Da.5.

5udalai
Shunmum
9B.N.M. Irotiltuto ofochnology
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High Voltage Engineering (15EE73)

Unit 1 (Probable Questions)

. What is 'time-lag' of breakdown? Explain briefly formative time lag and statistical
time lag.
2 Explain the Paschen's law as applied to gascous insulators. Derive the equations, with
graph. AIso obtain the breakdown voltage of spark gap in terms of (pd)nin and (V)in
3. In an experiment, the steady state current is 5.5 (10*-8) A at 8kV for a distance of
4 mm between the plane electrodes. In a constant field, reducing the electrode gap to
I mm results in a current of 5.5 * (10 -9) A. Calculate the Townsend's ionization co-

ellicient.
4. A solid dielectric of specimen of dielectric constant of 4 has an internal void of
thickness I mm. The spccimen is 1 cm thick and is subjected to a voltage of 80 kV
(rms). If the void is filled with air and breakdown strength of air can be taken as 30
kV (peak)/cm, find the voltage at whiech the internal discharge can occur.
5. Derive the eriterion of breakdown in electronegative gases and discuss the importance
of electronegative gases.
6. Explain the various theories that explain breakdown in commercial liquid diclectrics.
7. Brielly explain the electromechanical breakdown in solid insulating materials.
8. With the help of suitable expressions, explain the Townsend's primary and sccondary
ionization co-eflicient. Explain in detail about the criterion for breakdown.
9. Write the preferred properties of gaseous dielectrics for high voltage applications.
Give any three examples of gaseous dielectric.
10. Explain in detail about Streamer breakdown.
11. Explain the current growth in the presence of secondary process
12. A solid specimen of diclectric has a dielectric constant 4.2 and tan ô = 0.001 at
frequency of 50 Hz. If it is subjected to an altenating field 50 kV/cm, calculate the
heat generated in the specimen due to the dielectric loss.
13. Write a briefnote on breakdown in non-unifornm ficlds".
14. Explain clearly the avalanche breakdown in solid dielectrics.
15. Explain elearly the trecing and tracking phenomenon in solid diclectrics.
16. A steady current of 600 uA Mows through the plain electrode separated by a distance
of 0.5 cnm, when a voltage of 10 kV is applied. Determine the Townsend's first
ionization eo-eflicient if a current of 60 juA flows when the distance of separation is
reduced to 0.1 em and the field is kept constant at the previous value.
17. The following observations were made in an experiment for determination of

dielectric strength of transformer oil. Determine the power law equation.

Gap spacing (mm) 4 6 8 10

Breakdown Voltage (kV) 88 135 165 212

18. Brielly cexplain the thermal brcakdown in solid insulating materials and how it is more
signilicant than other mechanisms?
19. Brielly explain "Cavitation and Bubble Theory' in the context of liquid dielectrie
breakdown.
20. Ilow 'internal discharge' phenomena do leads to breakdown in solid dielectrics.
21. In an experiment to determine a value in a gas, the measured value of current under
unifom electrie field and constant :/P (E=Electric Field; P=Gas Pressure) conditions
were 5.0 (10-10) A and is 3.0 (10-9) Afor a gap distance of 4 mm and 10 mm
respetively. Calculate the value of a. Neglect secondary ionization co-efficient.
 High Vologe tngnuiunq

Ihe bubyct High Vdtage tnqnuig "

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 19
Secendau lcaunahcn Paccoss MaS

hcnda (ni2ahdn uue by uhth

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mack.
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 S

ModuLd by thin rAuss aa

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Vis deyoud 0 5ame a f h nek nuruu
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h Tr Cunt od fha
anoda I is gmn by

h a l CLLLLen od is fh

da 0.Icm
5.5RtS *A, Ia. 5.Sxlo1
eld-d
e

5S10 lo4 -o-1)

6. Sx16

lo e lo.3)

.7.67
Cm
 31
thu asatcedonm Occud hen ha
n lan
op cun lan u
deand to 0.9 Cm whak is h value D ?
v
e dd
d 7.61 6 o O.1 tm
ox 7.676
e

xnoumental delamunahon CorehhuenM and

and
Aoktsuna
eristas

de po
BAandonun
futmdin

Ccn
lectaoda (onhauahon wo wntoum elubodes
Valiculste high votage de Srue ( -lo kV ahigs)
LenoNa elthdu Canoists q Cnlial elucla od and
a laid eluchude
 *ohad dichode u (onnuhd o gaugurd ough
hu high enistan(a q an duchamda anplhi han
n Anpuk Suvilante g lo to to3 9

Thu qpad eludaod in

diudt4eahud .

dcaandin Qmplhr Mabue Cwunt (n ana

any

ediode 5ypshm s plaud n on

lonu zahon
Chamkt whath is eatku o mkal hambu
mad
madu
Chwomuum -plalud mild Suul (o1) Shaunlen Shal o)
om Chambti
eluttaodi ae Cually made 8q 4bAam 60
Shainlun S .

Chomltu is auatid a voy hgh Vaaur

Vaalur
0do
l o to loo
hen i i s ld wnth duilud
aa anc-
SUaal thm i au th
umdual Cams
and aUA aAL mamd .
 33
he umuu
cbhambu adyunle d
o w tona dartn duie Cn thu
thu 0ap Spaahon and
0A aboul hal an hru
hambu Aunaml
Cathoda is AAadialud nunig an oV
bV
amp lkepk Outoide chamdul
(uv adiahon uoduw th nuhaty eleclins
photo electtic eussion, (
yhen th de Vakag ts
0pplicol nd whun
Notda is lous, e ulent
puhw stat nruaung
Onuaungg
duL o elucanD and noshu an a ti

7- 7
(o)hun Lndau
LLendau dacthns a uvdud ah cahoda
hy pushv
 I(1 is h total uuent

1 elucdion Cuuent
-

dadaon tAaant tmis

14 m Cuwnt
on Laant tmes.

( hun ÁLenda
edatiom a
Ok Cokh oola
fueduwd hby pholenn
qAudet photen
h Suntaun h dLnchaup iAauedoum
Nan Selh Suslaund
dunthany l e 'd

V V
nuhal
nhal poAhn (T) (wn inatanuy
Inuan Slouy
unth oppa slow bu
but
wnliadly
In equn 3
12
12, h Cun thana seaduy du k
w nnd muchanim

upnd 1a, tk (unt unn

Vy gho
Shaply and
and
d Snat
OCwn

E
E34g E

ds
n no e 1d
loun gerd (lg T/3,)
s dplot

V-cha d6b g4e ghig

ehing acnans.
achnedA
Slqe
 a Aau uedkoloun MaAK

*lalra shon e dtalt wkh (unahen

Andu t n quld tnduhcn
Bu h pAathtal Concluhcns
fhu buadoun du o Aoruddy
enguntuurig d
Chongung vokagn 61)
Ampuhu Vags eAak mnoalante
dwally thn s a tme dAjun u Aslesn
krdiean

the 0pyahon o Notkage Subuent ko Ca buodr

bat dou
t h u OCCwunu o bualedoun utnelg. s
dhaenu-
isCalld (hi turu lag.

aonn? Cuicn" to
AMaudoun
Sohstad, only o kham. Cnu lecdin
pAnnt th
Alirun elsuaod
n Can
q d G 5lody
So Ha) 0at
yahagp (ru is no
uaig
dyhiuulkg
ChS Ccnduhicn, Sahsg
Sahs

In
opidyolaa Nhag Shoa t
duakonolo°s), utialety eluaang
eutn Mammay
 3

h o inn hi gop, and n lfu abinu q Such

eLcticn aedonun Conno ocCCA

Thtna tutuch lapse lurearn
drlurun

) (F Opoicahon e yataqs 5uhbiuent ho Caun

adoum and h priaicnta ddacns
nhiahngd d krs

SCad a
"shahsk col tumu lag (l5) , gap.
ru prananu u wtcan
ucns
ualu Stahsheal oust ad.
nu

