Guide to rice production

in Northern Nigeria
N. Kamai, L.O. Omoigui, A.Y. Kamara,
F. Ekeleme

Revised Edition 2020

Transforming African Agriculture

FEED THE FUTURE NIGERIA INTEGRATED AGRICULTURE ACTIVITY

www.iita.org
Guide to rice production
in Northern Nigeria

N. Kamai, L.O. Omoigui, A.Y. Kamara, and

F. Ekeleme

March 2020

i
Published by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
Ibadan, Nigeria

International address:
IITA, Grosvenor House,
125 High Street
Croydon CR0 9XP, UK

Headquarters:
PMB 5320, Oyo Road
Ibadan, Oyo State

ISBN 00000000000

Printed in Nigeria by IITA

Citation: N. Kamai, L.O. Omoigui, A.Y. Kamara, F. Ekeleme. 2020. Guide to Rice
Production in Northern Nigeria. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan,
Nigeria. 27 pp.

Disclaimer: Mention of any proprietary product or commercial applications does not

constitute an endorsement or a recommendation for its use by IITA.

Cover: Mature Rice Plant

ii Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria ii

Forward and
Acknowledgements

This handbook is intended to guide farmers, extension personnel,

students of agriculture and researchers in Nigeria to use improved
varieties and complementary production practices to increase productivity.
The guide draws its lessons from the work and experience of IITA and
partners in Research for Development on crop-based systems in Nigeria.

This publication is a production of the Feed the Future Nigeria Integrated

Agriculture Activity implemented in targeted locations of Borno and
Adamawa states, Nigeria between 2019 and 2021, and was made
possible through financial support from the United States Agency for
International Development (USAID).

As part of its contribution to the economic recovery process in the North

East Part of Nigeria which has been ravaged by the insurgent activities
of armed groups, USAID awarded to the International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture (IITA) and its Partners (International Crops Research Institute
for the Semi-Arid Tropics and Catholic Relief Services) the two-year
“Feed the Future Nigeria Integrated Agriculture Activity’’ which aims
to advance the objectives of inclusive and sustainable agriculture-led
economic growth; strengthened resilience among people and systems;
and a well-nourished population, especially among women and children
in targeted locations of Borno and Adamawa states, Nigeria. The
Activity seeks to support vulnerable populations to engage in basic
farming activities that will improve food security, increase agricultural
incomes and improve resilience among smallholder farmers and their
families. It works with a coalition of partners to facilitate improved agro-
inputs and extension advisory services to serve vulnerable populations;

iii
strengthen the institutions that form the market system and the networks
that serve smallholder farmers who have been disenfranchised by conflict;
and facilitate the engagement of youth and women in economic and
entrepreneurial activities.

We acknowledge the many people who have contributed to the

development of this handbook other than the listed authors, especially the
leadership provided by the Deputy Chief of Party of the Feed the Future
(FtF) Nigeria Integrated Agriculture Activity and the component lead Mr.
Olukayode Faleti and all the other staff of the Activity for their tireless
efforts and immense contribution towards the achievement of the Activity’s
objectives.

The Activity would also like to recognize the support and guidance provided
by the Management of IITA led by the Director General, Dr N. Sanginga, Dr
Kenton Dashiell, Dr Alfred Dickson, Dr Robert Asiedu, Dr. Gbassey Tarawali
and others for their continued support to the Activity.

Finally, we thank Dr. Charles C. Iyangbe the Activity’s AOR and his other
colleagues at USAID who have provided their active support in terms of
providing technical guidance in making sure we follow USAID rules and
regulations and the documents are of quality.

Prakash Kant Silwal,

Chief of Party,
USAID Feed the Future Nigeria Integrated Agriculture Activity,
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, IITA Abuja Station,
Kubwa, Abuja FCT, Nigeria.

