1 Introduction

2 Relativistic Kinematics
2.1 Particle Decay
Due to time dilation, the decay-time (i.e. lifetime) of the particle in its restframe
is related to the decay-time in the lab frame via the following equation
τ
T = γτ = √
1 − v2
where v is the particle’s velocity, as measured in the lab frame. Thus we get the

following relationship: .
So it’s clear that near the speed of light, the decay-time of the particle ap-
proaches infinity (it will never decay).
The decaying particle’s 4-momentum in its own rest frame is given by p =
(M, 0, 0, 0).
• After the decay, we assume there are two resultant particles with 4-momentum
q and k respectively.
• By momentum conservation we have p = q + k.
• p · q = M q 0 and p · k = M k 0
h i
2 2
• (q + k) = q 2 + 2q · k + k 2 . Thus q · k = 12 (q + k) − q 2 − k 2 . But
q + k = p, so that q · k = 12 M 2 − mq 2 − mk 2 .
 

1
 mq 2 + 12 M 2 −mq 2 −mk 2
 
p·q (q+k)·q q 2 +k·q 1
• Thus, q 0 = M = M = M = M = 2M +
2 2
1 mq 1 mk
2 M − 2 M .
2
1 mq 1 mk 2
• By symmetry of argument we also have k 0 = 12 M − 2 M + 2 M .

2
• We can also calcualte the magnitude of the 3-momentum ~q2 = q 0 −
m 2 2 2
h i h
2 i
mq 2 = 12 M + 12 Mq − 12 mMk 1


−mq 2 = 4M 2 M 4 − 2M 2 mq 2 + mk 2 + mq 2 − mk 2 .

• Of course ~q + ~k = 0 and so ~k 2 = ~q2 .

• The direction of the 3-momentum, however, remains unknown.

2.2 Two-Particle to Two-Particle Scattering

1. Incoming particles are labeled by 1 and 2.
2. Outgoing particles are labeled by 3 and 4.
3. DEF: elastic scattering iff m1 = m3 and m2 = m4 .

4. Conservation of 4-momentum dictates that p1 + p2 = p3 + p4 .

 2
s
 := (p1 + p2 )
2
5. Define the Mandelstam variables: t := (p1 − p3 ) .
 2
u := (p1 − p4 )


P4
6. Claim: s + t + u = i=1 mi 2 .

7. The zero-total-3-momentum-frame is defined by p~1 + p~2 = 0.

8. The Breit-frame is defined by p~1 + p~3 = 0. (used in deep inelastic scatter-
ing)
9. Define the Källen function as λ (a, b, c) := a2 + b2 + c2 − 2ab − 2ac − 2bc

10. Work in the zero-total-3-momentum-frame:

 
0 0
(a) p1 + p2 = (p1 ) + (p2 ) , ~0
 2  2
2
2 0 0 0 0
(b) s ≡ (p1 + p2 ) = (p1 ) + (p2 ) , ~0 = (p1 ) + (p2 ) = p1 0 +

2


p2 0 + 2 p1 0 p2 0
2 (p1 +p2 )2 −p1 2 −p2 2
(c) (p1 + p2 ) = p1 2 + 2p1 · p2 + p2 2 so that p1 · p2 = 2 =
(p1 +p2 )2 −p1 2 −p2 2
s−m1 2 −m2 2

2 = 2

2
 0

1
 

 (p1 ) = 2√ s
s + m1 2 − m2 2

(p )0 = √
 1

s − m1 2 + m2 2

2 2 s
(d) We can calculate that as well as
(p3 )0 = 2√ 1
 

 s
s + m3 2 − m4 2
(p )0 = √
 1

s − m3 2 + m4 2

4 2 s
1
 2


 p~1 = 4s λ m1 2 , m2 2 , s
p~ 2 = 1 λ m 2 , m 2 , s


2 4s 1 2
that 2 1 2 2




 p~3 = 4s λ m 3 , m 4 , s
1
 2

p~4 = 4s λ m3 2 , m4 2 , s

2.2.1 Scattering Angle

s(t−u)+ m1 2 −m2 2 m3 2 −m4 2



p~1 ·~
p3
1. Define cos (θ) := p3 | .
|p~1 ||~ Then we can prove that cos (θ) = p
2 2 2 2
λ(s, m1 , m2 ) λ(s, m3 , m4 )
.

