Unit II Curves & Surfaces

• Curves: Methods of defining Point, Line and Circle, Curve

representation - Cartesian and Parametric space, Analytical and
Synthetic curves, Parametric equation of line, circle, ellipse,
Continuity (C0, C1 & C2), Synthetic Curves - Hermit Cubic
Spline, Bezier, B-Spline Curve, Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline
curves (NURBS).
• Surfaces: Surface representation, Types of Surfaces, Bezier,
B-Spline, NURBS Surface, Coons patch surface, Surface
Modeling.
• Reverse Engineering: Introduction, Point Cloud Data (PCD),
PCD file formats, Quality issues in PCD, Requirements for
conversion of surface models into solid models, Applications of
PCD.
Geometrical Curves:
• All existing CAD/CAM systems provide users with curve entities,
which can be divided into analytic and synthetic entities.
• Analytical curves can be defined by mathematical equations.
• Analytic entities are points, lines, arcs and circles, fillets and
chambers, and conics (ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas).
• Synthetic curves are quite difficult of impossible to defined by
mathematical equations. It is defined by set of data points.
• Synthetic entities include various types of spline cubic spline,
B-spline and Bezier curves.
Methods of defining points
1. Absolute Cartesian coordinates
2. Absolute cylindrical coordinates
3. Incremental Cartesian coordinates
4. Incremental cylindrical coordinates
5. Point of intersection
6. Defining middle or break point.
Methods of defining lines
1. Defining endpoints
2. Parallel or perpendicular to existing line
3. Vertical or horizontal line
4. Tangent to existing line.
Methods of defining circles
1. Radius or Diameter and center.
2. Defining three points
3. Center and point on the circle
4. Tangent to a line, pass through a given point and with a radius
Methods of defining ellipse
1. Center and Axis length
2. Four points
3. Two conjugate diameters
Methods of defining parabola
1. Vertex and focus
2. Three points
Methods of defining synthetic curves
1. A cubic spline with given set of data points.
2. Bezier curve with given set of data points.
3. B spline curve with given set of data points with curve
interpolation.
4. B spline curve with given set of data points with curve
extrapolation.
Curve Representation
1. Cartesian
2. parametric
Cartesian representation of curve
• A Cartesian curve is a curve specified in Cartesian coordinates.
• Two lines are used, called axes. One horizontal and one vertical.
(The two axes are perpendicular to each other.) Their intersection is
called the origin. The horizontal axis is called the x-axis, and the
vertical one called the y-axis. Each axis is a number line.
• A number line is a line marked with numbers in regular intervals as in a
ruler. On the x-axis, points to the right are positive, and to the left are
negative. For the y-axis, points above the origin is positive, below are
negative.
• A pair of numbers, written in the form {c,d}, represents a point in the
rectangular coordinate system.
• In polar coordinate system, the plane is marked a point called Pole
(sometimes also called Origin or Center). A horizontal ray is drawn from
this point to the right, we call this the reference ray. A point in the plane
is specified by two numbers {r,θ}. The θ is the angle from the reference
ray. (positive angles have counter-clockwise sweep) The r is the distance
from the point to the Pole. If r is negative, than the point is on the
opposite side with respect to the Pole.
Parametric representation of curve
• Parametric equations are a set of equations in which the
coordinates (e.g., x and y) are expressed in terms of a single third
parameter.
• It is a representation of the curve through equations expressing the
coordinates of the points of the curve as functions of a variable
called a parameter. For example, x=cos(t)y=sin(t) is a parametric
equation for the unit circle, where t is the parameter.
• For example, the simplest equation for a parabola y=x2 can be
parametrized by using a free parameter t, and setting x=t and y=t2.
• Parametric equations are equations which depend on a single
parameter. You can rewrite y=x such that x=t and y=t where t is
the parameter.
• A common example occurs in physics, where it is necessary to
follow the trajectory of a moving object. The position of the object
is given by x and y, signifying horizontal and vertical
displacement, respectively.
Analytical vs Synthetic curves:
• Analytic curves are defined as those that can be described by analytic equations such as lines,
circles, and conics. Synthetic curves are the ones that are described by a set of data points
(control points) such as splines and Bezier curves. Lines and circles are often expressed in
analytic equations.
• The need for synthetic curves in design arises on two occasions: when a curve is represented
by a collection of measured data points and when an existing curve must change to meet new
design requirements.