The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
the views or policies of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) or the
United States Government.

iv Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 1
2. Constraints to rice production in Northern Nigeria ..................................... 3
Drought ...................................................................................................... 3
Poor soil fertility ......................................................................................... 3
Pests attack ............................................................................................... 4
3. Important steps in growing rice .................................................................. 5
Site selection ............................................................................................. 5
Recommended rice varieties ..................................................................... 5
Land preparation ....................................................................................... 7
Seeds and seed preparation ..................................................................... 7
Seed rate ................................................................................................... 9
Time of sowing......................................................................................... 10
Spacing ................................................................................................... 10
Depth of planting ..................................................................................... 10
4. Fertilizer ................................................................................................... 11
Organic manure ....................................................................................... 12
How to make compost from rice residues ............................................... 12
5. Weed control............................................................................................ 14
Hand weeding.......................................................................................... 14
Use of herbicides ..................................................................................... 15
6. Pest and disease control ......................................................................... 17
Pests........................................................................................................ 17
Borers............................. ......................................................................... 17
Armyworms and Termites ........................................................................ 18
Birds ........................................................................................................ 18
Major diseases affecting rice fields and their control ............................... 19
Brown leaf spot ........................................................................................ 19
Blast ........................................................................................................ 20
7. Harvesting................................................................................................ 22
Threshing and winnowing ........................................................................ 18
8. Storage..................................................................................................... 24
9. Yield...................... ................................................................................... 25
10. Parboiling ................................................................................................. 25
11. References .............................................................................................. 27

v
Tables
1. Some rice varieties recommended for Northern Nigeria ............................. 6
2. Time of planting rice in Northern Nigeria ................................................... 10
3. Recommended herbicides for upland and lowland rice production ........... 15

Figures
1. A scientist examines the NERICA rice variety ............................................. 5
2. Land preparation for rice production on (a) upland and (b) lowland .......... 7
3. A well-established rice field.......................................................................... 9
4. Manual weeding on rice field ..................................................................... 14
5. A farmer spraying his rice field................................................................... 15
6. Rice field attacked by Striga plants ........................................................... 18
7. Rice field infected with blast disease ......................................................... 20
8. Threshing of harvested rice ....................................................................... 22
9. Drying of threshed rice .............................................................................. 23
10. Storage structures used for paddy rice. (a) Traditional and (b) Modern ... 24
11. Threshed rice being parboiled .................................................................. 26

vi Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

Introduction

Rice is one of the major staple foods in Nigeria, consumed across all
geopolitical zones and socioeconomic classes. Rice consumption is
increasing rapidly in Nigeria because of the shift in consumer preference
towards rice, increasing population growth, increased income levels,
and rapid urbanization. It is commonly boiled and eaten with stew or
vegetable soup. It is also used in the preparation of several local dishes
that are eaten in every home, especially during festivals and ceremonies.
However, rice production falls short of demand; the country depends
heavily on rice importation of over 3 million tonnes annually, equivalent to
over US$480 million in scarce foreign exchange. The Nigeria agricultural
landscape is changing, with increased government policies aimed at
stimulating private sector involvement and boosting local production. The
efforts are starting to show results, as Nigeria’s rice production rose from
3.7 million metric tonnes in 2017 to 4.0 million metric tonnes in 2018. For
the record, the major rice producing states in Northern Nigeria are Kebbi,
Borno, Kano, and Kaduna. Currently, most of the farmers producing rice
rely on traditional technology with low use of improved input technologies.
Average rice yields per unit area in the country are low and range between
2.0 and 3.0 t/ha compared to yields of 6‒8 t/ha reported on research plots.
It is important for farmers to adopt improved varieties and have a good
knowledge of rice agronomy to increase rice production and productivity
in the various states in Nigeria. Emphasis on the promotion of improved
rice production technologies gained a fresh momentum following the
recent policy of rice import restriction. Also, it warranted a need to equip
extension agents with up-to-date information on crop production practices.

1
In this guide, we present the recommendations for achieving high
rice yield in Northern Nigeria based on years of research of the
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Ibadan, the West
African Rice Center, (WARDA), Cotonou, Bénin; and the National
Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi.

2 Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

Constraints to rice
production in Northern
Nigeria

Drought
Drought is a major constraint to rice production in Northern Nigeria
because rice requires a lot of water for optimum growth and yield.
Rice requires about 1200 mm to 1600 mm of rainfall evenly distributed
throughout its growing period. This volume of rainfall is rare even in the
southern parts of the country that usually receive more rain than the
northern parts. The severity of drought is higher in the uplands than
in the lowlands (fadamas). Rice varieties recommended for Northern
Nigeria, therefore, fall within early and medium maturity classes that
have the tolerance to and/or the capacity to avoid drought.

