
Néyourw or Aéyorey Sia HOovoy you thought in your
hearts that they said this out of envy; yyijcavro Ors
dsaBaivery Senoer or denoos Tov trorapoy they thought
that it would be necessary to cross the river.
243 Just as gavas and dacKxey are exceptions
to the normal use of verbs of saying, so olec@au is an
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 101

exceptionsto that of verbs of thinking. It cannot

have any other construction than the accusative and
infinitive. Most of the other verbs partly follow its
analogy and have very often an alternative construction
with the infinitive.
244 Verbs of knowing are inclined in Greek idiom
to take for their own object what by English idiom is
the subject of the dependent proposition. In _ the
English New Testament we once or twice get a literal
translation of such a construction, as for instance ‘I
know thee who thou art’; but English idiom does not
really sanction such a rendering. This mode of ex-
pression is, however, very common in Greek: Kdpos
noe. Tov Baciiéa Ste pécov éyot tod lepouxod
otpatevatos Cyrus knew that the king kept the
middle of the Persian army; wa@s oic8a PiroxTHwov
6Tt ovTE SvéGeTO ovTE voy NaipéotpaTov éroincaro;
how do you know that Philoctemon neither made a
will nor adopted Chaerestratus as his son? xat yap
éwe ovK nyvonoav ote hy é@& éxelvns adT@ yeyovas for
they were not ignorant that I was his son by her.
With verbs of saying or thinking the same sort of
thing occurs except that in this case the word is
brought into relation with the principal verb by means
of a preposition: epi tov Opaxdv érideto O71
manotagovow he was told that the Thracians wete
drawing near.
245 Poetical usage sanctions the
substitution of otvexa and
ofovvexa for ét1, and of é7rws
for @s in the constructions
just described: tc@ TovTo
102 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

Tpatov ovvexa” EAAnvEs Eo per

first be assured of this, that
we are Greeks; ofS ofovvey’
téerar I know that he will
come; éya 8 ép@ cou Sewvov
ovdey oO érras duyas Ta-
tp@as é&eArjhacas yOovos but
I will tell thee nothing painful
nor how thou art driven forth
from thy land.

B. DEPENDENT INTERROGATIVE PROPOSITIONS

246 Dependent interrogative propositions, if they

are simple, are introduced by indirect interrogative
pronouns or adverbs such as éa7tus, o7rolos, o7récos,
Orrov, otros or by interrogative particles such as e; if
they are double, by ef followed by 7%, by zorepov
followed by 7, or by ete followed by cre.
247 All such propositions may retain the moods of
direct interrogative propositions: tis éorwy; who is it?
épwra or Hpeto Sotis éotiv he asks who it is o7 he
asked who it was; wodev 7\@ov; where did they
come from? éowrd or pero omobev HAOov he asks
or he asked where they came from. rot rpamwpas ;
where am I to turn to? ov« oidev or ovK Wdewv Srrot
tpamrnrat he does not or he did not know where to
turn to. sorepov éyo eiwe 4 ov; whether shall I go
or you? pero wotepov avTos eiow 7) ot he asked
whether he himself or you should go.
248 If the principal verb is in the past or if it is
the historical present, there is an alternative form for
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 103

indirect propositions of this sort. They may have

their verb in the optative, if the tense 1s not changed:
npeto Oates ein he asked who he was; ov« 7devv brrou
tpamottro lie dil not know where to turn to; #pero
moTepov av7os tos 4 ov he asked whether he himself or
you should go.
249 The negative in indirect interrogative pro-
positions 1s the same as in the correspondmeg direct
propositions. In questions which would be introduced
by py, dpa py, or pov if put directly, wy is retained
in the indirect form. So the deliberative subjunctive
or its equivalent optative have 7. In all other cases
we have o: pero eb ovK alayuvetat, Or aicyvvotro he
asked if he was not ashamed; épwrdos woTepor
déSpaxev % ov they ask whether he has done it or
not; oKo7res ef é7s ot Tws “yes % od consider whether
it is so still or no; ote joav ToTepovy Tapevdaow
7 pn they did not know whether they were to march
or no.
250 When such a thing can be done, 1t is idiomatic
to express the subject of the dependent proposition
rather as the object of the principal verb: rods vouous
cKoT@mev 6 TL OLOdogKovew let us consider what the
laws lay down. So also ropes wept tis 0500 drat
dépes he was in doubt where the road led to.
251 From interrogative sentences we must very
carefully distinguish such as are introduced by the
relatives 05, ofos, dcos, ws, and the like: opé otoé
eiouy L see the manner of men that they are; rap
ériyelpnow @ TpoT@ Stavoodpuat qrovetcbar Oudakw I
will explain the manner in which I intend to make the
attem pt.
104 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

BO Or ho In poetry we may have #

% for qworepov ... %:
éXod yap 7) Tovey Ta ora
co. dpdcw cadnvas % Tov
éxdtcovr eye for choose
whether I must tell thee truly
the rest of thy toils or the
name of him who will deliver
me. x

C. CAUSAL PROPOSITIONS

253 Causal propositions are such as express a cause

or reason and are introduced by 67s because; ws as;
ore when ; évred, évredy, since. They take the indicative
in whatever tense the principal verb is: é€dosdopouy
pe OTL Toxpares cuvgv they reviled me because I kept
company with Socrates; perewédovto ot “A@nvatot bre
ov ouvéByoayv Tots Aaxkeda:moviors the Athenians
repented because they had not made terms with the
Lacedaemonians ; ésrecd) of mrodéutote ovK ayyyovTo,
eioémrevoav of AOnvatos eis tov Aywéva When the
enemy did not stand ont to sea, the Athenians sailed
into the harbour; é@avuafov ore ody oids 7 4 ebpety
I was surprised that I was unable to find him.
254 After a past tense in the principal proposi-
tion the optative is used in the causal proposition
when in English we can throw in parenthetically some
such phrase as ‘he said, ‘he thought, ‘they said,
‘they thought’: tov Tlepixréa éxadxtfov ote otpatnyos
dv ovx éreEdyot they made Pericles out a coward
because though general he did not, they thought, lead
them out against (the enemy).
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 105

Dp. CONSECUTIVE PROPOSITIONS

255 Consecutive propositions are such as are

introduced by dare so that. There are two con-
structions of @ore. When it may be translated by
the Enehsh ‘and so’ (cai ws), the form of the proposi-
tion 18 the same as if it were independent: ovy fev o
Ticcadépvns, dof of “EXAnves efpovTseGov Tissaphernes
had not come, and so the Greeks continued anxious;
opToL d€ ToAtTas yuyvomwevot mellw ts errolncav TANOGEL
avbpdrarv THv TOALW, woTE Kab eis “lwvlay toTepov ws
oy lKavis ovens ths “Artis arroiuias ébéreprrav
but these men becoming citizens of Athens made the
city still larger in population, and so they afterwards
sent out colonies even to Jonia, as Attica, they thought,
was not big enough for them. This may be the case
even when a ovtTw, TosodTos, or the like precedes: otra
oKalos eb wot ov Svvacar oyicacbar you are so
stupid that you cannot make out etc.; of & eis tocot-
Tov UBpews HAGov BaT Erreccay Upas édKavvewv avtov éE
“EAXAdoos they came to be so lost to reason that they
persuaded you to drive him out of Greece. But in
many even of such sentences we may still translate
‘you are stupid as I say, and so you cannot make out,’
‘they came to be as much lost to reason as I tell you,
and so they persuaded you to drive him out of Greece.’
256 On the other hand, it is far more common to
have wore introducing an infinitive clause. In that
case the verb is negatived by pa} and not by ov.' The
1 The ot, however, 1s preserved when the infinitive is due only to
the sentence being 1n indirect discourse. Thus ypauudrwr adrrecpol
elaw core ovK toacw ‘they are ignorant of letters and so do not know,’
becomes rovrous pagKe. direlpous Elva. ypaumarwr wore ovK eldévar in
indirect discourse,
106 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

construction with the infinitive is the normal one when

the consequence is represented as a result of the
activity denoted by the verb of the principal pro-
position or as a possibility arising from that activity:
TavTa ToLobow wWaTE Oixny un SLdovae they do all they
can to escape punishment; of axovTictai BpayvTepa
AKovtesov 7) wore éEtxvetc@ar Tov odevdovntayv the
javelin-inen threw the javelins too short a distance
to hit the slngers; rowdra éracyey Bol jyas
unoeniay nuepay abakpvtous ciayayeiy he used to -
suffer so much that we did not get through even one
day without weeping.
257 When toodros or tocotTos is expressed or
implied in the principal proposition, we may replace
a@arte by olos or écos in the same case as its correlative,
and like adore followed by the infinitive: rocotros Av
otos ut) BovrNecOat aroKTeivety TONKOUS TOV TOATOV
he was not the sort of man to be willing to put to
death many of his countrymen; éAelaero THs vuKTos
dcov oKxotatovs bveXOely TO mwediov there was as much
of the night left as would suffice for them to get across
the plain in the dark.
258 From the use of dare and the infinitive
to mark the outcome of an action, it acquires the
sense of ‘on condition that’: moda ay yprwata
éSoxev wor éyesy Tov aypov he would have given
much money so as to keep the farm that is on
condition that he kept the farm; é£ov rots 7weréposs
mpoyovors TOY oitrov “EAdAnvav dpyew dare avTovs
imaxovery Pactrhet ovK nvécyorto TOV ROryor TOUTOY
when our ancestors might have ruled over the rest of
the Greeks on condition that they themselves obeyed
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 107

the king, they did not brook this proposal. <A

common equivalent of wore in this sense is é¢’ 6 or
éf’ ore especially if éwt tovrwm ‘on this condition’
precedes: adieuév ce eri tovte éf dre pnKére
dirocodely we let you go on these terms, that you act
the philosopher no more. But éd’ 6 or éf’ ére may
be construed with the future indicative—a_ thing
which from the nature of the case is impossible with
aore in this use: omrovdas éroijoavrTo ed wre Kxopi-
obvtat Tovs advdépas they made a truce on condition
that they should get the men.
259 The use of ws for @ore with
the infinitive in the con-
struction described in 256 ig
mainly poetical.

K. FINAL PROPOSITIONS

260 Propositions are called final when they express

an end (finis) or a purpose. Such dependent proposi-
tions are introduced by fva in order that; é7ws that
so; ws so that; tva mu in order that... not; o7as
un that so... not; ws ur) so that .. . not.
261 The mood of final propositions is the sub-
junctive of the present or the aorist: tous dirous eb
Toles iva avros eb TpaTTys serve your friends in order
that you may yourself prosper; éairndés ce ov«
nyerpov tva ws Hosota dsadyns I intentionally did not
awake you in order that you might pass the time as
pleasantly as might be; “Apsoreds arrotevytelions
Vlorevdalas EvveBotreve mrANY TevtaKxocimy Tots
dAdo ExTrAedoat Oras éml wréov oO altos avTicxyy
108 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

when Potidaea was blockaded Aristeus -rrecommended

sailing out with all but five hundred that so the grain
might hold out for longer
262 When the verb of the principal proposition is
a past tense, or its equivalent the historical present,
the optative present or aorist may be substituted for
the subjunctive: Kdpos didtwv @eto Ceicbar as
cuvépyous éyot Cyrus thought that he required friends
(so) that he might have helpmates; érpecSevovro
éyKAnMaTa ToLovmevor. Oras adhicw OTe peyiorn
wpohacts eln Tod woXeuely in their negotiations they
brought charges that so they might have as good an
excuse for war as could be got.
263 After imperatives and the equivalents of the
imperative we find ws and émws normally replaced by
os av and bras dv: col & ws dy eidns boca Tap
nuly nv pévns yevnoeT ayaa, mpoceye Tov vody but
give heed that you may know all the good things
that will befall you if you stay with us; da£eus npuds
émas apy elddpev you will take us that so we may
know it.
264 After an optative expressing a wish, va, os,
or omas is followed by an optative—-an example of
the ordinary attraction in such cases: e/Me Heow va
yvoins would that you were come that you might
understand |
265 It is quite common in poetry
to find yp standing alone in
the sense of ‘that ... not’:
éya & arretus un KaTomrTevOa
mapeav but I shall go away
that I be not descried here.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 109

There are also a few instances

in early Attic writers lke
Thucydides and in the cosmo-
pohtan Xenophon.

F. PROPOSITIONS INTRODUCED BY d7rws COMPLETING THE

SENSE OF VERBS OF STRIVING AND THE LIKE

266 Verbs signifying ‘to strive,’ ‘to take care,’

and the like have their sense completed by Omrws or
barws un followed by the future indicative. Some of
the most common of these verbs are émipereto das to
take care; oxomety to watch; dpovrifery to take
thought; mparrew to exert oneself; evrAafetcbar to
show caution; mapacKxevatew to effect.
267 When a verb of this class is the principal
verb of a sentence, the verb of the dependent pro-
position is the future indicative:* povtsf’ bras
undev avaksov Tis Tyuns TavTns mpates take thought
to do nothing unworthy of this honour; érparroy
orrms tis BonGeca HEec they exerted themselves to get
help laterally that some aid should come ; cxo7res Oras
un &apvos eves & viv Néyers see that you do not deny
what you now say.
268 When the verb of the principal proposition 1s
a past tense, or its equivalent the historical present,
the future optative* may take the place of the future
indicative: éweweNetro Oras pn AoLTo’ Tote écowwTo
he was careful that they never were without food.
1 Literally ‘how’ or ‘in what way.’ Equivalents of dws are dry
rpbrw, dry, dro and the like, when their sense 1s more appropriate.
2 Occasionally the subjunctive 1s used.
3 Occasionally the subjunctive or optative present or aorist is used.
116 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

269 We may use drs or das yy end the future

indicative, even without any principal proposition ex-
pressed, to convey an emphatic warning or exhorta-
tion: Oiws oby écecGe dvdpes &Evot THs EXEVOEpias Oh
indeed show yourselves men worthy of your freedom;
oTws Tolvuy wepl Tod ToNemou pndev Eepelts NOW pray
say nothing about the war.