• Analytic curves are usually not sufficient to meet geometric design requirements of
mechanical parts. Synthetic curves provide designers with greater flexibility and control of a
curve shape by changing the positions of the control points.
• Products such as car bodies, shiphulls, airplane fuselage and wings, propeller blades, shoe in
soles, and bottles are a few examples that require free-form, or synthetic, curves and surfaces.
• A spline curve is defined by giving a set of coordinate positions, call control points, which
indicate the general shape of the curve. These control points are then fitted with piecewise
continuous parametric polynomial functions.
• When polynomial sections are fitted so that the curve passes through each control point, the
resulting curve is said to interpolate the set of control points.
• On the other hand, when the polynomials are fitted to the general control point path without
necessarily passing through any control point, the resulting curve is said to approximate these
to set of control points.
Order of a synthetic curve
• Mathematically, synthetic curves represent a curve-fitting problem
to construct a smooth curve that passes through given data points.
• Zero-order continuity C0 yields a position continuous curve.
First C1-and second C2-order continuities imply slope and
curvature continuous curves respectively. A C1 curve is the
minimum acceptable curve for engineering design.
• A cubic polynomial is the minimum-order polynomial that can
guarantee the generation of C0, C1 or C2 curves.
• Also, the designer may prefer to control the shape of the curve
locally instead of globally by changing the control points.
• C0 continuity: Two curves sections must have the same co-
ordinate position at the boundary point. i.e. when two curves meet
at their end points but may not share same tangency curvature.
• C1continuity: It means that the parametric first derivatives are the
same at the intersection on two successive sections. i.e. two curves
have the same tangent at the matched end points.
• C2 continuity: Both the first and second parametric derivatives of
the two curve sections are the same at their boundary. i.e. two
curves have the same curvature at the end point and have a smooth
transition from one curve to another.
Type of Synthetic Curve Representation
Cubic Spline curve: A curve is fitted to a set of
data
Cubicpoints. The tangents
spline curve:at the start and end point
dictate the shape of the curve.

Bezier Curve: These use approximations to

produce a smooth curve, and do not pass through
all the data points, but are influenced by the
control points. The order of the curve is
dependent on the number of control points.

B-spline Curve: These are generalized form of

the Bezier Curves and have the ability b control
the curve shape locally as opposed to global
control. They a1o provide the possibility to add
control points without increasing the degree of the
curve. The kinds of B-spline curves can be fined
to a set of data points.
Numerical on Line:
The parametric equation is, P(u) = P1 + u(P2-P1)
Where,
P1 and P2 are end points of line, (P2-P1) is Tangent Vector.
Length of line L =
Unit vector = (P2-P1) / L also P2 = P1+L[(P2-P1)/L]
While solving the numerical for two lines follow the procedure,
1. Find parametric equation of both lines with parameter u and v.
2. Find unit vectors for both lines using above formulae.
3. If the unit vectors of both lines are same the lines are parallel.
4. If the summation of product of unit vector coefficient of both lines is
zero then line are perpendicular.
5. for checking intersection condition, equate the coefficient of both lines
using equation of unit vector. By solving these equations if you will get
values of u and v which satisfies all three equations then lines are
intersecting to each other and intersection point can be obtained by
putting value of either u or v in equations formed.
6. If in case, you wont get values of u and v which will satisfies the
equations formed by coefficient of unit vectors then line are neither
parallel/perpendicular or intersecting to each other, they are individual.
Numerical of Circle:
Xc and Yc = center of circle
R is radius of circle.
u = increment in angle.
Then parametric equation to calculate
further points is,
Numerical of Ellipse:
Xc and Yc = center of ellipse
A and B are minor and major radius.
u = increment in angle.
Then parametric equation to calculate
further points is,

The parametric equation is,

Numerical of Cubic spline curve:
Numerical of Bezier curve:
Difference between various synthetic curves:
NURBS(Non uniform rational B spline curves)
• A rational curve is defined by the algebraic ratio of two
polynomials while a nonrational curve is defined by one
polynomial. Rational curves draw their theories from projective
geometry. E.g. NURBS
• Non-uniform rational basis spline (NURBS) is a mathematical
model commonly used in computer graphics for generating and
representing curves and surfaces. It offers great flexibility and
precision for handling both analytic (surfaces defined by common
mathematical formulae) and modeled shapes. NURBS are
commonly used in computer-aided design (CAD), manufacturing
(CAM), and engineering (CAE) and are part of numerous industry
wide standards, such as IGES, STEP, ACIS, and PHIGS. NURBS
tools are also found in various 3D modeling and animation
software packages.