A apriaLo elacacn
hme t is egptu d on forugahce pAuLesy
o dvd ko Ca t Kuatndlonun a

SCalld oAnat tine laglt

he bobad t a bstb4 # t , s Calld

ote um lag.
d
5hahshcd qm ag
dapand Cm
C
Omgun pA or3ehn planh th (k
 V

Av V t k a trap t

Votag
7
TUu

ionnsaian opandy Cn 51 q
Aanhy Aadiah on hak
Aoduu
Amay
eluubcn.Tuvlighl, Aaduo atrt mauua
malual
ane uah Soun
h emahrt
tume ag derendo
Cn t mchaism a
0Nalanthe Lowth
uowth''
n
Lom
em

wnll
anod-tonmh tuma t e tNe Cn ho
Con ko
udomuiontty Con Luiuk qor (alhoole
(alhode-
com.alrt
eunalrt tum
tu aas
dage
V
cha Aadxtonal
Noles

as a Cnoidu al Mach'cal mpest ante

0 auakdown ko fh
OccuA, appluid Vg V
Should k CRLali han thu
t tahc
Vgt Ve a dhoun tn iLakdoaum

AN V-Vg A Calud OvO vtag

is Called tmpu aho

Th v-t Cha a
duyb
eludical Ppaialus
mnoitont in n Sulahon
Co 0duiehm
othaq u ChuatoA Sho MoRs

Jhin on kun a Valuu V on hqnu

15 pplud lo a gop, SUakdour ntt OC on

Lach VUkoge appucahom

h e tume Lage Mnll thu defund gn Aa

Cb u t h applud Votage and uld ovri

eth Cni guohon it s poinbta Ao

Vot suma
Ccnolud hauathou Sho o ppyria
umba Rmpunts nLannq magrukuds and
C and

utodn
utodhq ( fm lag unung an 0ulasceru
0scalloscr
S
ottaVb). N-E haaarush U
(«)

qume (y9
 In ugoun Jal al
uycm
vtaqkka qk asd latednun Shap'y depn
Unthg V-t Chaatkor sh

n non- m ps
kaugu Scall tn

tnul, um k Sualtdoun
als c m vtkegr.
+ka oi urueoum ld gops Suth
Suth
pha qaps a Onumol oo OAcrtchve dun agn
CuUrthciap t iduc powu Sypltm

une tme thalc

noAkanl dr an tnwahriq
Shudiu (o p mb

pAOrtdisa omin a tohaltushinq

Amnun Stngth u mulahm a» ru

Auchi Aqaunol
vohaa
 A
amu o uatuelorun g a

C guwund duwbatws MOANA

*
umnundo, mecharum don' fxplunn /Suts
whn Aemul o00 4oM -Cm .
Acc o ownne (urt Cuent chonuwth
Cn a
nuuh C ondyohen Aowm OCCu
om
Cu h
macn kd
V utL oud o
donend on qo uemu and
0 qucmill or
Gunnund Adthto tun
Rag los
natual Acchi se cue doun OctuM tShoxr

Alpo ouwnend mutham duth

JUdu
dufundu duschau42 athual
duachauag
Aachse, dunthaas is onol lamutalu

nd Migdas
5Lamu huoy
The owth c Chaues CaueM n a
CLwalanthu in a num fuld odnculcel as
e de
Thus 1S Valud grly a cng o (u nuen tse
Snau thag dlue to lon s Y Small
Ccmnad ko
orpuid uld
n hs Sudie em ebleck 6 spau chagn on
Oalanche qAwth,
Raethu dbieurd that uhn
chae
Concenluahm va Jrbuten lo° and
lo*tk owlt
walanch ltcame wra
On t otfier hand uhun the
s huqhu than lo iu
chau Con
Chaugn Con cendrako
canlrakd
eualan
ewalanthe
the Cuuent
Cuuent wa
a op une
Cuunk b» rlrnd.
deubdes uodusg
eluuudes
H busxdlqum 0 udung s
oth tu Sln qnath at Aon
CnContahons and lanwth at
chaug
hugh chaa
Concenlaahtns ha btan at tbulad s (ka mod,.
Ouly applia n uld (6) Sau Chag
mdduueh
 A

F- Anau thaig
eld
- CPplid uld
C
hdd duluhtn t a
ger
Chau

Onoda
(ourode

bumahn átcerelauy Onalanche

odu to
photo tcaineho
 The 6hs elecdut uld auond tu
OItAOCHLn along th
Onalanch
gap ad tha
nutay modth
o h oppued uld
Foa Sumuuty f
6pau chaua aal (ku(hu huad
alanch is anumud fo houn a
huadl
Sphunital voun
ngahn Chaua at its Conlaunu
tera caun
moild rhufh highun
high
undu faw
euebion
Cnduhon quld qubs
aub» enhanud
op q tu Cwalanch tnhaned ak
unth fuld Aiun oem hu
ald
mun ahiq u anode
anodkan
a it haad.

*Futku, al tfu botton a fhi

sdiun duubas anc avalan, A t
ulo
on Aeduu
ha_0ppluid tud
5hillulku doum ku uld krlurn (F
Cnd
nd Auiiten tt
ushin Cono ggko enhanudl Cathoolu
nuw ud
distoahcn OcCu
OCC ond
OUnd ih
ile comu
nohcaalle mth a
Chaug Cote ittomes
Coue wmbtu
numb n>16
n
I66
 Can
MUon g p:76o fosa, d. tm
h uld dustothom is 1.
Thu 7 di'slouhon tn h ud, unll ad s
a olouktuiq q ta aalanth ie, houd an th
dusto uhon is
panl only th (ha VTunika g tha
Lep chtta walanch tt» ebjrtt s shll
ugigylae
Howuu t h Chage delu
auwalanthe
CPuoathus nalo hu hauae hulud fuld
natu hage
and hu appiLd eld unl haut tka Samu
maynahuda
Cnd thus uado ko thu tuihahon tku SAeamu
Thus Snate Chauge
ud play an
Ad n
n
onrwth alanthu i
noAkant
nonlant
CoAoma ne
naun duschaueus u non
-hum ld 9p
 I L ha Arten 5houn that th Lamttumahon

Cuuaan.ch to & 2tLamu Canually OCus

om an

whun (hChauaL wthin tha Qwalanthe hiad t a h

o Cuhtd Valul o

ne*c

Jtcen 18-do, is th ngth fa

Cwalanche t shuth tha becndnay edcnens

bhoto tonahon ti
Aodutc ga mdiuulis
-

tf (nkeaelucbode qo

n huouts unosed by Rath ane

Mu whn awalanche ti ( qap atha a
Cuhc Siye t (omburad oppud e l and h

5nau thauas Cauws uHtnu inahtn and

Rutahon Jeo
b nathue tnen ththa awalanthe
natantanen ncemnhahan
+ve ttn and elucbiau pholon wh un

n oduLtenday tluclhen hotophoko toniahar

 The LLndau ducnan Aundu th nlu
cbco ld
uld ti (ka
gap derdn Anlo
átendany
CUalandhw,
Suu pholon tAad uth (ha vdoualz q
ght ( (f pholo riahtn Aoes Gun u ts
opid clurdepenanl eConduchtn Chanhuls auOs
thu

* On t bann
xeumenlal absowahcny
Aauth pApod an
empral ixpusonon f ta
5 taeam mal Cuum

d I7.7 tln xtn (Ea/E)