G. PROPOSITIONS INTRODUCED BY yu) COMPLETING THE

SENSE OF VERBS DENOTING FEAR, CAUTION, OR DANGER

270 Some of the verbs of the class just described

belong here also when their meaning implies a shade
of apprehension. The class as a whole takes 1ts colour
from verbs of fearing, @oBetcOar, dedi€vat, éxmryT-
trecOat. Such verbs have their meaning completed
by wy or wn ot and a dependent verb according as the
meaning required is ‘fear lest, ‘fear that’ or ‘fear
lest . . . not, ‘fear that... not.’
271 When the fear is for the future the construc-
tion of the dependent proposition is that of final pro-
: / \ e f bd /
positions: dediace wn ol Todeulo. errexTrAEVT
MCL they
fear lest the enemy sail out against them; édédvcay py
e / ? / ? /
Ol Tokeulon eTexTTAEVTMoLY OY eTrexTevoeay they
feared lest the enemy should sail out against them;
oveels Kivduvos éd0KEL Elva ph TIS étriomnTaL OY
ériamotto there seemed to be no risk of any one pur-
suing them.
The future indicative, however, is also found, when
the idea of futurity 1s to be emphasized: opay ypy my
ovd é&ouev pel OTrov THY BapBapev xparncomev We
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX a

must beware lest (when the time comes) we have not

even the wherewithal to inaster the enemy.
272 When the fear is for the present or the past,
the verb of the dependent proposition is in the indica-
tive in a tense according with present or past time:
vov doBovpeOa ju) awdhotépwv Gua ywaprixapev as it
is, we fear that we have missed both things at once;
déSoca un TAnyav Séec I fear you need a whipping ;
doBotpat yn Sia POovov éSpacev I am afraid that
he did it from envy.
273 We may use py and the subjunctive even
without any principal proposition expressed to convey
some anxiety or suspicion: pi aypouxotepov 7 76
adnOés eivrety perhaps it 1s too rude to speak the truth
literally (1 fear) lest 1t 1s too rude; a@AXa pon ov TovT
y yarerov, Odvatov duyety but perhaps this is not
a difficult matter, to avoid death literally (1 suspect)
this is not a difficult matter,
274 When such a thing can be done, it is idiomatic
both in this class and m the last to express the sub-
ject of the dependent proposition as the object of the
principal verb: wromrevouev Kat vuds pa) ov Kotvol
amropATre we suspect that you will not be impartial
judges; éwreuedelto Tov avépav OTwS TiaTOL EcoWTO
he took precautions that the men should be faithtul.
Or again, the whole dependent proposition may he
anticipated as it were by a prepositional phrase formn-
ing part of the principal proposition: epi tay dvAd-
kov hoBovpeba un ov avtapvvwvrTas we fear that the
sentries will not resist on their side.
112 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

H. CONDITIONAL PROPOSITIONS

275 In conditional propositions, the clause con-

taining the condition is called the protasis (premiss),
and the clause containing the conclusion is called the
apodosis (affirmation).
276 The apodosis of a conditional sentence is a
principal or Independent proposition and the different
forms of it ought logically to have been treated of when
we dealt with independent propositions (222-225),
But the one proposition in a conditional sentence is
attached so closely to the other that in practice they
cannot be separated.
277 The negative adverb of the apodosis or affirma-
tion is ov, of the protasis or premiss, p27)
278 The form of conditional propositions varies to
some extent according as they are concerned with
particular or general suppositions. A particular sup-
position is such as implies a definite act done at a
definite time: if he (now) has this, he will give it
(now); if he had it (then), he gave it (then); if he
had had it (then), he would have given it (then); if he
shall get it (at that time), he will give it (at that
time); if he should get it (at that time), he would give
it (at that time). A general supposition is such as
implies that the act with which it deals is one of a
class of acts any one of which may occur or may have
occurred on any one occasion out of many: if (ever)
he gets anything, he (always) gives it; if (ever) he
got anything, he (always) gave it; if (every time it
happened) he had had anything, he would (always)
have given it; if any one shall (ever) wish to go, he
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 113

will (always) be permitted; if any one should (ever)

wish to go, he would (always) be permitted.
279 But to a much greater degree the form of a
conditional proposition depends upon the circumstance
whether the condition is on the one hand present or
past, or on the other, future. We shall first consider

Present and past conditions

1. Concerned with particular suppositrons
280 When nothing is implied as to the fulfilment
of the condition, the protasis has the indicative with
ei, and the apodosis any form of the verb: eé @eol
elolv, gore kai épya Gedy if there are gods, there are
also works of gods; aGAn ef doxel col, TAéwpev If it
seems good to you, let us sail, xdxecr’ aronoipuny,
Flavoiav et wy bidd may I perish miserably, if I do
not love Xanthias.
281 When it is implied that the condition is not
or was not fulfilled the past tenses of the indicative
are used in both protasis and apodosis. The imperfect
then refers to present time or to an action going on or
done more than once in past time, the aorist to an
action taking place in past time: radv’ ovK av édvvavTo
Tovey eb pn dtaitn peTpia éxypaovTo this they would
not be able to do (but they are able), unless they led
an abstemious life; ova dv vnowy éxparer o “Ayapép-
vov eb pe TL Kab vavTeKov etyey AGamMemmnon would not
have held rule over islands (as he did), if he had not
had some navy; Kal lows dv adra@douny ei éTevelpnoa
Ta TodwTixa and perhaps I would have been ruined
if I had tried politics (as I have not).
I
li¢ FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

282 Certain verbs, mostly impersonal, implying

necessity, propriety, obligation, and the like are
employed in the apodosis of this form without az.
Some of the commoner words so used are édes, VvPHY,
mooohKer, é&Av, olov rT Hv, and verbals in -réoy with
Wy: eb hoav avdipes otrep haciy ayalol, davepwrépav
éEfy avrots tyy apetny Secxvuvae if they were the
honest men that they say they are (but they are not),
they would have a chance of displaying their honesty
more plainly; yphv dé of, elmep io@a ypnoros,
pnvuTny yevéoOar if you had been honest, you ought
to have laid an information (but you did not).

2. Concerned with general suppositrons

283 The apodosis expresses a customary or
repeated action or a general truth, and the protasis
refers 12 a general way to any one of a class ol acts.
The apodosis has the present or imperfect Indicative or
an equivalent fomn implying repetition, the protasis
has éay with the subjunctive after present tenses,
et with the optative after past tenses: yera & 6 uapos
Kav Te on yerotov 7 bat the fool laughs even if a
thing is not meet for laughter; aras Noyos dav arr Ta
Todypata waTacoy Te halverar kal xevov all speech, if
deeds are wanting, seems an unprofitable and empty
thing ; ov« érovev ef ur) dirron he did not drink unless
he was thirsty; ef tos dvreiros evdvs éreOvnxes if
any one refused, he was at once put to death.

Future conditions

284 In the case of future conditions the same

FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 115

forms of expression serve alike for particular and for

general suppositions. The difference is only one of
meaning.
285 When a _ supposed future case is stated
distinctly and vividly, the apodosis has the future
indicative or an equivalent of the future indicative,
and the protasis has éay (#y, &v) with the subjunctive:
dav EnrHs Karas, evpynoess if you seek well, you will
find ; coat moveros iv Oeds Oéry I shall be rich if
God please; éav pn éx mpovoias amoxreivyn tis Tuva,
devyér@ if a inan kill another without premeditation,
let lim be exiled.
The future indicative with eZ may also be used
in the protasis, but with a very marked difference of
meaning: e¢ “Exropa amoxtevels, avtos amrobavel if
you will slay Hector, you shall yourself be slain; e¢ 6é
poSncoweba Tous Kiwdvvous, eis TOMAS Tapayas KaTA-
oTyconev vas If we will fear the risks, we shall cause
you plenty of troubles; ef pr dpaceis yap, amd o
oXa Kakov cakes for if you will not speak, I will make
you suffer for it.
286 When a supposed future case is stated in a
less distinct and vivid form, the apodosis has the
optative with dy, and the protasis e¢ with the
optative: ¢¢ Onoavp@® tis évTvyo, TOVTLMTEPOS ay
ein, olxovomixa@tepos 6 ov if a man were to find a
treasure, he would be richer, but not more thrifty; e¢
Bovroto iarpos yevécOas, Ti Av wotoins ; if you wished
to be a physician, what would you do ?

287 In the protasis of conditional propositions

such as those described in 283 and 285, it is not
116 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

altogether a matter of indifference whether éay is

followed by the present subjunctive or the aorist
subjunctive. It is true that we do not express the
difference in idiomatic English, but we may do so in
unidiomatic. Thus, éavy wows tradra, popos éoet if
you-go-on-doing this, you will be unwise; éayv mpakys
TooTO, dixnv dwcers if you-shall-have-done this, you will
be punished. The same distinction will be observed in
the corresponding dependent propositions with &y, soon
to be described.
288 It happens very often that édy with the
subjunctive or, after a past tense, es with the optative,
may be translated by the English ‘in case,’ ‘in the
hope that, ‘in the event of’: éreubayv wpécBeus el
Twos avrovs wetoeay they sent envoys in the hope of
persuading them ; éweBounevovowy é£erOety Hv Svv@vTas
BiacacGat they form the plan of leaving the town, in
the event of their being able to force their way.
These are really elliptical expressions, the true apodosis
being mmplied, not expressed. In the former case the
apodosis is implied in éveurpar, as 1f 1t meant évreurpay
meicovtTas ; in the other it is really implied in é£eA Gey
‘they will leave, if
289 When a «ai, ovdé, or pydé immediately
precedes the e¢ or éay in a dependent conditional
proposition, it is often spoken of as a concessive
proposition, as in one example given in 283 yerad & o
pLapoS KaV Te wn Yyerdotov 7. So, wy OopuBjnonre pond
dav Oo€o te bwiv péya Néyew do not interrupt even if
you think I say something dreadful.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 117

a
I. RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL PROPOSITIONS

290 It is not uncommon to see relative propositions

which are dependent only in form: 6 od yevyjoetas but
this shall not be done, 6 ovx av éyévero but this
would not have been done; 6 py yévorro and that God
forbid. AI such propositions retain the mood which
they would have had as independent propositions, and
are necatived in the same way.
291 Relative propositions indicating the cause of
an action have also the same form as if they were
independent: was oby evopKa adyTowmpoKas EoTtat Os
ovk HnOeknce cadpas tuGécGar ; how indeed shall he
be regarded-as-having-made-aftidavit without-perjury,
when he did not care to get accurate information?
Gavuactov roelts batts Huty ovdéy didms you act
strangely In giving us nothing.
292 Relative propositions indicating the con-
sequence of an action have also the same form as if
they were independent. They are negatived by ov if
the principal proposition is negative or interrogative,
and either by ov or yu) if the principal proposition 1s
affirmative. In the latter case, ux appears to be used,
when the notion of purpose is to be imparted to the
dependent proposition: tis ottws patverat doTts ov
BotreTai cot diros civar ; who is so insane as not to
wish to be your friend? ot« gore otte Cwypados, ovT
avoptavToTotos éoTis ToLOUTOY av KadAOS TaCELEY
olov 4 arndea éyes there is neither painter nor statuary
who could mould a beauty such as truth is mistress of;
BovrAnbels toodTov pynuelov xatahitely 0 pn THS
avOpativns micews éotiv desiring to leave behind
118 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

him a memorial of a sort that is beyond human

nature.
In such propositions deris is far more common
than the simple és.
293 Relative propositions that mark purpose always
have their verb in the future indicative, and are
always neyatived by py: eof rH Siw tprdxovTa
ivdpas ééc bar of Tous TaTpioUs VomoUS ovyypdrpoucL
kad’ ods modsTevcovcw the people decreed to choose
thirty men to codify the ancient laws by which they
should be governed; ob yap gorse poe ypypata oobev
éxtiow for I have no money to pay the fine with;
maidés jor ovKéte eioly of pe Oepatrevcovow I have no
longer children to look after me.
294 Conditional relative propositions take their
form from the normal types of conditional propositions
described in 275-287. Thus

Present and past relative conditions

1. Concerned with particular suppositions
295 When nothing is implied as to the fulfilment
of the condition: 6 ts BovrAeras do@cw I will give him
whatever he now wishes; ots pn nipisxoy Kevotadsov
avrois éroinoay they made a cenotaph for any of them
whom they did not find (=e tevas pr) nipscxor).
296 When it is implied that the condition is not
or was not fulfilled: ov yap av éreyetpoduev mparresy
& py gjriordueOa for we would not undertake (as we
now do) to do things which we do not understand ;
& pn €BovrA0yn dovdvat, ovx av edwxeyv he would not
have given what he had not wished to give.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 119

2.* Concerned with yeneral suppositions

297 Present and past suppositions are seen in:

cuppayety TovTos eHédovcow dmravTes ods av Opdct
Trapeckevagpeéevovs al-and-sundry wish to be allied
with those whom they see prepared; ods peév {Soe
EUTUKTWS LOVTAS, TpoTehavvMY avTols TivEes TE Elev
Apweta Kab érel WvGouTo érpves as Often as he saw men
marching in good order, he would ride up to them and
not only ask them who they were but when he was
told would commend them ; ésrevd7 at Oupas dvoryOetev
eionwev When the doors were opened (at any time) we
went in; émropevdpeba bia THs yopas, Iv wev EOéroopmev
mopOoovrTes, jv & e0éXowumev KaTaxaorvtTes We took our
way through the country, devastating it as we close
and burning it as we chose.

Future relative conditions

298 Future conditions of the more vivid or graphic

form are seen in: véos & dwodrud bvtw adv didrH
Geds but all whom God loves die young ; ravr’, érerdav
Tept Tov yévous el7ra@, Epa I shall tell this story when
I have told the story of my buth; tiva olec@e adrny
woyny ee bray ue idy TOV TaTp@wY aTrerTEpHL-
évov ; what think you will be her state-of-mind if ever
she sees me robbed of my patrimony?
299 Future conditions of the less vivid form are
seen in: éxvoinv yap av els Ta Tola éuPaiverv & Npiv
Sofm for I would shrink from setting foot on any ships
which he gave us; ap’ av nyoto Taira oa eivar & cor
éfeln cal arrodocbas Kai Sotvar Kai Pdcat Tw Bovrovo
120 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

Gedy ; would you consider these things your,own which

you were at liberty to sell, and give as presents, and to
offer in sacrifice to any god you choose ?
300 The sort of attraction which we observed in
expressions of a wish is also to be seen in relative
propositions forming part of the protasis or premiss of
conditional propositions. Indeed the normal types for
the expressions of a wish are really the protases of
conditional propositions. This explains the optative,
for example, in épdos tis tv Exactos eideln Téyvny oh,
if every man would work at the trade which he knew!
So in ordinary conditional propositions: éav madytes of
dv dvvwvtas Tav’Ta Totwot, KaNMS Fes it will be well
if all who are able do this; e¢ wdvtes of SvvawrTo
TadvTa ToLoiev, Kad@s ay éyos Ib would be well if all
who were able did this; cuveyiyvmokere yap av jor
ei év éxeivn TH hovn ereyor év Hrrep eTeOpaupny you
would forgive me if I spoke just in that dialect in which
I was brought up. In this sentence the past éeyov
makes the past éreOpdupny necessary.

K. TEMPORAL PROPOSITIONS

301 In order to avoid giving for the third time

the types of conditional propositions, I have anticipated
to some extent the usages which properly belong to
this section. Several instances of temporal propositions
will be found among the examples of conditional
relative sentences. The relative adverbs of time are
ére (at the time) when; 7vixka (at the hour) when;
omore (at times) when; ézresds (after the time) when.
Each of these may be combined with day to form
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 121

dependent conditional propositions: éray (at any time)

when; qvix ay (at any hour) when; ovorap (at any
times) when; évresday (after any time) when. In
harmony with their meaning, overe is oftenest used in
past general suppositions where e¢ would be used in
the pure type, and érav, nuk dv, omdrav, and éreddy
in future conditions of both kinds where é&y would be
used in the pure type. After évredav, as was to be
expected from its meaning, the aorist and not the
present subjunctive is used: yp? dtav tiOAcOe Tovs
yoous oKoTetw, emecoay o& Onobe gduAaTTew you
should think about laws when you make them, but
keep them when you have made them.
302 When és ‘until’ and its equivalent péype
ov refer to a definite point in past time, they take the
indicative: rHv viy? Any éypnyopecav Ews diéXaurev
npépa they were awake the whole night through until
morning broke; éAev@epor Foav péypt ob avrot
atrovs KatebovAwcay they were independent until
they enslaved themselves.
303 In all other cases ws and péype ob follow
the constructions of conditional relative propositions:
pexpe & of av éym few, at orovdai pevovtay but
until I am come, let the truce be kept, ndéws av
TovT@ étt dvereyounv Ewas avTe tv tod ’Apudiovos
anrédwoxa prow 1 should (in that case) gladly have
continued still to talk with him until I had given bim
back the speech of Amphion; &@ & av dovvtaxrra 7
avaykn TavTa adel Tpdyuata Trapexew Ews av yopay
AaBn but when things are in disorder they cannot
help always causing trouble until they are put in
order; Tepveuévopev éExaotote éws avowyeln To
122 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

SeruaTypsoy we used to wait each time until the

prison was opened; €as adv tratdra siaTpagwvrat,
durakny Kkataddure leave a guard behind until they
have got this business over.
304 The construction of piv ‘until, ‘before’ is
identical with that of éws ‘until,’ if the principal
proposition is negative or Interrogative: ovx Genre
devyew mply » yuviy éwesoev he refused to run away
until his wife persuaded him; éypiv ju mpotepov
cuupPBovrevery mpiv nuas édidakav they ought not to
have given advice until they had told us; éyd o
OUKETL adiow mpl ay por& UTécynoal arrodelEns I
will not let you go any more until you have explained
to me what you have promised; sromrns od mpoTepov
ol0s T éorl wotely ply dv évOeos yévyntas a poet is
not able to make poems until he has felt the inspira-
tion; Tis av ToUTO ToLoin mp opyicbein ; Who would
do this before he was put in a rave? ovdauddev
abiecay mpiy Trapabeler abrois apiotoy they used not
to let them go from any place until they set lunch
before them; érreidov pr) moseicGar payny mplv ot
OnBato. wapayévowro they tried to induce them not
to do battle till the Thebans came.
As in the case of évresddv, when the subjunctive
follows apiv, it is naturally in the aorist.
305 On the contrary, if the principal proposition
is afhrmative, the verb following mpéy is in the
infinitive: xatynyopels yap mplv pabeivy TO Tpayua jou
for you accuse me before you have been told the
circumstances; xal mpiv oe xotvAas éxmety olvou
d6éxa, 0 Udodtos @ béc7row dvecotiKer BXErov and
before you had drained ten glasses of wine, Plutus, O
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 123

lady, was-wp-and-about, his-blindness-gone; radr’

éemidérAnota, mpoiv pabety he has forgotten this before
he was told it; nwets totvuy Meocoryyy etrhopev mpiv
Vlépcas NaBetvy thv Bacidrecay now we took Messene
before the Persians got the royal power (into their
hands).
306 Poetical usage differs little
from. prose idiom except In
the variety of the vocables
employed. Thus éore and
éor dv may replace gws and
éws av. The poets also keep
up émeé = postquam when
the tendency of prose was to
use ézresd7) In this sense and
retain éei only as causal
particle. Of course éet in
prose is still quite common
when its 67 is only separated
from it by 6é or a like word:
évret 5€ OH—but after that—.
CHAPTER IX.—THE NOMINAL FORMS OF
THE VERB

307 There are three nominal forms belonging to

the verb, namely, the infinitive, the participle, and the
verbal adjectives in—rdos and—réos. Of these the
infinitive is substantival, and the others adjectival.