• NURBS surfaces are functions of two parameters mapping to a
surface in three-dimensional space. The shape of the surface is
determined by control points. NURBS surfaces can represent, in a
compact form, simple geometrical shapes. T-splines and
subdivision surfaces are more suitable for complex organic shapes
because they reduce the number of control points twofold in
comparison with the NURBS surfaces.
• In general, editing NURBS curves and surfaces is highly intuitive
and predictable. Control points are always either connected
directly to the curve/surface, or act as if they were connected by a
rubber band. Depending on the type of user interface, editing can
be realized via an element’s control points, which are most
obvious and common for Bézier curves, or via higher level tools
such as spline modeling or hierarchical editing.
• A NURBS curve is defined by its order, a set of weighted control
points, and a knot vector.
• NURBS curves and surfaces are generalizations of both B-splines
and Bézier curves and surfaces, the primary difference being the
weighting of the control points, which makes NURBS curves
rational.
• NURBS surfaces including planar patches and sections of spheres
can be created.
• The knot vector is a sequence of parameter values that determines
where and how the control points affect the NURBS curve. The
number of knots is always equal to the number of control points
plus curve degree plus one (i.e. number of control points plus
curve order). The knot vector divides the parametric space in the
intervals mentioned before, usually referred to as knot spans.
• The values of the knots control the mapping between the input
parameter and the corresponding NURBS value. For example, if a
NURBS describes a path through space over time, the knots
control the time that the function proceeds past the control points.
Advantages:
Any curve or surface can be formulated using NURBS.
NURBS are considered a unified canonical representation that can define both synthetic (Bezier,
B-splines) and analytic (circles and conics) curves and surfaces.
they can represent all curve, surface, and solid entities, allowing unification and conversion from
one CAD system to another via exchange standards (STEP and IGES).
Their related algorithms are stable and accurate.
• They enhance manufacturing and machining accuracy and speed.
• They are intuitive and flexible to use in design and geometric modeling.
• NURBS are also invariant under affine and perspective transformations such as
translation, rotation, and projections.
Disadvantages:
• The definition of simple curves such as arcs, circles, and conics is verbose: they
require more data to define as NURBS than the traditional way. For example. the
traditional definition of a circle is a center (x, v, z), radius and the circle plane
defined by a normal vector (!z, ni., n_): that is a total of seven numbers.
• The NURBS definition requires 38 numbers.
• The loss of information on simple shapes is another problem. For example. if a
circular cylinder (hole) is represented by a B-spline. some data on the specific curve
type may be lost unless it is carried along, data, including that the part feature was a
cylinder, would be useful in manufacturing to identify it as a hole to be drilled or
bored rather than a surface to be milled.
• The improper use of the extra flexibility that NURBS offer (such as weights, as we
cover later) can produce ill-behaved NURBS.
• Moreover, some algorithms, such as surface/surface intersection and inverse-point
solution, work better under the non-NURBS representation. Nonetheless, NURBS
advantages far outweigh their disadvantages.
Introduction to Surfaces:
• Shape design and the representation of complex objects such as
car, ship, and airplane bodies as well as castings cannot be
achieved utilizing the curves covered in earlier.
• In such cases, surfaces must be utilized to describe objects
precisely and accurately. We create surfaces, and then we use them
to cut and trim solid features and primitives to obtain the models of
the complex objects.
• creation usually begins with data points or curves. Surface creation
on CAD/CAM systems usually requires curves as a start.
• A surface might require two boundary curves, as in the case of a
ruled surface that we cover in this chapter. All curves covered in
Chapter 6 can be used to generate surfaces. In order to visualize
surfaces on computer screen, a mesh, say in n in size, is usually
displayed.
• The mesh size is controllable by the user. It shows their underlying
theory and how to use them in geometric modeling.
Types of Surfaces:
1. Plane surface: It is the simplest surface. It requires three non-coincident points to
define an infinite plane. The plane surface can be used to generate cross sections
by intersecting a solid with it.
2. Ruled (lofted) surface: It is a linear surface. It interpolates linearly between two
boundary curves that define the surface (rails). Rails can be any curves, this
surface is ideal for representing surfaces that do not have any twists or kinks.
