Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science

Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016)

A Review of Production, Post-harvest Handling and

Marketing of Sweetpotatoes in Kenya and Uganda
GEORGE OOKO ABONG’1*, VICTORIA CLAIRE MAKUNGU NDANYI1, ARCHILEO KAAYA2,
SOLOMON SHIBAIRO3, MICHAEL WANDAYI OKOTH1, PETER OBIMBO LAMUKA1,
NICANOR OBIERO ODONGO1, ELIZABETH WANJEKECHE4, JOSEPH MULINDWA2
and PETER SOPADE5

Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Technology,

1

University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Nairobi, Kenya.

2
Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, School of Food Technology,
Nutrition and Bio-engineering, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
3
Kibabii University College, P.O. Box 1699, 50200, Bungoma, Kenya.
4
Kenya Agricultural Livestock Research Organization Kitale, Kenya.
5
Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and
Food Innovation, University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072, Australia.

http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CRNFSJ.4.3.03

(Received: October 25, 2016; Accepted: November 16, 2016)

Abstract

Sweetpotato (Ipomea batatas) is a versatile crop that serves the roles of food and nutrition
security, cash crop in both raw and processed forms. It is a source of livestock feed and has great
potential as a raw material for industrial processing. The potential of sweetpotato has been greatly
underexploited by the fact that it has been regarded as a poor man’s food and is mainly grown
under marginal conditions for subsistence by most producers, who are rural small-scale farmers in
developing countries, such as Kenya and Uganda. Losses in the highly perishable root crop and its
leaves are exacerbated by lack of appropriate postharvest knowledge, technologies and facilities.
Inadequate information on available cultivars also limits the maximum utilization of the crop and
leaves. The current review examines production potential, postharvest handling practices, marketing,
and physicochemical and nutritional properties of sweetpotatoes.

Keywords: Storage, curing, consumption, harvesting, physicochemical properties.

Introduction developing countries than any other root crops4.

It is believed to have arrived in Africa around the
Sweetpotato is a starchy tuberous crop 20th century2, and has been adopted by various
from the family Convolvulaceae along with common communities, who utilize it differently. In Kenya and
plants such as bindweed and morning glory. It is Uganda, as examples of East Africa, sweetpotato
usually grown as an annual crop1,2. It is believed features in local foods. However, the distribution,
that I. batatas originated from the Central America production, postharvest handling, and marketing of
then introduced to Europe by the Spaniards, from sweetpotato in these countries have not been
where it spread throughout the world 3. It was collated and subsequently examined systematically.
first domesticated more than 5,000 years ago To realize the full potential of sweetpotato in food and
in Latin America and is presently grown more in nutrition security in these countries, compilation of
such information is a necessity.
163 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016)

Distribution of sweetpotato in the world crop in Northern Uganda11. Some of the major
Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas L.) is grown producing districts of sweetpotatoes in Northern
in more than 110 countries of the world5. The crop Uganda are Arua, Adjumani, Gulu, Oyam, Yumbe,
accounted for about 12% of the world’s root and Moyo, Lira, Apac, and Amuru11. Figure 1 shows the
tuber production with a total production of about production trends of sweetpotato in Uganda.
103 million tonnes in 20134. It was ranked 9th in
2011 in terms of worldwide production after maize, In developed countries, sweetpotato is
rice, wheat, potatoes, soybean, cassava, tomatoes commercially grown as a high value vegetable
and bananas4. Based on total production, it’s the 7th crop under intensively managed conditions while
most important crop in developing countries4 and is in developing countries it is often grown under
an important subsistence crop in East Africa6. It is marginal conditions as subsistence or food security
also ranked the fifth most important crop in economic crop4 It has been regarded as a ‘poor man’s crop’
value in developing countries7, sixth in dry matter in Africa, with most of the production being small or
production, seventh in energy production and ninth subsistence level8,12. However, it is an excellent food
in protein production8. FAOSTAT indicated that about security crop in sub-Saharan Africa because it often
80% of the world’s total sweetpotato production is survives when other crops such as maize fail, it is
from the Asian continent while Africa accounts for less labor intensive than most other staple crops,
about 20%. China is the world’s leading sweetpotato it is vegetatively propagated and can be planted
producing country with about 70 million tonnes over a broad range of period without considerable
in 20134,9. In Africa, Tanzania and Nigeria are the yield loss13. In East Africa, sweetpotato is referred
leading producers of sweet potato, while Uganda and to as “the protector of children” because it is often
Kenya are third and sixth producers respectively9. the only food that stands between a child’s survival
and starvation8. It is widely grown throughout East
Sweet potato Production in Kenya and Uganda Africa on a small scale mainly in subsistence farming
Sweet potato is cultivated in 43 of the 47 and has been gaining popularity along with other
counties in Kenya. Major production counties in indigenous foods14. It matures fast, is rich in nutrients
2014 in descending order were Bungoma, Homabay, and is often the first crop planted after a natural
Busia and Migori at 133,037, 127,725, 119,970, and disaster, providing abundant food for otherwise
69,642 tonnes, respectively (Table1). Sweetpotato starving populations. Limited land sizes in densely
production in Kenya stood at 763,643 tonnes from populated regions of Kenya has been noted as a
61,067 hectares in 2014 and it was valued at USD constraint to production since most people have less
0.23 Billion10. than one acre on which to grow all the crops they
need15.
In Uganda, sweetpotato is grown country
wide with the Eastern region having the highest Sweetpotato is the third most important
production, and Kumi, Jinja, Kamuli, and Soroti are security crop in Uganda after banana and cassava16,
the major producing districts, with over 847,139 grown at least twice a year17. The crop is grown in
MT11. The Western region of Uganda is second in all districts in Uganda occupying 55% of the arable
production with about 366,297 MT with Kabale, land under tuber crops18. Sweetpotato is an important
Bushenyi, Kyenjojo, Kisoro, Ntungamo, Kabarole, food and commercial crop14. In Kumi district, 99%
and Hoima districts as major producers. The of the women farmers reported that they grow it for
Central region is third, and the major producers both food and commercial purposes, while most
are Kalangala, Kayunga, Kiboga, Luwero, Mpigi, of the male farmers grow it for income. UBOS 11
Mubende, Nakasongola, and Wakiso districts with a observed that in the face of raising global food prices,
total production of 312,405 MT. Northern Uganda has sweetpotato is proving to be the best food secure
the least production volume of 292,932 MT. Despite and famine crop. During peak harvest periods of
the low production in northern Uganda, most of the September to November, prices drop as low as USD
households depend on sweetpotato because of its 6 per 120 kg bag, but can hike to as high as USD 36
hot climate, which does not favour growth of other during scarcity months of February to June11.
food crops, thus making sweetpotato an important
 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016) 164

