EC6702 Optical Communication and Networks VII Semester

TWO MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWERS

UNIT -1
INTRODUCTION

Ray Theory Transmission

1. Write short notes on ray optics theory.
Laws governing the nature of light are called as ray optics. These laws are stated as:
1. Light rays in homogenous media travel in straight lines.
2. Laws of reflection: Angle of reflection θr equals angle of incidence θi
3. Snell’s Law: The angle of refraction θt is related to angle of incidence θi by
n1 sin θi = n2 sin θt

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the ray

optics? The advantages of ray optics are:
a) Ray optics is used to develop some of the fundamental parameters like acceptance angle,
numerical aperture that are associated with optical fiber transmission.
b) It provides an excellent approximation, when the wavelength is very small compared with
the size of structures, with which the light interacts.
The disadvantages of the ray optics are:
a) Ray optics fails to account for optical effects such as diffraction and interference.

3. What is meant by refractive index of the material?

The refractive index (or index of refraction) ‘n’ is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light
in vacuum to the velocity of light in the medium.
c
n=
v
c = speed of light in free space
v = speed of light in a given material

4. What is the energy of the single photon of the light whose λ = 1550nm in eV?
The energy of the single photon of the light is given by the equation
E=h×f
c
Sub f = λ in the above equation
c
E=h×λ
Given data:
h = 6.625×10-34
c = 3×108 m/sec
λ = 1550 ×10-9 m
6.625×10−34×3×108
E=
1550×10−9

= 0.0128 × 10-17 J

E (eV) = 0.0128 × 10-17/ 1.609×10-19 = 0.7985eV

B.Suresh Kumar AP/ECE TKEC 2 marks Q & A 1

5. What are the conditions for total internal reflection?
The conditions for total internal reflection are:
a) The ray should travel from denser to rarer medium i.e. from core to clad region of
the optical fiber.
b) The angle of incidence in the denser medium should be greater than the critical
angle of that medium.
6. State Snell’s law.
The Snell’s law is an expression that describes the relationship between the angles of
incidence 1 and refraction 2 and to the refractive indices of the dielectrics, when referring to
waves passing through a boundary between two isotropic medium.

n1 sin1 = n2 sin 2

where n1 is the refractive index of the core and n2 is the refractive index of the cladding.

Numerical Aperture
7. Define - Numerical Aperture
Numerical Aperture (NA) of the fiber is the light collecting efficiency of the fiber and is the
measure of the amount of light rays that can be accepted by the fiber. It is equal to the sine of
acceptance angle θa
NA= sin θa = (n 12-n 22)1/2
where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of core and cladding respectively.

8. Define – Relative Refractive Index Difference

The relative refractive index difference is the ratio of the refractive index difference between
core and cladding and refractive index of core.

n1−n2
∆= 2n1
Where,
∆ is the relative refractive index
n1 is the numerical aperture of the core
n2 is the numerical aperture of the cladding
9. A step index fiber has the normalized frequency of 26.6 at 1300nm. If the core radius is 25μm,
find the numerical aperture.
Given data:
V= 26.6
λ = 1300×10-9m
a = 25×10-6m

Formula:
Normalized frequency V is given by
V= 2πa (NA) / λ
NA = λV/2πa
Solution:
Numerical Aperture = λV/2πa
1300 ×10−9 ×26.6
NA =
2×3.14×25×10−6
NA = 0.22

Acceptance Angle

10. Define - Acceptance angle

The maximum angle ‘θa’ with which a ray of light can enter through the fiber and still be
totally internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the fiber.

11. A silica optical fiber with a large core diameter has a core refractive index of 1.5 and a
cladding refractive index of 1.47.Determine the acceptance angle in air for the fiber.

Given data:
n1= 1.5
n2= 1.47
Formula:
Solution:
θa = sin−1 √1.52 − 1.472
θa = 17.36◦

Meridional and Skew Rays

12. What are meridional rays?
Meridional rays are the rays following zig- zag path when they travel through fiber and for
 every reflection it will cross the fiber axis. The figure below shows the meridional rays.

13. What are skew rays?

Skew rays are the rays following the helical path around the fiber axis when they travel
through the fiber and they would not cross the fiber axis at any time. The figure below shows the
propagation of skew rays.

Critical Angle

14. Define – Critical Angle

The critical angle is defined as the minimum angle of incidence (1) at which the ray strikes
the interface of the two medium and causes an angle of refraction (2) equal to 90.