3. Surface of revolution: It is an axisymmetric surface that can model axisymmetric
objects. It is generated by rotating a planar curve in space about the axis of
symmetry a certain angle as shown in Figure.
4. Tabulated cylinder: It is a surface generated by translating a planar curve a
certain distance along a specified direction (axis of the cylinder or directrix) as
shown in figure. The plane of the curve is perpendicular to the directrix. This
surface is not literally a cylinder. It is used to generate extruded surfaces that
have identical cross sections.
5. Bezier surface: it is a surface that approximates or interpolates given input data.
It is different from the previous surfaces in that it is a synthetic surface. It
extends the Bezier curve to surfaces. It is a general surface that permits twists,
and kinks. Bezier surface allows only global control of the surface.
6. B-spline surface: It is a surface that can approximate or interpolate given input
data. Figure shows an interpolating example. It is a synthetic surface. It is a
general surface like a Bezier surface hut with the advantage of permitting local
control of the surface.
7. Coon’s surface: The previously described surfaces are used with either open
boundaries or given data points. A Coons patch is used to create a surface using
curves that form closed boundaries .
8. Fillet surface: It is a B-spline surface that blends two surfaces. The two original
surfaces may or may not be trimmed.
9. Offset surface: Existing surfaces can be offset to create new ones identical in
shape hut with different dimensions. It is a useful surface to use to speed up
surface creation. For example, to create a hollow cylinder, the outer or inner
cylinder can he created using a cylinder command and the other one can he
created by an offset command. The offset surface command becomes very
efficient to use if the original surface is a composite one.
10. NURB Surface: as stated earlier, surface defined by NURB curves.
11. Coons Surface: A Coons surface or simply Coons, is a type of manifold
parameterization used in computer graphics like CAD/CAM to smoothly join
other surfaces together, and in computational mechanics applications,
particularly in finite element method and boundary element method, to mesh
problem domains into elements.
Representation of Curve in Cartesian space :
Representation of Curve in Parametric space :
Surface Modeling:
• Surface modeling gives you the ability to build out a visual representation of an
object’s exterior and its contours. E.g. an engine - or complex organic shapes like
animals.
• Surface modeling is a mathematical method usually provided in computer-aided
design applications for displaying solid-appearing objects. Surface modeling makes
it possible for users to look at the specific object at specific angles with solid
surfaces. Surface modeling is a popular technique for architectural designs and
renderings. Surface modeling has wide range of applications such as in consumer
products, marine vehicles, body panels of automobiles and aircraft structures.
• Unlike solid modeling, your object can be geometrically and physically incorrect -
with no properties of mass defined and no thickness. This gives the designer the
unique ability to modify the model in ways that solid models are incapable.
• This also means, however, that surface models cannot be sliced open like their solid
counterparts, because the object is essentially hollow.
• Also, note that these surfaces can be represented using NURBS or polygons,
depending on the application. SolidWorks typically uses NURBS in its surface
modeling operators.
• Surface modeling facilitates, Make Changes to an Imported Model, Design More
Complex Shapes and Create a Fillet or Draft Between Faces.
• Surface modeling is considered a more complex technique for displaying objects
than wireframe modeling. Surface modeling has much less ambiguous display
functionalities compared to wireframe modeling, but not as much or
sophisticated as solid modeling. The technique often involves conversions
between various three-dimensional modeling types.
• Typical processes involved in surface modeling are:
• Generation of a model combining the three-dimensional surfaces and solids
• Conversion of the model to procedural surfaces, taking advantage of associative
modeling
• Validation of imperfections with surface analysis tools
• Rebuilding surfaces of objects to apply smoothness to the object
• When it comes to controlling curves, the surface modeling technique makes use
of B-splines and Beizer mathematical techniques. One of the unique properties
of surface models is that they cannot be sliced open like solid models. The
objects used in surface modeling can be geometrically incorrect, unlike in solid
modeling, where it needs to be correct. Apart from architectural illustrations,
surface modeling is also used in 3-D animation, particularly in games.
Reverse Engineering:
• Reverse engineering, also called back engineering, is the process
by which a man-made object is deconstructed to reveal its designs,
architecture, code or to extract knowledge from the object; similar
to scientific research, the only difference being that scientific
research is about a natural phenomenon.
• Reverse engineering is applicable in the fields of computer
engineering, mechanical engineering, electronic engineering,
software engineering, chemical engineering, and systems biology.