Contribution of sweetpotato to the economy 48°N and 40°S, it requires warm to hot weather with
The Kenya agricultural sector directly temperature ranges of 15oC to 35oC24, relatively
contributes 26% of the gross domestic product high light intensity and average rainfall of 750-1000
(GDP) annually and another 25% indirectly (Table mm per annum25. Sweetpotatoes have the shortest
2). The sector provides more than 70% of informal growing periods out of all the major root crops2,
employment in the rural areas and hence the means with majority of the cultivars maturing in three to
of livelihood for the majority of Kenyan people in four months24, meaning that it can be grown twice
addition to being the driver of Kenya economy19. a year25. Average yields differ greatly in different
Growing of crops contributed about 20% to Kenya’s areas or even fields in the same location mainly due
GDP with Sweetpotato contributing about 0.42% to variation in quality of the propagation material8.
in the year 201410. On the other hand, agriculture Average yields in Kenya are estimated to be between
contributes 21.9% to the Gross National Product 4 and 9 tonnes per acre24, and in Uganda, yields are
(GNP) of Uganda20. Sweetpotato contributed 4.4% about 4.5 tonnes per hectare on average26.
to gross agricultural production value in Uganda9.
Main growing seasons of sweetpotato
Consumption of sweetpotato Sweetpotatoes are fairly drought resistant2
Sweetpotato is one of the world’s most and grow well in hot humid climates normally flower
important food crops in terms of human consumption, in summer27. In western Kenya (Busia, Bungoma and
especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), parts of Asia Kakamega counties), sweetpotato is grown in two
and the Pacific Islands4. The world average per capita planting seasons per year, March/April and August/
consumption (kg) of sweetpotato was recorded as September, both of which coincide with the long and
7.97, 8.01, and 8.22 for the years 2011, 2010 and short rains, respectively15. In Uganda, the growing
2009, respectively9. Per capita per year consumption seasons and harvesting time for the sweetpotato are
varies between 90 – 100 kg in Uganda and about 24 very diverse. This is mainly due to the differences
kg in Kenya mainly consumed boiled or fried15,22. in rain distribution throughout the different regions
(Table 3).
Many villages in East Africa depend on
sweetpotato for food security8. There has been a sharp Main cultivars and origin of sweetpotatoes grown
increase (300%) in consumption of sweetpotatoes in Kenya and Uganda‘
in Kenya from 2012 to 2014. Currently, sweetpotato Many cultivars are available (Table 4 and
production trends are changing as most people Figure 3) mainly differentiated by colour and shape2.
now grow it for both food and commercial purposes, The flesh colour of the tubers varies from various
due to increasing demand and prices attached to it. shades of white, cream, yellow to dark orange
The crop has more commercial market especially depending on the carotenoids content30. About 40
in schools, hospitals, prisons and other institutions. new orange flesh sweetpotato (OFSP) cultivars
Reports from FoodNet Uganda and sweetpotato introduced to Africa were evaluated and accepted
trading associations indicate that during general food by the farmers and consumers and are currently
security, the crop becomes the most preferred crop promoted in Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Mozambique,
for both rural and urban households especially by and South Africa, in addition to the local popular
the low income dwellers. Sweetpotato is therefore landraces31. Some OFSP cultivars grown in Uganda
a food crop enjoyed by all classes of people. and Kenya include SPK 004 (Kakamega), NASPOT
9-0 (VITAA, SPK004/6), NASPOT 10-0 (Kabode,
Agronomical aspects of sweetpotato SPK004/6/6) and Ejumula32. The yellow fleshed
production cultivars include Naspot 1 and Tanzania, while white
Sweetpotato is a highly adaptable crop fleshed cultivars include Dimbuka, Nakakande, New
that tolerates high temperature, low soil fertility and Kawogo and Ndikirya N’omwami33. Their popularity
drought23. It produces tubers without fertilizers and varies with regions.
irrigation but does not tolerate frost8. The crop is
grown in various agro-ecological zones from sea In developed countries, where sweetpotato
level to 2200 m above sea level at between latitudes is used more as a vegetable or for sweet dishes, the
165 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016)

red-or orange-fleshed types are preferred for their Many farmers in Uganda have expressed demand
moist flesh and sweet flavor, and phytochemicals8. for virus-free vines especially for the farmer-
African producers and consumers prefer starchy, preferred cultivars and farmers are now relying on
high dry matter and sweetpotato cultivars with the subsidized public sector and non-government
resistance to viruses and weevils. The adoption will distribution systems. This kind of supply is unreliable
be higher if the OFSP cultivars find ready markets, but leaves farmers with no option since there are
both as fresh roots and vines and as processed no decentralized vine producers with commercial
foods with added value31. Studies by Kivuva et al.24 orientation. In Uganda, the total sweetpotato vine
revealed that farmers in central, eastern and western requirement is about 7.8 bags per farmer per year.
Kenya preferred sweetpotato cultivars Vitaa, Kemb Most of these farmers are willing to offer more for
10 and Kabode because of their orange flesh with virus free vines36, but there is lack of decentralized
high beta carotene. Small-scale farmers in sub- sweetpotato vine producers, who can supply year
Saharan Africa prefer cultivars that have high dry round virus-free sweetpotato vines.
matter content35, low fibre and good taste, especially
women farmers. Most preferred genotypes of Main Pests and diseases occurring in the
sweetpotato by farmers in Kenya have qualities like vegetative period
orange flesh, high dry matter (favourable starch and Sweetpotato incurs high yield losses in
sugar content), low fibre content, do not overcook in production due to biotic (insect pests and diseases)
normal cooking time and are high yielding24. Another and abiotic (drought and heat) constraints 24 .
study on sweetpotato cultivar selection in Kenya by Sweetpotatoes are vegetatively propagated from
Were et al.15 revealed that farmers’ top criteria in vines, root slips (sprouts) or tubers, and farmers
Busia, Kakamega, Bungoma and Butere-Mumias in African and other countries often take vines for
were taste, yield and maturity period followed by propagation from their own fields year after year8.
disease or pest resistance, availability of planting Thus, if virus diseases are present in the field, they
material and lastly market preference. will inevitably be transmitted with the propagation
material to the newly planted field, resulting in a
In Uganda, OFSP is mainly grown for its decreased yield8. There are about 20 viruses or
perceived nutritional benefits and the monetary virus like diseases, about 35 bacterial and fungal
value attached to it, but is disliked by the farmers diseases, about 20 nematodes and about 20
because of its high perishability and vulnerability insect pests that affect sweetpotato24. Sweetpotato
to harsh conditions, low dry matter content and the virus disease (SPVD) is a common disease in key
lower sweet taste. The white fleshed sweetpotato sweetpotato agro-ecologies in East and Central
cultivars, especially Kawogo, Dimbuka, Sukali, and Africa, and especially around Lake Victoria where it
Tanzania are most preferred by farmers. This is so affects most of the introduced clones as well as some
because of their ability to resist harsh conditions, of the local landraces31. Other diseases that may
they have a high dry matter content and have sweet infest SP include potato mosaic disease, fusariun
taste. Over 86% of sweetpotato farmers in Uganda surface rot, fusarium root rot, black scurf, black rot
grow these cultivars and are mainly used as fresh and leaf rust25.
roots, and making amukeke (dried white fleshed
slices) and kasende (sweetpotato flour)36. Viral diseases that have been reported
in some Western Kenya regions and Uganda
Factors hindering use of certified/ quality seed include15,37,38:
for cultivation a. Sweetpotato feathery mottle virus (SPFMV)
Lack of enough clean planting materials of genus Potyvirus family Potyviridae which
(serious problem) and high cost of inputs have been is transmitted by aphids.
cited by farmers as hindrances to use of certified or b. Sweetpotato chlorotic stunt virus (SPCSV) in
quality seed24. Lack of extension services for new the genus Crinivirus family Closteroviridae,
technologies, agronomic packages and marketing transmitted by whiteflies. This appears to be
prospects for the crop were noted as constraints15, very common occurring as a single infection
in addition to the presence of pests and diseases. and combined with others, which can cause
 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016) 166