Ccnauhon walante> Stamw EaE

X 7.7 + (n X

aldeun Crukuwen
muuinum aurdonm
valuu a
uhum
b Sueamu mhonjdm QwralanuL Cuoskol
a dintant c o
u Acnosd mrde quanhlahn Outeuon
a

en malt (h th elelir l d {hak

canrum
CUwcdlancha nto SLamas
The eltue uel x
ha
ucuuud b
nccc Chcuy,d fhu 2ciduin , C n
by
e lr)

(x/p) Vlcm
d ounnnds lcnuzehtn (bbuent
(ctunt
a puemu
o
uhuch hu ciolan c
s&camal has
has erlirdud ti th
AcCoAdunq b Mic, u T
ucoleuum Va muuruunm
ublaunue uhin
E
euehtm
In E -(In 5.3 KI +ln e do

(d/p)
lnE 4:45 n de In
In (dlp)
(dlp)
nf
4.4S+ nd ln e In dlp
In olp
-14.45t Int «d
In d/
nE In Pp
14.45L Ind- Inp d
+
-In 2 d/p
In E/p -\4.45t n dlp- In d/p tdol

dc+In
4/) 44S ln E/p +
y,'Ep)
dd
In/p)14.45 t In |/p) t
n( )
This euahcn is SRnd rtucen
/p anod
whuth
onel d Sahsy
Mahon. The ALata odous
h
oLpndiig Moouct o E and d.

In Rnla
ena pd valuu
valu» dow
below looo
loco toM-m
Aessu ahyung o ton-m ono
an
0.0l to 30o
th owngen d muhanism koiA
oneat whilu ak yhu
AessuAee and nd
Valuus thu 5Tamu
mLuansm
ploup thu domuiank ote

SneNs Adahenhup rlurn V A pe,

hal h Dllacdoun
OAd Lmpli
Aoduth vaM
va1,
Vadto a p
 ST
a0chun's dau Maks
ownsds Cuuom
alastnn

9(-1)
uhu ( ltkuunts and V a the unhtno
Elp i

p) 4/,) -

E: d
- Eeldiat tuld
, Stngh
pd Pa4 )-}
PauAMLn )

V-
pd)
Chn euahtn anthns aw
 mun

o pd)m
p Auw d (lou-con)
Th ulahnship Arhurun
and pod t'sno
unal Ond ha mumum Valu

Kk doLaudgun Va 6 uruum ld
is a
Auniqu nthn
Ca and d, th
eluhodk qop
poskula ga and uwtr deubods
makiuia
matiueM
Tasehund lau shows hah
bluale eloun Vee q
aunm teld is
uruiut
T hAcuct
ACSSN ngh Dathula
ola 04d elacbocdo moloual
 (Adduhnd 3
apchund d Nols

3Smun that oumbnds kcandaty

Arusaion Co-ehhaent is drall d Nauues
VaLlas pd> (pa)
mu
elu ctans CAossng h gap make moe u n t

coltisions wth (h lao mdtuls (hant ok

pd)
eubov Ch0sSunc u ap mak
more)
Cotlisiono
bu h wgy jainnd kstluven (ha
utcessive Colusien S Smalu lhan ak (pd)
ACnce tu pobabi ougakon 's u l
Lonw
nss t VgL s Cnckiand,

n Ca (pd) (p d)min
eluhn the gap
Chuss the nlh uu
malune a1 (rtlusion
(rision
Ah braxtune poknhal S qh
h Noui pe)min Thuuot omncnds
sahon A hn
Mwwum SpOnlung ouha
 53
on cher Lauuw

ounnd Culic Jn suadaun

-O
e4
e 1

h uakon Aluwcen ltnisahon

nhen uld
unbount
Suan gth and qa
lp)
pis qun b

f (p)

e P1p).d

e fEp
+1
Calund (n on both 5ides, h

pd n k ay

co4untam Juld
E Vb
-
dp pol: k

pd Pd k

Flpd)
ved 5nauna d: Cnstant
P om Phig
DALsL denann
olemily g tha ga dieuanns
puobalnliky cleman um ann
eluukcn Ccaua
etuken
AMth m duculu a it hcunls knwauds (ka
anool
 a t h wlision wntt henult n Aoss G tugy
antumlg
a orwrtl eulii tud ( loruu vttaa

ubhicè raande eluias unth (launhe

Acnisahen by Cottision ath
A auhun
asuind fa
oualnaloum
hun uss Shil ConhruuL ko duLane

d n i h gan is So len
dahudy un Ctlison tales plac
pla
n d u Sueh Concuhemo,an eluclin
elucdin
nok rucLsScailyd toisa a madacule om
cotlidéng
eNtn luhekc
erungy eudim mos than
than h
Aid Anizchcm.
T pAababili Ccoideualty uduc
o
mauun Suwdhu innat ton3ahomm by on an
eladicm.
n othu words an
decin hao a
ctuila
Chonu
Chanu h fcizre
c hat
derud tnm i
tnwnqy. hu
chderum Cn OCCl onl fa
Aobaldaly
Ainiaakcn made qua by anmeuig he l d
d
entnnG.
 At lons pLssuu, high Valuum exish'3. "huo,
s Mnolu (Rin CCndukicn ethUrck h elkchocte maliual
a 0n
npoAkant ote.

An0nalyheal eruuwien mnumum

n munumum Snaluiq
nottnal Can r obbunnd `NaAluig
gus
alp.
pAep/E

buru
-
EVb/d
/p e -Pp/vpld
Ae
-Bp. od/vb

p.A. e
-ppd/vp

pd/Vb
p.A -
 byd
Ppd/v
e
- O
do pA

uice
d In

Bpd/Vb
In p.A

Ppd Vb
d e
n
p.A
-
Ouwuan In k
e
P pd/Vb
PA -
p
Dpd/v
 Apd e Bpd/vb
K
-
n

n Apd pal
V

V p - (
In pdIk
PHuhahng V wYtoko ped
nd ond
esuahng ko
d
n Apo
d lpd) k
B
Bpa
ln Ap) k

B. ln Apd

( Ppd
. In pd

apd) n Ppd

n Ape

pd e

(pd)= e k
A (19
(mi e.kB3

(a6
p' Mas
whdl unll t (tu buldeum Vlaae
Cas at P T6o tou

S'C,A: 15/m, D 360/cm d mm 1.Sxio

mn
V B pd pd 760 x .

ln DpA 76 hauum

36o x 76
562S.6 V
InSx76
n
+
1.SxI 4

Pb:2 hak is h
miumum snu am
Ou
aben 4 Nthac
vrtAage

x 2718x In
 oMA 61
oudeum n Non- uuhomulds Cnc
ancl Coonaa
Coicna
Id h eldire uld i dischaua
ntoum
oum, a
lacus idti
Uadual
va
a auos a nulanhe
qopaduus a
La donum
bLadoum
f h um a dka Co
Chp
spak wnthou On
Auminaly
*On t ofu hand tha uld s nom-
disthaas.
nuan wwhom an
vaLage, |
»t Caun aa di'
cisthare
( h Qato sthaua
Gpnua u n bs uTTh
culd ranil, namudy at hthst
Shanp nras
hap nnts
+Dis m duisthaug is
Calluo (ohgma
Gnd
atcompaniid wth uish custhaugc
luminanu
+isshq nnse + Ouia Sunoun din q ona KaAtm
cnutlid nto 02o

Comideualti nout oss tuamissit

 duleiiutahon C mulahon du fo Ccmbunkd atheme
bomadmunt q fcm anol Chummal Cnorunds am
fame
dune ountha

adio Uke nu

ac (whona
uoeuunt L d to
nuoduu vSual
n a l al a
Conduto SuYau Calle
tha CoAoma
AGshton ld Can pro9w
(h
a a uuntw q aduus

E o md +0.3o
da
m 5umu
(Mmgmaula, A: Aedus
Lunvty doA onoo h ouau)
q Condu
(onducko
d Oonu'al CyLhdea
(tnnu Aadun
haduun n)