Poor soil fertility

Soil fertility in Northern Nigeria has progressively declined due to
increased pressure on land resources arising from rapid population
expansion, which is forcing farmers to adopt continuous cropping
coupled with the use of an inadequate amount of fertilizer or other
soil amendments. Several studies have shown that the soils in
Northern Nigeria are deficient in nutrients, being far below critical
levels for the production of most crops, including rice. For example,
the total nitrogen present in soils ranges from 0.136 to 0.151%
in the southern Guinea savanna, from 0.16 to 0.194% in the
northern Guinea savanna, and from 0.141 to 0.153% in the Sudan

3
savanna. Available phosphorus and exchangeable potassium are
similarly low. There is also widespread micronutrient deficiency across
agroecologies of northern Nigeria, thereby indicating a need to avoid
acid-forming fertilizers and a review of current fertilizer formulations to
include micronutrients to enhance rice yields in Northern Nigeria.

Pest attack
One of the major reasons for the low yields of rice in Nigeria is attack
by insect pests. The rice plant is an ideal host for a large number
of insect pests, root-feeders, stems borers, leaf feeders, and grain
feeders. However, pests, especially birds, African rice gall midge, and
Striga attacks, are major constraints to rice production in Northern
Nigeria.

4 Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

Important steps in
growing rice

Site selection
In Northern Nigeria, rice can be grown in two main areas:

Lowland areas: These are lowlands on the edges of flooded fadamas

(inland valleys) and irrigation schemes where water is available for 4½
to 5 months. In some areas, water may be available for more than 5
months.

Upland areas: These are areas with good soil and rainfall of over 700
mm. Select fertile land.

Recommended rice varieties

The recommended rice varieties for Northern Nigeria are presented
in Table 1. These varieties produced by GoSeed mature earlier and
produce significantly higher yields than the varieties, which farmers in
Northern Nigeria have been growing.

Research by IITA (Promoting

Sustainable Agriculture Project -
PROSAB) has shown that with
good management, up to 3‒7 t/
ha of paddy yield can be obtained
with some of the recommended
rice varieties. The recommended
varieties also produce more tillers
and compete better with weeds
Figure 1. . A scientist examines the
than the farmers’ varieties. NERICA rice variety.

5
 Table 1. Some rice varieties recommended for Northern Nigeria.

6
Characteristics
Adaptation Tillering Potential Days to Plant Stem base Ligule type/ Husk color Amylose
Variety Habitat capacity yield (t/ maturity height coloration length at maturity content
ha) (days) (cm)

Irrigated Shallow Intermediate

FARO 44 lowland swamp High 7 95–110 100–115 Green Long grain Straw (22.9%)

Irrigated Shallow Intermediate

FARO 52 lowland swamp High 6 125–135 115–120 Straw Long grain Straw (22.9%)

FARO 61 Lowland Shallow Intermediate

swamp High 5 100–115 90–100 Straw Long grain Straw
(22.9%)

FARO 59 Upland Rainfed Medium 3 95–100 100–120 Light Intermediate Golden Intermediate
upland purple (22.9%)

GAWAL R1 Irrigated Rainfed Tolerance to

High 10 90–05 100–115 Green Long Straw
Lowland upland blast disease

Source: GoSeed (Business Incubation Platform, IITA)

Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

Land preparation
Proper land preparation is necessary for rice production to minimize
competition with weeds. Two harrowings provide sufficient tilth for
rice growth. Ridging is not necessary and is often a waste of space.
In the southern parts of Adamawa and Borno states where the soils
are more fragile and prone to erosion, minimum or zero tillage is
recommended. Where zero tillage is to be adopted, the field should be
sprayed with glyphosate at the rate of 4 L/ha (about 2⅓ Peak milk tins
of chemical/15-L sprayer) to kill emerged weeds. About 10 days after
spraying glyphosate, slash or mow the dead weeds.

a b

Figure 2. Land preparation for rice production on (a) upland and (b) lowland

Seeds and seed preparation

After deciding on the rice variety to use, select plump, viable seeds that
will grow vigorously.