2.2.2 Elastic Scattering

When the scattering is elastic the equations simplify... (surprise!)

2.2.3 Angular Distribution

d[cos(θ)] 2πs 2πs π
2π dt = p
λ(s, m1 2 , m2 2 ) λ(s, m3 2 , m4 2 )
= p1 ||~
2s|~ p3 | = |~ p3 | .
p1 ||~

2.2.4 Relative Velocity

p
~
1. First note that ~v = E in general.
   
2. Now define the relative velocity: v12 := |~v1 − ~v2 | =  Ep~11 − Ep~22  =  p~1 EE21−~
p2 E1 
=
  
E2
  
 p~1  
 E1 E2  E2 − |~pp~21 | E1 . Now recall that in the zero-3-momentum-frame,

√ √
 p~1  √
   
s
p~1 = −~ p2 and so: v12 =  Ep1~E |E | E1 2 − m1 2 =
 1 
2
 2 + E1 =  E E
1 2
 s = E 1 E2
√ q q
s 1 2 2 2 2 1 2
(m1 2 + p1 · p2 ) − (m1 2 + m2 2 + 2p1 · p2 ) m1 2 =
E1 E2 4s (s + m1 − m2 ) − m1 = E1 E2
q
1 2
E1 E2 (p1 · p2 ) − m2 2 m1 2
3. Define E1 E2 v12 as the Moller flux factor. From the above relation it is
clear that E1 E2 v12 is Lorentz invariant.

2.2.5 Center of mass and laboratory Systems

In the laboratory system we are usually interested in the situation in which
p~2 = 0 (fixed target).
2 2 2 2 2
in lab frame = (p1L + p2L )= p1L + p2L + 2p1L · p2L = m1 + m2 +
1. s|
0 0 0
2 (p1L ) (p2L ) − p~1L · p~2L  = m1 2 + m2 2 + 2m2 (p1L )
|{z}
0

3
 2. We could also use the s|cm formula in a fixed target, but then we would
need to convert the given beam energy from the lab frame (in which it is
given) to the cm frame (in which we want to do the calculation).

2.2.6 Compton’s Scattering

1. For Compton’s scattering we can show that the energy of the photon after
the scattering is related to the energy of the photon before the scattering
E bef ore
via E af ter = E bef ore
where θ is the angle with which the photon
1+ me [1−cos(θ)]
is scatterred relative to the axis of incidence.

2.3 Crossing Symmetry

• Definition: X-channel reaction is a reaction in which only the X Mandel-
stam variable is positive.
• An amplitude for an s-channel process is given by Ms (s, t, u). For this
process we know that s > 0, t ≤ 0 and u ≤ 0.
new
• What if we were  to exchange p2 and p3 as follows: M s (s, t, u) =
old  old 2
new

old new
Ms (s, t, u)  . Then s = p1 − p3 =t ,t =
p2 =−p3 , p3 =−p2


2 2
p1 − −p2 old = sold , and unew = (p1 − p4 ) = uold . Thus the result
of this switch is that we merely exchange s ↔ t.

• We interpret a particle with pnew = −pold as pnew describing the anti-

particle of the particle pold was describing. This is become the emission of
a particle with energy E is equivalent to the absorption of a particle with
energy −E.

3 Lorentz Invariant Scattering Cross Section and

Phase Space
3.1 Ass-Operator
The Ass-Operator is the quantum-mechanical time-evolution operator between
two states. It gives us the amplitude for a transition, and thus the probability
   2
D   E
for transition from |ii to |f i is given by  f  Ŝ  i  , or in matrix-component
D   E
notation, Sf i ≡ f  Ŝ  i .
 