15. Assume that there is a glass rod of refractive index 1.5, surrounded by air. Find the critical
incidence angle.
Given data:
n1 = 1.5
n2 = 1
Formula: c = sin−1 n2
n1
Solution:
−1 1
c = sin = 41.81
1.5

Optical Fiber Transmission Link

16. Draw the block diagram of an optical communication system.

 The block diagram of an optical communication system is represented as,

17. The relative refractive index difference (Δ) for an optical fiber is 1%. Determine the critical
angle at the core cladding interface if the core refractive index is 1.46.
Given Data:
1
Δ = 1% = = 0.01
n1 = 1.46 100
Formula:
n1−n2
Δ= (1)
n1−1 n2
 c= sin (2)
n1
Find n2 from equation (1)
n2 = n1(1 − Δ) (3)
Solution:
n2 = 1.46(1 − 0.01)
= 1.4454
 −1 1.4454
 = sin
c
1.46
c = 81.19◦

18. Which photodiode is used for a low power optical signal and Why?
Avalanche Photo Diode (APD) is used for a low power optical signal because it has a greater
sensitivity due to an inherent internal gain mechanism produced by avalanche effect.

Electromagnetic Mode Theory of Optical Propagation

19. What is V number of a fiber?

Normalized frequency or V number is a dimensionless parameter and represents the
relationship among three design variables of the fiber i.e. core radius a, relative refractive index ∆
and the operating wavelength λ. It is expressed as V= 2πa (NA)/λ.

20. What are guided modes?

Guided modes are a pattern of electric and magnetic field distributions that is repeated along
the fiber at equal intervals.
21. Define – Phase Velocity
As a monochromatic light wave propagates along a waveguide in the z direction the points of
constant phase travel at a phase velocity Vp given by
Vp = ω/ ß

where ω is the angular frequency and β is the propagation constant

22. Define – Group Velocity

Group of waves with closely similar frequencies propagate so that their resultant forms packet
of waves. This wave packet does not travel at the phase velocity of individual but it moves with
the group velocity Vg given by
dω
Vg = dß
where ω is the angular frequency and β is the propagation constant

23. What is meant by mode coupling? What causes it?

The effect of coupling energy from one mode to another mode is known as mode coupling.
The cause of mode coupling is due to waveguide perturbations such as deviations of the fiber axis
from straightness, variations in the core diameter, irregularities at the core -cladding interface and
refractive index variations.
24. What are the uses of optical fibers?
The uses of optical fiber are
a) To transmit analog and digital information.
b) To transmit the optical images.(Endoscopy Images)
c) To act as a light source at the inaccessible places.
d) To act as sensors for mechanical, electrical and magnetic measurements.
25. What is the necessity of cladding for an optical fiber?
The necessity of cladding for an optical fiber is:
a) To provide proper light guidance inside the core.
b) To avoid leakage of light from the fiber.
 c) To provide mechanical strength for the fiber.

d) To protect the core from scratches and other mechanical damages

26. What is step index fiber?

Step index fiber is a cylindrical waveguide that has the central core with uniform refractive
index of n1, surrounded by outer cladding with refractive index of n 2.The refractive index of the
core is constant and is larger than the refractive index of the cladding. It makes a step change at
the core cladding interface as indicated in the figure,

27. Write the refractive index expression for step index fiber.
In step index fiber, the refractive index of a core is constant and is larger than the refractive
index of the cladding. The refractive index profile is defined as

n(r) = n1; r < a (core)

n2; r ≥ a (cladding)

28. What are the advantages of Graded Index Fiber?

The advantages of Graded Index Fiber are
a) It exhibits less intermodal dispersion because the different group velocities of the
modes tend to be normalized by the index grading.
b) It provides higher bandwidth

29. Write the refractive index expression for graded index fiber.
Graded index fibers does not have a constant refractive index in the core but a gradually
decreasing core index n(r) with radial distance from a maximum value of n1 at the axis to a
constant value n2 beyond the core radius ‘a’ in the cladding. This index variation may be
represented as:
n(r) = { n1 = (1 − 2Δ(r/a)α)1/2 ; r < a (core)}

{n1 (1 − 2Δ) 1/2 = n2 ; r ≥ a (cladding)}

Where,
n1 is the refractive index of the core
n2 is the refractive index of the cladding
Δ is the index difference
α is the index profile
30. Write a short note on single mode fiber.
For single-mode operation, only one mode (the fundamental LP 01) can exist and it does not
suffer from mode delay. The core diameter is small so that there is only one path for light ray to
propagate inside the core. Typical core sizes are 2μm to 5μm. It provides larger bandwidth and
less coupling efficiency. It is used for long haul transmission.