E 3lmd
t0.3o8
Vda
d o
63
cdany oMuthon
d 0.3a2b
Clhmasphuur DALSS wL
243+T
T: p ti C

*+VCdanila vlona
CoAona
unioum
unidum bluish uhula
hua Shuath
Shath
CUUA k enha
-VU tudaila SuMau (
edbish nduk
lowny Spoty
TIT

cu dou
(OLtma
Spocang d
aat Smau spaurq, (I). ud is
bd uyrm anc
vdlac maunly durud on
Spaun
pauna
SpaLunap is
h wwam
baltedeun g deruà gn
Ond Sph duameta
Sphu duiamtu
aunqd
c)T (aa spaunq) udd
uie s
non
Non wonm
wonm
(tu bualt doun is
phudad by (oAtma,
(oAtna, ond
is Ccnkiattud
Suwnu Th (oAGna (nunhon
n aho
VGe maundy dunand» Om Sph iamul

nVehqakono honl plane Uaps

thal uhun ai Snowo
Shourc
onL i
neqann CuAna appral 0
wwnl uo Callld
1uchel Pures
puwrn nd u
pehhomn hun udun tnuan
pplud Va isntLnl nd .
nt wth
 nounl n
esihv COAGna Cunt
Aapidy n Clan wntk
A alu whith Noe
ge uplo lo

C ACmu uund uth ephhom

ny abas
abat
KH Ccrmpoted Smal ouunb,
ounn. This
is onm
om
CUACna is Coulud bwwh (olona Th awuaye CE
hun nteas tadt t h oppluo Yq

k bLaLLdoum lLadsiq
buauedoum in
nm-Uu,um ud
n Nm -uwfoum uld, Suth a

unclaas) nont-plau, Sphu planu , ha applad

uld aLe aUoS3 (h qab

Stmlaly,owsend o taischon Cc6but

no vais nh ehu q in Gwn Sends
kCa, n
Clwim rbung d he
d
dx
 nsenob aleuom ferbuau clewn

]-i
Mtc anol Raelhu aho dncuenad (h
n-AUom ld Wuakodour nAuU to Same
hu Skran

luey, and Mck eahon Jat h Adiad dld

a thu hiad o awalanch shen han CLoSc

iDtonu 1 mocyud a

i e d
L

1/2
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IS
FuNal Tha head awalanh
IfA Can pe9sun.
Apis
Jbasakdonwn Cuhena aE
 Adouhona
oshcation ourd duelaui
o0) 9Aanwfotmu oil
b) bynthetie hudocoahons
cchloralid hupuocanhos
d) Siliton oil
e) est

Eluikcalopies
7 eis vil O -m
*** **** ***** ** '*

> C- pcdas Aiapuiol - E«( 4 )

> imithvilt walii Is 78 at

5.0 aL (MHa

PAmithivit is h anw a malunals

eludsre l d
akility &8to on
ti (

the medium
ndasizahon
p-elaMd
npddnkd

ndaonsahon by an
applid
elscbe

pdas
Cenlis ma
pusvhn change
cloes o
Counudu wnth Ccnla
hm-no{as ma gahw

Ceru
Jchaa
0SqmmelM
posin
o s h (hakeyes Conudu Sha
mh ( conl mass
gatv Chal
 iquad Dieluuo nydhotarhonS 4
Mixlwie
a
g
dnqud Ddk wtakly redaizp
*
ood dueeise aenu
ellLsl hual tuannu Chouatlinsh
Chtu(ally Aeclfe | Aang Cncukico unde
Auhch th upomet peaas)

a) udutal PAonah

(1) Copouane qu ud youme oA)

Its 9slahve rumutivnly o u c l n - d to 2.7
5ten t o 73
(u) ui Shi m nda qud- E
hdas uqud - E dupund
aderunt g Ha,
() Aoss
m
t
tango (Ean S) 6) \ n adol
wch is n
tndicahon hwu loss Asneluu
ac Vg
opyltahun (loat o'l, loal 10' 7
alhyk aunth sBan high elucka s
Shm.
dinndon acmi and moluadal
Auk uqad be4
Ev/AnER hennnu 0.01.
wala Atbucws
elcalSBangth olo/.
of d ol velu 0
 (b tat Aareu thauacleuShen

-hual is uanJmd by (crurtch on me h o

Lndu nadmad chmaSphue Cooung emp enal+uu

CCnAtchom

Nfc/u]
k thunal Ccnduuchmly A Co-ebbuent
enansion
CSpeehe hual uu vis Co5iy
0 S -0.33.
no k(), kgh () T b n
OUt
Ovt'
C) ChmLal SlalLl

n Seainu qui d a
.bulid l
Kce malusTa
O, ualu, hbu, 4a d
Sd
diccrnoihen pAo ouels a
Ruwlahom.
adahon q 0 5ulk ap 4 Scud
auck CuhAosin
naiarunl , huak uanje
delerionahen 9 elueld
4nethe daclului,
dunhan duui .
 COn duchon and Biaudoum tn cmaruaal qud
(choo
noB
Chuwall u l Gnd ha puuhu
obuhbln 6umpanded chds
tt
y mpuhy uu h bucucdosn sltenq th

L.9. occes emissicn Q adduhcnal qanes

yanes and
anel

bubhus,
5oid
dacomnosihcn uodutt trmud
Etduode de Swau AseComuo Ann fumod
aA
enplosrve Sound, a hald d to
C uohon Ampubun emus
ough hu
uguid
- dependo
-

nali and
CCnduhcn
Ccnduhen q (tu
elkciocde
eltocte
phupicel tonduken e
piCal
tFuuqid
Aane
igpud
 Tuis u is diludad owas d» uas 9
makumuum Suess, E ,

Ann

a ubbles ae

o
gEEE,, hu etu w on thu
alea onwd Stuss.
Scud
DCAc, no ahds pinunl a aAn
le.

h
Muy Astcome aliqmad du b (fe u s and (us

om a ghate chain loudancg (h eucdaode

unn
Cunng a bucuudoum Astluen
oluaodu
elaodu

un ga Cenduthnq pash elncent

bclucan tk
un to ocal ud enhanumnt eluaodes
m jt Sharu. durndun
(i dd tud, ta
bale oltrun Buenqth
q tha Lgud occdluouc oloum OCC OCcw rea
tu mnhde Anulhnq dmahen ubbus
Ca kubhl
lAad ukalenm uqud
 Xauqu th Si hu h doh
unqth

Cssak Couilahion ond ttu Buhblu (tuiy Makks

oumanlally obsaund th ma quan thu
Ladoun skength cund C
muui d hydaus tah
wmule
Umule ) Chonge phan mduum trwind
LoLdtun (Awm (o4) ud CVcnau
bubblu
Gumd Aneoble Lcdeun.

