01

FEB.FEB,
19 2011
2012

Principles of Unit Protection:

Substation Protection (Reclosers,
Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters)
and Line Protection
•Configurations of Electrical Systems
•Bus-Bars Protections
•Substation Protections
•Distribution and Transmission Lines
Protection
TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 1

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 7, 2011

Principles of Unit Protection

• Unit Protection refers to the concept of dividing the circuits into discrete sections without
reference to the other sections.
• Each section is provided with relays and circuit breakers to allow for the detection and isolation
of its own faults, hence termed Main or Unit Protection.

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 01
FEB. 7, 2011

Back-up Protection

• Back-up Protection provide additional protection to ensure isolation of the fault when the
main protection fails to function correctly.
• Back-up protection must be at time delayed mode to allow for the selective isolation of the fault.

Differential Protection

• This protection compares the current entering and leaving the protected zone and operates when the
differential between these currents exceed a pre-determined magnitude.
• The sensitivity of protection will operate when the differential current is greater than 10% of the normal full load
current.
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FEB. 7, 2011

Types

1. Balanced circulating current system

Ba

External fault (stable)

Internal fault (operate)

• Used for generator, transformer and switchgear main

protection where it is convenient to readily access the
midpoint of the system.
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FEB. 7, 2011

Types (cont.)

2. Balanced voltage system

External fault (stable)

Internal fault (operate)

• Used for feeder protection where the CTs are mounted in different substation which are some distance apart.

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FEB. 7, 2011

Biasing

• The setting of the differential relay is consider to be more than or proportional to the worst spill current
likely to occur under through-fault conditions.
• It is necessary to adjust the operating level of the relay according to the total amount of fault current.
• It done by providing restraining winding or electromagnet which will carry the total fault current while an
operating electromagnet is to carry only the differential current.

Bias Application

Machine Differential Protection

Transformer Differential Protection
Switchgear Differential Protection
Feeder Pilot-Wire Protection

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(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
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FEB. 7, 2011

Faults Clearing Time

Operating times for the protection, excluding the breaker tripping and clearing time are generally of the following
order:
Machine differential --- few cycles
Transformer differential --- 10 cycles
Switchgear (busbar) differential --- 4 cycle
Feeder differential --- few cycles

Advantages of Unit Protection

• Fast and selective

It will only trip the faulty item of plant, thereby ensuring the elimination of any network disruptions.
• Easy to set
Because of its independency of whatever happens elsewhere on the system, maintenance and replacement is very
rare after installation.
• No time constraints
Time constraints imposed by the supply authorities do not become a major problem anymore.
• Machine operating flexibility
The system can be operated in any switching configuration without fear of loss of discrimination.
• Better continuity of supply
In many applications rings can be run closed, so that switching would not be necessary to restore loads resulting
in better continuity of supply.
• Future expansion relatively becomes easy
Any future expansion that may be implemented without any change to the existing protection.
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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 7

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 19 2011

Configurations of Electrical Systems

1. Radial Configuration
2. Ring type Configuration

Radial Configuration
The most general method of
classifying radial configuration
is the way electricity are fed
by the feeders. The same is
thru on how a dc distributors
are fed to the loads.
• Distributor fed at one end
• Distributor fed at both end
• Distributor fed at the center

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(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 19 2011

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 9

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 19 2011

Distributor fed at one end

In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply at one end and the
loads are taken at different points along the length of the distributor.

• The current in the various sections of the distributor away from the feeding point goes on decreasing.
• The voltage across the loads away from the feeding point goes on deceasing.
• In case of fault occurs on any section of the distributor, the whole distributor will have to be disconnected
from the supply mains. Therefore, continuity of supply is interrupted.

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FEB. 19 2011

Distributor fed at both end

In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply mains at both ends and
loads are tapped off at different points along the length of the distributor.

• The voltage at feeding points may or may not be equal.

• The minimum voltage occur at some load point and is never be fixed.
• If a fault occurs on any feeding point of the distributor, the continuity of supply is
maintained from the other feeding points.