Sources of improved rice seeds

Contact any of the following sources nearest to you for your supply of
viable rice seeds:

• Agricultural Officer or extension worker

• State Agricultural Development Project that includes rice in its
production programs
• River Basin Development Authority
• Branch officer of the National Agricultural Seeds Council
• Seed companies
• Other rice farmers
• Research Institutes with a mandate for rice production

7
Procedure for sorting seeds for planting
• To separate the heavier seeds from the lighter ones, soak them
in 12% common salt solution or muddy water for about two
minutes.
• To prepare the salt solution, dissolve 2 Peak milk (standard size)
tins full of salt in 18 L of water (about a bucket full).
• The seeds that sink to the bottom of the solution are the healthy
seeds.
• Separate the seeds.
• Wash the heavier seeds free of salt.
• Dry the seeds after washing and then sow.

Accelerate germination by soaking the seeds in cold water for 24

hours or overnight; then drain and incubate them in a warm moist
place for 36 to 48 hours. The germinating seeds should be sown
immediately after incubation.

Tips for testing seed germination rate

• Select about 200 seeds randomly from the seed to be planted.
• Soak the seeds in water for 24 hours.
• Place a wet paper towel in a container.
• Arrange the soaked seeds in a grid pattern of 100 each on the
paper towel and close the container or cover with another moist
paper towel.
• Ensure that the paper remains moist but not too wet, otherwise,
the seeds will rot.
• Count the germinated seeds at 3 and 5 days and record the
germination percentage. Seed should have at least 80%
germination to be considered good.

Why it is important to use good rice seed

• Gives a higher level of germination
• Reduces the need to replant or fill the gaps
• Leads to more uniform plant stands

8 Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

• Leads to more vigorous growth at early stages which
• enables the rice to compete better with weeds
• Increases resistance to insect pests and diseases
• Increases paddy yield

Characteristics of good rice seed

• Good rice seed is pure, usually of the chosen variety, mature and
uniform in size, and viable (produces more than 80% germination
with excellent vigor, free of weed seeds, diseases, insects, or other
matter).
• Good rice seed is usually properly labeled with its name.

Note: Often, harvested rice seeds include seed of different sizes and
other non-seed matter such as weeds and trash. Such harvests should
be properly cleaned by winnowing with natural air or an electric fan.
Winnowing can also be achieved by pouring the seed slowly from a
height of 1–1.5 m.

Seed rate
It is advisable to use good
quality seed from a reliable
source for sowing. If the farmers
plan to use their own seed,
it is important to first sort out
unfilled grains before sowing
to enhance good germination.
Lowland rice: Use 50–60 kg/
ha of seed. Upland rice: About
40–50 kg of seed are required
to plant a hectare when sowing
is conducted by dibbling. Figure 3. A well established rice field

9
Time of sowing
The time for sowing rice depends on the available kind of land,
whether it is lowland or upland and on the agroecology where the farm
is situated. The recommended time for sowing rice in Northern Nigeria
is indicated in Table 2. The actual timing of sowing should, however, be
adjusted in accordance with the time of the establishment of the rains.

Table 2. Time of planting rice in Northern Nigeria.

Ecology Time of planting

Southern Guinea savanna Between weeks 1 and 2 in June
Northern Guinea savanna Between weeks 1 and 2 in June
Sudan savanna Between weeks 3 and 4 in June

Lowland rice: From late May or early June, depending on the time
of rain establishment or if irrigation water is available. As much as
possible, adopt the recommended sowing date for your area, as
indicated in Table 2.

Spacing
Lowland rice: Sow rice seeds by drilling in rows at a spacing of 20 cm
or 30 cm apart. For transplanting method, transplant seedlings at a
rate of 2–3 seedlings per hill, to a depth of 3–4 cm, and at a spacing of
30 × 30 cm (best for late-maturing cultivars), or 20 × 20 cm when soil is
fertile or sufſcient fertilizer is available.

Upland rice: Dibble 5–6 seeds at a spacing of 20 × 20 cm or 30 × 30

cm and later thin to 3 to 4 seedlings per stand at 2 to 3 weeks after
sowing.

Depth of planting
Plant the rice seed at a depth of 2 to 4 cm. When rice is planted at a
depth of more than 5 cm, the emergence of the young seedlings is
delayed. Also, the seed may rot and the plant stand will not be uniform.