31. List out the advantages of multimode fiber over single mode fibers.
The advantages of multimode fiber are:
a) The larger core radii of multimode fibers make it easier to launch optical power into the
fiber. Connecting together of similar fibers is easy.
b) Light can be launched into a multimode fiber using an LED source, whereas single-mode
fibers with LASER diodes. LED’s are easier to make, less expensive, less complex
circuitry and have longer life times.

32. List the advantages and disadvantages of monomode

fiber. The advantages of single mode fiber are:
a) No intermodal dispersion
b) Information capacity of single mode fiber is large
The disadvantages of single mode fiber are:
a) Launching of light into single mode and joining of two fibers are very
difficult
b) Fabrication is very difficult and so that fiber is so costly

33. Define – Mode Field Diameter

Mode-Field Diameter is an important parameter for characterizing single mode fiber
properties that accounts the wavelength dependent field penetration into the fiber cladding. This
can be determined from the mode field distribution of the fundamental LP 01 mode. The MFD
equals 2ωo where ωo is the nominal half width of the input excitation.
34. Why is step index single mode fiber preferred for long distance communication?
The step index single mode fiber is preferred for long distance communication
because,
a) They exhibit higher transmission bandwidth because of low fiber losses.
b) They have superior transmission quality because of the absence of modal
noise.
c) The installation of single mode fiber is easy and will not require any fiber
replacement over twenty plus years.

35. Define – Birefringence

Manufactured optical fibers have imperfections, such as asymmetrical lateral stresses,
non circular cores, and variations in refractive index profiles. These imperfections break
the circular symmetry of the ideal fiber and lift the degeneracy of the two modes. These
modes propagate with different phase velocity and it is called as fiber birefringence.
Birefringence is expressed as
Bf = 2π
βx - βy λ
/
where β is the propagation constant.
 UNIT- II
TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBER
Attenuation

1. What is meant by attenuation coefficient of a fiber?

Attenuation coefficient is defined as the ratio of the input optical power P i launched into the
to the output optical power Po from the fiber.
αdB = 10/L log 10 pi/p0

where ∝dB is the attenuation coefficient in decibels per kilometer.

2. What are the types of material absorption losses in silica glass fibers?
The types of material absorption losses in silica fiber are:
a) Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition
b) Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material
c) Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms in the glass material
3. What is meant by intrinsic absorption in optical fibers?
The absorption caused by the interaction of one or more of the major components of the glass
is known as intrinsic absorption.

4. What is meant by extrinsic absorption in optical fibers?

The absorption caused by the impurities within the glass is known as extrinsic absorption.

Linear and Nonlinear Scattering Losses

5. Differentiate linear scattering from nonlinear scattering.

Linear scattering mechanisms transfers linearly some or all of the optical power contained
within one propagating mode to a different mode.
Non-linear scattering causes the optical power from one mode to be transferred in either the
forward or backward direction to the same or other modes at different frequencies.

6. What are the types of linear scattering losses?

Linear scattering is of two types. They are:
a) Rayleigh scattering
b) Mie scattering
7. What are the types of nonlinear scattering losses?
Non-linear scattering is of two types. They are
a) Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
b) Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
8. What is meant by Fresnel Reflection?
When the two joined fiber ends are smooth and perpendicular to the axes, and the two fiber
axes are perfectly aligned, small proportion of the light may be reflected back into the
transmitting fiber causing attenuation at joint. This is known as Fresnel reflection.
9. What is meant by linear scattering?
Linear scattering mechanisms transfers linearly some or all of the optical power contained
within one propagating mode to a different mode.
10. What are the factors that cause Rayleigh scattering in optical fibers?
The inhomogeneties of a random nature occurring on a small scale compared with the
wavelength of the light in optical fiber causes Rayleigh scattering. These inhomogeneities
manifest themselves as refractive index fluctuations and arise from density and compositional
variations that are frozen into the glass lattice on cooling.