THE INFINITIVE

308 Though a neuter substantive in most of its

uses, it yet retaius in certain respects its verbal nature.
It may mark time and voice. It may have a subject
and object. It is qualified by adverbs and not by
adjectives.
309 When the subject of the infinitive is other
than the subject of the principal proposition, it 1s In
the accusative case as is also any noun supplementing
the meaning of the infinitive: o ats oleras Tov
diddcKarov dpyifecOas the boy thinks that his master
ig angry; of otpatidtar @reyov Eevodavta avdpa
ayadov yevéoOas the soldiers said that Xenophon had
behaved as a brave man; ovdéy érpayOn Sia TO
éxeivov pu Tapelvas nothing was effected seeing that
the other man was not there.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 125oa

310 When the subject of the infinitive is the same

as the subject of the principal proposition, the subject
is not repeated before the infinitive, and any noun
used to supplement the meaning of the verb is put in
the case of the principal subject, that is, in the nomin-
ative: “AréZavdpos éfaccev elvas Aros tos Alexander
used to assert that he was the son of Zeus; é« Tod
TpoTepos eye 0 ScoKwY ioyves a plaintiffs strength
lies in his speaking before (the defendant); od« éxl ra
Sodvot GAN él TH opolot Tols DAeetropévors eivas
éxTéutrovTat ol dtrotxoe Colonists are sent out not for
to be the slaves but for to be equals of those whom
they leave behind.
311 When the subject of the infinitive is indefinite,
that is, When English idiom employs ‘a man,’ or ‘ we,
or ‘you, or ‘one, it is not expressed in Greek, but any
noun supplementing the meaning of the verb is in the
accusative: 6de¢ émriperetcbar Tod ayadov dvdpa yiy-
veoOas a man should make an effort to be brave;
apyanéov mpaywe éoti yevérGat Sovroy it is no joke if
you become a slave.
312 When the noun which is the subject of the
infinitive is also the object of the verb of the principal
proposition, or is expressed In any other way in the
principal proposition, then 1t is not repeated before the
infinitive, but any noun supplementing the meaning of
the infinitive is either in the same case as the logical
subject of the infinitive or else in the accusative: Kupov
édéovTo ws tpoGupoTaTou yevéerOar they begged Cyrus
to be as active as he could in their cause; éd€ov7d pov
mpootatny yevécOas they begged me to become their
champion; a&macw avvéBn é& addEov yevécOas Aap-
126 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

mpois one-and-all lad the good luck to become famous

when before they had no reputation; éxeiv@ cuveBy
yevérOat mrovorov that man had the good luck to
become ich.
313 On the other hand, when we have a participial
clause marking some circumstance under which the
action of the infinitive takes place, the participle is in
the accusative: Bevia Hew rapyyyere NaPovTa Tovs
dvdpas he sent word to Xenias to get his men and
come; od cyoh} wor KauvovtTa tatpeverOar I have no
time to be doctored when ul.

Infinitive with the article

314 By the help of the article the infinitive may

be used precisely as a substantive in any case: véoss
TO ovyay KpettTov éoTt TOU Aadely in the young silence
is better than speech; od wdeoveElas &vexa tadT
érpake Didemmos adda TO StKatoTepa aEvoby Tovs
OnBalovs 7 buds Philip did not do this from selfishness
but because the Thebans made more just demands
than you; ovdév Gavyactov TO omerety Tots ToVvNpots
Tovs movnpovs there 1s nothing surprising in bad men
consorting with bad; tov Tod mpatrew ypovoy eis TO
TapacKevaler Oat avadicxopwey We spend in preparation
the time for action.
315 The genitive of the infinitive is often used to
express purpose, aim, or object: Mivws tO AnoreKxov
Kabnpes ToD Tas mpocddous padAov iévat adTd Minos
destroyed the pirate-navy that his revenues might come
in the better; tod un dsadevyery Tov Aaywu éx TOV
duxti@v oxorrovs Kabicrawev that the hare may not
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX ity

escape from the nets we station watchers. In such

expressions the genitive marks the sphere or field, so
to say, at a point within which the action of the
principal verb comes into play.

The wnfinrtive without the artecle as genitive after

substantrves

316 In such a sentence as ov BovreverOas ets Opa

ara BeBovredcGas ‘it 1s no longer the time of day
for making plans but for having them, we see that the
infinitives Bovrever
Pas and BeBovretcOas stand pre-
cisely in the same relation to @pa as the genitive does
in a sentence hke wpa éotiv vrvov it is tune for sleep.
This construction is by no means wneommon in Greek.
It is not only found with dpa, xaspos, and lke words,
but explains why éAmis, dcavora, and other nouns of
the sort are often found with an infinitive, and
eluvidates the infinitive with avayen and its older
equivalent substantive yp: év édmide av thy modu
éxeiv he was in hopes of taking the town; dvavosay
elye mpos Suxehiav wheiv he had thoughts of sailing to
Sicily ; vov dpa pe &taca avaynn éotiv aroCaveip;
must I really die now? Aéyer yon! tayv wavy you
must tell very soon
317 Itis also the genitive of the infinitive that
we see in such expressions as de? wévery we must wait,
1 The other forms are due to crasis with parts of etvac: subjunctive
yon for xpi 7, optative ypeln for xp edn, Infinitive xpivar for xpy evar,
participle xpedy for xpn dv, future xpjora: lor xpy Eora, Impertect xpqy
tor xph Fv. Most ot these forms must have heen produced when the
real meaning of xp7 was begun to be lost At a later stage when the
ineaning was entirely lost, were produced an imperfect éxphy and an
infinitive xpjv.
128 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

det being a true impersonal verb: oxo. pevew det Tov

Kanos evoatuova a man should stay at home if he
would be really happy. Indeed such a genitive
infinitive admits even of a qualifying adjective.
TONAOD Set oUTwS eyewv far from it literally there is a
lack of much so being,
318 As a rule, however, when a_ qualifying
adjective is attached to the infinitive after éezy, the
construction 1s personal: rood bém Uirép ewavTod
atoXoyetoOas I am far from defending myself literally
[I lack much defending of myself; ths madelas tis
tro Tav mpoyovav Kataredbelons togovtov déw
KaTabpovely morte xK.7T.A. I am so far from despising
the system of education which we have inherited from
our ancestors that ete literally I lack so much
despising of the ete.

The infinitive without the article as the subject

of other verbs
319 In sentences such as dvayxalov éots dhépewv
Ta THS TUyns ‘we must endure what fortune sends,’
the infiuitive @épey is the subject of éoré and av-
ayxavoy supplements the sense of éorit Now the
infinitive serves as subject not only with éoriy and
neuter adjectives, but also with the majority of verbs
generally regarded as impersonal, mpoorxe:, mpérret,
oupPaivel, éFeoTw, THpEecTW, EVETTLV: TPOTHKEL [LOL
TovTo vmrocevy it is right for me to do this lzterally to
do this is come to me, 2¢ concerns me; cuvé8y por
1 This is the reason why elxés (€orw) 18 construed with the aorst
(or present), and not with the future infinitive . ov« elkds rods ’AOnvatous
wretoa it 1s not likely that the Athenians will sail.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 129

devyerv banishment befell me “terally to be an exile

happened to me; maou éfeoTs Aadewy all may speak ;
amperes pot TovTo movety it beseems ine so to do
literally to do so stands out clearly for me.
320 This usage once established, the infinitive
tended to draw into the accusative such datives as
followed mpémer, éFeoriv, and the like: suds mpéres
BovrevertOar to deliberate befits us; é&eors mavtas
Neyeuv all may speak.

The infinitive used as object to complete the sense

of a verb

321 A verb may have its meaning completed not

only, as we have seen, by the accusative and other
cases of nouns, and by a verbal clause with 6é7z, but
also by the infinitive.
322 After verbs of saying and thinking the
infinitive so used is often an alternative construction
to that with 67, while certain verbs are construed
only with the infinitive, such as davas and olecOas,
The tenses of the infinitive when employed to complete
the meaning of this class of verbs have the same
meanings as the corresponding tenses of the indicative:
éyer Tov dvipa atroOvncKely, atrobavety, atolavercbar,
teOyynxévar he says that the man is dying, died, will
die, is dead. Similarly just as we saw in 224 that a
weak substitute for the future indicative might be
formed by means of the optative and dv: @2\Ooww’ dv
‘[T would come, so a weak substitute for the future
infinitive may be formed by the aorist infinitive
with dv: dero dv édOety he thought he would come.
K
130 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

3923 Further, the various kinds of _ conditional

propositions may all be expressed by the infinitive
with dy, the same tense being retained as in the
indicative or other mood required by each type in its
simple form: ofecOe yap Tov watépa ote av dudarresy
Kal THY Tyny AapBaver tov EvLov; do you think
that your father would not have been on the watch
and gone on taking the price of the wood? that is ot«
av épvrAarrey Kal éhauPavey; ap adv pe olecbe
Toodde ern Siaryevérdas et Empattov ta dyudcia; do
you think that I would have lasted so many years if I
had been in public hfe? that is dp’ dv éym dseyevounv
et érpatroy ; ot Wépocas olovras rovs ayaptorous Kal
Tept Geous av apedos éyecv the Persians think that
ungrateful men would slight even the gods that ts of
AY aplaTol auEeN@s av eyorev.
324 All such infinitives are normally negatived
by od: ordovs hace ysyveoKortas Ta BéATLCTA OvK
éOéXew wparrev they say that many men see what is
best but refuse to do it; viv & otvméts ce Chv olerar
he thinks that you are now no longer living. But of
course if the principal verb is in a mood or a construc-
tion which requires ju), then the infinitive has pj:
vote pondev eivar Tov avOparivey BéBacov you must
believe that there is no certainty in human affairs ; ef Tes
vouiter Te pn tKavas eipcOar, avactas Urou“yncaTa
if any one thinks that some point has not received
adequate mention, he should get wp and remind us of it.
325 Instead of the future infinitive after verbs of
thinking the aorist infinitive with a is very often
used. It is especially to be remembered in regard to
this construction that the particle dy always tends to
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 131

attach itsolf to that word which most modifies the

meaning of a sentence. Thus it is constantly attracted
from the infinitive to the verb of thmking. If a
negative or an Interrogative word is found in the
proposition, then dy tries to get between that word and
the verb of thinking: mas av oles éxBivar TO wpaypa ;
how do you think the business will turn out? od« dv
yryetTo Tous avdpas duyetiy he did not believe that the
men would flee.
326 A certain order of verbs have such a meaning
that they can only have it completed by the future
infinitive or the aorist infinitive with dv, namely,
mpocoocay to expect; édrriGery to hope; vrioyveta bar
to promise: TodT’ avTo yap ToL KaTOdELY we TpoTboKad
for this indeed is just the thing that I expect to end
me; Tis adv wor Aric aKxodcas; Who would ever
have hoped to hear it? daréoyero ove dv édOeiv he
promised that he would not go.
327 The use of doxeiy is noticeable. In Ionic
this verb may be employed just like vouifesv or olec Oar
with the meaning ‘to think, but in Attic when 16
appears to have this signification, it gets 1t only through
that of ‘seeming to oneself’: ta mpdyya yiyvodcxecy
dox® I think I see what is up laterally I seem to see;
Tot oynoew doxets; where do you mean to put in?
literally where do you seem to yourself to be about to
put in? ov« ay done eb wpakas éxeioe arodnunoas I
do not think that [ would prosper if I left my country
for that place.
328 In all these cases, with verbs of saying,
thinking, promising etc., the infinitive is negatived by
ov, unless the principal verb is so used as to suggest
132 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

preference or deprecation, as when oteo@a implies

that a man has made up his mind between two
alternatives, or when wumiocyveto@ar implies that the
person promising encourages also: arexplvato undévos
nrtev eivat he replied that he was as good as anybody
else that is almost he rephed ‘I refuse to be thought
worse than any one else’; opodroyodmey pu Tapa
hvow eivar Ta Toradra We are agreed that such things
are not contrary to nature that is we have in common
chosen this alternative etc; oumicyvodvro pndev
yaheTov avTovs meicecGac they kept promising that
they would not be harshly treated that is they kept
making promises such as ‘do not be afraid, you will
not ete.’
329 This being so, it is not surprising to find that
the verb éuyvvus may be followed by an infinitive
negatived either by od or pu, according as the person
swearing is thought of as simply swearing or as
swearing in deprecation: éuvvow ov dpacas he swears
that he did not do that is he swears ot« &paca,
dpvuor pn Spacar he swears (in deprecatory tones)
that he did not do it. It is a distinction foreign to
English idiom.
330 Verbs which imply a denial have in Greek
idiom this implied negation made explicit by means of
un expressed before the infinitive which completes
their meaning: ypvodyto pH wemrtwxévas they kept
denying that they were down; é£apvos éore pnd ideiv
we tromote he denies that he ever even set eyes on
me before. When such verbs are themselves negatived
either directly or by being put in an interrogative form,
the infinitive is preceded by py od: ovK jpvodvTo pn
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 133

ov merrwxévat they did not deny that they were

down, éEapvos éots pn ob8 idetvy pe werrote; does
he deny that he ever even set eyes on me before?
According as other verbs approach to hke meaning
with apveto@ar, they affect a like construction: éyé
TOL OUK audit BnTa pn ovyl ce Elvas copdTeEpov 7%) ewe
indeed I do not dispute that you are wiser than I.
331 The infinitive present or aorist is constantly
used to complete the sense of the large class of verbs
which express an effort or desire to do or make others
do, and their opposites. Some of the commonest verbs
of this order are:—-SovrecOar to wish; éridupety to
desire; devyew to avoid; detcal Teves to beg of one;
aitety OY aitelo@at twa to ask one; ree to per-
suade; ceXevecy to order; elwety revi to bid one; éav
to allow; ésdovau Twi to grant one: BovreTal o° idety
he wishes to see you; éde7Onv vay tévae I besought
you to 90; émeicate Tov dvdpa payerPar you per-
suaded the man to fight; ovy at Tpiyes Trovodaww at
Neveal dpovety it is not gray hairs that produce dis-
cretion. After this class of verbs the infinitive is
normally negatived by wy: eden@nv tudyv wn OopuBeiv
I besought you not to interrupt; mapecrxevacpas
pnoéve vmeixewy I am prepared to yield to nobody;
ovK émeice TOUS TONITAaS un TroAcuety he did not per-
suade his countrymen against war.
332 Along with these go a good many verbs which
even before the infinitive is added at all lead us to
expect that the result of the action described by them
will be negative. Such verbs are:—dzaryopevew to
forbid; dytiAéyew to gainsay; elpye to prevent ;
ametpyey to exclude. With these as with verbs of
134 FIRST GREEK SYNTAAN

denial the implied negative is in Greek made explicit

before the infinitive by means of py: darelrov of
iatpol TH aaOevodvTe pry yphaGac éXaiw the doctors
forbad the sick man to use oil; 0 yesov eipye Ta
duTa pn Practdvey the winter prevented the plants
from growing.
333 If a verb of this class, however, is itself
negatived either directly or by being put in an inter-
rogative form, then the infinitive is preceded by ju) ov:
ovK amelTrov of tatpol TS adoOevodvTs pun ov yphHoGas
éxaio the doctors did not forbid the sick man to use
oil; ovders madrrotre avrelre pty) 0V Kad@s every Tovs
vomwous nobody yet ever argued-to-the-contrary that the
laws were wrong; 0 yeoov ovx eipye TA huTa pn ov
Bractavery the winter did not prevent the plants from
growing. So with equivalents like od« éurodwv éorw:
Ti éuToday pun ovyt UBpifopéevous iuas amolavety ;
what saves us from being put to death with insults ?
334 This being the normal idiom with most verbs
of this character, it is certamly very strange that the
commonest word of all meanimg ‘to prevent, namely,
k@dveV, has a different construction entirely. It is
true that when it is not itself negatived it has, hke all
the rest, 7 before the following infinitive; but when
it is negatived, it has neither wy nor w7)0v. Examples
of the two constructions are: Kwdrvovew yds py
TopeverGar they prevent us from marching; ovde oe
Kwdver ceavTov éuSarrew els TO Bapavpoy nothing
prevents you throwing yourself into the hangman’s-pit ;
od Thy éudy yuvaika KoUcELS ayelv els LraprTny;
will you prevent me taking my wife to Sparta?
335 Further, an infinitive is often seen completing
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 155

the sense of verbs conveying such notions as ability,

knowledge, aptitude, learning, habit, obligation. Some
of the verbs of this class most frequently met with
are dvvac@at, éyev to be able; eidévas to know;
éricracOas to have skill; weuxevas to have aptitude ;
pavdavew to learn; ddeirey to be bound; eimGévas to
be used: upas ore ove eyes ec7rety you see that he has
nothing to say; «cCapilery ove éeticraray he does not
know how to play the lute; medvcacw drravres
duaprave all are apt to make mistakes; caevew
éuabes you learned to ride. Such infinitives, when
their sense admits of being negatived, are negatived
by ua: mwowmow daxety Tv Kapbiay iy €idH jun Tartety
ta tov Gedy wWndicpara I will make his heart to
ache (literally make lim bite his heart) that he may
know not to trample-under-foot the ordinances of the
vods; Tots dirous odeltAopev Tovs idous ayadov pév
tt Opav, caxov b€ pndév we owe it to our friends to
do some good to our friends, but no harm.