severe symptoms. Harvesting of sweetpotato in Kenya has

c. Sweetpotato mild mottle virus (SPMMV), traditionally been done by use of blunt objects,
genus Ipomovirus, family Potyviridae, mainly a wooden stick specially carved so as to
transmitted by whiteflies. minimize physical injury to the tubers, especially for
d. Sweetpotato chlorotic fleck virus (SPCFV). piecemeal harvesting. The tubers are also dug up
This is a Carlavirus transmitted by unknown using hoes in wholesale harvesting for commercial
vectors. purposes25 or when land is required for planting
e. Sweetpotato latent virus (SwPLV). another crop15. Many farmers in Kenya practise
f. Sweetpotato caulimo-like virus (SPCaLV). piecemeal harvesting24 to allow continuous and
g. Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV). steady harvest, preserve vines for future planting
h. SP virus disease (SPVD) caused by the and because of lack of modern storage facilities
co-infection of SPCSV and SPFMV. This and ready market for produce15. They are, however,
is the most serious viral disease infecting harvested once in large farms, sliced into small
sweetpotato in Uganda, and its symptoms chips and dried to avoid deterioration and for value
include small, distorted leaves which are often addition15. Data on piecemeal harvested crops such
narrow and crinkled, and general stunting of as sweetpotato are difficult to collect14, and hence not
plants. easy to quantify yields from the particular farms.

Sweetpotato weevil was noted as a major In many parts of Uganda especially the
pest in Kenya24. Other pests include sweetpotato western region and central, sweetpotato vines are
white fly and vine borer, as well as rodents15,25. cut off near the soil before the intended harvest date.
During the dry season, the vines are removed three
Harvesting of Sweetpotatoes to seven days before digging. Removing the vines
Maturity Indices helps to toughen the skin of the root. The vines are
Harvesting usually begins three to four removed manually with a sickle or knife. During the
months after planting depending on cultivar. Maturity rainy season, the vines are left intact until the day of
indices may include yellowing and drying of the lower harvest. Roots exposed to wet soil conditions without
leaves, and cracking of the soil indicating presence the intact vines are most at a risk of postharvest
of tubers25. In Uganda, for instance, farmers take diseases40.
the principle maturity measurement for sweetpotato
as root size. The average root size in the field is After removing the vines, the sweetpotato
judged by removing the soil around several randomly roots are dug using a blunt stick and or hand hoe or
selected plants in different locations within the farm. oxen plough. Manual harvesting of sweetpotatoes
The farmers use hands to remove soil from the is typically done using a stick fork which is used
mounds to check the size of the roots28. to loosen the soil and undercut the roots40. Care is
taken to avoid cutting or injuring the roots. The roots
Harvesting methods are then lifted out of the ground, separated from the
Piecemeal harvesting, where only enough main stem and temporarily left on the top of the soil
is taken for one or two meals, is a common or put directly into a sack for transportation.
practice for home consumption and small-scale
marketing 39.  Mature roots, harvested from the Post-harvest handling of sweetpotatoes
mound, make room for additional roots to develop.  Packaging
The process of piecemeal harvesting can continue Sweetpotato is perishable and bulky to
for about three months, again depending on the transport, and packaging is one of the major steps in
cultivar and conditions, but after that time any roots post-harvest handling of sweetpotatoes. Due to the
remaining in the soil will succumb to sweetpotato fact that piece meal harvesting is common in Kenya
weevil attacks or other pests, or otherwise deteriorate.  and Uganda, most of the sweetpotato is packaged
The harvesting of roots close to or protruding from in baskets or sacs depending on the availability and
the ground might, however, help deter weevil distance of transportation. There are no developed
attacks29. specific packaging technologies for sweetpotato in
167 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016)

Kenya. Traders commonly pack the commodity in from undesirable weather conditions, facilitate
gunny bags/sacs, which are susceptible to physical other processes of storage, supply of the roots,
damage, attack from pests and microorganisms and marketing and safety in transportation. Good
unfavorable environmental conditions especially packaging technologies should address a number
during transport to longer destinations. Use of poor of concerns, amongst which have sufficient strength
quality packages, and rough handling are known in compression and against impact and vibrations,
to result in physical and quality losses41 at the stability during the value chain, should be reasonably
producer, wholesaler, and retailer levels. Appropriate affordable, durable, and easily printable (helps to
packaging equipment and containers are required advertise the products).
not only to facilitate safe transport of sweetpotato,
but also for storage of low volume produce and for Uganda has adequate and well-distributed
product presentation at the markets. In Uganda, the rainfall allowing annual production and continuous
roots are roughly forced into overfilled sacs with an harvesting, thus farmers believe that there is little
extension so that a 100 kg bag holds 120 kg, and need for sophisticated packaging.  However, in the
brokers make extra profit at the farm gate price14,39. drier northern areas of Uganda, especially where
cassava has been threatened by mosaic disease,
The role of packaging of sweetpotato good packaging of fresh sweetpotato roots for longer
(and other materials), is to protect the roots periods of storage could help alleviate a potentially

Table 1: Sweet potato 3 year production trends in leading counties of Kenya

Year 2012 2013 2014

County Area Production Area Production Area Production
(ha) (tons) (ha) (tons) (ha) (tons)

Bungoma 3,857 53,274 5,836 135,250 5,499 133,037

Busia 9,593 88,010 6,712 138,230 6,395 119,970
Homabay 7,440 131,300 4,612 68,805 7,839 127,725
Migori 11,835 183,525 10,496 52,168 10,995 69,641.50

