Antecedents of green purchase behaviour:

an examination of altruism and

environmental knowledge
Lei Wang, Philip Pong Weng Wong and Elangkovan Narayanan Alagas

Abstract Lei Wang and

Purpose – Prior studies mostly investigated the relationship between the cognitive characteristics of Philip Pong Weng Wong
individuals and their pro-environmentalism, addressing the need for green hotel operators to understand the are both based at the
different green purchase patterns of consumers. The problem is that, although consumers claim they are School of Hospitality,
concerned about environmental issues, their purchasing behaviour does not translate, in practical terms, into Tourism and Event, Taylor’s
actually booking green hotels. In other words, the connection between altruism, environmental knowledge and
University, Subang Jaya,
consumer visiting green hotel is fairly unexplored in the literature. This study aims to analyze the relationships
Malaysia. Elangkovan
of three types of altruism and two types of environmental knowledge with attitude and intention.
Narayanan Alagas is based
Design/methodology/approach – An integrated theoretical research model was used, based on the
at Taylor’s Business School,
value–belief–norm theory of environmentalism. The collection of 248 questionnaires was followed by
Taylor’s University, Subang
subsequent empirical testing of the proposed hypotheses, which was performed using SPSS and AMOS.
Jaya, Malaysia.
Findings – The resulting outcomes show a significant positive relationship between green purchase
attitude and intention. Further, the biospheric, altruistic and collectivistic values, as well as subjective and
objective knowledge were shown to positively influence attitude and intention towards green hotel
selection, respectively.
Research limitations/implications – Because of the chosen online sampling method, the research results
may lack generalizability. Therefore, researchers are encouraged to test the proposed propositions further.
Originality/value – This paper fulfils an identified need to study how visiting green hotel can be
influenced by different types of altruism and environmental knowledge.
Keywords Altruism, Environmental knowledge, Green purchase attitude, Green purchase intention,
Green hotel selection
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Green purchase behaviour refers to the environmentally friendly act of purchasing and
consuming only products that are environmentally friendly (Kaufmann et al., 2012). It is
driven by a future-oriented outcome which promises to benefit society as a whole
(Handique, 2014). According to Kaufmann et al. (2012), public concern for ecological
issues has consistently expanded in the past three decades since the inception of Earth
Day. Examining consumer pro-environmental behaviours, the Athens Laboratory of
Research in Marketing in collaboration with the Center of Sustainability conducted a survey
about the green marketing and showed that more than 92 per cent of consumers have a
favourable attitude pertaining to business organizations that are environmental-sustainable
(Papadopoulos et al., 2010). Consistent with this phenomenon and behaviour, 71 per cent
of hotel consumers expressed that they would like to make more pro-environmental Received 28 February 2019
Revised 25 July 2019
decisions, contrasted with 65 per cent in the previous year in 2012 (Rahman and Reynolds, 11 October 2019
2016). Accepted 8 November 2019

DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-02-2019-0034 VOL. 14 NO. 1 2020, pp. 63-82, © Emerald Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH j PAGE 63
 The term “green hotels” refer to environmentally friendly properties whose managers are
eager to institute programmes that save water, save energy and reduce solid waste, while
saving money, to protect the earth (Green Hotel Association, 2019). As noted by Al-Aomar
and Hussain (2017), hotels are one of the most energy-/resource-intensive building types
because of their multi-use functions, so pro-environmental strategies such as sustainable
supply chains have the potential to provide quality products and services, reducing waste
and costs (Al-Aomar and Hussain, 2018). New sustainability strategies are rapidly
becoming an important objective for most hotels; indeed, they are a competitive necessity
(Alameeri et al., 2018). The implementation of such strategies promises to have the effect of
reducing the cost of supply chain operations, while complying with environmental legislation
(Al-Aomar and Hussain, 2017), increasing a hotel’s reputation and complying with corporate
social responsibility obligations (Baker et al., 2013).
However, in spite of the majority of consumers announcing that their purchasing behaviours
were influenced by environmental concerns, there appears to exist a kind of cognitive
mismatch, as only a couple of eco-products/services had, in 2012, been effective
(Kaufmann et al., 2012). There is little evidence to support the argument that pro-
environmental attitudes and beliefs translate into actual pro-environmental behaviours (Kim
and Choi, 2005; Kaufmann et al., 2012) such as green hotel selection (Mas’od and Chin,
2014; Wang et al., 2018). There is a clear need, therefore, for hotel operators to understand
the nature of this problem if they want to implement an efficient green strategy which
actually brings guests (Rahman and Reynolds, 2016; Wang et al., 2018). Although
researchers have attempted to understand the relationship between cognitive or
psychographic characteristics and pro-environmental behaviour (Jauhari, 2017; Jaiswal
and Kant, 2018; Wang et al., 2018), consumer pro-environmental behaviour remains difficult
to predict (Kim and Choi, 2005).
Altruism, or altruistic value, is one of the most important psychographic variables for
explaining consumers’ pro-environmental attitudes and behaviours (Kaufmann et al., 2012;
Rahman and Reynolds, 2016). Researchers suggest that individuals who have a higher
level of orientation towards altruistic values are usually more concerned about
environmental issues and are more motivated to participate in pro-environmental behaviour
(Vicente-Molina et al., 2013; Rahman and Reynolds, 2016). However, while various studies
have attempted to identify the altruistic values that provide a basis for pro-environmental
attitudes and behaviour (Kaufmann et al., 2012; Vicente-Molina et al., 2013; Handique,
2014), few studies attempt to pursue a deeper understanding of the aspects of altruism
which influence consumer pro-environmental behaviour towards green hotel selection
(Rahman and Reynolds, 2016).
It is also widely agreed in the literature that a high level of environmental knowledge has a
significant positive influence on consumer pro-environmental attitudes and behaviour
(Vicente-Molina et al., 2013; Goh and Wahid, 2014; Jaiswal and Kant, 2018). Nonetheless,
there is a significant difference between subjective environmental knowledge and objective
environmental knowledge in terms of pro-environmental attitudes and behaviour (Vicente-
Molina et al., 2013; Jaiswal and Kant, 2018). Concerning this research issue, few studies
have investigated the direct effect of both subjective and objective environmental
knowledge on pro-environmental attitude and behaviour simultaneously (Jaiswal and Kant,
2018).
Regarding the Chinese context, according to Wang et al. (2018), research on green hotel
selection is still in its preliminary stage in China, where there is a lack of literature to review
compared with the western literature and where the systematic framework is weak (Wang
et al., 2019a). This research, therefore, attempts to bridge the gap found in the relationship
between altruistic values, environmental knowledge, pro-environmental attitude and
intention, while providing a deeper understanding of consumers’ pro-environmental