The infinitive expressing purpose

336 The infinitive following certain verbs meaning

‘to choose,’ ‘to give, or ‘to take’ denotes the purpose
for which a person or thing is selected, given, or taken:
Tous tmméas Tapeltyovto LleXotrovynciows cvotparevel
they gave their cavalry to take the field with the
Peloponnesians ; d9 yap av twas XGOy, ToDTOY adieTeE
Trois Geois KonNdbewy if any man escapes you, leave him
for the gods to punish; Anpuoo@évn etrovTo dpyeuw
they chose Demosthenes to command them; tov raidsa
éxaSov éxOeivar they got the child to expose; ésérperre
136 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

Thy mokw Ssapravey he gave the town to sack,

otpatnyety pé0n he was chosen to command;
éuetpnOn viv o Bios évevdammovijcar life was meted
out to you to be happy in.

The wnfinitwe defining the meaning of adjectives

337 The infinitive is very often used with adjectives

and adverbs to define in what specific way the adjective
is applicable to the person or thing qualified by it.
338 It is so used with adjectives denoting ability,
aptitude, desert, and the like, as well as with their
opposites: Sewwds éars Aéyesw he is good at speaking;
avnp ixavos BonOeiy a man able to help; rdadra
eupnaecs VToupyely dvTas Nuas ov Kaxovs in all other
ways you will find us very good at serving. It is this
use of the infinitive which we have already seen with
oios and écos in 257.
339 Also with adjectives signifying ‘ easy,’ ‘ beauti-
ful,’ ‘worthy, ‘agreeable, ‘good, and the like, as well
as with their opposites: ta yarerodtara evpeir the
things most difficult to discover; éxeivo yap éwol pév
AvayKaLOTATOY TpoelTEly Hyovpas tiv Se yon yora-
rov axovoat for I believe that that is a thing most
necessary for me to proclaim, and most profitable for
you to hear; 6 worapos padsos Hv diaSaivery the river
was easy to cross; a&wos éotw érraivov tuyeiv he
deserves to be praised; doBepos yap éare mpootronre-
pijoas for he is a formidable antagonist ; yuv7 evapemns
idetvy a woman comely to the eye. In this case the
defining infinitive is active in voice. We cannot say
yahe ov evpicxeoOas, but only KarETOV eupioKely,
FIRST GREEK SYNTAN 137

The infinretrve absolute

340 The infinitive sometimes stands outside the

construction of a sentence just as in English we use
expressions like ‘so to speak’ It is then commonly,
though not always, preceded by ws or dcov or 6ca:
> > \ / > c > # 3
Qu. 7 obv Smypadixos Oeodwpos ; Ans. ovy Ocov y eu
eldéva. is Theodorus a student of painting ? not as far
as I know; rodTo mov @s TO Odov eElrety wreddos, Eve
nt ¢ \ ct > fas fal v

dé Kal adnOH to speak of it as a whole, this is surely

a lie, but there are true things in it; eicépyortas
uabyrat TroAXol, éwol doxety disciples enter in crowds,
it seems to me. Other phrases are: ws é7ros ettrely SO
to speak; ws efedcas to conjecture; ws éwol ye doxety
in my opinion; @s ovTwat axodoas to be told it in
this shape; @s pos twas elp_oGar between our-
selves literally for it to have been spoken to you
(alone).
341 A similar absolute infinitive is seen in 6Alyou
dety Or poxpovd dety to be translated into English by
the adverb ‘almost’: 76 Tas iddas evepyerias vTopip-
VITKELY Kal NeyELv pLKPOD Sety Gmotoy eoTs TH GveEerdiFev
to remind others of our own kindnesses and to speak
of them is almost like reproaching them ; of dpportrovtes
Odpares odlyou dety ov hopnwats adda tpocOnparte
1 The use of écov, ca, with this infinitive gives us some clue to the
idiom. ‘The infinitive in such expressions 1s really nominative, the
subject of éoriy understood, and écov 1s In a relative relation to an
implied neuter accusative rocotrov. Thus in full this answer would
run ot rocouréy éore Surypadixds boov ~y ew eiGévar éeoriv he is not a
student of painting to the extent over which my knowing is. In the
example next given above the implied antecedent to ws 1s ofrws and
the ellipse after elzety 1s éxec this thing, regarded-in-the-way (oirws)
in-which (ws) speaking of it as a whole 1s, isalie. But of course 1t 18
impossible to turn literally any such idiom,
138 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

elEacw breastplates that fit are almost lke a part of

the wearer, not hke an encumbrance,
342 The infinitive absolute when preceded by the
article 1s to be regarded rather as an accusative of the
extent over which the action of the principal verb in
the sentence travels: avayxn éyew arredderay Kal 7d
éxovrTas éivar pndayh mpocdéyerGar To ebdos you
must practise sincerity and never admit a heif you
can help 1t diteraily as far as the being willing goes;
To ém éxeivous elval amrodkw@Aate you are dead men as
far as depending upon them goes literally as far as
being in their hands goes; admoypy pos TO viv eivar
TavT eipnxévas it is enough for the present to have
said this literally as far as now or present time
goes.
343 Other two uses of the infinitive remain to
be noticed, namely its use in exclaigtions, and its
apparent employment as an imperative. Examples
of the former use are: THs popias: tO Ala vopiter
tydcxovTovt folly! to think that a man of your size
believes in Zeus! ro dé pydé Kuviv éyovta édOety to
think that I have come without even a hat! 7d éué
waGety tade to think that this has been my fate!
344 With its subject in the nominative, the in-
finitive 1s sometimes an equivalent of the Imperative:
GKOVETE AEd* KaTa Ta TaTpLa TOs Yyoas Tively bd
Ths cadteyyos give ear O people; drink the quart-
stoups-full, as your fathers did, when the trumpet
sounds; ov dé, Kreapisa, tas muAas avoi~as érexbeiv
Kal éreiyecOas ws Tdayiocta cuppetEar but you,
Clearidas, open the gates, sally out, and get to blows
as soon as you can. Jn such cases the infinitive
FIRST GREEK SYNTAA 139

depends mogt likely upon some inplied imperative

like péuvnco for example.

THE PARTICIPLE

545 Though an adjective in many of its uses, the

participle retains in certain respects its verbal nature.
[t may mark time and voice. It may have an object
346 The participle is negatived by 7 when the
participial proposition ig in sense equivalent to a pro-
position which uf expressed otherwise than by the
participle would have wy: ove gots pn viKoor cwoTnpla
we are lost if we do not conquer (alternative éay pu
viKOpev) , ndbicacGe Tov Torepov fy hoPynGévtes TO
avrixa Sewov vote for war without fearing the im-
mediate risk (alternative cai pu hoSnéhre).
347 In all other cases the participle is normally
negatived by od: ypovov wodvy avretyor ovK évd.dop-
Tes addAnXOLs for a long time they held out, refusing
to yield to one another; yvwodueba od TodpavTes
auvvecOa. we shall be understood to shrink from
self-defence.
The purticuple with the artrele
348 The participle preceded by the article may be
used just like an adjective or a substantive except that
it may have an object. When it refers to definite
persons or things present at the time to the speaker's
inind, it is negatived by ov. Instances of it so used
both with and without a negative are: 6 Miarcadns
6 Mapaddve payerdpuevos tots Tépoais Miltiades who
fought at Marathon with the Persians; tovs otpaty-
140 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

yOUS TOUS OUK avEedopévous Tous ék« vavpayles éBovdecOe

cpwew you determined to put on their tral the
generals who did not pick up the dead after the battle
at sea; 0 Aéywy the speaker (now present); 6 devyav
the defendant (now on his trial); 06 éséKwv the
plaintiff (present in court); of ypawrapevoe Tov
Loxparny the prosecutors of Socrates; oféa ors dvyKecta
KaKa eToincay TOUS OV MédXXOVTAS OVdEV TOLODTOY Spay
I know that they did desperate wrong to men (whom
I could name) who were not hkely to do anything of
this sort.
349 So used, however, the participle may also
refer to classes of persons or things that the speaker
knows from experience as existing or likely to exist.
In this general sense the participle is negatived by yu):
o devywy any defendant; 6 diéxcwv any plaintiff; of
ToNtTevopevos public men; 0 BovrAop“evos any one who
likes; 0 dabduenBels padiws BonPeav evplicxerar the
oppressed easily finds help; 6 un dapels dvOpwrros ov
qmatoeveras & man who has not been flogged does not
get education.
350 As is clear from some of the examples given
already the participle when so used marks time: o
calov THY TOY, 0 THoaS THY TOMY, 0 THCwY THY
modu the man who is now saving the town, the man
who saved the town, the man who is to save the town;
or any man who saves the town, he who saved the
town (whoever he was), he who is to save the town
(whoever he may be).
351 A striking idiomatic sense of the future
participle so employed must not be passed over: ov«
got 0 ToAuHTwY TTEpl orrovdayv Aéyew there is
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 14]

nobody to wenture speaking of a truce; dmoOavetrar

bs évoetav Tod Oepatrevoovtos he will die for want of
somebody to nurse him; voyuov tov tadta KwrUcoovta
réOewTae they lave passed a law to prevent this;
ele of OmNiTaL of THY VUKTA Tapevaopevol Trapetev
would that the hoplites who were to inarch through
the night were here Examples lke the last show
that the literal meaning of the future participle in all
such cases is ‘who is to do so and so,’
352 Sometimes the article 1s omitted with participles
so used, just as it may be omitted with adjectives
and substantives. This happens chiefly when the
participle follows a preposition: tis dv modus bro py
mwelOouévov aroin ; where is the town that would be
taken by men who do not obey orders? wréowev él
Toddas vavs KexTnwévous we sail against a people
possessed of a large navy.

The participle without the article

353 The participle without the article is very

cominon as an equivalent for temporal, causal, final,
conditional, or concessive dependent propositions. As
such it sometimes has and sometimes has not an
adverb attached to it.
354 As an equivalent for a dependent temporal
proposition it is either used alone or preceded according
to its meaning by dua at the same time; pwera£v in
the midst of; avrixka at once; or evdus straightway;
TavT eirav amnrGe saying this he departed; danvrnca
Dirirmwm amvovtTs I met Philip going away; dayts
Saipayv avdpt cupmaplatara, evOus yevomévo pvaoTa-
142 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

yeayos Tod Blov by every man as soon ae he is born

there stands an angel to guide him through the
mystery of life; r’s dv eln tTovodros tatpos boTis TO
vooovytTs petakv acOevodytTt avuBovrevoe pyndév ; Who
would act like a doctor who should give no advice to
a patient in the course of his illness? of BapSapor cat
devryovtes dua éritpwoxoy the natives inflicted wounds
even when they were running away; Ta ypyuata cal
KT@LEevous evdpaiver TOVS avOpwtous Kal KEKTHLEVOUS
Hotov moves Chv riches both make men happy, when
they are acquiring them, and give them a more
pleasant life, when they have acquired thein.
The precision of the principal proposition is often
augmented in such cases by adverhs like rore, évradéa,
ovtws Which resume and fix the sense of the participial
proposition: ésreyevouévn 1 vooos évtavda bn mavu
ériere tous “A@nvatous when the disease had attacked
the Athenians it entirely crushed them there and
then; of Caypados éx 1rohN@v GuVayouTeEs Ta e& EXaTTOU
KaANLCTAa «OUTMS bAa TA CoOpaTa Karka ToLodoL
haiverOa. by bringing together the best points of each
person among a number of persons, painters make
figures appear beautiful as wholes.
355 In a causal sense participles are also used
either alone or with some such adverbs as a@re in
as much as; ofoy or ofa after the manner of; ws in
the belief that. The words dre, otov, ola are used
with the participle when it gives a real reason, @s
when it denotes the assumption on which a man acts:
TovTou Tov Képdous arevyounv aicypoy vopifwv I
abstained from this sort of profit because I thought it
disreputable; rtodr’ éSpaca Bovromevos cade rtods
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 143

dvdpas this I did from a wish to save the men’s lives;