10 Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

Fertilizer

The amount of fertilizer to apply depends on the quantities and level

of residual nutrients in the soil and the type of fertilizer materials
available. It is advisable to apply fertilizer doses based on soil test
results and expected yield. Studies by PROSAB and collaborators
have found that soils in Northern Nigeria are deficient in key nutrients
for rice production. The following recommendations for lowland rice are
similar to those recommended for irrigated rice schemes and swampy
areas where there are proper water control and distribution. The water
level on the field at the time of fertilizer application must be maintained
at 3–5 cm to ensure the efficient use of the applied fertilizer. If the
water on the field is more than 10 cm, it will cause a loss of nitrogen
fertilizer through volatilization, therefore, drain the field before fertilizer
application.

Lowland rice: Apply 60–80 kg of nitrogen and 13 kg of phosphorus

(i.e., 30 kg P205/ha) and 25 kg potassium/ha (i.e., 30 kg K20/ha). The
nitrogen should be applied in two doses in between stands properly
incorporated (buried) in the soil to avoid losses. This is about 4 bags of
NPK 15: 15:15 applied at sowing and about 2 to 3 bags of urea applied
at 6‒8 weeks after sowing.

Upland rice: Upland rice responds well to nitrogen fertilization.

The application of 60–80 kg/ha of nitrogen and 30 kg/ha each of

11
phosphorus and potassium (50–30–30) is recommended. This is
about 4 bags of NPK 15:15:15 applied at sowing. Incorporate (bury)
the fertilizer in the soil properly to avoid losses. The second dose of
about 2 to 3 bags of urea fertilizer should be applied at 6–7 weeks after
sowing. Where land that has been under one- to two-year fallow is
cropped with rice, apply a moderate rate of N (60 kg/ ha) and on older
soils, apply a higher rate (80 kg/ha). Top dressing of N fertilizer should
be applied between the rows and buried. The P and K fertilizers may
be applied by broadcasting before sowing if applied separately.

Organic manure
Rice straw, husk/bran, should not be wasted but used as organic
manure, especially for sandy soils. Heap the straw after harvesting and
water regularly if possible (see tips for making compost below). The
straw will decompose and form useful manure. Apply the decomposed
straw to the field at the rate of 500 kg/ha and mix thoroughly with the
soil.

Undecomposed straw can also be used. Spread the straw on the field
and flood thoroughly. After about 30 days, mix the soil and the straw
and spread out on the field while applying fertilizers. Where organic
manure has been used, the recommended rate of fertilizers should
also be applied unless soil test results show that the soil has adequate
nutrients, in which case the rate to be applied should be adjusted such
that enough nutrients are available to the rice crop. The application of
straw will, however, improve the water and nutrient retaining capacity
of the soil, thus raising yields, especially on sandy soils.

How to make compost from rice residue

After harvesting or milling, the rice straw and/or husks are often
left in piles, but this is not the best method. Convert them into
compost. Composting converts crop residue into better organic
fertilizer. Although organic fertilizers, including rice compost, are low
in major nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, they can be
highly beneficial because they contain micronutrients, enzymes, and

12 Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

microorganisms that are not found in inorganic fertilizers. Composted
rice straw is richer in potassium (up to 2%) and calcium (up to 41%)
than composted cow manure. The nutrients in compost are released
slowly and are less likely to be lost by leaching.

The keys to good compost making are adequate nitrogen supply and
moisture content as well as abundant microorganisms. Choose a
level, well-drained site under shade; chop the compost materials into
small pieces of 3–5 cm. Where possible, compost heaps should be
built in layers consisting of cereal materials combined with legume or
manure waste. This could be mixed in a ratio of 2:1. Keep compost
heaps moist but not too wet (water should drain from the compost
pile; if straw cracks when bent, it is too dry). To hasten decomposition,
sprinkle decaying materials such as cow dung slurry, cow urine, or a
diluted solution of nitrogen fertilizer such as urea on the compost heap.
Mix and turn the compost heaps every 2 weeks. When moisture and
temperature conditions are good, compost will be ready in 4–8 weeks.

13
Weed control

A number of methods can be combined to control weeds in rice.

Examples of such methods are fallowing, land preparation, use of a
competitive rice variety, water control, hand weeding, and herbicides.

Hand weeding
Rice fields should be weeded regularly, especially during the early
stages of growth. For lowland rice, maintain the field bunds, which are
essential for good water control. Maintain an even water depth of about
10 cm all over the fields except when fertilizer is being applied.