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behaviour towards green hotel selection in a non-Western setting. The purpose of this
research is:
䊏 to determine the types of altruistic value that influence consumers’ pro-environmental
attitudes and behaviour; and
䊏 to determine the relationship between both subjective and objective knowledge and
pro-environmental attitudes and intention.

2. Theoretical background and hypotheses development

2.1 The underpinning theory
This research proposes a theoretical research model (see Figure 1) based on the
value–belief–norm (VBN) theory of environmentalism (Stern, 2000). According to Stern
(2000), who reviewed the previous literature related to altruistic values in green marketing,
the most popular theory used in research predicting consumer pro-environmental behaviour
is the moral norm-activation theory of altruism proposed by Schwartz (1977). In the moral
norm-activation theory, researchers proposed that individuals who act altruistically are able
to relate to pro-environmentalism because they respond to the activation of their personal
moral norms, believing that particular conditions pose threats to others and that actions they
could initiate might avoid those consequences (Stern, 2000).
Nevertheless, Stern (2000) argued that researchers have tended to focus mainly on pro-
environmental behaviour in the private sector, such as consumers’ pro-environmental
purchasing behaviour, recycling practices and the disposal of personal and household
products that have an environmental impact. Ignoring non-activist pro-environmental
behaviour in green marketing (Stern, 2000) is not uncommon. For example, public opinion
and polity would indirectly influence the public’s environmental awareness, such as
petitioning about environmental issues; joining and contributing to environmental
organizations; approving of environmental regulations; or willingness to pay higher taxes for
environmental protection and products. Although the effects may be indirect, they may be
large, because public policies can change the behaviour of individuals and organizations at
once (Stern, 2000).

Figure 1 Theoretical research model

Biospheric
value

H1 H2
Altruistic
value
H3 H4

H6
Collectivistic Green
value H5 Green purchase
purchase H11 intention
attitude
H7 H8
Subjective
knowledge
H10
H9
Objective
knowledge

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 Stern (2000), therefore, proposed that three types of individuals’ environmental values,
biosphere, altruism and egoism, can influence individuals’ beliefs, subsequently effecting
their pro-environmental personal norms. Ultimately, their pro-environmental behaviour,
whether expressed as activism, non-activism, private-sector or other environmentally
significant behaviours, becomes manifest. Accordingly, values are considered important
because they may affect various beliefs, attitudes and behaviours simultaneously (Rahman
and Reynolds, 2016). This corresponds with the findings of Ajzen and Fishbein (1975), who
in their reasoned action model, also in Ajzen (1991) theory of planned behaviour, presumed
that (environmental) beliefs shape attitudes towards behavioural intention, which are
subsequently translated into actual behaviour (Rahman and Reynolds, 2016).
Furthermore, according to VBN theory, Stern (2000) emphasized that behaviour-specific
knowledge, in terms of an individual’s personal capabilities, has an important influence on
pro-environmental behaviours. And individual’s general capabilities and resources such as
literacy may have very limited explanatory power for various pro-environmental behaviours,
but may be important for behaviours that depend strongly on particular capabilities such as
environmental knowledge (Stern, 2000). This follows the recommendations of some
researchers that there is a significant causal path from environmental knowledge to green
purchase attitude and green purchase intention/behaviour (Levine and Strube, 2012; Chen,
2013; Maichum et al., 2016). In addition, many studies have explored a relationship
between environmental knowledge, attitude and behaviour based on theory of reasoned
action or theory of planned behaviour. Such results typically showed that environmental
knowledge positively and significantly influences green purchase attitude and behaviour
(Aman et al., 2012; Goh and Wahid, 2014; Mohamad et al., 2014).

2.2 Biospheric value

Pro-environmental behaviour can reasonably be characterized by its effect: the degree to
which it changes the accessibility of materials or energy from the environment or changes
the structure and elements of ecosystems or the biosphere itself (Stern, 2000). Biospheric
values are important because an individual’s activities and a fragile biosphere are seen as
inextricably interconnected, whatever the pro-environmental behavioural paradigm (Stern,
2000). However, the concept of biospheric values in social psychology is new and, yet to be
resolved, empirically (Stern, 2000). Rahman and Reynolds (2016) indicated that most
previous studies related to pro-environmental behaviour have not distinguished biospheric
values from altruistic value orientation. In contrast with altruistic values, which reflect
concern for the welfare of other people (Stern, 2000; Rahman and Reynolds, 2016),
biospheric values provide a distinct basis for people’s support for preserving the
environment (Stern, 2000). Such values emphasize the welfare of the environment (Rahman
and Reynolds, 2016). Accordingly, individuals who have biospheric values exhibit more
concern for plants and animals, and can be referred to as pro-environmentalists (Hughner
et al., 2007; Rahman and Reynolds, 2016).
Rahman and Reynolds (2016) argued that biospheric values are the most important
principle for motivating pro-environmental purchase intention. They proposed that
biospheric values are better than altruistic values for explaining the process of forming a
pro-environmental behavioural intention. This research, therefore, examines the validity of
the adoption of biospheric values to explain consumers’ green hotel behavioural intention in
the United States. Their study adopted a purposive sampling of 372 respondents and
showed that individuals who have biospheric value orientation were significantly more likely
to make sacrifices for the environment. It follows that willingness to sacrifice for the
environment has a significant positive influence on consumers’ green hotel visit intention;
willingness to sacrifice for a green hotel selection; and willingness to pay a premium for a
green hotel. In a separate study, Stern (2000) proposed the biospheric value is one of three
types of value orientation which offer a good account of the causes of the individuals’

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attitude formation (Schwartz and Huismans, 1995) and of their precondition towards pro-
environmental behaviour (Stern, 2000). In view of the findings above, the following
hypotheses were proposed:
H1. There is a positive significant relationship between biospheric values and green
purchase attitude towards green hotel selection.
H2. There is a positive significant relationship between biospheric values and green
purchase intention towards green hotel selection.