6 Kipos &te rats dv Seto TH orodH Cyrus because
he was a boy was delighted with the dress; wada ya-
Nemes érropevovto of Aakedatpovior ota 61) év vuKTt Kat
év ho8w amsovtes the Lacedaemonians marched under
creat difficulties as might be expected when they were
(or after the manner of men) withdrawig durimeg
night and in panic; tov Tlepixdéea ev aitia eiyov ws
metcavTa ThaS TOME Kal Ov éxElvoY Tals TUUpopats
Teperent@xotes they kept blaming Pericles in the
belief that he had persuaded them to make war and
that it was through lim that they were involved in
misfortunes. Here as often we might also translate
the ws by a parenthetic ‘as they thought’ or the lke:
because he had persuaded them, as they thought, to
make war ete.
Here also the precision of the principal proposition
may be augmented by todd’ évexa, d:a TodTo, or the
like: Néyw bé Todds’ Bea, Bovropevos So€as col drep
éwot but I speak for this reason because [ want you
to have just the same view as I.
356 Attached to the future participle, the particle
@s gives it a jinal sense, that 1s, makes it capable of
expressing purpose, aim, intention: “Aptra&épins cvr-
NawSaver Kipov ws atoxrev@yv Artaxerxes apprehends
Cyrus with the intention of putting him to death;
TapecKkevalovTo M$ TH TELxiowaTe mporBandodyTes
they made ready with the aim of attacking the fort.
This is of course precisely the same use of ws as 10
causal propositions, the difference of ultimate meaning
being due entirely to the future tense.
When the principal verb expresses movement of
144 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

any sort, the future participle denotes intention or

aim of itself without as: cuvjMouev dvrdpevoe Tov
ayava we flocked to see the struggle; éreuire tov
dodrov épodvTa OTe acOevet he sent his servant to say
that he was ul; tov otpatnyov eOavualoy Kay eis
Toewov ayovTa TtpwOncopméevous 1 atoPavoupéevous
they admired their leader even when he led them to
wounds or death inwar. Indeed after verbs of motion
@s ought never to be used with the future participle
unless great emphasis is to be laid wpon the circum-
stance that the intention is based upon an assumption:
TO Lvurdirr@ ed0ds ws aravTncopevos €EFfAOov they
marched out at once in the hope of meeting Gylippus.
It was only on hope of meeting him that they went
out. They did not know what route he was taking.
357 The participle may stand for the protasis or
premiss of a conditional proposition, its tenses repre-
senting at need any of the several types of protasis
expressed by the indicative, subjunctive, or optative:
oles ov “AXKnotiuw vmép “Adurnrov arobavety av pr
olowéevny adavatov pynwny apeThs wept éauTis éoe-
ofa.; do you think that Alcestis would have died for
Admetus, if she had not thought that there would be
an everlasting memory of her generosity? (alternative
€i [ WETO)} aTTO yap ddXOUMAL py UaDaV yNeTTOOTPO-
dety for I shall be done for unless I learn to supple
my tongue (alternative édy wn padw); Toradt’ ay
codpoveyv éyors such things you would have if you
were to show sense (alternative e¢ cwpovoins); duvn-
Geis av Tloreidasay éyew eb éBovrnbn, “OduvO lots
mapédwxevy when he might have kept Potidaea had
he chosen, he gave it over to the Olynthians (alterna-
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 145

tive édvv7&) dv: he would have been able to keep

Potidaea had he chosen, yet he gave it over etc.)
358 By itself a participle may have a concessive
meaning, but as a rule xaé in the sense of ‘even’ or
its compound xaiep ‘indeed even’ is attached to it.
More emphatic even than xaiep 18 Kat TavTa; and
emphasis is also secured by using oueas either before
the cai or as part of the principal proposition: dd<ya
duvdmevot Tpoopav mepl Tov péAXovTOS TOAAA énre-
yvetpodmev mparrey though able to foresee little con-
cerning the future we set ourselves to accomplsh
much; cvpBovrevw cos Kaliep vewrepos wy though I
am the younger I advise you; woAdv ypovoy avretyov
Kaltep ove bvtes avtimandos they held out a long time
though they were inferior in strength; devyoucs xal
moot ovres many though they are, they run away;
durarrecbar ta Coa érictavtas ab wv padsora det
Kal TadTa els ovdevoS OLdacKadAOV TwTOTE hoLTHTAVYTA
animals know to be on their guard against their worst
enemies, and that too though they have never yet
gone to school; ofetrar wn 4 uy Gums Kal Geco-
Tepov Ov TOD cwMpaTos TpoaTONAUYTAaL he fears that the
soul notwithstanding that it 1s more divine than the
body perishes before it; dums mpos ye Tas dAXas
Téyvas KaiTEep oT@ TpaTTovans pirocogias TO
akiwua peyarorpetréctepoy Reiretas though philo-
sophy fares so ill comparef with the rest of the
sciences yet the rank left 16 1s more honourable.
359 Moreover, participles are constantly used to
bring out any sort of circumstance under which an
action takes place. This is especially true of the
words AaBav, dépov, aywv, eywv, apEawevos, Tedev-
L
146 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

Tov: of OnBaior Meyapetow opoposs odo'y i)7TEthouv

the Thebans threatened their neighbours the Mega-
rians; Tov mydov él Tod vaTov edepov éyKexuores
Kab TO Yelpe eis TovTicw cUwTrécovTes they carried
the mud on their back, stooping and clasping their
hands behind; Tpdfevoy éxétevce NaBovta Ott Trel-
ctous TwapayevécOar he ordered Proxenus to come to
him with as many men as he could; éy@ Sdetpo cou
éamevdoov orrovoas déowy I was hastening to you with
a truce; tov IlXobdrov Fees dyov he is here with
Plutus; ddlkow Kadxicta cipravta apEdueva ao
Ths bytetas the wicked have the worst of everything,
health and all literally beginning with health; ayri
dirotinov avdpav diroypnuatictal cal diroypywator
TeXevTOUTES éyevovTo from being ambitious they became
fond of making money and in the long-run fond of
money itself.
360 In all such cases the participle may be re-
carded as in apposition to some substantive which
forms part of the regular construction of the sentence,
but it may happen that a substantive outside the
construction, so to speak, is yet conceived of as affect-
ing the action of the sentence, by doing or being done
to. Such a substantive together with the participle
marking its action is in Greek put in the genitive and
spoken of as the genitive absolute. Any of the rela-
tions enumerated in paragraphs 355 to 358 may be
expressed by a participle thus construed.
361 The richness of Greek in participial forms 1s
one of the principal reasons why its syntax is so much
more simple and natural than that of Latin. It is
far less often necessary to have recourse in Greels to
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 147

absolute constructions. We may have a whole series

of participles to express successive actions of the sub-
ject of a sentence: roy Oetov petatreprrdpevos
Eevioas Kat xatapeOicas éuBarov eis Gyakav vix-
twp éEayayev améohaéey sending for his uncle he
entertained Lim and phed him with drink, put him at
night in a carriage, carried him off and murdered lim.
Yet even in Greek genitives absolute are by no means
uncommon.
362 Hxamples of genitives absolute replacing
different kinds of dependent propositions are: taitr’
érpaydn Kovevos otpatnyotyros these things were
done when Conon was general; dredoyjoaro ote ody
as Tots “EAAnos moreunoovtay obddy eizros he offered
the defence that he did not speak in the belief that
he and his would make war upon the Greeks; °A@n-
vaioy dé 76 avTo ToOUTO TaGdrTWY, SiTrAaclaV AY otpat
Thy Svvapw eikavecOar whereas if this same fate be-
fell the Athenians, their power would, I believe, be
ouessed at double what it is (e¢ of “A@nvatos t6 avr
Touto mafov, dumracia av ddvvapis eixalorTo);
émidernopar &Te ypovov mapeNOdvTos sodrov I have
forgotten seeing that a long interval has elapsed;
olwot TE Spacw TapadpovovyTos Tov TaTpos ; dear me,
what must I do, with my father off his head?
363 A participle may stand alone in the genitive
absolute when a noun or pronoun can easily be
supplied from the context or from the thought : woAXot
OUTm@ Tpos TLVAaS eyoug ty OTE EVTVYOUVT@V AUTEL-

ofae many are so affected towards others that they

are sorry when they prosper; ¢ivov épopévou bre
Maxpoves ecowv When he asked they said that they
148 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

were Macrones; ov-y olov re ut) KadOs atracerkvivTos

Kaos pywetoPar it 1s not possible to copy well unless
one sets the copy well; é&ayyerOévros etploxovar
Tovtov nobévTa when the news is brought they find
this man delighted.
364 The last example is not to be confused with
such constructions as cadas dbyiwGéevros OTe év Tats
vavol Tov “EXAnvav Ta mpaynata éyévero when it
was clearly demonstrated that the safety of the Greeks
rested with the fieet. In this and similar cases the
ore clause serves as the equivalent of a noun.
365 Neither in such constructions as 6 Kipos dre
Tats wy hoeTO TH FTOAW Nor as tvaldoy bvTav Huav
érs 18 the participle of etvas ever omitted.
366 The participles of impersonal verbs stand in
the neuter singular when other participles would stand
in the genitive absolute. Such are déoyv it being
necessary ; mpoojKov it being proper; éfov it being
permissible ; d0fav it being determined; and the like.
Sometimes passive participles used impersonally get
this construction, and also neuter adjectives with
dv, like eipywévoy When it is said; mpootay@év when
it is ordered; advvarov dy it being impossible; ceyds
amvoxpivacBar déov ; are you silent when you ought to
speak? é£0ov co. mrovtrety mévyns Siaterels Ov when
you might be rich, you continue poor; nat évéévde
Tadw mpootayOév por urd Tod Sijwov Mévava dyew
els “EAAjerovroy @Byouny and, when the duty was
laid upon me by the people of conducting Meno to
the Peloponnese, I again left that place.
367 The particle ws with the genitive absolute is
so often the equivalent in sense of vouifwv or Néyou
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 149

and the like followed by the accusative and infinitive

that it appears to have caught in part the latter
construction. At all events in cases where we would
expect ws or wo7rep followed by the genitive absolute,
we actually get it followed by an accusative absolute:
nvyxeTo Tpos Tous Gears Tayaba Sidovas ws TOUS Beads
KGNLOT EeldoTas orola ayaba éotiv he prayed to the
gods to give him what was good, believing that the
gods knew what sort of things was good (alternative
vouifay tous Oeovs KaddAALoT eidévat); Tovs vous o4
Tatépes avo Tov Tovnpav avOpwoTay eipyoucw ws
THY TOV TovnpwV Oulrlay KaTaduoW ovcay THS apeEeTis
fathers keep their sons away from bad men in the
belief that the company of bad men is a solvent of
virtue (alternatiie olowevoe THY THY TorNnpaY opvrdlar
KaTaAvoLY elvat).
368 The participle may further be used to define
and complete the meaning of verbs. In this way it
either hmuits the action of the verb to certain special
circumstances, or actually takes the place of a
dependent proposition. Thus when we say érvyov
rote KaOevdovres ‘they happened to be asleep at the
time’ we limit the action expressed by éruyoy to the
special circumstance expressed by xaGevdovres, and
so define precisely the application of a verb so general
in meaning as Tuyyaveu.
On the other hand when we say itopev avdrov
reOvnxota ‘we know that he is dead’ we employ the
participle to complete the sense of tcowev in the same
sort of way as it might be completed by a clause with
OTL: tomer OTe TéOVIKED.
150 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

The purticiple Liuntting the meaning of certain verbs expressing very

yencral notions

369 In Enghsh idiom we often make what in

Greek is the participle our finite verb and express the
Greek finite verb by an adverb or an adverbial or
prepositional phrase. Among verbs which are so
defined by a participle the commonest are: otyer@ar
to be gone; tuyydvery to happen; dsayiyverOas,
Siatenery, deayery to continue; AavOdvew to escape
notice; PGavevw to anticipate ; daivecGat to be shown;
@yero amiov he was gone away; olyetat wréwv he
has sailed away; étvye xatadapbev he had just
fallen asleep; rapay étuyyavov I was present at the
time; of “EXAnves SteTéXouv ypa@mevor ToIs TaY
Tmonenlov Tto€evpacw the Greeks all the tune made
use of the enemy’s arrows; dvayiyveras KoXaKevov
he is always flattering; Bovrolunv av Aabety Kopov
dmerxOov I should like to get away without Cyrus
knowing of wt; of “EXdnves PGdvouvcw éri Te aKpw
yevouevot Tovs Trorenlovs the Greeks are at the top
before the enemy; n wWuy paiveras aBavatos obca
plainly the soul is immortal. Even etvas may be so
used with a participle: ypeTav ef te ohas ayaloy
Sedpaxdtes eioiv they kept asking if they really had
done them any service; Fody Tuves Kal yevopuevos TO
Nixia Adyor some proposals were actually made to
Niclas.
370 Some of the participles just enumerated may
also be turned idiomatically into English as participles
or infinitives: ‘the Greeks continued using’ etc, ‘I
happened to be present’ etc. Other verbs of this
class are commonly translated so or by some verbal
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 151

phrase. uch are: apyec@au to begin; tardpyew to

start; mavew to stop transitive; Aye to stop in-
iransitiee ; taverGas to cease; dvéyecOar to endure;
Kaptepew to persevere; drayopeveww to grow tired:
cay Tis pas eb Toy vrdpyyn, oY ATTNTOMEOa
e) towovvTes If & man start the practice of doing
kindnesses, we shall not be behind him im doing them ,
avavepla yap TO pry dtvacOat KapTepely NuTOvpEVOY
for 1t is unmanly not to be able to hold up agamst
sorrow ; apEouat Aéyor I will begin to speak ;Anyouor
to&evovres they stop shooting;
aD? tyv yuvatka éravoas
kraovcayv you stopped the woman crying.

The purticiple completing the meaning of certain verbs

371 The participle is often found completing the

sense of a verb precisely as a substantive or as an
adjective without the article might do.’
Thus just as we can say etNovto avtov Bacihéa we
can say also érroincas avdroy Siareyouevoy you repre-
sented him as conversmg. The commonest of the
verbs which may have their meaning thus completed
are: deceveva. to show; adodecxvvvar to display ;
érioecxvuvas to exhibit; d7do0dv to show; arodaivesy
to prove; édéyyeor to convict; movety to represent;
cabifery to represent; riPévas to suppose; evpioKesy
to find; carad\auSave to surprise; dwpav to detect
in the act; adrtoxec@as to be convicted: érédecEa
rovtov dapodoxncavrTa I paraded him as a man who
had taken bribes; é&eréy&es ce émiopxovvTa he will
1 We might even explain the use of the participle Just described i
this way, but on the whole it seemed to me better to look at 1t froin
the point of view which I have.
152 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

convict you of (committing) perjury; @ Aloyvros

"Ayauéuvova Kkabife. xatiovta Aeschylus represents
Agamemnon returning home; ébwapdcamev Tov dodrov
KreTTOVTAa We caught the servant im the act of stealing.
372 A participle after certam verbs normally
takes the place of a subordinate proposition introduced
by ors that. Such verbs are: opay to see; adxovesy to
hear of; atc@avecOar to perceive; muvédvec@ar to be
told of; yiyveooxew to get to know; pavédvery to
learn; eidévae to know; émictacGar to understand;
pepvnoGa. to remember; érsravédverOar to forget:
oiéa avtov TeOvnxora I know that he is dead; dxotw
gov adovtos I hear you singing; érvOovto rhs LvAov
KaTeirnupéevyns they were told of the occupation of
Pylus; yoGounv rov dvdpa mpociovta I perceived the
man approaching ; eidouev dvaywpodvtas tobs TohEut-
ous we saw the enemy withdrawing,
373 If the object of such verbs is at the same time
the subject, then it is not expressed but the participle
is put in the nominative: péuvnoo Ovntos wv remember
that you are mortal; éyvav Arrnuévos I knew I was
beaten; dvaBeBrynpévos od padvOdvers; do you not
understand that you have been calumniated?
374 The construction of a compound of &Sévas is
to be noticed: ctvorda éuavté abixdv or ddicodvTe I
am conscious of wrong-doing; ovvydew éavTd nyap-
THKMS OY nuapTrnxoTe he was conscious of being
mistaken.
375 With other verbs again the participle may
replace a dependent proposition introduced by 6rz
because. To this class of verbs belong dyavaxreiy to
be vexed; ady@eoOas to be grieved; yarerds, Bapéws
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 153

pepe to take ill; VaLpeLy to rejoice; HderPas to be

pleased ; aioyvvecOas to feel shame; petayérco
Oar to
repent: mas av7p KaV OODADS H TW HoeTar TO hos
opa@y every man even if he isa slave is glad to see the
light; py or ayOecOe NEyortse TaXNOH you must not
be angry with me for speaking the truth; ypynyatev
ovK aloyvvEer éTipEedovpmEvos Stas cor EoTar ws
TAeloTa ; are you not ashamed of your anxiety to
possess as much as possible?
376 It is hardly necessary to say that almost all
these verbs have different constructions according to
the shade of meaning which it is intended that they
should bear. The aim of this book is to explain
possible constructions. How to use these constructions
with absolute precision can only be learned by reading
Greek authors.

THE VERBAL ADJECTIVES

377 The verbal adjective in -rés normally denotes

that the action expressed by the verb is possible. o
Totamos StaBatos éorev the river may be crossed; ov
Sidaxtov éotiv 4 apetH virtue is not a thing that may
be taught. As a rule, its active sense is replaced by
adjectives in -xos like mpaxrteKos.
378 The verbal adjective in -réos marks obligation.
It has both a personal and an impersonal construction.
In the personal construction it is passive, the agent
being expressed by a dative: o wotauos diaPareos
éoriy the river must be crossed; 6 Aéyo pytéov éoriv
what I say must be said; @dedntéa coe 7 modus the
city must be helped by you.
154 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

In the impersonal construction the verbal is in the

neuter nominative singular or plural with éeré expressed
or implied, and is active in sense. The agent is
normally expressed by the dative, sometimes by the
accusative. There may also be an object expressed:
Tov Trotauov SiaBaréov éoriv we must cross the river;
OvYL UrEeLKTEoV OVSE avaywpnTéov ovdSe AevTTEoy THD
raéwv you must not yield, retreat, or desert your post;
ov OovAEvTEéoy TOUS VodY EyovTas TOS KaKaS PpovodeL
men of sense must not be enslaved to fools.
CHAPTER X.—PARTICLES

379 Under the name of particles I shall treat in

this chapter of negative adverbs, interrogative adverbs,
auc of the large class of words which are used to co-
ordinate propositions, aud which we designate by the
common name of conjunctions.