4
1. Write Sf i = δf i + i (2π) δ (4) (pf − pi ) Mf i or otherwise as Ŝ = 1 + iT̂ .
| {z }
Tf i

4
 2. Assuming an off-diagonal element (f 6= i), we have then
D   E2
8 2
 f  Ŝ  i  = (2π) δ (4) (pf − pi ) δ (4) (pf − pi ) |Mf i |
   
Z
4 2
= (2π) d4 xe−i(pf −pi )x δ (4) (pf − pi ) |Mf i |
Z
4 2
= (2π) d4 xe−i0x δ (4) (pf − pi ) |Mf i |
4 2
= (2π) T V δ (4) (pf − pi ) |Mf i |

3.2 Fermi’s Golden Rule

1. Define the cross-section as
number of particles scattered
σ =
number of particles incident
N
=
velocity of particles in beam × number density of beam × time duration
N
=
Φ × T ime
where Φ is the flux.
2. Φ = V1 |~v | if there is only one particle incident at a fixed target with
velocity ~v . However, in the CM frame, we would have instead Φ = |~v1 V−~v2 | .
3. In quantum mechanics we speak of probabilities instead of numbers, so
that we have σ = P robability
ΦT ime .
D   E2
 f  Ŝ  i 
   
4. We can calculate the (differential) probability as dP = hf | f ihi | ii dΠ
where Π is a volume in momentum space to be integrated over. It is
V
given by the state-density in momentum space (2π) 3 times an infinites-

V
imal momentum volume element d3 p~: dΠ = (2π) 3
3d p ~. We have such a
QNf V 3
factor for each final particle: dΠ = f =1 (2π)3 d p~f .
2π
R R
5. Observe that dΠ = 1 because dp = L .

6. Observe also that hf | f i 6= 1! That would violate Lorentz invariance.

3 V
Instead we have hpi | pi i = 2Ei (2π) δ (3) (~
pi − p~i ). But δ (3) (0) = (2π)3 so

that hpi | pi i = 2Ei V .

5
 7. Thus we have
dP
dσ =
Φ T ime
(2π)4 T V δ (4) (pf −pi )|Mf i |2 QNf V 3
QNi QNf f =1 (2π)3 d p~f
i=1 2Ei V j=1 2Ef V
= |~
v1 −~v2 |
V T ime
Nf
V2 2 4
Y d3 p~f
= QNi |Mf i | (2π) δ (4) (pf − pi ) 3
|~v1 − ~v2 | i=1 2Ei V f =1
(2π) 2Ef

3.2.1 Total Decay Rate

1. The decay rate is defined as dΓ = T1 dP , that is, the probability for a
decay per unit time. We can think of a decay as a scattering with only
one incident particle and thus we get
D   E2
1  f  Ŝ  i 
   
dΓ = dΠ
T hf | f i hi | ii
Nf
1 2 4
Y d3 p~f
= |Mf i | (2π) δ (4) (pf − pi ) 3
2Ea (2π) 2Ef
f =1

2. If there are more there is more than one set of resultant particles then the
total decay rate is a sum on the sets.

3.2.2 Scattering of Two Particles

1. Because in most practical cases it is only possible to collide two particles,
we have Ni = 2 and so:
Nf
1 2 4
Y d3 p~f
dσ = |Mf i | (2π) δ (4) (pf − pi ) 3
|~v1 − ~v2 | 2E1 2E2 (2π) 2Ef
f =1
Nf
1 2 4
Y d3 p~f
= q |Mf i | (2π) δ (4) (pf − pi ) 3
2
4 (p1 · p2 ) − m2 2 m1 2 f =1
(2π) 2Ef

1 2 4 QNf d3 p
~f
|Mf i | (2π) δ (4) (pf − pi )
R
2. Thus σ = q
f =1 (2π)3 2Ef
4 (p1 ·p2 )2 −m2 2 m1 2

d3 p
~f
3. Observe that Ef is a Lorentz-invariant quantity:
Z ∞
d3 p~f
dEf δ pf 2 − mf 2 d3 p~f


=
2Ef 0
Z ∞
d4 pf δ pf 2 − mf 2 θ (Ef )


=
−∞
where we note that the fact that Ef > 0 is Lorentz invariant.

6
3.3 2 → 2 Scattering Cross Section
1. Try to compute
2
d3 p~f d3 p~1 d3 p~2
Z Y Z
4 4
(2π) δ (4) (pf − pi ) 3 = (2π) δ (4) (p1 + p2 − pa − pb ) 6
f =1
(2π) 2Ef (2π) 2E1 2E2
d4 p1 d4 p2
Z
4
δ (4) (p1 + p2 − pa − pb ) δ p1 2 − m1 2 θ (E1 ) δ


= (2π) 6
(2π)
d4 p1
Z
4 2 2 2
− m2 2



= (2π) 6 δ p1 − m1 θ (E1 ) δ (pa + pb − p1 )
(2π)
 