If the field to which

rice is to be sown is
well prepared, then the
weed problem should
be minimal. However,
weeding should be
carried out twice, at 2–3
weeks and 5–6 weeks
after sowing. Pull out
weeds by hand or with
a small hand hoe; heap
the weeds outside the
field. Figure 4. Manual weeding on rice. field

14 Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

 Note: Hand weeding can be relatively ineffective, particularly in
controlling many of the perennial weeds (e.g., Cyperus spp.), which
have underground tubers and rhizomes from which they can rapidly
re-establish.

Use of herbicides
Herbicides can be used in large- and small-scale rice farms, seed
multiplication schemes, and in other schemes, particularly where labor
is limiting. Various types of weeds are associated with the rice crop;
it is advisable to use an
appropriate herbicide
that kills various types of
weed as recommended
(Table 3). It is important
to note that special skills
are required in handling
and using herbicides to
ensure
effectiveness and to
avoid poisoning the
user. Read and follow
the instructions on the
product label before
using any herbicide. Figure 5. A farmer spraying his rice field.

Table 3. Recommended herbicides for upland and lowland rice production.

Treatment Commercial Rate Time of Remarks
formulation name application
Pendimethalin Stomp CS 2.53 L/ha Pre- Apply within 2−3 days of
(455 g/L) emergence planting (for upland and
lowland rice). For annual grass
and small-seeded broadleaf
weed control.
Propanil + 2,4-D Vespanil plus 1.25−2.5 Post- Applied at 1‒4 leaf weed
amine (360+200 L/ha emergence stage, irrespective of the stage
g/L) EC of the rice or 14‒21 days after
seeding or transplanting.
Selective to rice with broad-
spectrum weed control.
‡DAS = Days after sowing, DAT = Days after transplanting
One L/ha is approximately 100 ml/15L sprayer; thus, 3 L/ha will imply approximately 300 ml/15l sprayer. A peak milk
tin standard size is about 150 ml.
Always read the herbicide label for appropriate instructions before use. Wear protective equipment when applying
herbicides.

15
It is important to note that herbicides will not be effective if land
preparation is poorly done. Non-selective herbicides, such as
glyphosate and glufosinate ammonium are sometimes used during land
preparation to reduce the problem of perennial weeds, such as Cyperus
spp. and Oryza longistaminata, which are difficult to control with most
herbicides selective to rice.

16 Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

Pest and disease control

Pests
Rice is less affected by field and storage pests than other cereals
grown in Northern Nigeria. The major pests of rice are borers and
armyworms.

Borers

These are one of the most destructive groups of insects that attack
rice. They attack the crop from seedling to maturity. Borers lay their
eggs above or below the leaves or leaf sheaths in clusters. The larvae,
which emerge later, damage the internal structures of the stems. The
damage caused by various borer species is identical, i.e., the borer
cuts off the growing part of the plants from the base, feeds inside the
stem, and causes the plant or tiller to die. This condition is commonly
known as “dead heart”, indicated by dried growing points especially in
young plants. Borer attack during the flowering state usually results in
empty panicles, i.e., “white heads”. Some other borers do not usually
result in the two problems above, but they are manifested in reduced
grain filling.

Cultural control: After harvest, burn all stubble from the previous crop.
This will destroy the semi-active resting stages of the borers that
normally inhabit the stubble. Alternatively, the infested rice field could
be flooded after harvest for a week to completely submerge the rice
stubble, thereby drowning the borers.

17
Chemical: Lamdacyhalothrin at the rate of 1 L/ha. Chemical control
measures should be implemented when about 20% of the field is
infested.

Armyworms and Termites

Upland rice is also commonly attacked by armyworms and termites

(root-feeder), especially when the rain stops at the beginning of the
season. Application of Cypermethrin or Lamdacyhalothrin at 1 L/ha is
effective against armyworms.

Birds

Bird attacks are serious problems in rice production. Some varieties

may have resistance to bird damage. The engagement of bird scarers
is commonly adopted. Planting rice too early or late exposes the crop to
severe bird damage, hence planting should be properly timed.

Striga hermonthica

Striga is increasingly becoming a serious problem in rice production

in Northern Nigeria where Striga hermonthica also attacks maize and
sorghum. This weed is a parasite which germinates only when the
plants (hosts) which it attacks are present.