DAOCem unen Sist fua vanou bubble

a
ucleky ak au eluchooles
eluuostake apul dotauiuen
Chug h mau Suhuunt to CNUm
Sou ion

auou duuls clu ks

dussocaahon
qwd motecudu Asa Couision
elucun
Vanoui2ahon ruad hy (uona n
cinhaae V
cm
Shau noints (lgulash m
eckoode Swlau
 3
bubbk m d -elnqalu (h a diuch on a
uchon
elune ld ndu ha Aswnce eluuoshah e
euoshah e

Vokumu bubble AtmainS Ccnohan dunui a

9 den goho
rcu An tha (hu
vqe dhup alcng
alon g F
ngh a h bobblu Kscomes rual to lhu
minimum
aluue n hu 1anthun's uaur

The ball douun uld Nn b

(Eg
- 5utau kronon
4iquid
Amhna qud

- u muthunly 9a0 ubbu

A is tM Uuhad Aodus
e bubhl amumua
V( a
phu
yag daup bubble
(o nendi e
oochuw u ), d
 Jhu's lkioy deonol tata nko a cceuk (hu
Aouhe
Cnhal bobble and hnu, (hu un uths Gun m thi

ague nth exrumutdl resull

Lo y dlur n

Calulalad
Badoun Jungh dspands
Oon thu nthd 51 h
.8 ubbl shuch ln tuun
.4 epeumuntal
AsHenad youo Stah e

1.o Owmur Emualiu

2 o0
7 ( iqid
Hy duustah
L u ((b/mt9
Thaumal Muhanis m c Maa
buuaeolnur
Bnaltdlown undu punad Conduhons u
(huLma baodoun
eplaunu=
enplaunne
This mhanism oanna on (ha
txpeumentall
oJosevakormo exhumuyd laun Ct u ktn buan
Ther high pus as Arluend s
Ouiounal& mcus tpic aunhono
Gn Cahod Suuhaa uth dunmh
0uu
Onels A/tm
/tm
 h e hueh t 75
puw r ur
heahng h al ANhuh may ead ko (
Autalud
mehen Vong
ouste
Th Vonouk bubblu
eds lo Jlum
a
rmud hun hu
h
erugy
hun vonou bobl oat
ealku taum trumud, 0Lucolorun
rmu hNLucelorurn
iw eangahon to aa lous
whun it Cnhta
cahtal Se
Snhe o
Compluely huidaes tiu cjap rwtan
elttn
Jn eku Ca, dunode
elunodu.
t uu Auwult tà ha
Acc Lo tk's rmahun
dpund on
oundo on puesL and
muhanam, ia
buadoun Stunh
moluula SuutL Sbunyth
q h
(h

s (sy is
pplttalt only
Opplttalta Gnuy alat Vt Snmaull
ungth Eluo m) and cloun Smal
n eoplain hu
eeplain u ndhushtn
nduht
alduun 8uh
JwNthNUeard
b66ceu Ch Mastac ontnt om Buadoum
encyth
u d dululio MasHA
*\n quual a n
amaunt a mosl
must uke
ue and vy
vuy
Cununl walu

max aumaunl unl bo ppm al an

akmcsphe
Tmpeul q abou 30c oy s ,
Lwales.didaul Stingth
A Aod
inperaliau, wali is distabulad as
mwli Wali
globulo, huLos at high
wali tqu bil uahrng umu
knpeualins(> po't
q walu bobblus
Ande qud
wad qlobulo (o) Vongn bobbls, uduus dulullie

2 50 Sireth

Bov 6 d6mmn

So

mrislu Ccnknk
 StAGkd il Noume huA Mouls
In Commenual
uquid, huu a
muuub Ua
umuuhe au pwwnt, h Laltdoum Stungt ts

dutuniud by F Aaugub possible unpuaily e

wtau nk "

Sakshcally,
eluural buadtrun
5hungt
Oilis cutnud b he uratuwt tgin t ol
omuy thu igson huh isStussed ko maxunum
nomuly
thal uon.
n non
wnuoun uld hu Skes9tkd nl
Voun is toltun Vrtum hh Conkaurued
Atuun marunum Stuess tmax)
Contru A Ema
AcLodLhe ka's (fy bakdoun
stungth is
tuuly Menouhonad Sussead ol Votune
Thu bMadum vorlhaay highly
tr Ccnlkat
nluunud
luunnd
qa tha il, fhu viscodity ha
ol Cnd u nacnu olh Ansuyhe
 h bung untunly dustlrid, n uLand
d
ru Slunud al una Con qnly tnulbs
Aaautkom ualaltnun vej

now an |So)
S T u n
ac buucloun SstKis s
kVlun)
ana Unthicn 8tesuol
vdume
1.0 1o lo
Shády Aial Na
5tSse nl Vutumu cc)
mui Aunlhalánct
Conclusion list
dacwsauwo
*Cl tthu fucues abart do
nol Connidu ((ha
darundanu q bnauodown ATangh cn
gep kength.
Th au y k aCOunl maximum
oblauhalu Aualcdoun StA h orl
hHovuu, xpuumutal tundenu Shous
shous hat
thak
buaudeun Sungth ffu eyuel darund, o
Cap lungth
d94 lah A Cnsd n Cooh alwa n han
 The buucdoun Va alno edernd cm th
nal hi
Vge, modle u h h Cha applid
i applid, and th Aua
appltcahon
quid»
-
ai h onu huch
henicaly stalu
a

nd do not Ccntain any oh (ashu d

ampuuhts eaen
Mae o i lo1A tultuually sumple
x n- fuxnu
CCH4)
uptanu (7th) 4
ofhu aalta
By7 ung pulu
-
hydutahom
iqud, its tanith to
Nain muuhaism3 eat
Conduche ond
ond blualdoun
km Laludoun
Cammutally awailt sgwel, nok chumutally
pu, CnLaiin Cempux
mxt
Axhvt Connol Art moecde
eaoidyryu 0)
t 6uc epeunUh. uoduuo
CCnduuchom nd Buauelaum n u Alguis

utaho
push
duwt mai'stue, dissodd grises
u' mpuruhs
Dutahon muthod
lahon (entugng
duishilahom humital uakmnl dqaskuiqA
,

Puwt pohe chasgeed, pol Cayuu ehitkahon

uquid onlaun menstu and u s3 oturel

Bd
oui'shlakon and degassthq.
Jonic umpusuhts (ex watiu
VaNou)> Coily
eail
>Raad bo high du's a 'souali
Coduthunly d
hushrre
agunn NaccuLm uyuig
DAucuedoun teob»

elutaodua - Syhne auangul

olia 0 5 to l n

5pauny loo doo nm (u6I mm

enligtud by uomitu

eludaode Auyau smooth nthrt an Ovojte

kuyau
n Coahig
VaR 50-loo kV,

adoun sUylh mVcm

d Ccnduthm -
mho/ m
Cnduchon A BAnaelnun MAD
EIKVln Agn lo-1O
mhol
Atbaldy dus to Agnnuuk

(F> loo KVlun),t not only (nuuane,

but adho Aundeuao UolulJuttuakm, Ahuth
AMII i doun ahla Scm tuma.
 Ccncuchtm

ct

Eluckit tud (v[um)

Ccnduuken

dd cadadd
cublta
wt)
Salaharn
/lm'e

> ck is d b disassowahon iom

Lnkum dtali Juld
C uahid Saluuahtn
gn uld
d aucdud
eluudion emis S7an
Cathoda qut mulhplud om Ih
y a ounsenâs
u
Chmulhptahbn OcCu ak ( uhan) m
nau uautd tnnuuhen
(L, hll 6uaudoun ocCn
 83
h e emack uchanum Cwwwnk Owth tnol
AOun. Howuu apnuar hat eknaono CU uali d

hy em (cdhookd ld tMS icn elachns

The elacuns mulhpitahon PAom is Simila
ko ongkndb namady A Secon day ou sahon Mouss

he tru buadonn uld is app vathaol,

Cuucnh lowth wm dua o ue'ss Suulas

ko Atma lowsahon Auss anol alno nosihri (om

chun
cthung eaacns
Ccdhoda qunuelis dlconday da aons
d
dun k buautdaum.

h Ouaedoun e oarund num ld

o auehcm, Casshoda wo unthon A npetali

iqid
Also qud vise0Sily
mdaudn SUueli
quid
a h guid ano
Rnlunta (h bAaadgun Sueyh a iGud
 n uane D Stanyh H h duissutnd qonr
o eucdkoregahu qanu)

The tCALan h qud hyoo staht

nuLan a audoum stunyth.