1
 √
 p 
2. Now use the fact that δ p2 − m2 = p|
2|~
δ |~
 p | − E 2 − m2 + δ |~p | + E 2 − m2  =

| {z }
0 as |~
p|>0
1
√

p| δ
2|~ |~
p| − E 2 − m2
3. Thus we have
2
d3 p~f d4 p1
Z Z
4
Y 4 1  p 
(2π) δ (4) (pf − pi ) 3 = (2π) p1 | − E1 2 − m1 2 θ (E1 ) δ (pa + pb −
δ |~ 6
f =1
(2π) 2Ef (2π) 2 |~p1 |
Z Z ∞ Z
−2 2 1  p
= (2π) dE1 d |~
p1 | |~
p1 | dΩ p1 | − E1 2 − m1 2
δ |~
R 0 2 |~
p1 |
Z Ea +Eb √
E1 2 − m 1 2
Z
−2
= (2π) dE1 dΩ δ (pa + pb − p1 ) 2 − m
0 2
2
4. Note that (pa + pb − p1 ) 2 − m2 2 = (pa + pb ) − 2 (pa + pb ) p1 + m1 2 −
m2 2 = s − 2 (pa + pb ) p1 + m1 2 − m2 2
5. Assume we are in the center of mass frame, so that p~a + p~b = 0. Thus
2 2
(pa + pb ) = (Ea + Eb ) = s.
6. Thus we get
2
√
s
√
d3 p~f E1 2 − m1 2 √
Z Z Z
−2
4
Y
(2π) δ (4) (pf − pi ) 3 = (2π) dE1 dΩ δ s − 2 sE1 + m1 2 − m2
(2π) 2Ef 0 2
f =1
q
1 2
−2
Z
2 s
√ (m1 2 − m2 2 + s) − 4sm1 2
= (2π) dΩ √
4 s
1
p
−2
Z λ (m1 2 , m2 2 , s)
√
2 s
= (2π) dΩ √
4 s
|~
p1 |
Z
−2
= (2π) √ dΩ
4 s
p
λ (m1 2 , m2 2 , s)
Z
−2
= (2π) dΩ
8s

7
 R
7. If there is spherical symmetry for the integrand we can replace dΩ = 4π
and so we have
√
1 2 −2 2 s |~ p1 |
σ = |Mf i | (2π) 4π
|~v1 − ~v2 | 2E1 2E2 8s
√
1 2 s |~ p1 |
= √ |Mf i |2 (2π)−2 π
|~pa | s 8s
1 |~ p1 | 2
= |Mf i |
16πs |~ pa |

8. There must be some factor of 4π missing because the usual result is

1 |~
p1 | 2
pa | |Mf i |
64π 2 s |~

3.4 Unitarity of the S-Operator

Ŝ must be unitary to preserve probabilities.

3.4.1 The Optical Theorem

1. Because S is unitary, we must have
2
= i T† − T


|T |

2. Thus
4
X
Mf →i − Mi→f ∗ = i (2π) δ (4) (pn − pi ) Mf →n Mi→n ∗
n

3. Take f = i to obtain
4
X 2
Mi→i − Mi→i ∗ = i (2π) δ (4) (pn − pi ) |Mi→n |
n
1 4
X 2
Im {Mi→i } = (2π) δ (4) (pn − pi ) |Mi→n |
2 n

4. Use the relation above to get

1 1 X 2
Im {Mi→i } = |hi | S | ni|
2 TV n

hi | M | ii
5. Actually we should not have written Mi→i but rather hi | iihi | ii .

6. Assuming we have only two incident particles, a and b, we would then

have (for elastic scattering!) 2Ea Vhab | M | abi
2Eb V 2Ea V 2Eb V .