Source: ERA10

Fig. 1: Five year production trends of sweetpotatoes in Uganda. Source: FAOSTAT9

 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016) 168

serious food shortage. This is critical in the months Damage or losses during handling
of May to June, because these are months of high Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables
harvests. However, farmers only have access to before they reach the consumers are estimated to be
baskets, sacks and cut plastic vessels such as jelly between 30% and 40%44. Physical and quality losses
cans42. are mainly due to poor temperature management,
use of poor quality packages, rough handling, and
Transportation of roots a general lack of education regarding the needs for
The har vested roots are nor mally maintaining quality and safety of perishables at the
transported in large synthetic sacs but they provide producer, wholesaler, and retailer levels41. Physical
little protection and can cause root skinning and quality losses in turn lead to loss of market value,
during loading, transportation and unloading. The concerns about food safety, and lower incomes
packed sweetpotato roots intended for market, are for growers41. Insufficient and poorly maintained
transported using bicycle or pick-up depending on transport and market infrastructure for handling food
destination43. For home consumption, since it is products in urban and rural areas have frequently
always a piece meal, head carriage is used as a form resulted in high level of waste and spoilage45.
of transportations, and this kind of labour is offered
by women and children. Most farmers who produce the crop are
smallholders, who do it primarily at subsistence

Table 2: Kenya’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at market

prices (Million Kenya shillings) by activity

Industry Contribution 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

GDP at market prices 3,169,301 3,725,918 4,261,151 4,730,801 5,357,672

Agric., Forestry & fisheries 786,909 980,088 1,113,860 1,250,991 1,464,310
Crops 530,841 686,088 765,579 875,090 1,057,882
Sweetpotato 7,400 20,700 26,700 20,900 22,500

Source: KNBS21

Table 3: Major growing seasons of sweetpotatoes by region in Uganda

Region/district Planting season Harvesting season

Central eastern Late February to early Late October

(Kumi, Amuria, Soroti, June and early August
Iganga)
Eastern (Mbale) March throughout season
South eastern (Tororo) Late March through April
Central (Luwero and Mpigi) Late February to early May Early July to late October
and April to early August
Western Uganda Late April to July and late Early June to August and
(Kabale, Kisoro) August to Early November Early November to late December
Northern Uganda Late February ot late June Early July to late October
(Gulu, Lira)

Source: Bashaasha et al.28 and Zorogastua29

169 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016)

level such that market supply will depend on the Other impor tant post-har vest handling
availability of the surplus within the households14. practices
There is therefore hardly enough or surplus to Curing
warrant storage for longer periods. Uganda registers Curing is the most important stage in
about 15% loss during harvest because of the handling harvested tubers as it determines the
technologies used in harvesting and packaging. As keeping time and quality of the fresh tubers1. Curing
highlighted above, most of the farmers use hoes for of the tubers facilitates healing of the wounds
harvesting and most of the roots get cut or bruised, incurred during harvest and extends the postharvest
which cause damage and stress to the roots. The life of the roots as well as reduces moisture loss and
uncut roots are de-skinned during packaging and microbial decay during long-term storage3. Once
transportation which cause serious bruising 43. cured, sweetpotatoes can be stored for several
The packaging sacks are also over stacked with months and white fleshed cultivars for as long as ten
sweetpotatoes and this imposes more damage to months39. Curing reduces shrinkage and minimizes
the roots. weight loss during storage1 as well as enhancing

Table 4: Main cultivated potato cultivars and their origin

Cultivars Origin of cultivar Growing region

Tanzania, New Kawogo, Superior Ugandan farmers’ Central eastern Uganda

and Wagabolige cultivars (Soroti district mainly), and Northern parts of
Malawi assembled at Namulonge Uganda. Tanzania is also
Agricultural and Animal know to originate from
production Research Institute
(NAARI).
Katalaako Iganga district, Uganda Eastern Uganda
Odeyo cani, bwomdege Gulu district, Uganda Central eastern Uganda
and cwara opoko
Tororo 1,2 and 3 Tororo district of Uganda Central eastern Uganda
Kidera, Katalaako Iganga district, Uganda Common in eastern
Uganda
Butalenja Local cultivar Common in eastern
Uganda
Naigongera Ugandan farmers’ cultivar Common in southern and
eastern Uganda
Yellow fleshed cultivars, Released by National Crop All parts of Uganda and
NASPOT (11, 9, 3, 10, 8, 6, 4, Resources Research Institute Western Kenya. Origin is
7, 5, 2 and 1), Dimbuka/ (NACRRI) of Uganda International Potato Centre.
Bukulula, Kakamega, Sweetpotato Programme.
Kabode and Ejumula
Dimbuka, bugerere, sikali, Sukali, Jinja district, Uganda. Central Uganda especially
Mwezigumu, nylon, mpaeifumbiro Favorite farmers’ cultivar Mpigi, Luwero and
and Wagabolige Nakasongola
Kawogo, Nantongo and mweziguma Mpigi district, Uganda Central Uganda and
Eastern
Sowola (NIS/90/389a) The progenitors in this Throughout Ugandan
Source: RTB34 polycross block were popular sweetpotato growing
Farmers’ cultivar from regions.
various parts of Uganda
 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016) 170

the eating quality by decreasing the starch content this is crucial for food and nutrition security. However,
and increasing the sugar content. Traditional curing information on curing of sweetpotato in Kenya and
involved stacking potatoes in the field or garden, Uganda is relatively limited or non-existent.
covering them with sand and leaving them for
several weeks. There was also a recorded use of Storage of sweetpotatoes
heat in curing of sweetpotatoes in a constructed Storage of dried sweetpotato has become
sweetpotato cellar where a smoky fire was made a practice of increasing importance.  In Uganda,
every day for three to four weeks46. storage is in the form of either dried slices known as
amukeke or kaseede, or in dried crushed form known
Curing sweetpotato can be done using as inginyo39,49.  Sweetpotato slices can generally
several methods e.g. open air-sun, greenhouse be stored for as long as four to six months, and in
solar, hot air cross flow, shade drying, vacuum- crushed form for somewhat longer, though both are
freeze drying, osmotic dehydration among many at risk from infestation by grain borers due to poor
others47. Some of these methods involve advanced packaging.
technologies, and are not technically or economically
suitable for African farmers. Sub-Saharan Africa is Long-term storage of fresh roots has been
known for high ambient temperatures42 thus, tubers attempted on an experimental basis in Soroti, in
can possibly be left in the field after de-vining and the mid Northeastern region of Uganda, with the
before harvest in the hot, humid times of the year, participation of local farmers using below-ground pits,
which is similar to the curing room environment1. above-ground clamps with conical thatched roofs,
Prior pruning for wholesale harvesting can be and wooden boxes kept indoors42.  Ash and other
done by removing sweetpotato canopy 14 days materials have also been used to extend storage life
before harvesting to reduce the amount of moisture An optimal mix of storage techniques and cultivars
to facilitate long storage periods after harvest25. is necessary to store fresh sweetpotatoes for up to
Pre-harvest curing carried out in Tanzania by the three months, or long enough to make a difference
Natural Research Institute (NRI) involved removing when local food security is most uncertain42.
sweetpotato foliage 14 days before harvesting,
and this was claimed to result in reduction of Typically, sweetpotatoes are stored and
postharvest losses by up to 40%14. In Uganda and eaten fresh. However, there are some simple
Tanzania, sun drying has been used for along time methods used to increase their storability that can
to dry sweetpotato to extend shelf- life for up to six be used in conjunction with other storage methods42.
months39. Drying of tubers is done on those that are too
damaged to be stored fresh but still have edible
Different curing regimes are applied in material on them. This involves slicing tubers to a
commercial production; sweetpotatoes can be cured thickness of approximately 2–4 mm and then laying
in rooms with humidity between 75 – 80% and them out in the sun for four days or until they are rid
temperatures between 27 OC and 30 OC for a week of most of their moisture. During drying the potatoes
to ten days46 or conducted at 32 °C and 90-95% can be covered in prickly bushes or thorns to ward
relative humidity for 5-7 days to facilitate healing off animals. Dried slices can be kept in-doors or in
of the wounds incurred during harvest and extend raised silos until eaten. Drying removes moisture,
the postharvest life of the roots4,48 . The roots can reduces bacterial growth, and inactivates metabolic
be put into storage at 30-32°C and 90-95% relative processes and enzymatic decomposition50.
humidity for 4 to 10 days1 after which the temperature
is dropped to 15.6°C for long term storage, keeping The ultimate aims of storage are to ensure
the same relative humidity. food security during off-season, regulate commodity
in the market in an orderly way and management
It can be deduced from above that of glut to saving producers and traders from selling
temperature, humidity and holding times are critical products under duress of market forces. However,
in curing of sweetpotatoes. The benefits of curing the tubers are highly perishable when not stored in
sweetpotato lie in extending its storage stability, and favourable conditions because of their high moisture
171 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016)