Hyouoslah' PAssa tb/cm)

aukel
 Bauacdoun un sdid duelekr

Cnood dlucla PAzptl

hiqh duleli sth

igh mthaual suth

o mom mens u
e i s t c a l lo ttuma aned chaml dekuotien.

The melhonism c ALucclun CCmpl» n 6t4 d

Jnbunsi Crulonu ( uatrdoun

aormuthomted (DLate cleum

reuilucu duu o hq and hectui4
humal oleloun
EckieP Chemitd bwelelcrun
aucedown du nunal disthanqes
ntuisi 5leaudoum Mang
Whun Notlag a
a-ppid nl do a
Shoal duuahen oAdu lo
Sud VU
nuwus
opidly
to a upr
u Caled ntuisic Etdu StAnqth
 umunlally (hx hghust d u i t Beng
st obtaunid ket
ndy ndu exrumeatel Ccndhen
(uhue au exluauous nunu hcuwt rtan dalad ano

Fu Valu olernd» G on tha Abudui e h maliud

Lncd rmaualtinu

maxumum euclicad Bhaength uoaoleol u

5 MV/m et pol vnyl alohel al - 196'. h marmu

Bungh Uuall oblauialt Angeo o5 MVlm lo

o Mvlcm
nunsic, decuomuthortel

SULam

hunal

Stunsh
Uoion 4
eleho chmteA

nuisi buueloun odnendn n

eNnu
h elclens hch a Canale q
mgtch om
mlchCn
ough bu athu
fu
 5 u d uaol Imperfechens A Amall amougt e

mpusuhw
Smal no cg Ccnduth cn euicns
mpu a o m / meucul o both)

acto a a aap dor Condushen eltun &pto Cukain

cduai utd and tempelkuu

h h Aangu a excadeo, adduheno cleeaca

nn adduhen opred elliay tnu l learud 4

uu luctcs aahüpal nh Cenduuhcn uoles,

Eludact Naloncha (wu)

(Aeodun amu buntdenm
cgrc oueolorun MaRA
dd occu n tum Q OAdun el6S
unu 5Lauccloun is CcUun a
elLetkonu
elubT

nolwu.
uhal diny { Conduthon u) duckens
u
Sao amumd k
Jauey aned eluuen- elslion
Ccllision OCCLO
 hen Eis coplud elcun gau erg
eluubue duld, nd CoSy u bclden entgg 9cp

Valana oCcnduchen hand

on h
mo
hs AC cUm (s r u l idl mou
Whun
Ccnuchen band
Astcomu (wculckte An Ch
eltacas
iNtiluoll Recduig bkcutcel.oun

Avalanthu (0) 5ttcmu (baucdoun MR

OAAaLLolorun
Cumulohut leri 2ahm
Ccnduchen elcliny ga S ant eer

oubon a Celain Cuha ekudoucal lda Coun

xbauaha eluuas m (h aha adom b

Ccusit
ndu pm l d (ndthea
eluaocl, als embndecd Cn th ruami, beoLoloum

un OCCen a n an elcaen olanch

oudaen t
uctoda
/Nal Conauthvit4 soct drelu cduit is 30o
n
paahu, houunh, ou Caystal Cankai
tmneechn n musSing
tmuuhen
 Stahnq m .
eoup lonauds anods

uunq (hu mchcm i qauns eneigy on 4

Jld & luses dtun g Colusico

hu a elucluon
1 uned cketed rud (
athi c (en,.ahen huhahal, 0n ddduhonal ecdin
wnt usuaud duu k Cousicn G hs elctac
eleckacn

Aaudom O(CLOU wn th
osclanche C cady
Cuuau Guhd Si.

n In Aocky, d OCLOs catn May

Ouadonchu.

walanthe talrtnd
Anum h malua
 mpu Va, pont- lene elsuode

15

1 tnchpb
G. ol c h n
huumuu pulhy 1o

Chantb edud 16
Aad cC Ccl neiae n nuky -L
9(onih
2L meehanial 5ieeuccou
Mall
h duiue maliucd ubyucad
ccliu ulo Chaug
ubyucud
b hmsu nala caul
dud t he lio cpnosuaoe h
maliual
 fCae uc ttachon i dautlepud Cael

cLenis Subpud o elucltos ahe Conpues)v

Ond (hun (huu ulu {reid (h
ruchauu ek
Anhskad
A hsLancd
SUch eh (h maldial hu mollucd Cotlensen
c hd uleness d Commd ucCAUn
uctenm
poud vthkagg
Cconlen Sucm dauloraod duu to cluelu Juo
F Eo ¬ V
2

aloch d
Atthi Secem
lcchard sluth s
Y-younas madulu

tn ded
ndu euililauum Condukon

(n do
o
 In

d n do
D hahrq unth uopet o o

d d In d -d de
do ol

do.d d
n dela2
-
dol 1.6

o/d0.6bo

uduuhen un ten
Contn mol than Ao

0.bo clo -(10

 1
V
n
d
LEofo
/.b0do
Nd In 1.
o . 9 4 0 0

d oGY
do |Eoa

dspund nen henucd gues

Truidbuy cCh
nSlalnidaopOtung dua lower
CAuCo ild
Caoy Cqnoud u
(fu Aheek gten
slton
Conuaahon a inegedatthe hoh

aecuccdcun du lo MaR
euiq Ond
d Atlenq
unak ( Chau un s1 Suyth
uscdcch unte
gbuyth
tha hain
hotd duleeli
moutaduhq qa
neciast
 Basic Definitions
Disruptive Discharge Voltage
 This is defined as the voltage which produces the loss of
dielectric strength of an insulation. It is that voltage at which the
electrical stress in the insulation causes a failure which includes the
collapse of voltage and passage of current.

 In solids, this causes a permanent loss of strength, and in liquids

or gases only temporary loss may be caused.

 When a discharge takes place between two electrodes in a gas

or a liquid or over a solid surface in air, it is called flashover. If the
discharge occurs through a solid insulation it is called puncture.
 Basic Definitions
Withstand Voltage
 The voltage which has to be applied to a test object under
specified conditions in a withstand test is called the withstand
voltage [as per IS: 731 and IS: 2099-1963].
Fifty Per Cent Flashover Voltage
 This is the voltage which has a probability of 50% flashover, when
applied to a test object. This is normally applied in impulse tests in
which the loss of insulation strength is temporary.
Hundred Per Cent Flashover Voltage
 The voltage that causes a flashover at each of its applications
under specified conditions when applied to test objects is specified
as hundred per cent flashover voltage.
 Basic Definitions
Creepage Distance
 It is the shortest distance on the contour of the external surface
of the insulator unit or between two metal fittings on the insulator.
AC Test Voltage
 Alternating test voltages of power frequency should have a
frequency range of 40 to 60 Hz and should be approximately
sinusoidal.
 The deviation allowed from the standard sine curve is about 7%.
 The deviation is checked by measuring instantaneous values over
specified intervals and computing the rms value, the average value,
and the form factor.
 Basic Definitions
CAP & PIN INSULATOR

CREEPAGE DISTANCE
CAP & PIN INSULATOR
 Basic Definitions
Type Test
 Type tests are intended to prove or check the design features and
the quality.
 Type tests are done on samples when new designs or design
changes are introduced.
Routine Test
 The routine tests are intended to check the quality of the
individual test piece
 The routine tests are done to ensure the reliability of the
individual test objects and quality and consistency of the materials
used in their manufacture
 Testing of Insulators
Power Frequency Tests
a) Dry and Wet Flashover Tests
 In these tests the a.c. voltage of power frequency is applied
across the insulator and increased at a uniform rate of about 2 per
cent per second of 75% of the estimated test voltage, to such a value
that a breakdown occurs along the surface of the insulator.
 If the ,test is conducted under normal conditions without any rain
or precipitation, it is called "dry flashover test”
 If the test is done under conditions of rain, it is called "wet
flashover test".
 Testing of Insulators
Power Frequency Tests
a) Dry and Wet Flashover Tests
 In general, wet tests are not intended to reproduce the actual
operating conditions, but only to provide a criterion based on
experience that a satisfactory service operation will be obtained.
 The test object is subjected to a spray of water of given
conductivity by means of nozzles
 The spray is arranged such that the water drops fall
approximately at an inclination of 45° to the vertical
 Tests on Insulator
 Power Frequency Tests
 Testing of Insulators
Power Frequency Tests
a) Dry and Wet Flashover Tests
 The test object is sprayed for at least one minute before the
voltage application, and the spray is continued during the voltage
application.