2.3 Altruistic value

An altruistic value is, according to many researchers, also a personal value structure which
has a significant influence on behaviour (Teng et al., 2015). In particular, in the field of green
marketing, an altruistic value is a subset for accounting for pro-environmental behaviour
(Kaufmann et al., 2012). Altruistic values, of course, reflect concern for the welfare of society
and others (Teng et al., 2015; Rahman and Reynolds, 2016). According to Teng et al.
(2015), an individual’s sense of what is right and ethically right to do is composed of
personal norms that belong to a deliberate commitment which individuals feel in making the
best choice, irrespective of what other individuals think. Altruistic values include the
demonstration of accomplishing something good for others without anticipating anything
consequently (Teng et al., 2015). Although some researchers argued that altruistic values
have an important role in predicting consumer pro-environmental behaviour (Straughan and
Roberts, 1999; Mas’od and Chin, 2014), studies on green hotel selection as an altruistic
behaviour are scarce, and little is known about the importance of altruistic value in terms of
their effect on consumers’ green hotel selection.
However, in spite of the limited studies, altruistic values have shown some promising effects
on consumer pro-environmental attitudes, intention and behaviour (Straughan and Roberts,
1999; Kaufmann et al., 2012; Mas’od and Chin, 2014; Teng et al., 2015). A study by Mas’od
and Chin (2014) analyzed a sample of 200 respondents to determine the variables
influencing consumers’ green hotel selection in Malaysia. The authors defined altruistic
values as concern for the welfare of society and others, and concluded that altruistic values
are one of four psychographic variables which significantly positively influence consumer
green hotel selection. Also, Teng et al. (2015) explored the relationship between altruistic
values and the theory of planned behaviour in Taiwan, China. Analysis of the results from a
random sampling of 258 respondents showed that altruistic values have the most predictive
power for explaining perceived behavioural control towards green hotel selection, following
influenced attitude and intention. In a study conducted in the USA, Straughan and Roberts
(1999) used the norm-activation theory to predict consumers’ ecologically conscious
behaviour. Adopting a convenience sampling of 235 respondents, they argued that
altruistic value is the second most important characteristic from among all the
psychographic characteristics that significantly influence consumer pro-environmental
behaviour. Hence, this study postulates the following hypotheses:
H3. There is a positive significant relationship between altruistic value and green
purchase attitude towards green hotel selection.
H4. There is a positive significant relationship between altruistic value and green
purchase intention towards green hotel selection.

2.4 Egoistic value

Egoistic values focus on maximizing individual outcomes based on self-interest (Rahman
and Reynolds (2016). Of course, values such as obedience, self-discipline and family
security negatively influence pro-environmental norms and behaviours (Stern, 2000).
Egoistic values may be important bases for the principled opposition of some individuals

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 towards the objectives of environmental movements but the precise ways in which egoistic
values affect behaviour are not well understood (Stern, 2000). In green marketing, egoistic
values are generally related to individualism, which refers to the moral stance, political
philosophy, ideology or social outlook that stresses “the moral worth of the individual”
(Gagnier, 2010; Chen, 2013). Individualism is characterized by independence, self-
reliance, freedom of choice and a high level of competition (Kim and Choi, 2005).
Accordingly, Kaufmann et al. (2012) emphasized that individuals who have a strong selfish
and competitive orientation are less likely to perform pro-environmental behaviour, as
opposed to individuals who have satisfied their own needs, who are subsequently more
likely to perform pro-environmental behaviours because they need to use more resources to
achieve their goals. In particular, in the orientation of egoistic values, most studies tend to
compare the differences between individualism and collectivism in terms of their influences
on pro-environmental behaviour (Chen, 2013; Goh and Wahid, 2014; Kirmani and Khan,
2016). Collectivism refers to individuals who consider that collectively there is a need to
protect the environment for all society to enjoy prosperity (Chen, 2013). Collectivism
emphasizes interdependence, group-orientation goals, cooperation and minimal
competition (Kim and Choi, 2005).
There is little evidence to support that there is a negative relationship between egoistic
values or individualism and pro-environmental behaviour (De Groot and Steg, 2007).
However, many studies have confirmed that there is a positive significant relationship
between collectivism and pro-environmental behaviour (Chen, 2013; Goh and Wahid, 2014;
Wang, 2014; Kirmani and Khan, 2016). This may, conversely, support the argument that a
relationship exists between egoistic values and pro-environmental behaviour. A study by
Goh and Wahid (2014) investigated the determinants of consumers’ green purchase
behaviour in Malaysia. The authors concluded that collectivist values are an important
determining factor for green purchase behaviour. In another study, Kirmani and Khan
(2016) explored how the antecedents of environmental concern influence Indian
consumers’ attitude towards green products. Analysis of a sample of 515 respondents
showed that collectivism emerged as an important predictor of the environmental concern
of consumers, as well as there being a positive significant relationship between collectivism
and bias towards green product selection. Wang (2014) also confirmed that collectivist
values are the significant predictor of green purchase intention in Taiwan. Analyzing an
online sampling of 1,866 respondents, Wang revealed that the effect of collectivism on
green purchase intention was greater than other antecedent variables.
Based on the above arguments, this research proposed that there is an underlying
relationship between egoistic values and green purchase attitude and intention towards
green hotel selection in China. This research also proposed that there is a positive
significant relationship between collectivism and pro-environmental attitude and intention, in
line with many previous studies. This research also proposed that a negative relationship
exists between egoistic/individualism values and pro-environmental attitude and intention.
One difficulty for this research, which arises from the literature, is that Chinese society is a
very high collectivistic one, along with Japan and Korea, compared to most Western
counties (Chan and Lau, 2000; Chan, 2001; Chen, 2013). Therefore, a single measurement
of egoistic/individualist values may not suit all settings. However, it could also be said that
very reliable measurements of collectivism have been recently developed by many
researchers, which seek to overcome such problems (Kim and Choi, 2005; Wang, 2014;
Kirmani and Khan, 2016). Based on these considerations, the following hypotheses are
proposed:
H5. There is a positive significant relationship between collectivistic value and green
purchase attitude towards green hotel selection.
H6. There is a positive significant relationship between collectivistic value and green
purchase intention towards green hotel selection.