11. What are the factors that cause Mie scattering in optical fibers?
The factors that cause Mie scattering in optical fibers are:
a) Fiber imperfections such as irregularities in the core – cladding interface
b) Core – cladding refractive index differences along the fiber length,
diameter fluctuations
12. What are the ways to reduce macro bending losses?
The ways to reduce macro bending losses are
a) Designing fibers with large relative refractive index differences
b) Operating at the shortest wavelength possible.

Dispersion

13. What is meant by dispersion in optical fiber?

Different spectral components of the optical pulse travel at slightly different group velocities
and cause pulse broadening within the fiber. This phenomenon is referred as dispersion.

14. What are the different types of dispersion?

There are two types of dispersion. They are
a) Intramodal Dispersion:
(i) Material Dispersion
(ii) Waveguide Dispersion
b) Intermodal Dispersion:
(i) Multimode step index
(ii) Multimode graded index

15. What is meant by intermodal dispersion?

Pulse broadening due to propagation delay differences between modes within a multimode
fiber is known as intermodal dispersion.

16. Define – Group Velocity Dispersion (GVD)

Intra-modal dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode. The spreading
arises from the finite spectral emission width of an optical source. This phenomenon is known as
Group Velocity Dispersion (GVD).

17. What is meant by modal noise?

The speckle patterns are observed in multimode fiber as fluctuations which have
characteristic times longer than the resolution time of the detector. This is known as modal or
speckle noise.

18. What is meant by chromatic dispersion?

The dispersion due to the variation of the refractive index of the core material as a function
of wavelength is known chromatic dispersion. This causes a wavelength dependence of the group
velocity of any given mode. Pulse spreading occurs even when different wavelengths follow the
same path.
19. What is meant by polarization mode dispersion?
Polarization refers to the electric - field orientation of a light signal, which can vary
significantly along the length of the fiber.

20. Distinguish between dispersion shifted and dispersion flattened fibers.

Reduction in the fiber core diameter with an increase in the relative or fractional index
difference to create dispersion is known a dispersion shifted fiber. Fibers which relax the spectral
requirements for optical sources and allow flexible wavelength division multiplexing are known
as dispersion flattened fibers.

Fiber Splices and Connectors

21. What are the two types of fiber joints?
The two types of fiber joints are:
a) Fiber splices: These are semi permanent or permanent joints.
b) Demountable fiber connectors or simple connectors: These are removable joints.
22. What is meant by fiber splicing?
A permanent joint formed between two individual optical fibers in the field or factory is
known as fiber splice.

23. What are the techniques used in splicing?

Generally used splicing techniques are:
a) Fusion splice
b) V-groove mechanical splice
c) Elastic tube splice
24. List the types of mechanical misalignments that occur between two joined fibers.
There are three types of mechanical misalignments:
a) Lateral/radial/axial misalignment
b) Longitudinal misalignment
c) Angular misalignment
UNIT-III
SOURCES AND DETECTORS
LED Structures
1. What is meant by heterojunction? List out the advantages of heterojunction.
A heterojunction is an interface between two adjoining single crystal semiconductors
with different bandgap energies. Devices that are fabricated with heterojunction are said to
have hetrostructure.
Advantages of heterojunction are:
a) Carrier and optical confinement
b) High output power
c) High coherence and stability

2. Distinguish between direct and indirect band gap materials.

Sl.No Direct bandgap materials Indirect bandgap material

1. The electron and hole have the The conduction band minimum and the
same momentum value valence band maximum energy level occur
at different values of momentum.
 2. Direct transition is possible from Direct transition is not possible from
valence band to conduction band valence band to conduction band

3. Why is silicon not used to fabricate LED or Laser diode?

Silicon is not used to fabricate LED or Laser diode because
a) It is an indirect bandgap semiconductor
b) It has Eg level of 1.1eV, the radiated emission corresponds to infrared but not the
visible light.
4. What are the advantages of LED?
The advantages of LED are:
a) Less expensive
b) Less complex
c) Long life time
d) Used for short distance communication

5. When an LED has 2V applied to its terminals, it draws 100mA and produces 2mW of
optical power. Determine conversion efficiency of the LED from electrical to optical
power.
Given Data: Vin = 2 V, Iin = 100×10-3 A, Pout = 2×10-3
Formula: LED conversion efficiency = Pout/ Pin
Solution:
Pin = Vin × Iin = 2 × 100×10-3
2×10
Conversion Efficiency = −3
2×100×10−3 = 0.01
 LASER Diodes

6. What is the principle of operation of LASER?

The principle of operation of LASER is population inversion, the most photons incident
on the system. The population of the upper energy level is greater than lower
energy level i.e. N2 > N1. This condition is known as population inversion.