THE NEGATIVE PARTICLES

380 The mode in which the different forms of

principal and dependent propositions are expressed
negatively, has ordinarily been stated in the paragraphs
dealing with each, so that lttle remains to be said
about the negative particles. |
381 Unhke English, Greek strenethens a negative
by adding other negatives to it in the same proposi-
tion: ovK« éortiy ovdéy KpeiTTOY 7 voOmor woke Nothing
is better for a country than law; kaevdwv ovdets
ovdévos a&tos ovdév pAadrov Tod pw) COvTos NO one
when asleep is in any respect any better than a dead
nan; pondérrote pndels yévottro Meyapéwy codmrtepos
may no one ever be wiser than the Megarians!
382 Unlike Latin, Greek does not allow one
156 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

negative to destroy another. Jor the Hatin nemo

non and the lke the Greek equivalent is otdels doris
ov.
383 It may happen that the negative ov is
attached to a verb so closely as to form one idea with
it, as In ov davas to deny; ove é€ay to forbid, ovx
éGéxewv to refuse. When this is the case, the negative
and verb may be treated precisely as a compound
verb, the ov remaining fast even. for example, when
eg or éav precedes: éay te od ite, é€av te hyTe
whether you dissent or assent.
384 A very emphatic negative meaning is con-
veyed by a form of expression undoubtedly elliptical
in 1tg origin even if we cannot now say precisely}
what word or words have been lost. Preceding a
subjunctive? or less often a future indicative, od pu
makes the sense of the following ver) strongly nega-
tive: qv darak du0° ) Tpidv jhuepOv Oddy arocyeoper,
ovK étt wn duvntas Bacirevs nuds KatadraBetv if we
are once two or three days’ march off, the king, J am
certain, will never more be able to find us; Hy eis
1y SuvnOh THY hoywov éTt TO axpoy avaBHvast, ovdels
LNKETL eivyn TOY TroAceuiwy if a single company has
once been able to climb to the top, not one of the
enemy, you may be sure, will stand his ground any

1 On the whole it is probable that this use of o¥ uf arose fiom an

ellipse of some verb of fearing or its equivalent Thus in the first
example we might supply dédouxa: ovx Ere Gédaxa uu SUvnrar Bacrdevs
nuas karadaBerv, The rarity of the construction with the future in-
dicative is in keeping with this supposition.
* For some reason or another the subjunctive is generally in the
aorist, and, stranger still, in the second or strong aorist.
3 The word dvo unless used with a dual substantive is indeclinable.
When the substantive is in the dual, 6¥o also must be declined.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 157

longer; éovepioouat TovovTov émitndelov oiov eyo

ovdéva pun) Tote evprnaw I shall have lost such a fend
as I am certain I shall never find again.

INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS

385 In English an imterrogative sense may be

given to a proposition by the tone mm which it is pro-
nounced, Thus ‘you have seen him’ may either be
a statement or a question according to the accent of
the speaker. But as a rule we vary the order of the
words in asking a question, ‘have you seen him ?’
386 The Greek usage corresponds m the main to
the former and rarer of these two English types. Only
in Greek the interrogative proposition is very commonly
introduced by an emphatic adverb with a meaning
something like our ‘really’ or ‘indeed, namely7 or
its compound dpa, sometimes further emphasized by
a xat or some other particle following it: é@éXous ap
umép Tovtov amolaveiy ; would you be ready to die
for him? 7 é6édous av Urep Tovtou amoGaveiv ; would
you really be ready to die for him? } Kai ébéroars
vrép rovtou amodavety ; really would you even be
ready to die for him? In the last two forms dpa
might be substituted for 7 without much difference of
meaning.
387 When the question is negative, it has pre-
cisely the same form except for the added ov, and for
1 Gpa is first found in Aeschylus, and after Aeschylus becomes quite
common. There 1s some reason to think that Aeschylus introduced
it. Just as he converted the Homeric éuzys, é410s and the like into
Eumas, Sdtos and the like, so he seems to have taken the Homeric 4 pa
and atticized it into dpa.
158 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

the fact that 4 is not used: o¥ cuviess ;- do you not

understand ? dp’ od cvvies ; do you really not under-

stand ?
388 The emphasizing adverb may in this case be
obv* as well as dpa. Only ody follows the negative
(generally immediately and 1s then written as one
word with it),? while dpa precedes it: od Seevdov ody
Tase yeverOar; is it not really dreadful that these
things happened? ovcoty wp édcess tévar; will you
really not let me go ?
389 The negative questions of the types as yet
given are of the sort which look for the answer ‘yes’:
ov ovviers you understand, do you not? But of
course there is another class of questions which look
for the answer ‘no. These are introduced in Greek
by pj, dpa py, or pov (that is wx) obv): wr te ddd
Neyers TO Sixatov etvar; you do not say that justice
is something different, do you? dpa pur) TovT@ micTev-
eis; you do not really believe him, do you? poy ri
oe adixel ; he does not really wrong you, does he? At
best, however, such a rendering is often clumsy, and
had better be replaced by others such as ‘I hope he
does not wrong you, ‘I really trust you do not believe
him. The Greek idiom itself seems to have arisen
from the loss of a verb of fearing.
390 Now and then a question is introduced by
the elliptical phrase dAXo Ts 4: AXXO Te 1) OpoNorels ;
1 The radical meaning of ofy is ‘really.’ All its other senses come
from that.
2 The grammarians’ distinction between ovdxofy and ovxouy 1s piob-
ably quite without foundation In any case it is of no consequence.
If they had seen how ofv came to mean ‘therefore’ from meamng
‘indeed, they might also have seen how ovxoty came to mean ‘ there-
fore’ from meaning‘... not. . 1eally2’
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 159

do you not,agree ? jv tods AiGous of TorguLOL GVAND-

gwow, GAO TL i) OvdeEY KwWAVTEL Taplévar; if the
enemy once use up their stock of stones, will anything
keep us from passing? In each case we must supply
in thought some suitable verb before the 7, as qrovels
in the former instance just given and yevjceras in the
second: ‘do you do anything else than agree?’ ‘will
anything else happen than that nothing will prevent
us from passing ?’
391 In alternative questions such of these types
as are compatible with the meaning may be retained
for both propositions, the alternatives being cisjoined
by 4: aoxrevets Tov dvdpa 7) coces ; will you kill
the man or give him his life? dpa cu éypryopas 7}
cabevdes ; are you awake or asleep? 4 rovs révyras
direl H Tovs wAouciovs; does he love the poor or
the rich ?
392 But it is very common to introduce alterna-
tive propositions either by worepov or wotTepa: roTepa
popev 7) 1 dower; whether are we to say yes or
no? oTepov améxtenve Tov dvdpa 7) éowoev ; Whether
did he kill the man or give him his life? sérepov
Tous mwévntas iret 1) Tos mAovatovs ; Whether does
he love the poor or the rich ?

COPULATIVE AND DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS

893 The principal copulative conjunction is xaé.

It joins word to word or proposition to proposition:
@ Zed cai Oeot O Zeus and ye gods; farpos Kat
pavTis physician and prophet; év rota ra OopvBe
f \ \ ef \ € +
cuyTpiBouela tas Kehparas amavTes. Kal Ol MéT
160 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

avtod Tapowicavres ed€ovTO fou cuyyvepNY exeur

in this to-do we had our heads broken, every one of
us; and the men who had got drunk with the de-
fendant begged me to forgive them.
394 Very rarely we find re (Latin -que) connect-
ing propositions (never words) to one another: «ay
wev atrodyve povny ayabav aravt@yv otcayv aitiar
éuée Umer, Ov ewe Te COvTas Umass eb O€ wy x.THr. if J
shall prove that I alone am to you the cause of all
good things and that you owe your hves to me, well
and good, but otherwise ete.
395 One «ai followed by another xaé gives much
the same meaning as the English ‘both ... and’:
kat Cav Kab TeXevtncas both alive and dead; kal this
vuKTOS Kat THS Hwéepas both in the night and in the
day.
396 A like force but much weaker is conveyed by
te... kas To translate this the English ‘both
and’ is a good deal too strong: é¢yvwcay rovs Te
pevryyovtas KatadéEacbat Kal todls atipovs érriTipous
TOWATaL Kal KOLWY THY TE TwTNPlay Kat TOUS KLV-
duvous trotjicac@at they determined to welcome home
the exiles, to give the franchise to those who were dis-
franchised, and to share with them safety and danger.
In mature Attic of the colloquial kind re . . . xaé is
by no means common. In all Attic the re is gener-
ally separated by some words from the xai.
397 Much the same may be said of re followed
by Te: yalipm te yap hesdopevos ws oddels avip Tdadsy
T avarav hvix ay tovtou déy for I take pleasure like
nobody else in saving and again in spending when
spending is called for.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 161

398 When special stress is to be laid upon the

second or last of two or more clauses co-ordinated in
any of the ways mentioned above except the last, we
then find «ai 8) cai replacing xai before that clause:
TovTo édpacas Kal Tovnpov Kab 6) Kal aloyiotov
your conduct in this was wicked and indeed most
unprincipled also; apodpa re evrepos éyéveto xat 81)
kat ws eos mpocexvvnOn he was held in great honour
and indeed was also worshipped as a god.
399 To join a negative proposition to an affirm-
ative proposition cal ov or cal jy as the case may be
“ig used: avapiornros Fv Kai ovdev éBeBpaxev he was
breakfastless and had eaten nothing; atAntieds Set
Kapelwody Tovs SaxTUdous oivoy Te puKpoY eyyéat Kal
un modvy you should crook your fingers as if you
were playing the flute, and pour in a little wine and
not much. Very often as in the last example «ai
ov or Kal py has an adversative force, and may be
Englished by ‘ but not.’
400 To join a negative proposition to another pro-
position itself negative ovdé or nde as the case may be
is used: ov yap TovTo Térovla ovdé WEAAW TacyeEL
for J have not suffered this nor am I likely to suffer it.
401 The Greek for ‘neither . . . nor’ 1s ovre
ovre or pyte ... ponte as the case may be: ws ob
éxeiy dp’ ovte tabdt’ dp0a> epwyv as after all IT was
night neither in that nor in this; cat pare Cepunv un?
ddov vruypav dedons and show us neither a hot road
nor acold. An ovte or a pare followed by re has the
force seen in Guocav pyre Tpoddcesy GANOUS CTUp-
payot te écecOar they swore that they would not
betray one another and that they would be allies.
M
162 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

402 When otdé.. . oddé or pndé . . . wndé is

found the first oddé or pdé signifies ‘not even, the
second ‘nor’: ot yy ovd' opdyv yuyvacKers ovd
aKxovov wéuvnoar you do not even understand what
you sce nor remember what you hear,
403 After adjectives and adverbs denoting likeness
and sameness the Greeks used «ai where we use ‘as’:
Tapathnow wemovle Kat eOpacey he has got as good
as he gave; ovy Guwoua colt Kal éxeivors Av your case
was not the same as theirs. In Greck the second
proposition is treated as co-ordinate when we treat it
as subordinate.
404 In another class of sentences the same thing
happens, namely when the first proposition expresses
anterlority either negatively or affirmatively by means
of a verb with 737, ova, or by ove EdbOaca: dn Hy
ove Kal mpoondOoy ov Todéusoe it was already late
when the enemy came up; of Aaxedatpoviot odK
ébOacay mudomevoe Tov wept thy ~ArteKny sédenov
KaL HKOV Huty awuvoovvTes the Lacedaemonians had no
sooner been told of the fighting in Attica than they
came to help us.
+05 The chief disjunctive particle is 7 It is
either used alone, ‘or’; or is followed by 4%, ‘ either
or. ‘Whether ... or’ is expressed by cite
elite, Or dy Te . . é€av te as the case may be:
Kaxos 4) ayaos bad or good; tis eGedjoes yadxevew
) vavinyel 7) pamrrew Tpoyoraety; who will
consent to be a smith or a shipwright or a tailor or a
wheelwright ? rodrto def wvOécOas cite To wXovTety
Eire TO TesvHy BéXtLov this we must be told whether
it is better to be rich or to starve.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 163

406 After comparatives and words implying com-

parison the Greeks used # where we commonly use
‘than.’ After words expressing difference they used #
where we commonly use ‘from’: paov éors Narely 7
cwomav “tis easier to talk than to hold one’s tongue,
érepa trovets 7) Aé€yevs you act differently from what
you say.
407 In poetry re is much more
freely used than in prose,
Not only is it employed much
oftener than in prose to con-
nect propositions, but also it
is constantly employed to
join word to word: at Muxfvar
4) Sawrdptn te Mycenae and
Sparta; dewov dppntov
éos a dread and unutterable
word.

ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

408 The principal adversative conjunctions are

anna and &é, the former being far the stronger. On
the whole adda corresponds pretty nearly to the
Enelish ‘but, though some of its uses show
plainly that ‘but’ is really very far from being its
equivalent. The weaker 6é cannot properly be
translated into English at all. Any rendering is
simply a makeshift Sometimes we represent it by
‘but,’ and sometimes even by ‘ and.’
409 Notwithstanding its accent, dda is the
accusative plural neuter of dAXos used adverbially, so
164 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

that its original meaning may have been neagly ‘on the
other hand. When thus used it always begins a pro-
position whether such proposition is independent or not.
410 Its simplest use 1s to introduce an affirmative
proposition stating one thing as against another already
denied: od tpets éxeivot y eiciv adda TéTTapes there
are not three men there but four; éoriv dvowa Kepa-
pews GAN ov Tupavvoy it is the name of a potter but
not of a king.
411 It is so used after od povov or oby Ste" ‘not
only, and after od povoy od or ody Saws ‘not only
not.” Itis then very often strengthened by «cai: waves
akwiow ovy Ott cot adda Kal TpwTOS ExacTos Eivat
all want not only to be equal but each even to be
first; od povoy od iros Hy GAG Kai éyOpos he was
not only no friend but even an enemy; ovy daras Tov-
Tov yapw atédwKas GANA Kal Kaka avTeTroincas not
only did you not show gratitude for this, but you even
cid ill in return. When the proposition introduced by
andra is itself negative, then arr’ oddé or GAA pwdé
as the case may be is the more emphatic form of dAn’
ov OF GAG py aS GAG Kal Was Of arAAd: OvY Srrws
éSpacev aX’ ovd évevonoev he did not only not do it,
but he even did not think of it.
412 An adversative force much greater than that
of ad\ra@ is produced by the elliptical expressions ov
uny GANG, ov pny GAG... ye, OV pHY AXA Kal
ye, corresponding to our ‘notwithstanding’ or
1 Sometimes wh Ore is so used In both cases there is an ellipse of a
verb of saying, which in the former case would if supplied be in the
indicative, in the latter in the imperative: wh ore ldwwrns Tis adr’ 6
Béyas Baotheds not only any private person but the great king diterally
(do) not (say) that any etc.
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 165

‘nevertheless.’ The od jy in such cases is really the

relic of a complete negative proposition: eiol meéev évias
TaY aToKploewy avayKaias Sid paxpav Tos Roryous
ToletoBar* ov wnv adda Teipdcomal y ws dud Bpayv-
Tratwy some of the answers Indeed require one to
speak at length; nevertheless I shall try to make
them as short as possible.
413 Similarly from an ellipse arose od pévrot GANG
‘not but that’ or ‘nay’: cai yap ovx dy dokeev otto
y elvat droyors ov pévToL AAN tows eyes Noyor for in
this way at least it would not seem to be unreasonable,
nay, it has perhaps some reason.
414 Abrupt objections, questions, and proposals
are often introduced by ad\Aad: ad’ lwpev but let us
be off; adAXa tl ov Babdifopev pds adtov ; but why do
we not go to him? In rapid dialogue or in a series
of rhetorical questions and answers ada may introduce
both question and answer: él thy elpnyny; adr
imipyev &racw: adn él Tov qodewov ; GNX avTol
Tepl THs elpnvns eBovdrevecGe with a view to peace?
All were at peace. With a view to war? You were
yourselves deliberating upon peace
415 In this and in other of the uses mentioned, it
may have been noticed that by English idiom ara
need not or sometimes even cannot be translated at all,
as for example in 410 éoriv dvopa Kepapéws adr’ ov
rupavvou ‘it is the name of a potter, not of a king’;
in 411 ody Oras tovTav yapw arédwxas adda Kal
Kaka avretoincas ‘not only did you not show grati-
tude for this, you even did ill in return’ At other
times it may be rendered by ‘well,’ as in 414 adn
iwpev ‘well, let us be off’
166 FIRST CREEK SYNTAX

416 Lastly it has to be translated by sat least’

when it introduces the apodosis of a conditional
proposition: ¢¢ cdma Sdoddov, GXN oO vods ehevGepos il
the body is enslaved, the mind at least is free.
417 Unlike dara, dé is never placed as the first
word of a proposition. Then as to meaning we might
say that 6é is rather antithetic than adversative
Accordingly it has often a previous péy in corre-
spondence with it.’ Its antithetic force comes out in
such sentences as mpatov pev édXovcaT eira 8 ets
koupews Oey he first washed, then went to the
barber's. It is similarly used in o pév . . . 6 6é the
one... the other; @&@a pev ... Oa dé here
there; dua pév . . . &ua dé partly .. . partly.
418 An adversative force is given to xas by the
addition of ror. As might be expected xairou always
begins a sentence in which it is found: av bé¥y ed
TPATTELS* KaiTOL MpoTEepov y emTwyeves but at any
rate you prosper; yet in old days you were a beggar.
419 A strong ‘indeed’ produced by compounding
wev and rot acquires like the Latin ‘vero’ an advers-
ative force: atomov pévtrou Ti cot €Oédw AEyeuv I should
like, however, to tell you an odd incident. The same
sometimes happens to muy either with or without a
preceding ye: rode pny dELov érriotacGas yet this is
worth knowing. Of course neither wéyTos nor pny can
come first In any proposition. When od precedes, ov
unv or ov pévTos Taeans ‘yet not, and od pry ovdé
1 Though pév in a preceding clause serves also to prepare the way
for a\Ad (Kaxov pév €otiv aN dvaykaloy xaxdv evil it is but an unavoid-
able evil), yet such a construction is necessarily rare secing that 1t can
onlv be used in affirmative propositions while dAAd 1s most common in
sentences like ‘it is not so but so.’
FIRST GREEK SYNTAX 167

‘nor yet indeed’: Aeyours pév Tt, ov pévToL ye olov

otovras they say something, yet not what they think.
420 ‘Nevertheless’ is expressed by 6yuas: viv
ouos Bapopw nevertheless I have now no fear, dA
Omos wetpatéoy 6H but nevertheless we must try.