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2.5 Environmental knowledge
Environmental knowledge can be defined as an individual’s general knowledge of facts,
concepts and relationships related to environmental protection and its major ecosystems
(Kaufmann et al., 2012; Vicente-Molina et al., 2013). In other words, environmental
knowledge encompasses whatever individuals know about the environment; key
relationships and influences; identification of the capabilities of environmental systems; and
the collective responsibilities necessary for sustainable development (Kaufmann et al.,
2012). A review of previous studies related to pro-environmental behaviours highlighted the
popularity of the view that the environmental knowledge was formed from attitudes which
can be reflected in pro-environmental behaviours (Vicente-Molina et al., 2013).
Nevertheless, it has since been demonstrated that the converse is true; environmental
knowledge plays an important role in explaining pro-environmental attitude, intention and
behaviour (Vazifehdoust et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2017; Jaiswal and Kant, 2018) and it is
necessary to take its role seriously in future research (Vicente-Molina et al., 2013).
Although, theoretically, environmental knowledge seems to play an important role in helping
individuals in understanding the appropriate ways to move towards a pro-environmental
goal, it could also prove to be an important antecedent for the formation of attitudes towards
pro-environmental behaviour (Maichum et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2017). The empirical
evidence, however, is not so clear (Levine and Strube, 2012; Vicente-Molina et al., 2013;
Kumar et al., 2017). In particular, some studies have shown results that were inconsistent
with this expectation. A study conducted by Kumar et al. (2017) in India found that
environmental knowledge positively and significantly influences consumers’ pro-
environmental attitudes. However, the relationship between environmental knowledge and
purchase intention was very low and not significant. In another study conducted by Aman
et al. (2012) in Malaysia exploring the same relationships showed that environmental
knowledge does not predict attitude, but environmental knowledge significantly and
positively influences green purchase intention. Other studies reveal that there is no
significant relationship between environmental knowledge and pro-environmental behaviour
(Yin et al., 2010; Vazifehdoust et al., 2013). Also, a study by Hassan et al. (2010) showed
that environmental knowledge has a negative influence on pro-environmental attitude.
Vicente-Molina et al. (2013) concluded that there are three reasons for the inconsistent
predicting power of environmental knowledge in explaining pro-environmental attitude and
behaviour. The first reason is that individuals know little about the environment (Kennedy
et al., 2009), meaning that their pro-environmental behaviours are constrained by perceived
lack of knowledge (Vicente-Molina et al., 2013). The second reason is that individuals who
hold inappropriate or incorrect environment information will probably be individuals who
make environmentally wrong decisions (Vicente-Molina et al., 2013). In other words, pro-
environmental behaviours are constrained by a perceived fuzziness of knowledge. The third
and most important reason is that most previous studies for measuring environmental
knowledge have been developed solely in reference to subjective or objective knowledge.
This might be the source of the contradictory results found (Vicente-Molina et al., 2013).
Subjective environmental knowledge refers to how much a person thinks that he/she knows
(Vicente-Molina et al., 2013) based on a person’s perception of self-assessment of what
and how much a person is aware of the green phenomenon, known as abstract knowledge
(Jaiswal and Kant, 2018). Objective environmental knowledge refers to how much a person
actually knows about a type of product or issues (Vicente-Molina et al., 2013). Such
knowledge is based on factual knowledge or concrete behavioural knowledge (Jaiswal and
Kant, 2018). In other words, a person has to be educated to be able to understand the
impact of a product on the environment (Chen, 2013).
Some studies have explored both the subjective and objective environmental knowledge of
consumers, claiming that knowledge of both types is strengthened through

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 pro-environmental attitudes/intentions towards performing pro-environmental behaviours
(Chiou, 1999; Mostafa, 2009; Rashid, 2009; Chen, 2013; Vicente-Molina et al., 2013; Azizan
and Suki, 2014). One such study, by Chen (2013), explored the difference, in terms of
knowledge, between Chinese and American consumers towards green purchase intention.
Statistically analyzing a sample of 400 respondents, Chen concluded that subjective
knowledge had a significant impact on green purchase intention among American
consumers but objective knowledge had a significant impact on green purchase intention
among Chinese consumers. Vicente-Molina et al. (2013) also investigated how
environmental knowledge influences consumer pro-environmental behaviour. Analyzing a
sample of 2,226 university students, the authors showed that subjective knowledge had a
significant relationship with recycling, public transport use and green purchasing.
Moreover, objective knowledge was shown to positively influence environmental
performance among the American and Spanish subsamples. Hence, this study postulates
the following hypotheses:
H7. There is a positive significant relationship between subjective knowledge and
green purchase attitude towards green hotel selection.
H8. There is a positive significant relationship between subjective knowledge and
green purchase intention towards green hotel selection.
H9. There is a positive significant relationship between objective knowledge and green
purchase attitude towards green hotel selection.
H10. There is a positive significant relationship between objective knowledge and green
purchase intention towards green hotel selection.