 The conductivity of water corrected to 2O 0C = 100 ±15 micro

Siemens
 Testing of Insulators
Power Frequency Tests
b) Wet and Dry Withstand Tests (One Minute)

 In these tests, the voltage specified in the relevant specification is

applied under dry or wet conditions for a period of one minute with
an insulator mounted as in service conditions.

 The test piece should withstand the specified voltage.

 Testing of Insulators
Impulse Tests
a) Impulse Withstand Tests
 This test is done by applying standard impulse voltage of
specified value under dry conditions with both positive and negative
polarities of the wave.
 If five consecutive waves do not cause a flashover or puncture,
the insulator is deemed to have passed the test.
 If two applications cause flashover, the object is deemed to have
failed
 Testing of Insulators
Impulse Tests
a) Impulse Withstand Tests
 If there is only one failure, additional ten applications of the
voltage wave are made.
 If the test object has withstood the subsequent applications, it is
said to have passed the test.
b) Impulse Flashover Tests
 The test is done with reference to the specified voltage. Usually,
the probability of failure is determined for 40% and 60% failure
values or 20% and 80% failure values, since it is difficult to adjust the
test voltage for the exact 50% flashover values.
 Tests on Insulator

 Impulse Tests
 Tests on Insulator
 Impulse Tests
 Testing of Insulators
Impulse Tests
b) Impulse Flashover Tests
 The average value of the upper and the lower limits is taken.
 The insulator surface should not be damaged by these tests, but
slight marking on its surface or chipping off of the cement is allowed.
 Testing of Insulators
Pollution Testing
 The normal types of pollution are
(i) dust, micro-organisms, bird secretions, flies, etc.,
(ii) industrial pollution like smoke, petroleum vapours, dust, and
other deposits,
(iii) coastal pollution in which corrosive and hygroscopic salt
layers are deposited on the insulator surfaces,
(iv) desert pollution in which sand storms cause deposition of
sand and dust layers,
(v) ice and fog deposits at high altitudes and in polar countries
 Testing of Insulators
Pollution Testing
 These pollutions cause corrosion, non-uniform gradients along the
insulator strings and surface of insulators and also cause
deterioration of the material.
 Also, pollution causes partial discharges and radio interference.
Hence, pollution testing is important for extra high voltage
systems.
 At present there is no standard pollution test available.
 The popular test that is normally done is the “salt fog test”
Power Engineering Problems
Insulator String
Power Engineering Problems
Pollution Flashover

Bird Droppings Burning of Industrial Pollution

Agricultural Waste
 Tests on Insulator
 Pollution Tests
Power Engineering Problems
Pollution Flashover
 Testing of Insulators
Pollution Testing
 In this test, the maximum normal withstand voltage is applied on
the insulator and then artificial salt fog is created around the
insulator by jets of salt water and compressed air.
 If the flashover occurs within one hour, the test is repeated with
fog of lower salinity, otherwise, with a fog of higher salinity.
 The maximum salinity at which the insulator withstands three out
of four tests without flashover is taken as the representative figure
 Much work is yet to be done to standardize the test procedures.
 Testing of Cables
Preparation of the cable samples

 For over-voltage and withstand tests, samples

have to be carefully prepared and terminated.
Otherwise, excessive leakage or end flashovers may
occur during testing.

 The normal length of the cable sample used varies

from about 50 cm to 10 m.

 The terminations are usually made by shielding

the end conductor with stress shields.
 Testing of Cables
Preparation of the cable samples

 During power factor rests, the cable ends are

provided with shields so that the surface leakage
current is avoided from the measuring circuits.
 Testing of Cables
Dielectric Power Factor Test

 Performed using high voltage Schering bridge.

 The power factor or dissipation factor tanδ is

measured at 0.5, 1.0, 1.66, and 2.0 times the rated
voltage (phase to ground) of the cable.

 The maximum value of power factor and the

difference in power factor between the rated
voltage and 1.66 times the rated voltage, as well
as, between the rated voltage and 2.0 times of the
rated voltages are specified.
 Testing of Cables
Dielectric Power Factor Test

 Source – difficulty – supplying the charging

voltamperes of the cable from the available source.

 To overcome, a choke is used or a suitable rated

transformer winding is used in series with the
cable to form a resonant circuit.

 This improves the ‘pf’ and raises the test voltage

between the cable core and the sheath to the
required value, when high voltage and high
capacity is used.
 Testing of Cables
High Voltage Test on Cables

 Cables are tested for withstand voltages using the

power frequency ac, dc, and impulse voltages.

 At the time of manufacture, the entire cable is

passed through a high voltage test at the rated
voltage to check the continuity of the cable.

 As a routine test, the cable is tested applying an

ac voltage
 Testing of Cables
a) Partial Discharge Measurement
 Partial discharge measurements and the discharge locations are
important for cables, since the life of the insulation at a given
voltage stress depends on the internal discharges.
 Also, the weakness of the insulation or faults can be detected with
the help of these tests; the portion of the cable if weak may be
removed, if necessary.
 Testing of Cables
a) Partial Discharge Measurement
 Testing of Cables
a) Partial Discharge Measurement
 Testing of Cables
a) Partial Discharge Measurement
 If the detector is connected through a coupling capacitor to one
end of the cable as in Fig. 10.7a.
 it will receive the transient travelling wave directly from the cavity
towards the nearer end, and after a short lime, a second travelling
wave pulse reflected from the far end is observed
 Thus, the detected response is the combination of the above two
transient pulses
 But, if the connections are made as in Fig. 107b, no severe
reflection is involved except as a second order effect of negligible
magnitude
 Testing of Cables
a) Partial Discharge Measurement
 Now two transients will arrive at both the ends of the cable, and
the superposition of the two pulses is detected. This can be
obtained by adding the responses of the two transients.

 The superposition's of the two responses may give rise to a serious

error in the measurement of the discharge magnitude

 The magnitude of the possible error may be determined mainly by

the shape of the response of the discharge detector
 Testing of Cables
a) Location of Discharges
 The voltage dip caused by a discharge at a fault or a void is
propagated as a travelling wave along the cable.
 This wave is detected as a voltage pulse across the terminals of the
cable ends.
 By measuring the time duration between the pulses, the distance
at which the discharge is taking place from the cable end can be
determined.
 The shapes of the voltage pulses depend on the nature of the
discharges.
 Testing of Cables
b) Location of Discharges
Testing of Cables
Testing of Cables
 Typical waveshapes are given in
Fig. 10.8.
 The detection circuits for the
pulses are shown in Fig. 10.9,
and the attenuation of the
travelling wave in cables is given
in Fig. 10.10.
 Usually, the pulses detected
across the resistor are distorted
after passing through the
amplifier of the discharge
detector.
 Impulse Testing of Transformer
 The purpose of the impulse tests is to determine the ability of the
insulation of the transformers to withstand the transient voltages
due to lightning, etc.
 Since the transients are impulses of short rise time, the voltage
distribution along the transformer winding will not be uniform

Equivalent circuit of
Transformer Winding for
Impulses
 Impulse Testing of Transformer
 Impulse testing of transformers is done using both the full wave
and the chopped wave of the standard impulse, produced by a rod
gap with a chopping time of 3 to 6 µs.