7. Write the three modes of the cavity of LASER diode.

The three modes of the cavity of LASER are:
a) Longitudinal modes, related to the length L of the cavity
b) Lateral Modes lie in the plane of the P-N junction. These modes depend upon the
side wall preparation and width of the cavity.
c) Transverse modes are associated with the Electro Magnetic Field and beam profile
in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the PN junction. These modes
determine the radiation pattern of the LASER.

8. What is a DFB Laser? Differentiate DFB LASER from other types of LASER.
In DFB Laser, the lasing action is obtained by periodic variations of refractive index,
which are incorporated into multilayer structure along the length of the diode. DFB LASER
does not require optical feedback unlike the other LASERs.

9. What is population inversion?

Under thermal equilibrium, the lower energy level E 1 of the two level atomic system
contains more atoms than upper energy level E 2.To achieve optical amplification it is
necessary to create non-equilibrium distributions of atoms such that population of the upper
energy level is greater than lower energy level i.e. N2 > N1 as shown in the figure. This
condition is known as population inversion.

10. Compare LED and ILD sources.

Sl.No LED ILD

1. Incoherent Coherent
2. For multimode fibers only For multi and single mode fibers
Large beam divergence due to Low beam divergence due to
3.
spontaneous emission stimulated emission

11. Write the three key processes of laser action.

The three key processes of laser actions are:
1. The atomic system must have population inversion. This means the number of
 atoms in the excited state should be more than that of ground state
2. There should be photons with proper energy to start the stimulated emission
3. There should be an arrangement for multiple reflections to increase the intensity
of LASER beam

12. What are the advantages of Quantum Well Lasers?

The advantages of Quantum Well Lasers are:
a) High threshold current density
b) High modulation speed
c) High line width of the device

Quantum Efficiency
13. Define – Internal Quantum Efficiency

Internal Quantum Efficiency is defined as the ratio of radiative recombination rate to the total
recombination rate.
η int = Rr / Rr + Rnr

where is Rr is radiative recombination rate, Rnr is the non-radiative recombination rate.

14. An LED has radiative and nonradiative recombination times of 30 and 100 ns
respectively. Determine the internal quantum efficiency.
Given data: τ = 30× 10−9𝑠ec, τnr = 100× 10−9𝑠ec
Ʈr× Ʈnr
Formula: τ = Ʈr+ Ʈnr 30×10−9×100×10−9 =
130×10−9 23.1ns
=

Solution: int = =
= 0.77 = 77%
 15. Define – External Quantum Efficiency
The external quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of photons emitted from LED to the
number of photons generated internally.

16. Define – Quantum efficiency of a photo detector

Quantum efficiency is defined as the number of the electron-hole carrier pairs

generated per incident photon of energy hv, is given by

number of electron−hole pairs generated

= number of incident photons

Ip
⁄q
 = p0
⁄hv
where Ip is the photon current
q is the charge of the
electron po is the optical
output power h is the
Planck’s constant
v is the frequency of the optical signal

M= × =0.8065×1.33×10-6× 15×10-3
= 16.089%

17. In a 100ns pulse, 6 × 106 photons at wavelength of 1300 nm fall on an InGaAs photo
detector on the average, 5.4 × 106 electron-hole pairs are generated. Find the
quantum efficiency.

Given Data: = 5.4 × 106

= 6 × 106

Formula: =

=
q is the charge of the electron
p0 is the optical output power
h is the Planks constant
v is the frequency of the optical signal
Solution:
Quantum efficiency = 5.4 × 106/6 × 106
 = 90%

Photo Detectors
18. What are the necessary features of a photo detector?
The necessary features of a photo detector are:
(a) High Quantum efficiency
(b) Low rise time or fast response
(c) Low dark current

19. Define – Responsivity of a photodetector

Responsitivity is defined as the ratio of output photo current to the incident optical
power.
R= Po=

where, R=Responsivity.
Ip=Output photo current
Po=Incident optical power

20. Compare the performance of APD with PIN diode.

Sl.No APD PIN

1 No internal gain Internal gain is high
2 Thermal current noise dominates photo Photo detector noise current
detector noise current dominates thermal noise current
3 Low responsivity High responsivity
4 Low dark current High dark current
5 Suitable for high intensity application Suitable for low intensity application
6 Required low reverse bias voltage Required high reverse bias voltage