THE CAUSAL CONJUNCTION yap

421 We have no English word precisely corre-
sponding to yap. It is a compound of ye and dpa,
particles both lighter than any English particle, and
properly corresponding to no Enelish word. Indeed
in one of its common uses we cannot translate ydp at
all unless occasionally by a word like ‘namely’ which
is totally alien to its other meanings: texprjpsov Se
tovtou: évddde yap adixopevos ot AAOpa edaxwviler
and a proof of it is; when he came here he made no
secret of his leanings to Sparta.
492 Its ordinary sense is ‘for, introducing the
reason for something before stated: olxade éBabifowev:
oré yap Av THs nuépas we walked home, for it was
late in the day. A sentence is never begun by ydp.
Sometimes it 1s preceded by cat and thus takes its
usual place of second word in the sentence: xal yap
vov éuoroya for I now agree. This lays a certain
emphasis upon the reason given. Greater emphasis still
is expressed by cai yap Kal, Kal yap ovv, Kat yap ToL,
kat yap oy, for indeed, for assuredly, for of course:
Kal yap oby soyupifovro for they certainly main-
tained-——.
423 The impossibility of translating yao by any
one English word is further shown by its use in
168 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

interrogations where we would use ‘then’ er ‘so, and

its employment in answers where we would use ‘yes’
or ‘no’: oles yap cor payetoOar Tov adedpov ; so
you think your brother will fight you? A. tadra oy
cuvieis; B. eb yap dndots A. do you understand
this? B. yes, you make it quite clear. In the latter
case it is commonly said that there is an ellipse of ov
or un. There is no proof of this. We simply do not
know as yet the precise significance of yap.

ILLATIVE CONJUNCTIONS OR SUCH AS INTRODUCE AN

INFERENCE OR A CONCLUSION

424 The most prominent conjunction of this class

is ovv. It is constantly so used both alone and with
other particles. It 1s never placed first in a proposition
but ordinarily comes second.
425 The radical meaning of ovpy is ‘in reality, ‘in
deed, ‘in fact, ‘actually, its origin being identical
with that of the participle @y. It can be so trans-
lated in almost all its uses. We have already (388)
seen that this was its force in questions, and that with
yap (422) it gave an emphatic reason, ‘for certainly,’
426 In answers ody emphasizes the affirmation or
the denial: A. oles tu’ ody tov ToLtovTay bcTLs Kal
omwotiooy duovovs Avota ovesdifety avT@ TovTO OTE
cuyypader ; B. ove obv eleos ye €& Ov ov Aéyeis A.
do you really think that any such man whoever he is
and however much he really dislikes Lysias casts it in
his teeth that he writes history? B. it is certainly not
likely if what you say is true; A ovK« éynu’ évaryyos ;
B. wavy pév ovy A. did he not marry recently? B, of
FIRST GREEK SYNTAN 169

course he Nid. From this signification it acquires that

of the English ‘nay rather’: A. péysotov dyafov. B
Kakov pev ovy péeyeotov A the greatest blessing. B.
nay rather the yreatest curse literally indeed actually
the greatest curse. In such cases pév 1s a very light
‘indeed.’
4277 It does not matter in what collocation we find
ody, its original sense may easily be traced to be
‘indeed,’ ‘actually, or the like It is im this way
that it acquired an illative force, ‘so, ‘then, ‘there-
fore’: émepnodpevos oty wByounyv os Tov Geov so I
went to the god to inquire; A. dA’ ody olov Te Tov
Iladdrayov’ ovdév Aadelv. B. xpatictov otv vev
atobaveiy A. but it is not possible to avoid being seen
by the Paphlagonian. B. it 1s therefore best for us to
die. This derived meaning of ovy is so common as
almost to have concealed its true original sense.
428 In the case of rodvvy it is not so much the
emphatic particle ros which gives the illative force as
the weak non-temporal vuy. Like ovv, roiyvy cannot
stand first in a sentence. It is pecuharly common
with imperatives: mépasve toivuy 6 TL Nevers avicas
moré now be quick and do what you say; Tous padnras
oic® ods dpatw ; Tovrois Toivuy adyyedAe do you know
the pupils whom I mean? well, tell them
429 A strong illative force is conveyed by rov-
yadptos and rovyapody which always stand first in a
proposition: A. wedvovTes ael Tas udyas wayovTas. B.
tovyapoby devyovo’ det A. they are always drunk
when they fight their battles. B that 1s why they
always run away; ovdéve aydpiotov elacev eivas THY
mpobupiay: Towyapody Kparictous On UmnpéTas eiyev
170 FIRST GREEK SYNTAX

he let no man’s zeal go unrewarded; that®is why he

had the best of servants.
430 A weak and indirect sort of inference is
expressed by dpa which corresponds very nearly to the
English ‘after all’: modu adyeivwv dpa o Tod adixov 4)
Tov dtxalov Bios after all the life of a bad man is far
better than that of a good man; od« dp’ Av didécodos
he was not a philosopher after all. It is common in
conditional propositions indicating improbability in the
condition: Gd’ dav dpa xai TUyy, “AOnvake hevEdpeba
but if it does happen after all, we shall flee to Athens.
ENGLISH INDEX
The nunbers denote sections

A Aorist tense, meaning of 207 ff:

expressing beginning of an
Ablative use of the genitive 125 action 208: with adverbs of
ff: do. in poetry 185. tine 207: with da» denoting
Absolute constructions 3860 ff: frequency 225: 11 wishes 231:
genitive absolute 360: accusa- periphrasis for 209 - subjunctive
tive absolute 366. after édv 287: after érecday 301:
Accusative case 58 ff: double following ov uy 384: infinitive
accusative 66, 67; 73, 74, 75° with & a weak substitute for
cognate or internal accusative the future 322.
71 f+ with neuter verbs 76, 77: Apodosis, meaning of the word
as part predicate 68 it: used to 275.
limit the action of the verb 79 Article, narrowing or individual-
ff: adverbial accusative 80: of wing use of 5, 6: widening
duration or extent 78: of or generalizing use of 7: equiva-
respect 81, 82. defining or lent to an Enghsh possessive
hmiting 18: in oaths 68: pronoun 6: position of with
accusative absolute 366 - accusa- substantives that are themselves
tive after ws and @omep 367: further defined 15 ff: use of
poetical uses 83. with more than one noun 56:
Active voice 175 ff: in causative with pronouns 26 ff: with
sense 175. pronominal adjectives 27: as a
Adjectives qualifying more than demonstrative 1 fi: absent in
one word 55 predicative posi- the predicate 23 {f: absent m
tion of 24, 25: neuter, used as prepositional phrases 11, 18:
part prediwate 52. defined by absent after prepositions 352:
infinitive 838. absent with proper names 18:
Adverbs, interrogative 246 ff: 885 absent with pseudo-proper nouns
ff: negative 380 ff 10: absent in poetry 14, 22,
Adversative conjunctions 408 ff. 31: with infinitive absolute
Agreement of verbs 46 [f. 342.
1720) ENGLISH INDEX

Attraction of relative by ante- with verhs in -éeyr formed from

cedent 41, 42- of one mood by nouns 152: expressing ‘fiom
another 264, 300: of verb by the point of view of °154: ethic
supplement 50- of subject to 156: as replacing the instru-
supplement in gender 51. meutal case 157 ff. of agent
With perfects passive and with
verbals 158: with #éec@ar, AuTe?-
C g0a. etc 160, 161: expressing
motive 163° with verbs, of
Causal propositions 253 ff: con- punishing 165: dative of
junction, 421. relative pio- accompaniment 166 ff: dative
positions 291° causal sense of of manner 168, 169. dative of
participle 855, 375. time, 173: replacing locative
Causative use ot active voice 175° case 172, 174: dative of measure
of middle voice 191: force of 170: 17%,
émi and kara in composition 65. Deliberative subyunctive 227.
Commands 229 ff. Denying, verbs of 330.
Concessive propositions 289° ex- Disjunctive particles 405 ff
pressed by participle 358. Dual of verbs 47.
Conditional propositions 275 ff- |
how classified 278: general 278°
particular 278: present and E
past 280 ff: future 284: relative
294 ff. future relative 298 ff. EJlipse 390, 412: of noun in
present and past relative 295 ff. genitive absolute construction
how expressed m the infinitive 308
323. expressed by participle Ethic dative 156.
357.
Conjunctions, copulative 393 ff P
adversative 408 ff: lative 424
if. Fearing, construction of verbs of
Consecutive propositions 255 ff. 270 ff.
1elative piopositions 292 nega- Final propositions 260: relative
tive in, 292 propositions 293.
Future tense, meaning of 207 ff:
D peiphiastic 209: special sense
of 208: replaced by optative
Dative case 136 ff true use of, with dv 224: imdicative in final
136 {f- with verbs of giving propositions after éruws 266 ff,
137. with verbs meaning ‘to 293° im ~protasis 285: in
liken,’ ‘be near,’ ete. 188: with apodosis 285: after verbs of
isos, Guotos, ete 189° with de?, fearing 271: after od wy 384.
péde, mpérec ete. 140: with infinitive, completing the sense
certain compound verbs 141: of certain verbs 826: replaced
with veibs expressing recip- by aovist infinitive with dy 322 -
rocity 143: after middle verbs| participle, after verbs of motion
compounded with é&d& 144: 856° with article 851: with as
poetical uses of 148: of imterest | 356.
149 ff: dativus commodi 151. Future-perfect, meaning of 213,
ENGLISH INDEX 173

G action 210+ in wishes 231 with

dv, denoting fiequent action
Genitive case 84 ff: tiue meaning 220%
of 85, 86, 87, 105 loeal use 87 | Impersonal passives 202.
ff: of ‘space with which?’ 92 Independent propositions 222 ff.
if: with dpyew, cparety etc. 95: Indicative mood, past tenses of in
after adverbs and adjectives ex- conditions 281. all tenses of
pressing the ‘sphere within alter verbs of fearing 271, 272
which’ 97 ff with verbs 100. Infinitive mood 308 {f- completing
s8-called partitive 101 ff: of the sense of a verb 321 fl: com-
amount 106. objective and sub- pletimg the sense of verbs of
jective 106° of material o1 con- desire o1 efioit 3831: completing
tents 106, 108: of possession the sense of verbs denoting abul-
106, 108, 109: expressing ‘a ity or aptitude 335. as subject
part of,’ ‘some of° lll: with of a proposition 319 ff; express-
dwrecbar, apyecPar ete. 12: ing purpose 336: in exclama-
with verbs of fillmg 1138: with tions 843: subject of 309: in-
compounds of wera 115: with definite subject of 311: how
darokavew, odfew ete. 117: of negatived 324, 328, 332, 333:
value 118 ff- poetical uses of defining adjectives 337 : absolute
124. replacing ablative 125 i: 340 [F. with the article 314 ff:
with verbs expressing removal infinitive and article in the gent-
or separation 126° with verbs tive 815: as genitive 816: as
of yielding 127. with veibs equivalent of the imperative 344:
expressing deficiency 130° after aorist with dy as weak substitute
adjectives compounded with for future infinitive 322.
alpha privative 131: with Instrumental case replaced by da-
comparatives and hike words tive 157
132 ff- expressing ‘whence’ Interrogative propositions depend-
135: absolute 360 ff: 1d with ent 246 - pronouns 246: adverbs
noun understood 363. genitive 385 if.
of the article with the infinitive Intransitive verbs becoming transi-
315. tive in compounds 64.

H
K
Historical present 211.
Knowing, construction of verbs of
240
I
L
[lative conjunctions 424 ff
[mperative in dependent sentences Locative case 172 ff.
57 in commands 229: in
prohibitions 229: influence of,
on constructions 268 M
Imperfect, meaning of 210: in
narration 212: denoting effort Middle voice 185 ff: with reflexive
210: marking completion of an meaning 187 if: causative 191:
174 ENGLISH INDEX

deponents 192. expressing one’s accumulation of¢861: in the

own peculiar action 190, 194° accusative following s and
middle futures of active verbs domep 867: with the article
195: indirect reflexive 189, 190, 348 if: with the article, mark-
198. ing time 850: completing the
sense of verhs 368, 371 if. as
N equivalent for causal propositions
855: as equivalent tor temporal
Negatives, in wishes 226: with de- propositions 354: as equivalent
liberative subjunctive 227: in for concessive propositions o58:
indirect interrogative proposi- as equivalent for conditional
tions 249: in consecutive pro- propositions 357: as equivalent
positions 256 and note: in final for dependent propositions mtro-
propositions 260: in conditional duced by orc 872: as equivalent
propositions 277: in consecutive for causal propositions int1o-
relative propositions 292: with duced by 67. 375: expressing the
infinitive after verbs expressing circumstances of an action 359:
aptitude, ability, obligation, etc. folowing ruyxyaver 368- future
335: with participles 346, 347 - with ws 856: meaning of the
particles 379 ff: adverbs 380 ff: tenses of 218 ff: present 219:
accumulation of negatives 381: aorist 220: perfect 221: future,
do not destroy each other 3882: after verb of motion 356.
in questions 387 ff. Particles, negative 379 ff.
cal case with imperative Passive voice 197 ff replaced by
57. intransitive active 179: peri-
phrasis for 198. of verbs govern-
0 ing a dative etc, 200: imper-
Optative mood, with dy as weak sonal use 202.
future 224: in wishes 230: re- Perfect tense 213: often to be
placmg indicative after past rendered by English present
tenses of verbs of saying ete. 214: participle 221.
237: replacing indicative after Pluperfect tense 213.
past tenses in dependent inter- Possessive, adjectives as replacing
rogative propositions 248: mean- objective genitive 106: pronouns,
ing of, after past tenses in causal how expressed in Greek 32 ff:
propositions 254: due to attrac- seml-emphatic 33; emphatic 34.
tion by another optative 264; Prepositions repeated after com-
replacing subjunctive after past pound verbs 129.
tenses in final propositions 262 - Present tense 210 ff: marking
future optative as alternative for effort 210: marking completion
future indicative after past tenses ofan action 210: historical 211:
268: with dy in apodosis of con- moods serving also as moods of
ditional propositions 286, the unperfect 217.
Prohibitions 229 ff.
Pronouns, predicative position of
P 29: reflexive 36 [T: indirect re-
flexive 37: relative 38 ff: in-
Participles, 315 ff: how negatived direct interrogative 246 ff: poet.
346, 347 absolute use of 360 fT: ical uses of 45.
ENGLISH INDEX 175