2.6 Attitude towards green purchase intention

Ajzen (1991) defined attitude as the extent to which an individual has a positive or negative
evaluation of a particular behaviour. Attitude, understood in this sense as a behavioural
phenomenon, includes judgment about whether the given behaviour under consideration is
good or bad and whether or not the actor wants to perform the behaviour (Paul et al., 2016;
Wang et al., 2018). Attitude, then, can be demonstrated in an individual’s consistently
favourable or unfavourable evaluations, feelings and tendencies towards any given
behaviour or idea (Wang et al., 2018). Chen and Tung (2014) concluded that when
individuals have a more positive attitude, a more positive purchase intention would result,
while a specific attitude is a strong predictor of a single behaviour towards any particular
attitude object (Jaiswal and Kant, 2018).
This phenomenon of specific attitude has been adopted to understand and study attitude
towards green purchase behaviour in green marketing (Jaiswal and Kant, 2018), and many
studies have confirmed that there is a positive relationship between consumers’ green
purchase attitude and behaviour intention/behaviour (Chen, 2013; Teng et al., 2015; Yoon
and Kim, 2016; Kumar et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2018). Jaiswal and Kant (2018), for
example, explored the antecedent variables which influence consumers’ green purchase
attitude, intention and behaviour in India. Analyzing results from a sample of 351
respondents, they concluded that attitude positively and significantly influenced purchase
intention for green products. Wang et al. (2018) used the theory of planned behaviour
model to measure Chinese consumers’ green hotel selection. Analysis of an online
sampling of 261 respondents showed that attitude was the most important predictor in
explaining consumers’ green hotel visit intention. In another study, Yoon and Kim (2016)
explored how the exogenous variables influence green advertising attitude and intention in
the USA. Analyzing an online sampling of 385 university students, their study revealed that
attitude was the strongest predictor of intention. The conclusions of these studies led to the
development of the following hypothesis:

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 H11. There is a positive significant relationship between attitude and intention towards
green hotel selection.

3. Methodology
3.1 Measures
To measure the study constructs for the present study, the established measurement scales
and items which were validated in the available literature were adopted (see Appendix:
Measurement scale). The questionnaire was designed in three sections. The first section
included the exogenous variables: biospheric value, altruistic value, collectivistic value,
subjective knowledge and objective knowledge. Six items belonging to biospheric value
were adopted from Teng et al. (2015) and Rahman and Reynolds (2016); six items used to
measure altruistic value were adopted from Mas’od and Chin (2014); and six items used to
assess collectivistic value were adopted from Wang (2014) and Kirmani and Khan (2016).
Five items belonging to subjective environmental knowledge were adopted from Jaiswal
and Kant (2018), whereas seven items used to assess objective environmental knowledge
were adapted from Chan (2001).
The second section included the endogenous variables: green purchase attitude and green
purchase intention towards green hotel selection. Four items used to assess attitude were
adopted from Teng et al. (2015), whereas three items used to measure intention were
adopted from Teng et al. (2015). Additionally, the third section of the questionnaire included
a few demographic characteristics: age, gender, educational level and income level. In
sum, all of the above items were evaluated using a seven-point Likert scale, from “strongly
disagree” to “strongly agree”. According to Finstad (2010), a seven-point Likert scale
appears to be more suited to the electronic distribution of usability inventories.

3.2 Data collection and sample characteristics

An online sampling method was used to collect answers. China has a population of over 1.4
billion. According to China Internet Network Information Center (2017), over 772 million
individuals were regular internet users at the end of 2017 (Wang et al., 2018). In other
words, over 55.8 per cent of the population were internet users. Because of this high level of
internet usage in China, an online method was deemed appropriate for this study. Other
reasons for adopting this particular method are as follows: the fact that data can be
collected irrespective of the geographic location of respondents; the high speed of data
collection; the low cost; the potential for better display of the questionnaire; the better
access to unique populations and, finally, convenience (Evans and Mathur, 2005; Wright,
2005; Wang et al., 2018). Furthermore, previous studies related to green hotel selection
which also adopted an online sampling method to collect data were successful in doing so
and achieved their expectations (Chen and Tung, 2014; Han and Yoon, 2015; Wang et al.,
2018).
This study, therefore, posted the research questionnaire in Chinese on the world’s largest
Chinese electronic survey platform: www.wenjuan.com, from 1 January to 2 February 2019.
This free online survey questionnaire collection website is widely used in academic
research, as well as by businesses and other organizations in China and it frequently serves
as a first resort for the collection of primary survey data related to internet users (Wang
et al., 2018). Potential participants browse the website for prizes or they may be invited to
complete questionnaires on the website via emails (Chen and Tung, 2014). Money (5 RMB/
person) is offered as a necessary incentive to increase the response rate for this study.
There were, in total, 248 valid questionnaires returned. According to Hair et al. (2010),
sample sizes more than 200 have been found to provide an acceptable margin of error. Of
those 248 respondents, approximately 55.2 per cent were male and 44.8 per cent were

VOL. 14 NO. 1 2020 j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH j PAGE 71
 female. In total, 44.8 per cent of those respondents were aged between 18 and 30 years
and 36.3 per cent of the respondents had completed a 4-year bachelor’s degree.
Approximately 35.1 per cent of the respondents reported 1,701-3,000 CNY (Chinese Yuan)
in monthly income. Table I summarizes the demographic characteristics of the sample.

4. Data analysis and results

SPSS 19 and AMOS 24 were used as data analysis tools. Descriptive statistics using SPSS
were initially generated to assess data distribution and internal reliability. The next step was
to perform confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which is used to support research and
theories by extending standard multivariate analysis based on a visual instrument of the
measurement model. Finally, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the
hypotheses proposed in this study, because of SEM working not only with single simple or
multiple linear regression, but also with a system of regression equations (Nachtigall et al.,
2003).