Striga is common in soils that have

been used continuously and are
poor in nutrients. The symptoms
of Striga damage on the host crop
can be seen before the parasite
emerges from the soil. Usually, the
symptoms are similar to those on
drought-affected crops and include
stunted growth, wilting, yellowing,
and scorching of the leaves, lower
yield, and plant death in severe
attacks. Figure 6. Rice field attacked by Striga plants.

18 Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

Striga produces numerous tiny seeds that make it easy for the
parasite to spread from place to place.

The seeds can contaminate the crop during harvest (paddy/straw),

which may be carried from one farm to another, or by animals when
they feed on the straw or may attach to their feet as the animals pass
by Striga-infested areas, or by machine tools during land preparation.
Striga seeds are also easily dispersed by wind and water.

Control: Some of the measures recommended for the control of

Striga in rice include the use of Striga-free seed, proper cleaning
of farm tools especially after working on infested fields, proper
fertilization (use of organic manure and inorganic fertilizer), crop
rotation especially with soybean and groundnut, and intercropping as
well as timely weeding. Rice farms should be weeded before Striga
produces to reduce the Striga seed in the soil. A combination of the
control measures, often referred to as the integrated Striga control
approach is recommended and is more effective than the individual
control measures.

Major diseases affecting rice fields and their control

Brown leaf spot

This is caused by the fungus, Helminthosporium oryzae. This

disease is widespread on rice in many northern states. However,
the intensity of the disease varies from one locality to another and
from year to year. The disease is seed-borne and can be transmitted
to new crops through infected seed carried over from infected crop
residues of the previous season, alternative crop and weed hosts,
and contaminated irrigation water. Unlike blast, brown leaf spot
is more severe on older plants than on seedlings. The disease is
characterized by dark brown oval spots (about 3.8 cm long) on the
leaves. The large spots usually have lighter colored centers and dark
brown margins. The spots on the glumes are dark brown, and in
some cases, the entire glume may be covered with a velvety black
mass of spores. Late in the season, the fungus attacks the basal

19
node of the rachis, producing a blast, which can be distinguished from
that caused by Pyricularia by the color and velvety appearance.

Cultural control: Burn all crop residues and alternative hosts and use
seed from healthy plants. Also, apply seed dressing chemicals and
fertilizer correctly at the right time and in the right quantity.

Chemical control: Apron XL® at the rate of 10 g/5 kg seed before

sowing. When symptoms are observed, spray Dithane M-45 weekly at
the rate of 1.5 kg/ha (this is about 2–3 small matchboxes full per 15-L
sprayer) for 3 weeks.

Blast

Blast disease is caused by the fungus, Pyricularia oryzae. It is very

prevalent in lowland rice. It damages plants, especially during the
seedling stage. It appears as neck rot and panicle blast after flowering.

Figure 7. Rice field infected with blast disease.

The disease appears first on the seedling leaves as minute brown

specks, which then enlarge to become spindle-shaped, pointed at
both ends. The center is greenish-grey often with a water-soaked
appearance. This later dries and changes to a straw color with a brown

20 Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

margin. Under very damp conditions, several spots may conglomerate
and the whole leaf then withers. This is usually most severe on
seedlings in the nursery where plants may be completely killed.
Damage is most severe when the uppermost node of the flowering
stem is attacked. The lesions often occur near the uppermost node.
The uppermost node is most vulnerable, especially during the early
emergence of the panicle. It becomes less susceptible as the panicle
matures. Grey-brown lesions usually occur girdling the uppermost
node. Eventually, the node falls off. If the attack occurs before the milk
stage, the grains are usually empty. In a later attack, the grain may be
partly filled, but the kernels are often chalky and brittle. The disease
may also appear on the nodes of the culms. When this happens, the
nodes are usually black and brittle. Blast disease causes approximately
60‒100% yield loss where disease conditions are favorable.

Cultural control: Cultural control methods include planting resistant

varieties and avoiding close planting in the nursery, and adoption of
recommended fertilization regime.

Chemical control: Apply Mancozeb or Dithane M-45 at I–1.5 kg/ha

when signs of disease are observed. Repeat application weekly for 2
weeks.

21
Harvesting

Rice is ready for harvesting when the grains are hard and are turning
yellow/brown (about 30–45 days after flowering). Rice is fully mature
for harvesting when 80–85% of the grains are straw color. To harvest,
cut the rice stems with a sickle at about 10–15 cm above the ground.
Tie the panicles in bundles. Then place the tied-up bundles of the
harvested rice crop in an upright position for drying before threshing.

