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Chapter 3 - Basic Operational Concepts

The document discusses basic operational concepts in computers including instructions, memory access, registers, bus structures, and speed issues. It covers how instructions are fetched from memory and executed in the processor, separating memory access and ALU operations, and how interrupts can preempt normal program execution.

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Santanu Senapati
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42 views

Chapter 3 - Basic Operational Concepts

The document discusses basic operational concepts in computers including instructions, memory access, registers, bus structures, and speed issues. It covers how instructions are fetched from memory and executed in the processor, separating memory access and ALU operations, and how interrupts can preempt normal program execution.

Uploaded by

Santanu Senapati
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 16

3.

Basic Operational
Concepts

Dr. Arun Kumar


Dept. of CSE, NIT, Rourkela

1
Important Points to Remember
l Activity in a computer is governed by instructions.
l To perform a task, an appropriate program
consisting of a list of instructions is stored in the
memory.
l Individual instructions are brought from the memory
into the processor, which executes the specified
operations.
l Data to be used as operands are also stored in the
memory.

2
Instruction
l An Instruction consists of 2 parts:
1) Operation code (Opcode)
2) Operands.

OPCODE OPERANDS

l The data/operands are stored in memory.

3
A Typical Instruction
l Add LOCA, R0
l Add the operand at memory location LOCA to the
operand in a register R0 in the processor.
l Place the sum into register R0.
l The original contents of LOCA are preserved.
l The original contents of R0 is overwritten.
l Instruction is fetched from the memory into the
processor – the operand at LOCA is fetched and
added to the contents of R0 – the resulting sum is
stored in register R0.

4
Separate Memory Access and
ALU Operation
l The preceding Add instruction combined a
memory access operation to an ALU
operation.
l In Modern computers, these 2 types of
operations are performed separately.
l The earlier instruction can be realized by two-
instruction sequence:
Load LOCA, R1
Add R1, R0
5

l Whose contents will be overwritten?


How's it done?
l The first instruction transfers the content of memory
location LOCA into processor register R1.
l The second instruction adds the contents of the
registers R1 and R0 and places the sum into R0.
l The original contents of LOCA are preserved.
l The original contents of R1 and R0 are overwritten.

6
Connection Between the
Processor and the Memory

7
Connections between the processor and the memory
Registers
l Instruction register (IR)
l Program counter (PC)
l General-purpose register (R0 – Rn-1)
l Memory address register (MAR)
l Memory data register (MDR)

8
Typical Operating Steps
l Programs reside in the memory through input
devices
l PC is set to point to the first instruction
l The contents of PC are transferred to MAR
l A Read signal is sent to the memory
l The first instruction is read out and loaded
into MDR
l The contents of MDR are transferred to IR
l Decode and execute the instruction
9
Typical Operating Steps
(Cont’)
l Get operands for ALU
Ø General-purpose register
Ø Memory (address to MAR – Read – MDR to ALU)
l Perform operation in ALU
l Store the result back
Ø To general-purpose register
Ø To memory (address to MAR, result to MDR – Write)
l During the execution, PC is
incremented to the next instruction
10
Interrupt
l Normal execution of programs may be preempted if
some device requires urgent servicing.
l The normal execution of the current program must
be interrupted – the device raises an interrupt
signal.
l Interrupt-service routine
l Current system information backup and restore (PC,
general-purpose registers, control information,
specific information)

11
Bus Structures
l There are many ways to connect different
parts inside a computer together.
l A group of lines that serves as a connecting
path for several devices is called a bus.
l An addition to the lines that carry the data,
the bus must have lines for Address and
control purposes.

12
Bus Structure
l There are 2 types of Bus structures:
1) Single Bus Structure and 2) Multiple Bus
Structure.
1) Single Bus Structure
l Because the bus can be used for only one
transfer at a time, only 2 units can actively
use the bus at any given time.
l Bus control lines are used to arbitrate
multiple requests for use of the bus.
13
Bus Structure
l Advantages: 1) Low cost &
2) Flexibility for attaching peripheral devices.

Single Bus Structure


14
Bus Structure
2) Multiple Bus Structure
l Systems that contain multiple buses achieve
more concurrency in operations.
l Two or more transfers can be carried out at
the same time.

Advantage: Better performance.


Disadvantage: Increased cost.
15
Speed Issue
l Different devices have different
transfer/operate speed.
l If the speed of bus is bounded by the slowest
device connected to it, the efficiency will be
very low.
l How to solve this?
l A common approach – use buffers.

16

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