4.1 Data distribution and reliability

According to Byrne (2016), observed distribution is exactly normal if the values for
skewness and kurtosis are close to zero, with a measure of skewness ranging from 2 to
þ2 and kurtosis ranging from 7 to þ7, which would point to a strong deviation from
normality. Thus, the result of this study shows that normality has not been violated (see
Table II) and that parametric statistics can be used to analyze the data in further steps. For
assessing reliability, this study adopted an index of Cronbach’s alpha values. Based on
Hair et al. (2010), a reliability value between 0.6 and 0.7 would be the lower limit of
acceptability for this study. The results of a reliability test showed that Cronbach’s alpha
values were greater than 0.7 (see Table II); therefore, the reliability of this study was
established.

4.2 Confirmatory factor analysis

In the measurement model, all of the factor loadings should have been greater than 0.5, and
ideally more than 0.7 (Hair et al., 2010). For reliability, the composite reliability (CR) should
have been greater than 0.7 (Hair et al., 2010). For convergent validity, the average variance

Table I Sample characteristic (N = 248)

Items Characteristic Frequency (%)

Gender Male 137 55.2

Female 111 44.8
Age Below 18 43 17.3
18-30 111 44.8
31-45 64 25.8
46-60 28 11.3
Above 61 2 0.8
Income level Below 1,700 26 10.5
1,701-3,000 87 35.1
3,001-4,500 67 27.0
4,501-6,000 36 14.5
Above 6,001 32 12.9
Education level Middle school 4 1.6
High school 34 13.7
Diploma 88 35.5
Bachelor 90 36.3
Masters and above 32 12.9

PAGE 72 j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH j VOL. 14 NO. 1 2020
 Table II Data distribution and reliability
Construct Skewness Kurtosis SD Cronbach’s alpha

Biospheric 0.847 0.545 0.989 0.876

Altruistic 0.747 0.778 1.018 0.879
Collectivistic 1.196 0.335 0.908 0.890
SN 0.399 1.096 1.186 0.904
ON 0.590 0.738 1.054 0.865
GPA 1.000 0.330 1.029 0.869
GPI 1.054 0.441 1.138 0.922
Notes: SN, subjective knowledge; ON, objective knowledge; GPA, green purchase attitude; GPI,
green purchase intention

extracted (AVE) should have been more than 0.5, and for discriminate validity, the AVE
should have been more than maximum shared squared variance (MSV) and average
shared squared variance (ASV) (Byrne, 2016). In addition, the correlation between each
variable should have been less than 0.9; otherwise, it should combine those two high
correlated different variables because they actually measure the same thing (Meyers et al.,
2006).
After dropping off the low factor loadings (BV5, BV6, CV1, SK5, OK1, OK2 and OK6), the
reliability and validity of the measurement model were achieved (see Tables III and IV).
Meanwhile, the model fit for the measurement model also needed to be checked. In the
model fit summary, x 2 = 1608.6, df = 396, p < 0.001. Based on Bentler (1990), CMIN/DF <

Table III Reliability and validity of the measurement model

Composite Average variance
Construct Item Item loading reliability (CR) extracted (AVE)

Biospheric value BV1 0.68 0.901 0.697

BV2 0.85
BV3 0.9
BV4 0.89
Altruistic value AV1 0.63 0.876 0.544
AV2 0.67
AV3 0.8
AV4 0.82
AV5 0.85
AV6 0.62
Collectivistic value CV2 0.63 0.892 0.626
CV3 0.76
CV4 0.85
CV5 0.88
CV6 0.81
Subjective knowledge SK1 0.68 0.908 0.714
SK2 0.88
SK3 0.92
SK4 0.88
Objective knowledge OK3 0.73 0.876 0.639
OK4 0.77
OK5 0.84
OK7 0.85
Attitude GPA1 0.89 0.884 0.663
GPA2 0.9
GPA3 0.85
GPA4 0.57
Intention GPI1 0.88 0.922 0.798
GPI2 0.92
GPI3 0.88

VOL. 14 NO. 1 2020 j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH j PAGE 73
 Table IV The correlation between constructs
Construct 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 AVE MSV ASV

1. Biospheric 1 0.697 0.545 0.512

2. Altruistic 0.738 1 0.544 0.472 0.468
3. Collectivistic 0.656 0.687 1 0.626 0.472 0.469
4. Subjective knowledge 0.749 0.658 0.71 1 0.714 0.548 0.524
5. Objective knowledge 0.685 0.692 0.63 0.74 1 0.639 0.548 0.493
6. Attitude 0.711 0.643 0.706 0.776 0.715 1 0.663 0.602 0.522
7. Intention 0.748 0.682 0.717 0.704 0.743 0.776 1 0.798 0.602 0.531

5.0 is good and the CFI should be greater than 0.9. Results showed the CMIN/DF = 4.062
and CFI = 0.905. Meyers et al. (2006) argued that PCFI and PNFI should be >0.5 and IFI
should be greater than 0.9. Results showed that PNFI = 0.621, PCFI = 0.639 and IFI =
0.906. According to Ho (2006), there were at least three indices to be met to make the
model fit. Thus, the model fit for the measurement model of this study was considered
achieved.

4.3 Structural model estimation

As a further necessary step, SEM was performed to test the hypotheses of this study. In the
model fit summary, x 2 = 755.318, df = 257, p < 0.001. CMIN/DF = 2.939, CFI = 0.953, PNFI
= 0.551, PCFI = 0.563 and IFI = 0.951. According to Meyers et al. (2006), TLF should be
greater than 0.9 and the acceptable value range of RMSEA between 0.8 and 1 represents a
moderate fit. The results showed TLF = 0.921 and RMSEA = 0.089, a good fit for the
structure model. This step is illustrated in Figure 2 and Table V, accordingly.