contents especially the orange fleshed cultivars14. Technological advancement in modern day
The endogenous enzymes in sweetpotatoes are has the potential of modifying the environment for
responsible for the breakdown of starch into sugars storage in rooms or containers. The understanding
during storage51, and this makes storage of the of the physiological changes in OFSP during
fresh sweetpotato tubers beyond three months storage is paramount to the development of storage
difficult52. Use of good quality roots free of damage, technologies. Sweetpotato can be kept in cool dry
and disease, and avoiding temperature build-up well ventilated rooms or containers (baskets are ideal
in the stores were found to be the main factors for small household volumes) at about 55oF to 60oF
that improve storability of fresh sweetpotato under (13°C to 16°C).
tropical conditions in Tanzania52. The management
of temperature and relative humidity are therefore In research conducted by Okonya et al.53,
primary factors in the storage life of sweetpotato. it was established that majority of the farmers in
Reducing postharvest losses of mature produce Uganda store sweetpotatoes for less than a week.
is more sustainable than increasing production to The two most popular short-term storage methods
compensate for these losses41. Losses occurring are on the floor in the house or in baskets. Most of the
after harvest of sweetpotato are costly since white fleshed cultivars can be stored either in pits or
costs of production have been already incurred. in clamps (covered above ground mounds) for up to
Sweetpotatoes need to be stored for up to a year 19 weeks. The stored potatoes still are consumed in
in order to sustainably supply and maintain their piecemeal, and remaining roots are processed into
markets52; however, in developing countries, with dried chunks or slices (amukeke). Some farmers in
limited resources and a crop of marginal value, Eastern Uganda store roots in the pits for an average
storage is not commonly practised52. of 38 days, although some claim to store them up to
138 days54 .
Tubers can also be left in mounts and
harvested piecemeal or can be harvested and stored Common storage methods for sweetpotatoes
in a pit or clamp stores on a bed of dry grass25 In Naturally ventilated store
Tanzania, low cost storage pits and clamps with There is sufficient movement of cool air
thatched roofs can store roots up to four months14. through a heap of potatoes to remove respiratory
heat and keep the potatoes as cool as ambient
Sweetpotato storage in Kenya is generally temperatures can allow. The design is based on the
insignificant and can probably be identified by either principle of natural air convection. This type of store
producers (who are also consumers) or traders in was introduced by the extension programmes of
the market since there has always been inadequate FAO for farmers in the highland areas of Kaborole,
production to supply the market. Between 68% - Kabale, and Kisoro. Generally, the structure is a
90% of farmers in Western Kenya did not know mudlock structure, 1.2 m long, 1.2 m wide and
how to store surplus sweetpotato tubers15. Lack of 1.0 m high to the eaves with a thatched roof and
commodity stores for sweetpotato hinders production a capacity of about 700 kg. The capacity could be
and value chain sustainability. A lot of emphasis has increased by making the store longer. The lower part
for a long time been placed on cereal crops, leading of the store is ventilation chamber made over a pit
to the establishment of the Kenyan National Cereals about 35cm deep into which is a stone foundation
and Produce Board (NCPB) that buys, stores and wall of 15cm deep to support a mud block wall on
markets excess cereals from the farmers. Moreover, the spaced 2-3 cm apart and laid over the stone wall
lack of market infrastructure negatively impacts to make a ventilating floor. On the windward side of
on food security, safety and keeping qualities of the structure, a ventilation opening is fitted with a
sweetpotato. This is because most food markets shutter to control ventilation. The storage section
in Kenya do not have properly designed stalls can be made from false floor up to the eaves at 1m
for traders to utilize, thus sweetpotato is mainly high and can be provided with closable openings for
spread on the ground and exposed to the hot sun loading and emptying. The roof structure is of raffia
throughout, until they are sold out or otherwise be or wood material covered with grass55.
disposed due to rapid spoilage.
 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016) 172