21. List out the operating wavelengths and responsivities of Si, Ge, and InGaAs
photodiodes.
The Operating Wavelengths and Responsivities of Si, Ge, and InGaAs
photodiodes are:
Silicon (Si) :
(i) Operating wavelength range λ = 400 - 1100 nm
(ii) Responsivity R = 0.4-0.6
Germanium (Ge) :
(i) Operating wavelength range λ = 800 - 1650 nm
(ii) Responsivity R = 0.4 - 0.5
Indium Gallium Arsenide (InGaAs):
(i) Operating wavelength range λ = 1100 - 1700 nm
 (ii) Responsivity R = 0.75 - 0.95

22. List the benefits and drawbacks of avalanche photodiodes.

Benefits of APD are:
a) Carrier multiplication takes place.
b) Sharp threshold
Drawbacks of APD are:
a) High biasing voltage.
b) Noisy

23. Photons of energy 1.53×10-19 J are incident on a photodiode that has the responsivity
of 0.65Amps/W. If the optical power level is 10µW, find the photo current generated.

Given data : E = 1.53×10-19 J, R = 0.65Amps/W, P0 = 10×10-6 W

Formula : Ip = R× P0
Solution : Ip = 0.65× 10×10-6 = 6.5 µA

24. Ga As has band gap energy of 1.43ev at 300k. Determine the wavelength above
which an intrinsic photo detector fabricated from this material will cease to
operate.
Given data: Eg(eV) = 1.43ev
Formula: λ(μm) = 1.24/Eg(eV)
Solution: λ(μm) =1.24/1.43
λ(μm) =0.86 μm.

UNIT-IV
FIBER OPTIC RECEIVER AND MEASUREMENTS
Receiver Configuration & Probability of Error

1. Define – Quantum Limit

The minimum received power level required to maintain a specific Bit – Error - Rate
(BER) of an optical receiver is known as the quantum limit.

2. What is meant by (1/f) noise corner frequency?

The (1/f) noise corner frequency is defined as the frequency at which (1/f) noise, which
dominates the FET noise at low frequencies and has (1/f) power spectrum.
3. Why silicon is preferred to make fiber optical receivers?
Silicon is preferred to make fiber optical receivers because
a) It has high sensitivity over the 0.8–0.9 μm wavelength band with adequate speed
b) It provides negligible shunt conductance, low dark current and long-term stability

4. Define – Modal noise and Mode Partition Noise.

Disturbances along the fibre such as vibrations, discontinuities, connectors, splices and
source/detector coupling may cause fluctuations in the speckle patterns. It is known as
 modal noise.
Phenomenon that occurs in multimode semiconductor lasers when the modes are not
well stabilized is known as mode partition noise.

5. Mention the error sources in fiber optical receiver.

There are three main error sources in fiber optical receiver. They are:
a) Thermal noise
b) Dark current noise
c) Quantum noise

6. Define – Bit Error Rate

Bit Error Rate (BER) is defined as the ratio of the number of errors occurred over a
certain time interval‘t’ to the number of pulses transmitted during this interval.
7. How does dark current arise?
When there is no optical power incident on the photo detector a small reverse leakage
current flows from the device terminals known as dark current. Dark current contributes to
the total system noise and gives random fluctuations about the average particle flow of the
photocurrent.

8. What is Inter Symbol Interference?

Each pulse broadens and overlaps with its neighbors, eventually becoming
indistinguishable at the receiver input. This effect is known as Inter Symbol Interference.
9. Define – Extinction ratio
The extinction ratio  is usually defined as the ratio of the optical energy emitted in the
‘0’ bit period to that emitted during the ‘1’ bit period.

Preamplifiers

10. What are the types of pre - amplifiers?

The types of pre-amplifier are
a) Low- impedance preamplifier
b) High – impedance preamplifier
c) Transimpedance preamplifier

11. List the advantages of preamplifiers.

The advantages of pre amplifiers are
a) Low noise level
b) High Bandwidth
c) High dynamic range
d) High Sensitivity
e) High gain

Fiber Attenuation Measurements

12. What are the standard fiber measurement techniques?
The standard fiber measurement techniques are
1. Fiber attenuation measurement
2. Fiber dispersion measurement
 3. Fiber refractive index profile measurement
4. Fiber cutoff wavelength measurement
5. Fiber numerical aperture measurement
6. Fiber diameter measurement

13. Define – Bend Attenuation

A peak in the wavelength region where the radiation losses resulting from the small
loop are much higher than the fundamental mode is known as bend attenuation.