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 01
FEB. 19 2011

Distributor fed at the centre

• In this type of feeding, the centre of the distributor is connected to the supply mains.
• It is equivalent to two singly fed distributors, each having a common feeding point
and the length equal to half of the total length.

Ring type Configuration

• In this type, the distributor is in the form of a
closed ring.
• It is equivalent to a straight distributor fed at
both ends with equal voltages, the two ends
being brought together to form a closed ring.
• The distributor ring may be fed at one or more
than one point.

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 12

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 19 2011

Thank You

Let’s discuss Bus-Bars Protection...

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 13

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 19 2011

Principles of Unit Protection:

Substation Protection (Reclosers,
Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters)
and Line Protection
•Configurations of Electrical Systems
•Bus-Bars Protections
•Substation Protections
•Distribution and Transmission Lines
Protection
TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 14

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 19 2011

Bus-Bars

• A conducting bar that carries heavy currents to supply several electric circuits.
• A busbar is a thick strip of copper or aluminium that conducts electricity within a switchboard,
distribution board, substation or other electrical apparatus. Busbars are used to carry very large
currents, or to distribute current to multiple devices within switchgear or equipment.

Causes of Faults
• Breakdown of insulation because
of over voltages
• Weakening of insulation because of aging
• Corrosion
• Failure of connected equipment

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(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
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FEB. 19 2011

Busbars are frequently left without protection due to the following:

• Low susceptibility to faults

• Rely on system back-up protection
• Too expensive to protect
• Problems with accidental operation
• Majority of faults are earth faults

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 16

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 19 2011

Busbar protection types

1. Frame leakage protection

This involves measurement of fault current from switchgear frame to earth. It consists of
a CT connected between frames to earth points and energizes an instantaneous ground
fault relay to trip the switchgear.

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 17

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 19 2011

Busbar protection types

2. Differential protection

3. Busbar blocking system

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 18

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 19 2011

Thank You
Let’s discuss Substation Potection before Distribution and
Transmission Lines Protection...
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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 19

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 15, 2011

Principles of Unit Protection:

Substation Protection (Reclosers,
Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters)
and Line Protection
•Configurations of Electrical Systems
•Bus-Bars Protections
•Substation Protections
•Distribution and Transmission Lines
Protection
TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 20

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 15, 2011

What is Substation?

•It is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system, where voltage
is transformed from high to low, or the reverse, or many other important functions.
• Electric power may flow through several substations between generating plant and
consumer, and may be changed in voltage in several steps.
• A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing the current,
while a step-down transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for domestic
and commercial distribution.
• The word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid. The
first substations were connected to only one power station where the generator was housed,
and were subsidiaries of that power station.

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 21

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FEB. 15, 2011

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FEB. 15, 2011

How does a substation work?

• Transformers ‘step down’ the

electricity from the high voltage
needed to economically
transmit the electricity.
• There are also complex circuit
breakers, switches, relays, and
capacitors.
• Substations have HUGE power
poles to bring in the high voltage
electricity.
• Substations are normally outdoors
and are enclosed by a wire fence.
However in residential or high
density areas, the substation may
be indoors and housed inside a
building to restrict the humming
noise of the huge transformers.

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 23

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 15, 2011

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 24

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 15, 2011

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 25

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
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FEB. 15, 2011

Why do we protect Substation?

• Step up and step down of the voltage for transmission and distribution:
As for the same power transmitted at a higher voltage the current is lower it results in lower transmission
losses, hence is the need of stepping up and stepping down the voltage.
• Switching and isolating the circuits for maintenance:
Switching is also an important function of substations. Closing down a feeder circuit when the load demands
are high needs to be done for the safety of the generating plants. Switching high voltages is a dangerous work,
and special circuit breakers like air circuit breakers and oil circuit breakers for quenching the arcs have to be
used.
• Load shedding:
When the power demand is more than the supply, the substations do load shedding on distribution circuits to
maintain balance.
• Correction of power factors circuits:
The power factor has to be kept at the correct value when reactive loads are there to protect the generating
plant and increase efficiency.
• Safety devices like circuit breakers and fuses:
These safety devices are provided for protecting the machineries on the distribution circuit as well as in the
substation against high short circuit currents.
• It contains bus bars for splitting the power for distribution:
Thick bars of copper to which various distributing circuits are connected by nuts and bolts are known as bus
bars.
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(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
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FEB. 15, 2011

Why do we have substations?