In ground storage lead off water. The clamps may be covered by a roof
This is commonly done by subsistence or kept in a building for added protection. To minimize
farmers, sweetpotatoes are commonly left in the losses due to respiration, a ventilation shaft can be
ground and eaten or sold directly following harvest, added. Results are fairly poor with this technique
this is called piece-meal or sequential harvesting. In and estimated storage time is 2–3 months42.
ground storage is used to protect the fresh tubers
while reducing the work required to set up storage Indoor storage
facilities. In drier places such as northern Uganda, Sweetpotatoes may be harvested and
leaving sweetpotatoes in ground is not a suitable stored in building. This could include in the living
method and practical solution, and hence the farmers area or in a granary built specifically to store produce.
produce dried white fleshed sweetpotato slices In home storage is typically done in straw woven
(amukeke) 42. baskets, cloth bags or wooden boxes. Baskets and
boxes have been shown to be more effective at
Pit storage minimizing mechanical damage. If possible tubers
This is a simple, cheap method that involves should be kept off the ground to keep them away
digging a hole in the ground for storing the potatoes. from rodents and other pests57. This is an effective
The pit storage differs from in ground as tubers are technique for maintaining proper ventilation, though
collected and kept together and considerations depending on the type of building, maintaining
are made to control the storage environment. proper storage temperature and RH may be difficult.
Construction of the pit can vary according to what Granaries or other storage buildings typically consist
materials are available but commonly used are; of a round hut with walls made of straw, mud, clay
grass, soil, wood, lime, sawdust and ash. Grass is and wood and a conical straw roof. These are
typically used to line the bottom and sides of the commonly supported above ground by a system of
pit in order to insulate against temperature change legs to keep the crop dry and away from animals,
and moisture absorption56. Before usage, grass rodents and pests57.
should be flamed in order to destroy any pests that
may be hiding within. Soil is used to seal the roof Effect of storage on quality of sweetpotato
of the pit and as filler. Wood and plant material can Storage under tropical conditions has
be used to strengthen walls as well as create a roof been shown not to affect the texture characteristics
covering the pit. Roofs built over the pit structure and overall changes in sweetpotato, with special
are beneficial in that they can help keep rain out reference to orange fleshed sweet potatoes (OFSP)58.
and provide shade to lower temperature. Lime may The provitamin A carotenoid (pVAC) retention
have some effectiveness in absorbing carbon dioxide of staple crops during storage reached levels as
and removing it from the environment. Sawdust is low as 20% after one to four months of storage
used as a cushioning material and to help control and was highly dependent on genotype59. Short
condensation on the roots. Wood ash can be applied durations of four weeks storage at a low temperature
to potatoes prior to storage and has shown some (5°C) was found to significantly increase phenolic
effectiveness in protecting against insect attacks and compound concentration and antioxidant activity in
mould. sweetpotatoes, and these increased significantly
when low temperature-stored roots were transferred
Clamp and mound storage to ambient temperature (about 22 °C). However, it
This is another simple and low cost was also noted that non-cured tubers accumulated a
method, clamp storage consists of covered piles of higher phenolic content and antioxidant activity than
sweetpotatoes. After selecting for the roots in the cured roots. A brief period (about three weeks) of
best condition, they are stacked in a heap on a layer low temperature storage may significantly increase
of grass and covered in layers of grass and soil. As phenolic content and antioxidant activity without
with pit storage, ash, lime and sawdust can be used causing a loss in root marketability3. An experimental
for added effects. The piles may be made at ground in Uganda showed that storage of tubers of Ejumula
level or in shallow or deep trenches. Drainage is and SPK004/6/6 in a pit at (17-21oC, RH 90-100%)
considered and ruts may be made in the ground to resulted in a higher retention of beta carotene
173 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016)

compared to those stored at ambient conditions community groups are sold to supermarkets and to
(24-27 oC, 68-100 %rh) and in saw dust at (19-23oC, shops in local markets15.
RH 86-100%). The farmers in Uganda reported
storage losses amounting to approximately 27% of In Uganda, farmers generally sell about 17%
total output. There are no current research results of their total harvest. The majority of sweetpotatoes
which show the new trend of sweetpotato storage in are produced for home consumption, although
Uganda. Farmers find it difficult to store sweetpotato many farmers market at least some of their crop.
because of Cylas formicarius, sweetpotato weevil About 53% of farmers sell some of the portion of
and its related species, and this has prevented a the sweetpotato crop. Of these, about 71% sell fresh
sustained investment in storage facilities40. Because sweetpotatoes at the farm gate, 43% at roadside
of this threat, majority of Ugandan farmers leave the markets, 38% at rural markets, and 8% in urban
roots in the ground and harvest it only when there markets (% exceed 100 because some farmers are
is need. involved in all forms of marketing) 43. Since marketing
of sweetpotatoes is done mainly at farm gate, there
Utilization of Sweetpotato is no cooperative marketing. Almost all marketing is
Fresh sweetpotatoes having relatively high done at individual basis. There are several losses
moisture contents are very sensitive to microbial which are incurred during marketing and the major
spoilage, even at refrigerated conditions. Hence, they causes of these losses include limited market, poor
must be consumed within a few weeks after harvest postharvest handling methods, weevil attack in
or be processed into various products. Utilization stores and seasonal variations28.
of sweetpotato has been limited to their traditional
uses60, though they have tremendous flexibility of International Trade
utilization as food, feed and industrial products8. The International trade of sweetpotatoes
They are mainly used as human food; tubers are in the year 2011 was 267,000 MT valued at
mainly consumed boiled or fried22. Use of vines USD 210.5M 61 with Canada being the main
as fodder and leaves as a vegetable is common in importer and the U.S.A being the main exporter.
some parts of Western Kenya15. According to the Other importing countries are United Kingdom,
country’s Economic Survey 2015 report by the Kenya Netherlands, Japan, and Italy62, while other exporting
National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), sweetpotato countries are China, Netherlands, Dominican
tubers in Kenya are utilized 90% domestically as Republic and Lao People’s Democratic Republic61.
human food. Over 80% of the Ugandan farmers Despite Uganda being one of the largest producers
employ in-ground storage and piece meal harvesting of sweetpotatoes, it is not involved in the export
strategies, it is hard to determine the sweetpotato market9. This could be attributed to the fact that the
harvested for fresh market and therefore, there is areas which have the potential to generate surpluses
no data available43,54. Once roots are mature, they are relatively localized but dispersed, which leads to
remain stored in the ground for up to six months. a lack of market integration and limits market size.
Farmers begin harvesting large roots three months Moreover, production is highly seasonal leading to
after planting and as the roots mature, leaving the marked variations in quantity and quality of roots,
plant intact to produce more roots. In piece meal and associated price swings. There is also limited
harvesting, farmers harvest only the sweetpotatoes commercial processing into chips or flours, which
needed for immediate sale. could be stored for year round consumption and use
in bread and cakes or processing into fermented
Marketing of sweetpotatoes and dried products. These factors have led to
Domestic Marketing unstable market for sweetpotato and thus farmers
Were et al. 15 noted that 40 - 60% of stick to sporadic local marketing, and on target
the sweetpotato produce in western Kenya was marketing which makes it also hard to penetrate
marketed. Kenyan sweetpotato is domestically export market63.
marketed from late September to February. Locally
processed products (boiled roots and flour) by There are, however, no recorded exports
of sweetpotato and its products by Kenya, according
 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016) 174