 To prevent large overvoltages being induced in the windings not

under test, they are short circuited and connected to ground

 But the short circuiting reduces the impedance of the transformer

and hence poses problems in adjusting the standard waveshape of
the impulse generators.

 It also reduces the sensitivity of detection.

 Impulse Testing of Transformer
a) Procedure for Impulse Testing

 In transformer winding for impulses testing, it is essential to

record the waveforms of the applied voltage and current through
the windings under test.
Impulse Testing of Transformer
 Impulse Testing of Transformer
a) Procedure for Impulse Testing

 Impulse testing is done in the following sequence:

 It is very important to see that the grounding is proper and the

windings not under test are suitably terminated.
 Generally, impulse tests are made on line terminal of the winding,
one terminal at a time
 Impulse Testing of Transformer
a) Procedure for Impulse Testing
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Electrical Characteristics of CB

 The arcing voltage

 The current looping characteristics
 The residual current
 The rate of decrease of conductance of the arc
space and the plasma, and
 The shunting effects in interruption.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Physical Characteristics of CB

 Physical characteristics of the medium on

which the arc extinguished.
 The pressure developed or impressed at the
point of arc interruption
 The speed of contact travel
 The number of breaks
 The size of arcing chamber
 The material and configuration of the circuit
interruption.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Tests

 Dielectric and Over-voltage test

 The temperature rise test
 The mechanical tests
 The short circuit test
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Dielectric Test

 Consists of over-voltage withstand tests of power

frequency, lightning and switching impulse
voltages.

 Tests are done for both internal and external

insulation of circuit breaker in both closed and
open condition.

 In open position, test voltages are 15% higher than

the test voltages when the CB in closed condition.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Dielectric Test

 To avoid Line-Ground flashover, CB are mounted

above the ground level using support insulator or
post insulator. Hence the insulation level of the
body of the circuit breaker is raised.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
The Impulse Test

 The impulse tests with the lightning impulse wave

of standard shape are done in a similar manner as
in the case of insulator.

 In addition, the switching surge tests with

switching over-voltage are done on circuit breaker
and isolator to assess their performance under
over-voltages due to switching operations.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Temperature Rise and Mechanical Test

 Are type tests on circuit breaker and are done

according to the specifications.

Short-Circuit Tests

 Most important test

 These tests assess the primary performance of

these devices i.e their ability to safely interrupt
the fault currents.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Short-Circuit Tests

 These tests consists of determining the making and

breaking capacities at various load currents and
rated voltages.

Types

1. Direct Test
2. Synthetic Test
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Direct Test

 Directing testing in the networks or in the fields

 CB are tested for their ability to make or break the

circuit under normal conditions or under short
circuited conditions in the network itself.

 This is done during period of limited energy

consumption.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Direct Test

 Advantages of Field Test

 CB is tested under actual conditions like those

that occur in a given network.

 Special occasions like breaking of charging

currents of long lines, very short line faults,
interruption of small inductive currents etc. can be
tested by direct testing only.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Direct Test

 Advantages of Field Test

 To assess the thermal and dynamic effects of

short circuit currents, to study applications of
safety devices, and to revise the performance test
procedure etc.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Direct Test

 Disadvantages of Field Test

 The CB can be tested at only a given rated

voltage and network capacity

 The necessity to interrupt the normal services

and to test only at light load conditions

 Inconvenience and expenses in installation of

controlling and measuring equipment in the field.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
 In Short-Circuit Test Laboratories

 In order to test the CB at different voltages and

at different short circuit currents, short circuit
laboratories are provided.

 Consists of short circuit generator in association

with master circuit breaker, resistor, reactors, and
measuring device.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
In Short-Circuit Test Laboratories
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
 In Short-Circuit Test Laboratories

 Make switch initiates the short circuit and the

master circuit isolates the test device from the
source at the end of a pre-determined time set on
a test sequence controller

 Master circuit breaker can be tripped if the test

device fails to operate properly.

 Short circuit generators with induction motors

as prime movers are also available.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Synthetic Testing of Circuit Breaker

 Due to very high interrupting capacities of circuit

breakers, it is not economical to have a single
source to provide the required short circuit and the
rated voltage.

 Hence, the effect of a short circuit is obtained as

regards to the intensity of the current and the
recovery voltage as a combination of the effects of
two sources, one which supplies the ac current and
other the high voltage.
Testing of Circuit Breaker
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Synthetic Testing of Circuit Breaker
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Synthetic Testing of Circuit Breaker
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Synthetic Testing of Circuit Breaker

 With the auxiliary breaker (4) and the test breaker

(T) closed, the closing of the making switch (1)
causes the current to flow in the test circuit
breaker.

 At some instant to, the test circuit breaker (T)

begins to operate and the master circuit breaker
(1) becomes ready to clear the generator circuit.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Synthetic Testing of Circuit Breaker

 At some instant t1 just before the zero of the

generator current, the trigger gap (6) closes and
the higher frequency current from the discharging
capacitor Cv also flows through the arc.

 At time t2 when the generator current is zero, the

circuit breaker (1) clears the circuit, leaving only
the current from Cv which has the required rate of
change of current at its zero flowing in the test
circuit breaker. At the zero of this current, full test
voltage will be available.
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Testing Procedure

The circuit breakers are tested for their (i) breaking

capacity B, and (ii) making capacity M. The circuit
breaker, after the calibration of the short circuit
generator, is tested for the following duty cycle

 B-3-B-3-B at 10% of the rated symmetrical breaking

capacity
 B-3-B-3-B at 30% of the rated symmetrical breaking
capacity
 B-3-B-3-B at 60% of the rated symmetrical breaking
capacity
 Testing of Circuit Breaker
Testing Procedure

The circuit breaker, after the calibration of the short

circuit generator, is tested for the following duty cycle

 B-3-MB-3MB-MB at 100% breaking capacity with

the recovery voltage not less than 95% of the rated
service voltage.

The power factor in these tests is generally between

0.15 and 0.3. The numeral 3 in the above duty cycle
indicates the time interval in minutes between the
tests.
 Testing of Surge Arrester
 High Current Impulse Test on Surge Diverters

 A high current impulse wave of 4/10 µs of peak value mentioned

in the specifications is applied to a spare unit of identical
characteristics.
 Two such applications are done on the units under test, allowing
sufficient time for the cooling of the unit to the room
temperature.
 The unit is said to pass the test, if
o The power frequency sparkover voltage before and
after the test does not differ by more than 10%,
 Testing of Surge Arrester
 High Current Impulse Test on Surge Diverters

 The unit is said to pass the test, if

o The voltage and current waveforms of the diverter do
not differ significantly in the two applications, and.
o The non-linear resistance elements in the diverter do
not show any sign of puncture or external flashover.
 Long Duration Impulse Current Test
 The circuit used for generating a rectangular impulse wave
consists of an artificial transmission line with lumped inductances
and capacitances.
 Testing of Surge Arrester
 Long Duration Impulse Current Test
 The duration of the current pulse / is given by 2(n -1) 𝐿𝐶, where
n is the number of stages or sections used, and L and C are the
inductance and capacitance of each unit.
 Rectangular wave is generated, if the surge impedance of the
𝐿
diverter is equal to √ , at the test current.
𝐶

 As per the specifications, 20 applications are made with specified

current in five groups
 The interval between the successive applications is about 1 min
 Testing of Surge Arrester
 Long Duration Impulse Current Test

 The diverter is said to have passed the test, if

o The power frequency sparkover voltage before and after
the application of the current wave does not differ by 10%
o The voltage across the diverter at the first and the last
application does not differ by more than 8%,
o There is no sign of puncture or other damage.