Propositions, independent 222 fF: expressed as objcet of the prin-

affirmative 223 [f: dependent cipal verb 244, 250, 274. of in-
introduced by ére 235 ff: causal finitive 309 ff.
253: conscentive 255: final 260: Subjunctive, expressing a wish
temporal 290, 801. relative 290: 226. deliberative 227 in plo-
relative expressing puipose 293; hibitions 229: in final proposi-
relative conditional 29-4 ff tions 261: after verbs of fearing
Protasis, meaning of the woid 275. 271; present or aolist after edy
etc. 287.
Suppositions 280 ff.
() Swearing,8: constiuction of verbs of
329,
Questions, 227, 228, 385 ff
ft

R Temporal propositions 290 ff,

801 ff.
Reciprocal middle deponents 196. Tense, meaning of the word 203:
Reflexive, middle 187 fi pronouns tenses of the moods 215° do.
36, 37. marking tune 216. tenses of the
Relative, pronouns 88 ff: attrac- participle 218 ff.
tion of 41, 42: poetical forms of Thinking, construction of verbs of
45. propositions 290- do. some- 242 ft, 322.
tunes dependent only in form Vv
290: do. indicating the cause of
an action 291: do. indicating
the consequence of an action Verbals 377, 378. with dative 158.
291: do. marking purpose 293 - Verbs, concoid of with neare: of
conditional 294 ff. two subjects 49 + of emotion with
accusative 60: neuter 76, 77 at
once transitive and intransitive
S 176, 177° imtransitive by ellipse
of the object 177, 178: verbs the
Saying, construction of verbs of sense of which is completed by a
235 [f: informal passives to verbs participle 371 if.
of 239, 240- iufinitive following
verhs of 321 ff
Striving, construction of verbs of W
266 ff.
Subject of dependent proposition |Wish, expressions of a 226, 230.
GREEK INDEX
The numbers denote sect sons

A not required with &e, xp7v and

like words in conditional pro-
ayaveKtety coustrued with parti- positions 282
ciple 375 avayxn with infinitive 316
ayyeAdew, construction of 238 dvéxer Oar dehued by a participle
dye introducing a wish 226, 370.
tiywv, idiomatic use of 359, dvrt in compounds followed by a
atoddver Oat, construction of 239, dative 141.
372 &€log with infinitive 339.
aicxtveo8ar construed with parti- atrayopevev, coustruction of 331,
ciple 875 3382, 370
Gove, construction of 114. as d&robvyrKev as passive of drro-
informal passive of Aéyew 289. kTetver 180
construction of 3/2, drroxpiver Oar, construction of 238,
&kev in predicative position 25, drokoyeta bar, construction of 238.
édloKkerGar, construction of 371 amodatvety, constiuction of 3/1.
aGhAa& 408 tf. in rhetorical ques- dpa, derivation of 386 note. in
tionsand answers 414 im abrupt questions 386, 389
questions 414 sometimes to be doa in conditional propositions
left untranslated 415. in the 430: as Ulative particle 430
sense of ‘at least 416. doveto@at, construction of 330.
GAN Spas $19. apEanevos, idiomatic use of 3O9.
GAO Tr H 3890 &pxeo Gat defined by participle 370
dpa with participle 354, &re with participle 355
audurByretv, construction of 330. avrika with participle 354.
auporepot with article 30. avrois avépact and the like 166.
judo only used with dual noun avrot, airay as unemphatic pos-
30. sessive 35,
dv, with optative as weak future apatpeto Gat, construction of 153.
224 with imperfect or aouist &x Serdar construed with participle
denoting frequent action 225: 375.
N
178 GREEK INDEX

B eSeu dispenses with ae 282.

e. in the sense ‘in case’ 288:
Roay, construction of 238. followed by # in double inter-
BovAer Oar a tiue passive 186. rogative propositions 246
Bovdopeve éoruy etc. 155. ei yap in Wishes 230, 231 if
eiSévat as passive of a verb of
Tr saying 240.
el@e in wishes 230°ff.
yap, derivation of 421: in the elvat followed by dative 150; qe-
sense of ‘namely’ 421. in fined by a participle 369.
answers 423: in questions 428. eoyerv, construction of 352, 333,
ye... pay 419, cipnuevoy, accusative absolute 366.
yeverOar with genitive 114. elre . . . ebre 105.
ylyveo8ar with genitive 125. éxacros with article 30.
yuyveoKeiy, construction of 239, éxatepos with article 30.
372 éeketvos with article 29.
yeadey, construction of 238 éexelyov, ékelvoy as unemphatic
possessive 35
extrAnrrco Sar, construction of 270
A éx@y in predicative position 25,
dé antithetic rather than advers- eAXeyxetv, construction of 371.
ative 417. CAm(few, construction of 326.
Scdrevat, construction of 270. éehar(s with infinitive 316.
Set with genitive 130; with dative éuaurod as emphatic possessive 34.
140. éuds as semi-emphatic possessive
Sexvivat, construction of 371. 33
devds with uifinitive 338. éveoriy, construction of 319.
déov, accusative absolute 366. evrai0a, fixing sense of participle
SyAoty, construction of 238, 371. 354.
Sia BddAev, construction of 238 éEapvos elvar, construction of 330,
Suayerv defined by a participle 369. éeoriy, construction of 319
diavora with infinitive 316. ebRv dispenses with ay 282
Suaredety defined by a participle é6v, accusative absolute 366.
369.
evel causal 253, 306; as poetical
Staddpos with genitive 128. equivalent of éverd74 in temporal
§i8acKerv, construction of 238. sense 306.
Soxely, constructions of 327. émeoay as temporal adverb 381.
Sdfav, accusative absolute 366. eretoy, causal 253: temporal 301.
ereoOar with dative 167.
éré in composition with causative
0 force 65.
ériAavOdaveobat, construction of
é as indirect reflexive 37. 372.
éav
>f
with subjunctive present or erruredctoOat, construction of 266
aolist 2873; in the sense ‘in erigracbat, as passive of verbs of
case’ 288. saying 240: construction of 372.
éav te... eav te 405. eritperer Oar 201.
éavTod, €avTav as emphatic pos- tor Gy as poctical equivalent for
segsive dd. Ews 306.
GREEK INDEX We!

EoTeE aS poetical equivalent for éws | 404, with participle in conces-

306. sive sense 358
éoxaros in predicative position 25. al... Kal 395.
evOds with participle 354. Kal yap +22.
eviaBetcGar, construction of 266. Kal yap 84 422.
ev trovety, construction of 61. Kal yap kal 422.
evrperns With infinitive 339. Kat yap obv 422.
evoltokey, construction of 371 Kal yap rou 422.
eb wo 258. kat 84 kal 398.
éYwyv, idiomatic use of 359 Kat eb 289.
éws, construction of 22 fh, Kal ny 399.
Kab ov 399,
kalirep 358,
katpdés with infinitive 316.
H kal radra with participle 358.
% after words implying comparison Kkalrou 418.
kakés with infimtive 339.
406: im alternative questions KkaAds with infinitive 339
892: followed by # as poetical
Kav 289,
equivalent for mérepoy . . 7 Kaprepety defined by a participle
2902: 370.
7 iu questions 386, 391. Kara conferring causative sense
HdcrOat constiued with participle 65. compounds of followed by
375. genitive 121.
#5y, idiomatic use of with aorist KaTayiyveackey, construction of
207: followed by rat 404. 122, 123.
AAlcos 43. Karadop Bovey, construction of
Npéerepos as Semi-emphatic posses-
371
sive 365. KaTnyopey, construction of 122,
Twerepos avTdy as emphatic posses- 123.
sive 34. Kyporre, construction of 238.
Hprovs with genitive 104 Korres Oat, sense of 188
pov as unemphatic possessive 35. -«6s, adjectives in, replacing verhal
nvika as temporal adverb 3801. in -rds with active sense 377.
KwAvety, construction of 334.
I
A
lévar as passive of dyew 182.
ixaves With infinitive 338. AaPay, idiomatic use of 359.
tva introducing final propositions AavOdvery 62: defined by a parti-
260. ciple 869.
Aévyerv, construction of 235.
Aynyew defined by a participle 370.
K

ka8lfew, construction of 371. M

kal 393 if: after 7#éy 404: after
adjective denoting likeness 403 : pavOavery, construction of 239,
after ovx €pbaca 404: after olrw 372,
180 GREEK INDEX

pepvaroat, constructionof 3 obotycka as poetical giovalent for

pev . d€ 417 ére 245.
pev ody 426. ot as indirect eae of,
pévrou 419. ota with participle 3855.
weéoros In predicative position25. ole Pat, original meaune of 193: *
perauederOar construed with par. construction of 243.
ticiple 375. otoy with participle 355,
peragd with participle 354 ody r HV dispenses with ay “im
pEX pe of 302 fl, conditional propositions 2poy.
py in independent interrogative otos 45 replacing adore in oth-
propositions 889 in dependent secutive propositions 257 . never
do. 249: im consecutive pro- mtenogative 25].
positions 256 and note, 292 oixer Oat defined by a participle
after verbs of fearing 270: poet- dug.
ical equivalent for iva un, ws wi dAtyos, predicative position of 25.
etc. 265. conveying anxiety o1 ddtyou dely 841.
suspicion 273. in protasis of épvevan, constiuction of 329
conditional propositions al 277f Sporos followed by «ad 40%.
when used to negative infinite — 419 with concessive parti.
324° with infimitive following ciplee 3h8
verbs of swearing 829: after bry after verbs of striving 268
verbs of denying 830° with O7rot after verbs of striving 208.
infinitive after verbs expressiny Caroios 43.
ability, ee obligation ete, Omdcros 43
omdray as temporal adverb 301.
8385: with participles |346, 349.
wndé joing negative propositions Grdre as temporal adveib 301.
400. not used to attach a Otrws as poetical equivalent for ws
negative proposition to an 245: introducing final propost-
affirmative 399 tions 260. followed by future
pndé . . . pndé 402 undicative after verhs of striving
pnd” el 289, 266 i. followed by futme
anv, adversative 419. indicative conveyimg an exhorta-
4} od after verbs ot fearing 270: tion 269: do with w#, conveying
with the infinitive following a warning 269.
verbs of denying 330- do. after dws dv as alternative for dws
verbs of prohibition 333, 263.
unre. . . pyre 401. opay, construction of 3872
puKpot Sety 341. bs 38, 41, 42: never mterrogative
Ovos in predicative position 25. 251,
ov as unemphatic possessive 35 Soa with infinitive absolute 340
»Ov in interrogative propositions doov with inhnitive absolute 340.
249, 389. boos 43: replacing ore in con-
secutive propositions 257,
oormep as Senttee relutive 38.
0 Sorig as indefinite relative 38 ff:
in the sense of ‘quippe qui’ 39:
dd, position of with article 29- an in dependent \uestions 248 : 1
idiomatic conventional use of 28 consecutive relative propositions
note. 292.
GREEK INDEX 181

oTayv as temporal adverb 301. ote... ottre 401

dre as tempor¥l adverb 801 causal otros position with article 29:
253, uliomatic conventional meaning
orTt= that, introducing propositions of 28 note
235° = because 253. ottws fixing the sense of a parti-
Sto TodTw as alternative for drws ciple 354.
® 266 note. ov davar 383.
ov as Induect reflexive 37 ovx Ores... GANA 411.
ov in induect interrogative pro- ovx Oru... GrAAG 411.
“positions 249. when used in
consecutive propositions 256 and
note. as negative of apodosis I
277: in consecutive relative
propositions 292: as negativing rapamAnotos followed by kai 403.
the mfluitive 824 with infimi- mapacKkevd few = to effect, 266.
maverGar detined by participle 370
tive after verbs of swearing 329:
how differing from yg with in- metderOat, radical meaning of 159.
finitive after verbs of saying, wept with genitive in compounds
thinking etc. 828+ with parti- 134
ciples 347, 348+ forming almost atarrev as informal passive of
compound verbs 388 Ba\rew 181.
ov6é joining negative propositions qovetv, construction of 371.
woveto Gar and noun forming peti-
400; not used to attach negative
plopositions to affimative 399. phrasis for a verb 189, 199
ovdé . ovde 402. avroAAaKts, idiomatic use with aorist
otd* ei 289, 207
ovdels toriv Saris 40. moAXod Set explained 317
ovdels Saris oF 44. mohdod dé explained 318.
otdérw, idiomatic use with aorist modus, predicative position of 25.
207. wétrepa in alternative questions
ovk édy 383 392
otk éBeAciy 383. aérepov introducing dependent tn-
ovKody 388. teirogative propositions 247,
od pévrou 419 248: in alternative questions
od pevrou dhAG 413. 392,
ov wn as a strong negative 384,
7
mparrey = to exert oneself 266.
ov pny, adversative 419.
-
awpetrel, construction of 319
od piv adAd 412.
we
aptly, constructions of 304 ff.
od povov . . . GAAG 411 mpd with genitive in compounds
ob pdvov od... GAAS 411. 134.
oty 424 ff: in questions 388° in apds with the accusative as alter-
answers 426: as illative con- native for the simple dative 146.
junction 427. moooSokay, construction of 326.
otvexa, as poetical equivalent for Tooojke, construction of 319.
dre = that 245 mpoofkey dispenses with dy in
otirore, 1diomatic use with aorist conditional propositions 282,
20s mooctikoy, accusative absolute 366.
oterw, idiomatic use with aorist apérepos, predicative position of
207: followed by cai 404. 3.
182 GREEK INDEX

muv0aveor Gar, constructions of 239, tore fixing the sense of a participle

372. Bod, ie
Tvyxavery, periphrases with 184.
detined by a partiaiple 3808
i

padtos with infinitive 339.

ipérepos as semi-emphatic possgs-

a)
ad sive 35.
tpérepos atirav as emphatic posses-
ceavrod with article as emphatic sive 34
possessive 384. tpav as unemphatic possessive 3d,
okotrety, construction of 266. trapxev defined by a participle
ods as sem1-emphatic possessive 33. 370.
cov as unemphatic possessive 35. trép with genitive in compounds
omévSer0ar as reciprocal middle 13d.
145. truoxveto bat, construction of 326,
ouvyyvapyny €€xew as passive of
guyyvyywoKe 184,
TVYYVaE_NS TVYXaveLy as passive of
ouyyvyywoKxey 184, P
ovpBalyet, construction of 319.
ovvedévat, construction of 374, datyerOat defined by a participle
odas as indunect reflexive 37. 369.
davat, construction of 235.
dackerv, construction of 235
dépe introducing a wish 226.
Al gees idiomatic use of 359.
evyely as passive of ducer 183.
re, limitations to its use 394: dbdvew dehnued by a_ participle
poetical uses of 407. 369,
re... Kal 396, hoPeioGar, construction of 270
He aoe SFE DO. dpaterv, construction of 238.
réheut@y, idiomatic use of 359. dpovrifey, constiuction of 266,
-Teos, verbal in 378. dwpay, construction of 371.
tls éoriy Saris 40.
ToLyapody 429,
Toryaotoe 429, x
tTotyuy 428.
Tro.ade, idiomatic conventional use xalpew construed with dative 161:
of 28 note. with poo 379.
Tovotras, idiomatic conventional XoAeralver construed with dative
use of 28 note. 161.
-765, verbal in 377. XaXerds with infinitive 339,
toréaSe, idiomatic conventional Xp}, luilexions of 316 note.
use of 28 note. Xpfv dispenses with dy in con-
Tomwovros, idiomatic conventional ditional propositions 282.
use of 28 note. XpioGar, eaplained 153 uote.
GREEK INDEX 188

G verb of motion 356: followed

by accusative of participle 367.
dea with infinitive 316. as dy as alternative for ws im certain
ws as alternative for ore=that 235 final propositions 263.
note: causal 258: as poetical ws Enouye Sonety 340,
equivalent for ore in con- as eros eltrety 340.
secutive propositions 259: in- aomep followed by accusative of
troducing final propositions 260 paiticiple 867.
ith infinitive absolute 340 gore in consecutive propositions
with participle 355° with future 255: in the sense ‘ou condition
participle m final sense 3856: that.’ 258
With future participle after ai @PpeAoy in wishes 232.

THE END

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