We need them to cheaply transfer electricity. Substations are a part of what we call essential
infrastructure. Railroads & bridges

Water & wastewater treatment

Streets & highways plants
Pipelines for natural gas
:& other chemicals
Radio, cell phone &
microwave towers

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(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
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FEB. 15, 2011

Substation Protection Equipments

and Practice

• Transformers
• Regulators
• Circuit breakers
• Reclosers
• Air disconnect switches
• Lightning arresters
• Electrical buses
• Capacitor banks
• Reactors
• Static VAR compensators
• Control building
• Preventive maintenance

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FEB. 15, 2011

Reclosers

Reclosers incorporate protective relaying equipment that can be programmed to trip at

specific overcurrent conditions and reclose at specific time intervals.

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FEB. 15, 2011

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(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
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FEB. 15, 2011

Air Disconnect Switches

Disconnect Switches are used to :

• isolate or de-energize equipment for maintenance purposes
• transfer load from one source to another in planned or emergency
conditions
• provide visual openings for maintenance personnel

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Lightning Arresters

Lightning Arresters are designed to limit the line-to-ground voltage in the event of lightning
or other excessive transient voltage conditions. It protects equipment near it from
experiencing high-voltage transient conditions.

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FEB. 15, 2011

Electrical Buses

This is a group of conductors that serves as a common connection between two or more
circuits.

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FEB. 15, 2011

Capacitor Banks

Capacitor Banks are used to improve the operating

efficiency of electric power systems and help
Transmission system voltage stability during
disturbances.

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Reactors

Reactor is another name for a high-voltage inductor. They are essentially one-winding
transformer.
• Used in a shunt (line to ground connection) configuration to regulate transmission system
voltage by absorbing surplus reactive power (VARs) from generation or line charging.
• Used in series to reduce fault current in distribution lines.

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 35

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 15, 2011

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 36

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
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FEB. 15, 2011

Static VAR Compensators (SVC)

• SVC is a device used on ac transmission systems to control power flow, improve stability on
power grids, and reduce system losses.
• SVC regulates voltage at its terminals by controlling the amount or reactive power injected or
absorbed from the power system.
• It is made up of several capacitors and inductors (reactors) and an electronic switching system that
enables ramping up or down reactive power support.

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 37

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 01
FEB. 15, 2011

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 38

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FEB. 15, 2011

Control Building

• It is used to house the equipment associated with the monitoring, control, and protection
of the substation equipments (i.e. Transformers, lines, and bus).
• It contains protective relaying, breaker controls, metering, communications, batteries, and
battery charger.

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FEB. 15, 2011

Preventive Maintenance

Most common practice are scheduled maintenance programs, site inspections, and routine data collection
and analysis.

Two most common and effective maintenance program

1. Infrared Technology. Temperature-sensitive cameras are used to identify hot

spots or hot hardware.

2. Dissolved Gas Analysis. This is used to determine the

internal condition of a transformer by taking small
oil samples periodically to check if the equipment
experienced arcs, overheating, corona, sparks,
and so on.

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 40

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
 01
FEB. 15 2011

Thank You

Let’s discuss Distribution and Transmission Line Protection...

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 41

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 01
Feb. 2012

Principles of Unit Protection:

• Bus-Bars (Switchgear)
Protection
• Substation Protection
• Distribution and
Transmission Lines Protection
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Feb. 2012

Distribution and Transmission Lines

Electric power distribution and transmission or "high voltage electric transmission" is

the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from generating power plants to substations
located near to population centers.