8
 7. Thus we have
1 1 X 2
Im {hab | M | abi} = 16Ea 2 Eb 2 V 4 |hi | S | ni|
2 TV n

P robability P |hi | S | ni|2

8. We know that σ = T ime×F lux and so σtotal = n hi | iihn | niT ×Φ . So that
we can write:
1 1 X 2
Im {hab | M | abi} = 16Ea 2 Eb 2 V 4 |hi | S | ni|
2 TV n
...
2
1 X |hi | S | ni|
=
2 n T V hn | ni
2
X |hi | S | ni|
= 2V Ea Eb
n
2Ea V 2Eb V hn | ni T
X probabilityi→n
= 2V Ea Eb
n
T
X probabilityi→n
= 2Ea Eb |~va − ~vb |
T × |~vaV−~vb |
n
X probabilityi→n
= 2Ea Eb |~va − ~vb |
n
time × f lux
= 2Ea Eb |~va − ~vb | σtot
p
= λ (s, ma 2 , mb 2 )σtot

4 Accelerators and Collider Experiments

4.1 Particle Accelerators: Motivations
λ = |~hp|
By using a fixed target, one can furthermore produce a beam of secondary
particles that may be stable, unstable, charged or neutral.

4.1.1 Center of Mass Energy

√ √
In a fixed target experiment,
√ s = 2m2 + 2mEinc . However, for two beams
colliding with each other, s = 2Einc .

4.2 Acceleration Methods

4.2.1 Cyclotron
2
• For a cyclotron, mv
R = qvB and so mv = qBR, and so the maximum
momentum attainable with a cyclotron is p = qBR .

9
 • Maximal energy is of the order 20M eV .
2πR 1 v p/m qBR/m
• The period is given by T = v and so f ≡ T = 2πR = 2πR = 2πR =
qB qB
2πm : f = 2πm .

Isochronous Cyclotron
2
• Can calculate relativistic effects by γmvR = qvB. Can then make the
B field non-uniform in order to make the particle’s speed synchorinized
with the AC voltage. Alternatively the AC current can be adjusted to
compensate for these relativistic effects.

4.2.2 Synchrotron
The trajectory radius is kept constant. In a synchrotron, the adaptation for
relativistic effects is done by variation of the magnetic field strength in time,
rather than in space.

4.3 Particle Physics Experiments

4.3.1 Cross Section
quantum probability
σ = time×incoming flux where flux ≡ velocity of particles in beam×number density of beam =
1
|~v | × volume

4.3.2 Luminosity
number of events per unit time
L≡ σ

• number of events = cross section × integrated luminosity

4.3.3 Particle Detectors

Want to measure:
1. Spatial coordinates and timing of final state
2. Momentum
3. Energy
4. Type of particle

4.4 Kinematics and Data Analysis Methods

4.4.1 Pseudorapidity
  
1
η ≡ − log tan θcm
2

10
4.4.2 Claim
The pseudorapidity is invariant under longitudinal boosts.

4.4.3 The Missing Mass Method

Sometimes some particles are not detected (especially neutral particles).
q
2 2
Missing Mass = (Ein − Eout ) − (~ pin − p~out )
We use the missing mass to identify them experimentally.

4.4.4 The Invariant Mass Method

N
!2
X
2
The invariant mass is defined as M := pi where there are N particles
i=1
in the system. It allows us to take two or more particles together and identify
them as a short-lived intermediate particle by looking at a peak in a histogram
plot. Example: Using the π 0 → 2γ, we can find the mass of the π 0 .

5 Elements of QED
5.1 Quantum Mechanical EoM
Brining E 2 = m2 + p~2 into quantum mechanics we get the Klein-Gordon equa-
 2
2 ~
tion: (i∂t ) = m2 + −i∇ and so ∂µ ∂ µ − m2 = 0. This is not good because
it leads to negative energy solutions (when interpreted as operating on a sin-
gle particle wave function). Thus postulate an equation with only first-order
derivatives: (iγ µ ∂µ − m) = 0. This has to be compatible with p2 = m2 , thus,
2 !
(γ µ pµ ) = p2 . This can only be fulfilled if the γ µ objects are not numbers but
rather matrices.
Thus we have the Dirac equation: (iγ µ ∂µ − m) ψ = 0. There is also the
† 0
adjoint Dirac equation: i∂µ ψ̄γ µ + mψ̄ = 0,  where ψ̄ ≡ψ γ , and {γ
µ ν
 , γ } i=

0 12×2 0 σ
2η µν . One possible representation: γ 0 = and γ i =
12×2 0 −σ i 0
     
0 1 0 i 1 0
where σ 1 = , σ2 = and σ 3 = .
1 0 −i 0 0 −1
Then define S µν := 4i [γ µ , γ ν ] and under a Lorentz transformation, ψ 7→
i µν
e− 2 ωµν S ψ.
There is a conserved current j µ = ψ̄γ µ ψ.