• We cannot start from the very beginning to develop a new product
every time. We need to optimize the resources available in our
hands and reduce the production time keeping in view the
customers’ requirements. For such cases, RE is an efficient
approach to significantly reduce the product development cycle.
For example: Impeller Pump Design.
Advantages:
• Cost saving for developing new products.
• Lesser maintenance cost.
• Quality improvement.
RE Process:
• Digitization of the object/ Data Capturing (using CMM, scanners etc.)
• Processing of measured data.
• Creation of CAD model
• Prototype
Disadvantages:
• The large amount of surface data generated from the fast 3D digitizers is not
easily modeled by current CAD/CAM systems. Inadequate data reduction
methods are not only time consuming, but lose surface characteristic points.
• Consequently, the reconstructed surfaces could lose their true shape in the design
cycle. The time required for reprocessing in this case would be unacceptable to
the manufacturing industry and thereby be unusable for further steps.
Applications:
1) Manufacturing Engineering
• To create 3D virtual model of an existing physical part for use in 3D CAD, CAM,
CAE or other software.
• To make a digital 3D record of own products
• To assess competitors products
• To analyze the working of a product
• To identify potential patent infringement etc.
2) Software Engineering
• To extract design & implementation information
• To detect and neutralize viruses and malware Chemical Engineering
• To determine chemical composition
• To substitute or improve recipes to stimulate or improve the products performance.
3) Film-Entertainment Industry
• Animated objects are imparted motion using the reverse engineered human skeletons.
4) Medical Field
• Applications in orthopedic, dental & reconstructive surgery
• Imaging, modeling and replication (as a physical model) of a patients bone structure
• Models can be viewed & physically handled before surgery, benefiting in evaluation of
the procedure & implant fit in difficult cases
• Less risk to the patient and reduced cost through saving in theatre time.
• Medical Field Applications like Hip Replacement.
Point cloud data:
• A point cloud is a set of data points in space. Point clouds are
generally produced by 3D scanners, which measure many points on
the external surfaces of objects around them.
• For industrial metrology or inspection using industrial computed
tomography, the point cloud of a manufactured part can be aligned
to an existing model and compared to check for differences.
• Geometric dimensions and tolerances can also be extracted directly
from the point cloud.
• While point clouds can be directly rendered and inspected, point
clouds are often converted to polygon mesh or triangle mesh
models, NURBS surface models, or CAD models through a process
commonly referred to as surface reconstruction.
• Point clouds can also be used to represent volumetric data, as is
sometimes done in medical imaging. Using point clouds, multi-
sampling and data compression can be achieved.
Common point cloud file formats in detail
• OBJ: first developed by Wave front technologies, the format has
been adopted by a wide range of 3D graphics applications. These
include Bentley Systems, Reality Capture and Trimble. It is a
simple data format that only represents 3D geometry, normal, color
and texture. It is commonly ASCII, however there are some
proprietary binary versions of OBJ.
• PLY: known as the polygon file format or Stanford triangle format,
PLY was inspired by OBJ and purpose-built to store 3D data. PLY
uses lists of nominally flat polygons to represent objects. The goal
was to add extensibility capabilities and the ability to store a greater
number of physical elements. The result is a file format capable of
representing color, transparency, surface normals, texture,
coordinates and data confidence values. There are two versions of
this file, one in ASCII and the other binary.
• XYZ: is a non-standardized set of files based on Cartesian coordinates
(‘x’ ‘y’ and ‘z’). XYZ is an archetypal ASCII file type, conveying data
in lines of text. There are no unit standardizations for XYZ files.
Although there is wide compatibility across programs for this type of
file, the lack of standardization surrounding units and specifications
makes it a fundamentally faulty method of data transfer unless
additional information is supplied.
• PCG, RCS, RCP: are all file formats developed by Autodesk to
specifically meet the demands of their software suite. RCS and RCP are
newer. Autodesk products, however, are often able to convert some open
formats, such as PTS into PCG files.
• E57: is a vendor-neutral file format for point cloud storage. It can also
be used to store images and metadata produced by laser scanners and
other 3D imaging systems. It is compact and widely used. It also utilizes
binary code in tandem with ASCII, providing much of the accessibility
of ASCII and the speed of binary. E57 can represent normals, colors and
scalar field intensity.
• In addition to the listed file types, most of these systems are also capable
of exporting common raster files such as JPEG or GeoTIFF.