14. What is the technique used for measuring the total fiber attenuation?
Total fibre attenuation per unit length can be determined using cut-back method.
Taking a set of optical output power measurements over the required spectrum using a
long length of fibre usually at least a kilometre is known as cut back technique. The fibre
is then cut back to a point 2 meters from the input end and maintaining the same launch
conditions, another set of power output measurements are taken.
Relationship for the optical attenuation per unit length αdb for the fibre may be
obtained from,

α dB = 10/ (L1 – L2) log10 P02/ P01

L1, L2 - original and cut-back fibre length respectively

P02, P01 -output optical powers at a specific wavelength from the original and
cut back fibre lengths.

Fiber Dispersion Measurement

15. What are the factors that produce dispersion in optical fibers?
The factors that produce dispersion in optical fibers are:
1. Propagation delay difference between the different spectral components of the
transmitted signal.
2. Variation in group velocity with wavelength

16. What are the methods used to measure fiber dispersion?

The methods used to measure fiber dispersion are:
1. Time domain measurement
2. Frequency domain measurement

Fiber Numerical Aperture Measurement

17. What are the methods used to measure fiber refractive index profile?
The methods used to measure fiber refractive index profile are
1. Interferometric method
2. Near infra scanning method
3. Refracted near field method
 UNIT-V
OPTICAL NETWORKS
Basic Networks

1. What are the three topologies used for fiber optical network?
The three topologies used for fiber optical network are:
a) Bus
b) Ring
c) Star

2. Calculate the number of independent signals that can be sent on a single fiber in
the 1525-1565 nm bands. Assume the spectral spacing as per ITU-T
recommendation G.692.

Given data: Mean frequency spacing as per ITU-T is 0.8 nm

Wavelength = 1565 nm -1525 nm = 40 nm
Solution:
Number of independent channel = (40 nm/0.8 nm) = 50 Channels
3. What are the drawbacks of broadcast and select networks for wide area network
applications?
The drawbacks of broadcast and select networks for wide area network
applications are:
a) More wavelengths are needed as the number of nodes in the network grows
b) Without the use of optical booster amplifiers splitting losses occurs

Performance of WDM and EDFA

4. Define – WDM
In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a
technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical
fiber by using different wavelengths (i.e. colors) of laser light. This technique enables
bidirectional communications over one strand of fiber, as well as multiplication of
capacity.
5. What are the advantages of WDM?
The advantages of WDM are
a) Various optical channels can support different transmission formats
b) Increase in the capacity of optical fiber compared to point-to-point link

6. What is the purpose of rise-time budget analysis?

Rise-time budget ensures that the link is able to operate for a given data rate at
specified BER. All the components in the link must operate fast enough to meet the
band width or rise time requirements.

7. What is EDFA?
An erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) is a device that amplifies an optical
fiber signal. A trace impurity in the form of a trivalent erbium ion is inserted into the
optical fiber's silica core to alter its optical properties and permit signal amplification.

Solitions
8. Distinguish between fundamental and higher order soliton.
The optical pulse that does not change in shape is called fundamental solitons.
The pulses that undergo periodic shape changes are called higher order solitons.

10. What are the advantages of using soliton signals through fiber?
The advantages of using soliton signals through fiber are, it is very narrow,
high-intensity optical pulses that retain their shape through the interaction of
balancing pulse dispersion with the nonlinear properties of an optical fiber.

11. What is chirping?

The d.c. modulation of a single longitudinal mode semiconductor laser can

cause a dynamic shift of the peak wavelength emitted from the device This
phenomenon, which results in dynamic line width broadening under the direct
modulation of the injection current, is referred to as frequency chirping.

12. What are solitons?

 Solitons are nonlinear optical pulses that have the potential to support very
high optical transmission rates of many terabits per second over long distances.

SONET/SDH
13. What is SONET/SDH?
Synchronous Optical NETworking (SONET) or Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy (SDH) is a standardized protocol that transfers multiple digital bit streams
over optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent light from light emitting diodes. At
low transmission rates data can also be transferred via an electrical interface.

14. Draw the frame format of SONET.