11
5.2 Solutions to the Dirac Equation
5.2.1 Free Particle at Rest
˜ −ipx u (p), into the Dirac
R
1. Plug in a Fourier transform of ψ, ψ (x) = dpe
µ
equation to get in momentum space: (γ pµ − m) u (p) = 0.

2. By Lorentz invariant we should be able to solve the equation in any frame

and then boost to an arbitrary
 frame to get a general solution. Thus solve
~ 0


it in the frame where p = m, 0 , and so, γ − 14×4 u (p) = 0. The
 
x
y  2
x for any (x, y) ∈ C .
solutions to this equation are u (p) =  

5.2.2 Free Particle

Now we can boost these solutions and get:

5.2.3 Explicit form of u and v

√ 
p · σx
√
 p · σy 
√p · σ̄x were σ ≡ 12×2 , σ and σ̄ ≡ 12×2 , −σ .
µ i

µ i


• u (p) =  
√
p · σ̄y

• Similarly we will also get an equation for v (p) (the Fourier transform of
ψ̄).

5.2.4 Operators on Spinor Spaces

Hamiltonian If H = i∂0 then H = mγ 0 − iγ 0~γ · ∂~ by the Dirac equation.
 
~σ 0
Helicity Helicity is defined as h ≡ 1
· p~ (the projection of the spin
0 ~σ |~p|
2

onto the momentum). Observe that [H, h] = 0, and so we can diagonalize both
simultaneously.

Chirality Define γ 5 ≡ iγ 0 γ 1 γ 2 γ 3 and so γ5 is the chirality operator. It cor-

responds to an irreducible subspace of the 4-spinor representation space.

5.3 Field Operator of the Dirac Field

R d4 p 1 P2  −ipx s s
ap~ s annihilates a particle, bp~ s annihilates an anti-particle. ψ = (2π) 4
p
2Ep s=1 e ap~ u (p) + eipx bp~ s v s (
~
R d4 p 1  ipx s†
and ψ̄ = (2π)4 p2E e a (p) ūs (p) + e−ipx bs (p) v̄ s (p) . Then ap~ s , aq~ r† =
 
p
~
3
(2π) δ rs δ 3 (~
p − ~q) and similarly for the b’s. All other combinations anti-commute.

12
5.4 The Dirac Propagator
i(pµ γ µ +m)
SF (p) = p2 −m2 +iε

6 QED Tests
7 QCD
8 QCD in electron-Positron Annihilations
8.0.1 Examples of jet Algorithms
The JADE Algorithm
• Compute all possible pairs of yij where y is a chosen metric (for example,
mij 2
Ecm 2 ).

• Search for the smallest y among all pairs, say it’s ykl .
• If ykl < ycut for some pre-chosen ycut then combine particles k and l
(combination via some pre-chosen method, for example, p(kl) new = pk +
pl ).
• Go back to step one until @ any y below ycut .

8.0.2 Event Shape Variables

n P  o
|~
p ·~
v|  2
• Thrust: T := sup Pi i ~
v ∈ S . Thus T = 1 means the event
|~
pi |i

1
is perfectly back-to-back whereas T = 2 means the event is spherically
symmetric.

9 Questions from Exam Protocols

1. What is the S-matrix? How to calculate it?

2. What is the interaction picture? (is this necessary with the path integral?)
Q  Q 
n n
3. Wick’s theorem: T j=1 φ̂ (x j ) = N j=1 φ̂ (x j ) +all possible contractions

4. Memorize all propagators. Also be able to explain the iε prescription.

5. How to prove experimentally that quarks have spin- 12 ? Obey the color
statistics? Look at angular dependence of cross-section? (1 + cos (θ) for
spin- 12 particles, sin2 (θ) for spin-0 particles). Also possible to look at
the thrust parameter to decipher how the jets hadronize and get angular
dependence.

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 6. How to study the e− e+ → µ− µ+ process?

(a) Silicon detectors

(b) Drift chambers
(c) Put everything in a magnetic field to measure the momentum and
charge by measuring the curvature and bending direction.
(d) Calorimeters measure the energy of the produced particles.