Threshing and winnowing

Thresh on hard surfaces by beating the grains out from the ears.
Winnow to separate the chaff and empty grains from the well-filled
mature grains. Dry
the paddy to a safe
moisture level of
between 12 and 14%
before storing. Freshly
harvested paddy does
not store well under
high temperatures.

Remove foreign
matter in the paddy to
avoid localized heating
spots. Drying should Figure 8. Threshing of harvested rice.

22 Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

be on mats spread on concrete floors and should be done slowly for the
first few days to reduce breakage during milling. Avoid drying on bare
floors to minimize the introduction of sand and pebbles and other foreign
matter as they reduce the quality of the rice.

Figure 9. Drying of threshed rice.

23
Storage

Rice paddy intended for storage should be properly dried. Clean the
storage container, such as a rumbu, before pouring in your paddy.
To protect the paddy against insect pests, use 1½ matchboxes full of
Coopex 2.5 to dust about 25 kg of paddy. Store in cool, dry rodent-
proof conditions. Infested paddy should be fumigated with phostoxin
in air-tight containers/rooms at the rate of one tablet/jute bag (100 kg
paddy) or 10–15 tablets/ton of paddy.

a b

Figure 10. Storage structures used for paddy rice. (a) Traditional and (b) Modern

24 Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

Yield

Increase yield through improved agronomic practices, more use of

fertilizers, and efficient water management. Shortage of water at the
critical stages of growth and tillering, panicle initiation, and flowering
will reduce yield considerably. Paddy yields of the recommended
lowland varieties range from 6.2 to 8.0 t/ha while for upland varieties,
paddy yields range from 4.0 to 6.0 t/ha.

Parboiling
All the varieties recommended above are medium to long grain rice
and therefore need parboiling. Parboiling involves soaking the paddy in
hot water at specified temperatures that vary with the varieties. For all
the recommended varieties, parboiling can be done by soaking paddy
rice for 5–6 hours in hot water at 70 ºC (hot enough for your fingers to
withstand the temperature for about 2 seconds).

The paddy is later steamed for a short time (6–10 minutes) until the
husks are just open. Steaming dextrinizes the kernels and drives the
vitamin thiamine and other water-soluble nutrients from the testa into
the starchy core; after parboiling, dry under shade gradually to reduce
breakage during milling.

Parboiled rice has better storage and cooking quality. It is richer in

food value, devoid of unpleasant odor, and breaks less during milling.
Parboiling can be done in an earthen pot or empty petrol drums

25
depending on the quantity of rice. After parboiling, store when thoroughly
dry in clean, dry grain stores (rumbu). Milled rice for sale is best kept
in clean sacks in the grain stores until prices in the market are better.
Where it is not possible to parboil, the paddy should be taken to the
market as early as possible to avoid losses in storage.

Drying parboiled paddy

Drying. Parboiled paddy should be dried to 14% moisture for safe
storage or milling. Parboiled paddy is more difficult to dry and requires
more energy than field paddy because its moisture content is much
higher. However, higher air temperatures help reduce drying time.

Figure 11. Threshed rice being parboiled.

26 Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria

References
Adeosun, J.O., J.E. Onyibe and E.O. Salako. 2005. Rice production in
Nigeria. Extension Bulletin No 8. NAERLS, Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria, Nigeria. 28 pp.
Anonymous. 2003. Fertilizer use and management practices for crops in
Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural
Development, Abuja. 176 pp.
DFID. 2002. Striga: Biology, control and extension: A guide for extension
workers in Nigeria. 17 pp.
NCRI. 2004–2007. National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi: Rice
research programme Annual Reports.
IRRI. 2003. Rice science for a better world: Rice fact sheets. http://www.
knowledgebank.irri.org/tropRice.
PROSAB. 2005–2007. Project Annual Reports, Maiduguri, Borno State.

27
Who we are
IITA is the lead research partner facilitating agricultural solutions
for hunger and poverty in the tropics. It is a member of the CGIAR
Consortium, a global research partnership that unites organizations
engaged in research for sustainable development for a food secure
future.

Transforming African Agriculture

FEED THE FUTURE NIGERIA INTEGRATED AGRICULTURE ACTIVITY