5. Decision and discussion

This study examined the relationship of three types of altruistic values, biospheric value,
altruistic value and collectivistic value, and two types of environmental knowledge,

Figure 2 Structural model results

Biospheric
value

R 2 = 0.685
0.612*** 0.302***
Altruistic
R 2 = 0.706
value
0.786*** 0.351***

0.312**
Collectivistic Green
value 0.622*** Green purchase
0.84***
purchase intention
attitude
0.647*** 0.268***
Subjective
knowledge
0.318**
0.738***
Objective
knowledge

Notes: **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001; Critical ratio (C.R.) > 1.96

PAGE 74 j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH j VOL. 14 NO. 1 2020
 Table V Regression relationship and hypotheses testing
Hypothesis Parameter b CR Sig. Decision


H1 Biospheric ! Attitude 0.612 6.763 Supported

H2 Biospheric ! Intention 0.302 3.944 Supported

H3 Altruistic ! Attitude 0.786 8.145 Supported

H4 Altruistic ! Intention 0.351 3.509 Supported

H5 Collectivistic ! Attitude 0.622 7.35 Supported
H6 Collectivistic ! Intention 0.312 2.847 0.004 Supported

H7 Subjective knowledge ! Attitude 0.647 7.055 Supported

H8 Subjective knowledge ! Intention 0.268 3.779 Supported

H9 Objective knowledge ! Attitude 0.738 7.569 Supported
H10 Objective knowledge ! Intention 0.318 2.597 0.009 Supported

H11 GPA ! GPI 0.84 6.183 Supported
Notes: GPA, green purchase attitude; GPI, green purchase intention

subjective knowledge and objective knowledge, with consumer green purchase attitude
and intention towards green hotel selection. The results confirm that there is a positive
significant relationship between attitude and intention ( b = 0.84, p < 0.001). This is
consistent with many previous studies which showed that attitude positively and
significantly predicted green purchase intention (Paul et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2018; Wang
et al., 2019b).
Based on previous studies, biospheric value has been proven to have a significant positive
effect on consumers’ attitudes and intentions in green marketing (Stern, 2000; Rahman and
Reynolds, 2016). The results of this study show that there is a positive significant
relationship between biospheric value and green purchase attitude ( b = 0.612, p < 0.001)
and intention ( b = 0.302, p < 0.001). The results further confirm that altruistic value
significantly and positively influences green purchase attitude ( b = 0.786, p < 0.001) and
intention ( b = 0.351, p < 0.001). This corresponds with the findings of some previous
studies, which showed that there is a significant causal path from altruistic value to green
purchase attitude and intention (Mas’od and Chin, 2014; Teng et al., 2015). Many previous
studies concluded that the collectivistic value has a significant impact on consumer green
purchase attitude and intention (Wang, 2014; Kirmani and Khan, 2016). The results of this
study have confirmed that collectivistic value significantly and positively influences attitude,
because b = 0.622, p < 0.001, and intention towards green hotel selection ( b = 0.312, p <
0.01).
Vicente-Molina et al. (2013) argued that subjective knowledge has a significant impact on
green purchase attitude and on the intention towards green purchase behaviour. This study
confirms that there is a positive significant relationship between subjective knowledge and
green purchase attitude ( b = 0.647, p < 0.001) and intention ( b = 0.268, p < 0.001). The
results of this study also confirmed that there is a positive significant relationship between
objective knowledge and attitude ( b = 0.738, p < 0.000) and intention ( b = 0.318, p <
0.01). This result is supported by Chen (2013), who argued that objective knowledge has a
significant impact on green purchase attitude and intention.

5.1 Theoretical contribution

In summary, the findings of this study make some theoretical contributions to the
literature and provide some valuable insights into consumers’ intention towards green
hotel selection. The results of this study confirm and validate some researchers who
argued that there are three types of altruistic values which are relevant when explaining
consumers pro-environmental attitudes and behaviours: biospheric, altruistic and
collectivistic vs egoistic/individualistic values (Stern, 2000; Kirmani and Khan, 2016;

VOL. 14 NO. 1 2020 j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH j PAGE 75
 Rahman and Reynolds, 2016). The findings of this study show that there is a positive
significant relationship between biospheric, altruistic, collectivistic value and attitude
and intention towards green hotel selection, respectively. In other words, if an
individual’s biospheric, altruistic and collectivistic values towards selecting a green
hotel are positive, then he/she will be more likely to have a strong intention to visit green
hotels. Specifically, the empirical results of this study demonstrate the importance of
using a multi-dimensional model of altruism (i.e. biospheric, altruistic, collectivistic) for
explaining pro-environmental attitude and behaviour. It clearly has more predictive
power than the use of any single type of value, whether biospheric, collectivistic or
altruistic. It is also clear that the multiple value of altruism has a greater explanatory
power in accounting for why consumers like to make green hotel selection.
In addition, many previous studies related to green marketing have asserted the
critical importance of environmental knowledge in the decision-making process of
consumers which leads to pro-environmental behaviour (Maichum et al., 2016; Kumar
et al., 2017; Jaiswal and Kant, 2018). Nevertheless, some previous results were
inconsistent with that assertion (Aman et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2017). According to
Vicente-Molina et al. (2013), for example, most previous studies which attempted to
measure environmental knowledge understood as subjective or objective knowledge
resulted in contradictory findings. The empirical results for this study, however,
validate the use of either subjective knowledge or objective knowledge as types of
knowledge which significantly and positively affect attitude and intention towards
green hotel selection. Furthermore, the findings indicate that using a multi-
dimensional understanding of environmental knowledge (i.e. subjective and objective
knowledge) has a more predictive power than using one single type of environmental
knowledge (i.e. subjective or objective knowledge). Therefore, future research in this
area needs to take account of the current findings of this study; that attitude and
intention are influenced by both subjective and objective environmental knowledge.

5.2 Practical implications

The findings of this study have some potentially significant implications for the green hotel
industry. Although Chinese consumers express that they have high subjective and objective
knowledge towards making green hotel selection, objective knowledge seems to have more
of an influence than subjective knowledge on attitude and intention. In other words, while
Chinese consumers may have been educated to be able to understand the impact of a
product on the environment, they have a low perception of self-assessment regarding their
awareness of green hotels. This means that the green hotel industry is still new to Chinese
consumers. Spreading more information about the attributes of green hotels is, therefore,
essential to achieve the goal of promoting green hotels.
Unsurprisingly, the altruistic value is the most influential value in terms of affecting Chinese
consumers’ attitudes and intentions towards green hotel selection. Chinese society is very
collectivist in comparison with most Western societies (Chan and Lau, 2000; Chan, 2001)
and the unique culture (i.e. Taoism and Confucius) of China emphasizes the concept of the
essential harmony of “Man and Nature”. These unique characteristics correspond well with
an intention to protect the environment and act pro-environmentally. Those responsible for
marketing the green hotel sector should take this into consideration and strive to
understand how to influence an individuals’ perceptions regarding making a green hotel
selection.