to the Economic survey report of the KNBS 21. addition or processing has been done as a way of
Sweetpotato tubers are usually imported from diversifying the utilization patterns of the sweetpotato
Tanzania by wholesalers to Kenya between June and technology has been disseminated to local
and August, when sweetpotato is scarce in Kenya64. farmers especially women but no entrepreneur has
Export trade in Uganda is mainly informal and taken it up for commercialization. More so, most of
majorly concentrated at the borders of Rwanda and the sales of sweetpotato in Uganda are confined
D.R. Congo. This kind of trade is illegal and there are largely to fresh tubers54,66 .
no captured statistics11.
A large range of products known to trained
Processing sweetpotatoes farmers include composite flours, chapatti, mandazi,
Development of low and intermediate juice, bread, doughnuts, and other confectionary
technologies that will process sweetpotato into value products. Other products produced by the local
added products at the household and village factory farmers in Uganda are; pit stored tubers, amukeke
levels would promote its production and consumption (dry white slices), inginyo (dry chips, chunks),
and increase its economic value60. Sweetpotato can amukeke flour and inginyo flour54. Market options
be used to brew alcoholic beverages and processed for sweetpotato products like chips, flour, and starch
into products like chips, crisps, flakes, granules, and have been explored. However, the last available
starch2. Sweetpotato processing in rural areas of documentation of these market analyses suggests
Kenya is mainly done by women/community group that the market is still very limited. Sweetpotato chips
members having been trained on the processing are not commonly traded beyond household sales
technologies by the district home economists and and there is no available information following up on
make different products including traditional ones the market test for the new products like sweetpotato
like mandazi bhajia, amongst others15. In general, flours
the production volume of sweetpotato in Kenya is too
low to support sustained supply of raw commodity Farmers consume most of the total harvest
for industrial processing9. Processing by community as fresh tubers from their own farms with about 30%
groups is limited to three months period in a year of farmers in Uganda, processing a portion of their
when sweetpotatoes are available 15. There are harvests into amukeke slices. About 35% of amukeke
however, scanty national data on the number of producers sell a portion of their produce to the locals.
processors, volume of sweetpotato processed and These products are still used by the farmers to
profit margins for the processors1. Sweetpotato feed their families. The break through innovation for
leaves can be processed into powders that can Uganda would be the mechanizing of sweetpotato
be used as functional ingredients in food products production, selling of the processing technologies to
such as ice cream, juices, tea drinks, and bread entrepreneurs who can adopt the technologies and
due to their high phenolic content and antioxidant be ready for commercialization66. Therefore, the shift
activity65. from giving the technologies to only local farmers
and share it with already established entrepreneurs
Most of the value addition done on would be a great innovation both in Kenya and
sweet potato, is cultivar-based. Orange Fleshed Uganda.
SweetPotato is currently getting popular in Uganda
because of its high b-carotene content, and its Physico-chemical and Nutritional traits of
potential to reduce Vitamin A deficiency. OFSP sweetpotato cultivar
was introduced in Uganda in the year 2007 by Physical Properties of sweetpotatoes
HarvestPlus, a part of Consultative Group on Sweetpotatoes vary enormously in taste,
International Agriculture Research (CGIAR) Program size, shape, and texture. The flesh can be white,
on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health. Other bodies orange, yellow, purple, ‘red, pink or violet8 while skin
which have promoted the production, value addition color varies among white, yellow, red, orange, and
and promoting utilization of OFSP in Uganda are; purple22. Cultivars with pale yellow or white flesh are
USAID, CIP, Feed the Future, the government of less sweet and moist than those with red, pink, or
Uganda through NARO and other institutions. Value orange flesh. They also have little or no beta-carotene
175 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016)

and higher levels of dry matter, which means their Physico-chemical properties
textures are drier and mealier and they stay firmer Dry matter content
when cooked8. The orange-and red-fleshed forms of Sweetpotato is known to have a relatively
sweetpotato are particularly high in b-carotene, the low dry matter content, between 13 and 50%14, and
vitamin A precursor13. this varies widely depending on factors such as
cultivar, location, climate, day length, soil, pests and
Nutritional aspects of sweet potatoes diseases and cultivation practices22. They are rich in
There is a gap in the nutritional profiling of starch 6 – 30% wet basis or 50 – 80% dry basis70.
sweetpotato cultivars in Uganda and Kenya, much Starch is important as a raw material or thickener,
of the work has been done on the Orange Fleshed stabilizer or texture The acceptable level of storage
Sweetpotato in Uganda with major emphasis being root dry matter is lower in Southern than in Eastern
beta-carotene content (Table 5). Africa; about 27% versus 30% respectively14. Low
dry matter of most of orange fleshed cultivars is a
Sweetpotato (SP) is best known for its challenge towards their adoption and production by
carbohydrate content, the predominant form of it farmers35.
being starch2, and are good sources of dietary fibre30.
The tubers are largely rich sources of energy about Mineral constituents of sweetpotato roots
440 kJ per 100 g of edible portion. SP is a good Sweetpotato roots and leaf are rich in
source of vitamins C (ascorbic acid) and B4. They various mineral elements, whose concentration
also contain minerals as well as an assortment of depends on cultivar, location and agronomical
phytochemicals2. Sweetpotato and its leaves are conditions. A study on four cultivars in Rwanda
good sources of antioxidants27, fiber, zinc, potassium, showed the ash content ranged from 0.4% to
sodium, manganese, calcium, magnesium, iron and 0.44%22. Generally, OFSP is rich in Fe (50 ppm DM)
vitamin C27.The orange and yellow cultivars have and Zn (40 ppm DM) (Kivuva et al., 2014). Cultivars
high carotenoids content2. Improved OFSP cultivars grown in Vihiga County in Kenya showed iron content
have been shown to have high content of all-trans-b- (mg/100 g) ranges of 1.10 - 1.30, 1.28 – 1.30, 1.03
carotene and are particularly important in combating – 1.28, and 1.28 – 1.40 for the white, purple, yellow,
Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD) in SSA13. The purple and orange flesh cultivars respectively and calcium
sweetpotato colour is rich in acetylated anthocyanins (mg/100 g) ranges of 25.30 – 26.0, 18.50 – 24.43,
shown to minimize free radical production hence 24.75 – 27.35, and 21.28 – 24.31 for white, purple,
therapy for galactosemia67. yellow and orange flesh cultivars71.

Nutritional qualities of sweetpotato leaves Chemical constituents of sweetpotato leaves

Sweetpotato leaves are edible and provide Depending on genotypes and growing
an important source of food in Africa, especially conditions, the average contents of minerals and
in Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, as well as in vitamins in recently developed cultivars ‘Suioh’ were
East Asia8 but have generally been regarded as an 117 mg calcium, 1.8 mg iron, 3.5 mg carotene, 7.2
underexploited green vegetable in Africa. They are mg vitamin C, 1.6 mg vitamin E, and 0.56 mg vitamin
also used as fodder and browse for sheep, goats, K/100 g fresh weight of leaves (Islam, 2006). Leaves
cattle, pigs68. The leaves are an excellent source of seven cultivars of OFSP in Ghana contained
of antioxidative polyphenols like anthocyanins and iron and calcium contents ranging from 9.62 –
phenolic acids such as caffeic, monocafeoylquinic 23.02 mg/100g and 1310.52 – 1402.27 mg/100g
(chlorogenic), dicaffeoylquinic, and tricaffeoylquinic respectively68, while the minerals composition of
acids65. Sweetpotato leaf is also rich in vitamin B, the leaves grown in Tepi area of Ethiopia revealed
carotenes, iron, calcium, zinc and protein65. The potassium (3609 mg/100 g), sodium (32 mg/100
leaf has the highest total phenolic acid content in g), calcium (320 mg/100 g), magnesium (119
the plant, followed by the peel, whole root and flesh mg/100 g), copper (1.8 mg/100 g), zinc (6 mg/100
tissues69. A lot of studies has focused on the roots, g), iron (74 mg/100 g), and manganese (10 mg/100
and relatively little is known about the chemical g) 72. The nutritional value and consumption of
composition and nutritional importance of the leaf. sweetpotato leaves in Kenya have not been accorded
 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016) 176