7. Why is the muon long-lived? Because it decays weakly!

8. Time dilation: T = γT0 . This is how we observe short-lived particles.
σe+ e− →µ+ µ−
9. How to experimentally verify that there are 3 colors in QCD? σe+ e− →qq̄ =
NC f lavor ef lavor 2 .
P

10. How does the top quark decay? (weakly, but it has a huge phase space
integral which means it will decay very quickly!)
R d3 p1 d 3 pn
11. Phase space formula: Rn = (2π)3 2E1
. . . (2π) 3
2En
δ (4) (Pf − Pi ). The
phase space integral is Lorentz invariant.
12. The decay time or the decay width is not Lorentz invariant (think of time
dilation).

13. How to compute the color factors of the various vertices?

14. Be able to list all particles in the standard model.
15. How to measure the non-linear nature of QCD? Look for 3-vertex inter-
actions.

16. How to decipher quarks from jets? (the scheme with the metric)
17. OZI rule: “any strongly occurring process will be suppressed if its Feynman
diagram can be split in two by cutting only internal gluon lines.”
18. Decay of the J/ψ meson.

19. How to get from M to σ?

20. What’s the difference between the e and the µ as they go through matter?
Be able to draw the ionization and bremstrahlung vs. energy graphs. Crit-
ical energy (below which ionization is dominant) is 10M eV for electrons
and 1T eV for muons.
21. How to accelerate particles (explain a particular accelerator).
22. The π 0 decays into two photons (use invariant mass of two-photons to get
the mass of the pion).

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23. How to measure the mass of π 0 using the two photons? Invariant mass
method.
24. The motivation behind Dirac’s equation.
25. Clifford Algebra.

26. Free solutions to Dirac’s equation.

27. How many generators are there in SU (N )? N 2 − 1.
28. How to know gluons are real? Three jet events.
29. How to detect a pion? It would be visible in the hadron calorimeter.

30. What are rapidity and transverse mass?

31. Pseudorapidity.

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10 Particle Detectors

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11 Particle Accelerators
11.1 Cyclotron
11.2 Electrostatic Accelerator (Cockroft and Walton)
11.3 Synchrotron
11.4 Linear Accelerator

12 Colliders
13 Energy Loss Through Materials
13.1 Photons
13.1.1 Photoelectric Effect
A photon ionizes an atom. Dominant in low-energy photons.

13.1.2 Compton Scattering

A photon scatters off an electron, giving it energy.

13.1.3 Pair Production

If Eγ > 1M eV then the photon can create an electron-positron pair.

13.2 Muons
13.2.1 Ionization
Described by the Bethe-Bloch formula. Dominant for heavy particles like the
muon until a few T eV ’s.

13.3 Electrons
13.3.1 Ionization
Dominates at low energies.

13.3.2 Moller Scattering (e− e− → e− e− )

Merely takes place at low energies.

13.3.3 Bhabha scattering (e− e+ → e− e+ )

Merely takes place at low energies.

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13.3.4 e+ e− → γ annihilation
Merely takes place at low energies.

13.3.5 Bremsstrahlung
Loss of energy by radiation of photons as a result of change of velocity. Above
a few tens of M eV starts to dominate. Energy loss proportional to dE E
dx = X0
where X0 is the radiation length (the length at which the particle loses 63% of
its energy).

13.4 Hadrons
13.4.1 Nuclear Interactions

14 Cherenkov Radiation
The result of a massive particle passing through a material faster than the speed
1
of light in that material. cos (θ) = vn where v is the speed of the particle, n is
the refractive index of the material, and θ is the angle of radiation with respect
to the axis formed by the flight of the particle. Minimum energy for Cherenkov
radiation is around 30M eV for an electron passing through Hydrogen gas.

14.1 EM
1. electron positron or photon with less than a few M eV will have mainly
the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering.
2. Above a few M eV , photons interact with matter primarily via pair pro-
duction, whereas high energy electrons or positrons mainly emit photons
(=Bremsstrahlung). The characteristic length transversed until the en-
ergy falls below a few M eV is called the radiation
  length X0 , which is
characteristic for the material: X = X0 log2 E Ec
0
where Ec is the criti-
cal energy (the energy in which the bremsstrahlung and ionization rates
are equal). Ec ≈ 800M eV
(Z+1.2) and E0 is the initial energy of the particle.
a−1 −bt
dE
dt = E0 b (bt)Γ(a)e where t = XX0 , E0 is the initial energy and a and b
are parameters to be fitted with experimental data.

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