5.3 Limitations and recommendations

Of course, there are some limitations of this study which should be considered. First, the
data were collected via an online survey method from a broad range of online Chinese

PAGE 76 j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH j VOL. 14 NO. 1 2020
netizens. Although the use of an online survey has become more prevalent, nevertheless,
adopting this method still has some various well-known weaknesses, such as there being
no guarantee that participants from previous surveys provided accurate demographic or
characteristics information (Wright, 2005). Second, based on Paul et al. (2016), intention
can be considered as a precursor and the best predictor of actual behaviour. However, an
individual’s actual behaviour is not always equivalent to his/her behavioural intention (Chen
and Tung, 2014). Future research should, therefore, measure a consumer’s actual green
purchase behaviour in this research field. Third, this study was conducted with a very
limited number of 248 respondents, only two of which were over 61 years of age. According
to Sekaran (2006), sample sizes larger than 30 and less than 500 are deemed appropriate
for most research, but a larger sample size can provide more normal distribution and,
accordingly, can produce a higher accuracy of outcomes (Saunders et al., 2011).
Furthermore, many studies show that the use of demographic characteristics is one of the
most widely used methods to investigate consumer green purchase attitude and intention
(Wang et al., 2019a). Hence, future research should also consider including demographic
characteristics for explaining consumers’ green purchase attitude and intention towards
green hotel selection.

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Appendix

Table AI Measurement scale

Variable Items Main source

Biospheric 1. Respecting the earth Teng et al. (2015), Rahman

value 2. Unity with nature and Reynolds (2016)
3. Protecting the environment
4. Preventing pollution
5. Visit at green hotel helps conserve natural resources
6. Visit at green hotel helps decrease pollution
Altruistic value 1. I have given directions to a stranger Mas’od and Chin (2014)
2. I have given money or donated goods to a charity
3. I have given money to a stranger who needed it (or asked me for it)
4. I have pointed out a clerk’s error (in a bank, at the supermarket) in under-
charging me for an item
5. I have let a neighbour whom I didn’t know too well borrow an item of some
value to me (e.g. a dish, tools, etc.)
6. I have offered my seat on a bus or train to a stranger who was standing
Collectivistic 1. I like to work hard for the accomplishment of foals of my group Wang (2014), Kirmani and
value 2. I like to help others in the time of need Khan (2016)
3. I like to maintain ward relationships with others
4. To do well in life, the help of friends is crucial
5. One of the pleasures in life is to be interdependently related to others
6. One of the pleasures of life is to feel part of a large group of people
Subjective 1. I am very knowledgeable about environmental issues Jaiswal and Kant (2018)
knowledge 2. I know more about recycling than the average person
3. I know how to select products and packages that reduce the amount of
landfill waste
4. I understand the environmental phrases and symbols on product package
5. I know that I buy products and packages that are environmentally safe
Objective 1. Soil pollution is generally because of poisonous metals Chan (2001)
knowledge 2. Most smog in our big cities comes from automobiles
3. Ecology is best described as the study of the relationship between
organisms and the environment
4. Birds and fish are being poisoned by mercury
5. All but one of the following decomposes in ocean water plastic bags
6. Practically all of the lead in the atmosphere is caused by cars
7. Dose DDT need about 200 years to deteriorate into harmless chemicals
Green 1. For me, staying at a green hotel when travelling is good Teng et al. (2015)
purchase 2. For me, staying at a green hotel when travelling is desirable
attitude 3. For me, staying at a green hotel when travelling is pleasant
4. For me, staying at a green hotel when travelling is wise
Green 1. I am willing to stay at a green hotel when travelling Teng et al. (2015)
purchase 2. I will make an effort to stay at a green hotel when travelling
intention 3. I plan to stay at a green hotel when travelling
Age 1. Below 18; 2. 18-30; 3. 31-45; 4. 46-60; 5. Above 61 Author
Gender 1. Male; 2. Female
Education level 1. Middle school; 2. High school; 3. Diploma; 4. Bachelor; 5. Master and
above
Income level 1. Below 1,700; 2. 1,701-3,000; 3. 3,001-4,500; 4. 4,501-6,000; 5. Above
6,001
Note: All items were measured on a seven-point Likert scale from 1 strongly disagree to 7 strongly agree

About the authors

Lei Wang is a PhD student at the School of Hospitality, Tourism & Event at the Taylor’s
University, Malaysia. He received his Master’s degree in Leisure and Tourism Management
from the Limkokwing University of Creative Technology, Malaysia. He obtained his PhD

VOL. 14 NO. 1 2020 j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH j PAGE 81
 degree from the Taylor’s University, Malaysia. His research focuses on sustainability of
tourism management, religion/religiosity, consumer making-decision, consumer loyalty and
green purchase behaviour. Lei Wang is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
1136603668@qq.com
Philip Pong Weng Wong is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Hospitality, Tourism & Event,
Taylor’s University, Malaysia. He received his Master’s degree from the University of
Nevada Las Vegas, USA. He obtained his PhD from the University Putra Malaysia. His
research interests are destination marketing, destination branding, destination
competitiveness and destination loyalty.
Elangkovan Narayanan Alagas is a Senior Lecturer in the Business School, Taylor’s
University, Malaysia. He received his first Master’s degree of Business Administration from
the University of Lincoln, UK, and obtained his second Master’s degree in Educational
Management from the University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. He obtained his PhD from the
University Putra Malaysia. His research interests are strategic management, organizational
behaviour, organizational learning and knowledge management, human resource
management and service quality management.

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