enough research attention to encourage maximum are defined with its starch which is the major
utilization. carbohydrate in its dry matter content70. As a major
food component on a worldwide scale and one of
Reducing sugars the main food ingredients, both in native or modified
Sucrose is the most abundant sugar in forms75, starch is widely used as a thickener, a
raw SP tubers with smaller amounts of glucose and gelling agent, a bulking agent and a water retention
fructose22. The levels of these sugars is significant agent 76. Pure starch is a white, tasteless and
in processing because, at high frying temperatures odorless powder that is insoluble in cold water or
a Maillard reaction occurs between these sugars alcohol and generally contains 20 to 25% amylose
and amino acids yielding dark-colored bitter tasting and 75 to 80% amylopectin by weight depending
products73. Besides at high temperature and longtime on the plant77. Amylose acts both as diluents and
frying, acrylamide formation could be influenced inhibitor of swelling, especially in the presence of
by the concentration of these reducing sugars and lipids which can form insoluble complexes with some
asparagines in the tubers. During storage of tubers, of the amylose during swelling and gelatinization.
some starch is converted to reducing sugars and The physicochemical proper ties of starches
subsequently into sucrose22. Cultivars from the South depend on the botanical source from which they
Pacific region were found to have total sugars ranging are isolated; the major botanical and commercial
from 0.38 to 5.64% fresh weight basis and from 2.9% sources of starches being cereals, tubers, roots,
to 5.5% (fwb) in American cultivars depending on and legumes76. Swelling power and solubility, paste
time of harvest22. A study on four cultivars of SP viscosity, retrogradation, gelatinization temperature,
in Rwanda showed the content of reducing sugars paste clarity and freeze-thaw stability are important
range from 1.74 to 2.5%22. It is suggested that the physico-chemical properties of starch that determine
acceptable upper limit of reducing sugars content to its utilization in the food processing78. The swelling
obtain acceptable processing color is 0.25 - 0.5% of power for starch is affected by presence of reducing
fresh weight. Tubers are still considered acceptable sugars in starch hence unavailability of total starch
for processing if the reducing sugars do not exceed for water absorption77. Starch granules are usually
2% on dry weight basis73. densely packed with amylose and amylopectin in a
semi-crystalline state with inter and intra-molecular
Carotenoids in sweetpotatoes bonds; are insoluble in water and are often resistant
Carotenoids have been credited with several to chemicals and enzymes hence making it more
health-promoting effects: immune enhancement easier for amylase enzymes to act on gelatinized
and a reduced risk of developing degenerative starch than raw starch granules75.
diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases,
cataract, and mascular degeneration74. Orange Starch from sweetpotato is more free
fleshed cultivars are dominantly rich in proVitamin swelling and non-congealing besides, exhibits a Type
A carotenoids16. Some OFSP cultivars have yielded A Brabender amylograph characterized by a high
about 8000 µg b-carotene per 100g of fresh weight. pasting peak followed by rapid and major thinning
Among the carotenoids, a-carotene and b-carotene on cooling79. This limits its utilization in products
have a high provitamin A activity74. Some studies that require starches with faster retrogradation rates
on raw peeled tubers of Kenyan OFSP cultivars like starch noodle80. Swelling power and solubility,
have yielded beta carotene ranges between 1240 paste viscosity, retrogradation, gelatinization
– 10,800 µg/100g fresh weight. Carotenoids are temperature, paste clarity and freeze-thaw stability
known to undergo degradation when exposed to are important physico-chemical properties utilized
heat and light47 and through various processing in the food processing81. The swelling power for
methods including cooking30. There is, therefore, starch is affected by presence of reducing sugars
the need to handle sweetpotato to minimize loss of in starch hence unavailability of total starch for
carotenoids. water absorption77. Starch granules are usually
densely packed with amylose and amylopectin in a
Functional properties of sweetpotato semi-crystalline state with inter and intra-molecular
Pasting proper ties of sweetpotato bonds; are insoluble in water and are often resistant
177 ABONG et al., Curr. Res. Nutr Food Sci Jour., Vol. 4(3), 162-181 (2016)

to chemicals and enzymes hence making it more in flour by increasing the hydrophilic character of
easier for amylase enzymes to act on gelatinized starch in the flour51. OFSP flours have exhibited
starch than raw starch granules75. high pasting peaks and rapid thinning51. High starch
viscosity is an indication of good quality starch while
T h e a my l o s e / a my l o p e c t i n ra t i o o f low viscosity could imply some degree of degradation
sweetpotato starch have been shown to influence the of starch during processing85. Starch from different
physicochemical properties of flour like gelatinization, OFSP cultivars could display differences in peak
retrogradation, water absorption and pasting viscosities as has been shown by cultivars from
viscosities51. High amylose content in flours has been Uganda (Table 6). Differences in amylose content
shown to influence high resistance towards swelling and genetic variation have been reported to induce
hence high pasting temperatures82. Low amylose differences in pasting and viscoelastic characteristics
content on the other hand enhances the water of starch86. There is a great likelihood that the many
binding capacity of gelatinized starch83. Amylose cultivars of SP produced by farmers in Kenya could
content differs among the different SP cultivars, be inherently different in their physicochemical and
and even within the same cultivar, probably due to resultant functional properties, thus the need for
agricultural practices, genotype and environmental characterization of the white, yellow and orange
conditions84. cultivars.

Gelatinization of starch granules has Knowledge gaps
been reported to increase their susceptibility to the • There exists insufficient data on postharvest
action of hydrolytic enzymes such as a-amylase84. practices like curing, current storage methods,
a-amylase, b-amylase and starch phosphorylase and processing and market information on
are some of the endogenous amylolytic enzymes sweetpotato tubers in Kenya.
contained in the sweetpotato that are responsible • Knowledge and consumption statistics
for hydrolytic effect and the breakdown of starch regarding sweetpotato leaves in Kenya is
into sugars during processing 51. Hydrolysis of scarce.
sweetpotato starch by a-amylase yields mixture of • There exist several cultivars of sweetpotato
different saccharides (maltodextrines) with different in Kenya and Uganda but studies on
precise composition for commercial markets in characterization of the nutritional and
the food and pharmaceutical industries84. Due to physicochemical properties of their tubers
differences in genotype, environment and cultivation and leaves for maximum utilization and
practices14, endogenous enzyme activity of OFSP functionality in food processing is grossly
roots may vary greatly from the fresh tubers to the limited.
stored, from season to season and from source
obtained. Acknowledgement

OFSP have been shown to exhibit a lower This work was accomplished through
pH than the white, yellow and cream cultivars. High financial support from Australia-Africa Universities
pH has been reported to increase solubility of starch Network (AAUN).

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