Consumer
Home

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Feb. 2012

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Principles of Unit Protection: Substation Protection 2T / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 44

(Reclosers, Disconnect Switches, Lighting Arresters) and Line Protection
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Feb. 2012

Transmission Line Protection

• Transmission protection systems are designed to identify the location of faults and isolate
only the faulted section.
• Any fault, if not detected and isolated quickly will cascade into a system wide disturbance
causing widespread outages for a tightly interconnected system operating close to its limits.
• The protection system selected should provide redundancy to limit the impact of device failure, and backup
protection to ensure dependability.

Objectives of Distribution System Protection

Main Objectives:
To minimize the duration of a fault
To minimize the number of consumers affected by the fault
Secondary Objectives:
To eliminate safety hazards as fast as possible
To limit service outages to the smallest possible segment of the system
To protect the consumers’ apparatus
To protect the system from unnecessary service interruption and disturbances
To disconnect faulted lines, transformers or other apparatus

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Feb. 2012

Overhead Distribution System Faults

Electrical
Transient/temporary faults (75-90%)
• Occurs when phase conductors electrically contact other phase conductors or grounds
Protection:
instantaneous or high-speed tripping
Automatic reclosing of a relay-controlled power circuit breaker or automatic tripping and
reclosing of a circuit recloser

Permanent Faults
Protection:
Replacing burned-down conductors, blown fuses or any other damaged apparatus.
Removing tree limbs from the line
Manually reclosing a circuit breaker or recloser to restore service

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Feb. 2012

Factors Influencing Line Protection

• Criticality of the line

•Fault clearing time requirements for system stability
•Line length
•The system feeding the line
•The configuration of the line
•The line loading
• The types of communications available
• Failure modes of various protection equipment

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Feb. 2012

Transmission Line Faults

• Line-to-ground faults
• Line-to-line faults
• Line-to-line-to-ground faults
• Three-phase faults

Protection

Line protection System

Line Distance Relay

Functions:
Single-pole Tripping
Communications
Security for Dual-Breaker Terminals
Redundancy Considerations to Enhance Reliability

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FEB. 19 2011

Transmission and Distribution of electric power is the conveyance from the central system
where it is gennerated to places where it is demanded by the consumer

Transmission and Distribution Requirements

1. The voltage at the consumer’s premises must be maintained within ±4% to ±6% of the
declared voltage. The actual value depending on the type of load.
2. The loss of power in the system itself should be a small percentage (about 10%) of the
power transmitted.
3. The transmission cost should not be unduly excessive.
4. The maximum current passing through the conductor shouyld be limited to such a value as
not to overheat the conductor or injuries the insulation.
5. The insulation resistance of the whole system should be very high so that there is no undue
leakage as danger to human life.

Methods of Feeding a Distributor

1. Feeding at one end

2. Feeding at both ends with equal voltages
3. Feeding at both ends with unequal voltages
4. Feeding at same intermediate poitns

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FEB. 19 2011

Distributor Fed at One End

R3
R3
R2
R1

r1 r2 r3 r4
A
I1 I2 I3 I4

i1 i2 i3 i4

The total Voltage Drop = Σ IR

= I1r1 + I2r2 + I3r3 + I4r4 but I1 = i1 +i2 +i3 + i4
I2 = i2 +i3 + i4
I3 = i3 + i4
I4 = i4
= I1r1 + I2 (r1 +r2) + I3 (r1 + r2 + r3) + I4 (r1 + r2 + r3 + r4)

The total Voltage Drop = Σ Moment at feeding point

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FEB. 19 2011

Distributor Fed at both Ends with Equal Voltages

Voltage Drop

r1 r2 r3 r4

I1 I2 I3 I4

i1 i2 i3 i4
Conditions:

1. The maximum voltage drop always occurs at one point of the load plant.
2. The sum of the voltage drop is equal to zero.

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Feb. 2012

Thank You for

listening

Let’s have some sample problems before discussing Surge Protection Overvoltage...
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