Key characteristics of file formats that are evaluated for optimal
suitability include:
1) Compactness of stored data
2) Accessibility of the data by third-party developers
3) Length of record for each point, line, or face that is being stored
4) Speed of loading the point clouds into memory
5) Ability to load only a known cloud subsection into memory
6) Storing point values specifically, or the possibility to simplify the
data to lines and planes
7) The ability to store large floating-point values with high
precision, without using 64-bit or 128-bit storage for each bit of
data associated with each point, line, or plane
8) Other possible characteristics
• Quality issues in Point cloud data
• Data loss: When you move data within the cloud, or between the cloud and on-
premise infrastructure (if you choose to do that), you run the risk of formatting
problems, data loss, inaccurate timestamps and other issues that undercut data
quality. For example, if you move block data from a virtual server disk into a
cloud-based file-storage service, formatting differences could cause data quality
problems. Or data could be damaged while being transferred over the network.
• Data Size: Cloud data can become very big, fast. The fact that the cloud is so
scalable makes it easy to store huge volumes of information in the cloud. The
more data you have, the harder it can be to maintain data quality.
• Changes in cloud tools: Cloud services are always changing and being updated
– and unlike software that you set up and manage yourself on-premise, cloud-
based tools may not always notify you when they are modified. Changes to your
cloud-based tools can cause data quality issues if, for example, a tool modifies
the way it structures data and your other tools are not configured to handle the
new format.
• Data Formats: Every new device on the market can present data in a new form.
When you are registering and processing new scans into a dataset, you now
need to bring together data in different formats from different devices. This is
not always an easy task.
• Massive data: Point clouds can now scan huge assets more cheaply. New
devices also offer broader coverage from a single scan. This creates tens
of thousands of data points. These are cumbersome to handle and
harmonies across your entire enterprise. It can also be difficult to share
massive data between project partners.
• Interoperability: You invest considerable amounts of time and money in
selecting the right engineering software and training your team to use it.
So, your new technology needs to fit with your existing software set so
that makes it easier for your teams to work together. In practice, this
kind of integration is not always easy.
• Accessibility: Everybody involved in the lifecycle of an asset can
benefit from access to point cloud data. But fragmented datasets in
different formats can make this difficult, as I have explained above.
• Ownership: Who owns point cloud data? In the past, EPCs and the
contractors who capture the data become custodians of the information.
But asset operators can use point cloud data throughout the asset
lifecycle: for safety, training, asset visualization and even for Brownfield
projects with new contractors.
Applications of Point Cloud Data:
1) Construction industry for two major applications including 3D model
reconstruction and geometry quality inspection.
2) Construction progress tracking: Steel structural components,
earthwork, concrete structural components, fake structures simulating
columns, concrete construction secondary and temporary objects.
3) Building performance analysis: Mechanical analysis of bridge
structure, morphologic analysis, stress estimation, building
accessibility diagnosis, energy performance modeling, and structural
analysis of bridges such as finite element modeling.
4) Construction safety management: Active safety management, safety
hazards identification, identification of blind spots of construction
equipment, safety hazard simulation, and safety assistance for mobile
crane lifting operations.
5) Building renovation: Re-design and renovation of the façades, interior
design, energy performance retrofit, refurbishment.
6) Construction automation: Digital reproduction, automated earthwork
excavation.
7) Heritage applications: Surveying, repair and maintenance, stability
analysis, heritage site preservation, documentation.
8) Robot navigation: Navigation in indoor and outdoor environments,
navigation in indoor environment.
9) Creating or updating geographical maps with height information of
large areas scanned from airplanes or satellites.
10) Providing a reference to create CAD models from real-world objects.
11) Automatic quality inspection by comparing a computer model with the
reality:
a) Follow the different steps during production.
b) Inspect a finished product for errors.
c) Check deformations or other wear over time.
12) Simulation: Point-clouds can be used to represent solid objects in a
Finite Element Analysis context -- boiling down mathematically
complex CAD surfaces into a relatively finite number of points. This
allows engineers and scientists to simulate objects under stress,
simulate deformation, etc.
A line is represented as the end points P1(1,1) and P2(6,2). If the
value of parameter u at P1 and P2 is 0 and 1 respectively, determine
the coordinates of a point represented by, u= 0, u = 0.5, u = -0.5,
u = 1, u=1.5.
Solution:
P1 = [1 1] and P2 = [6 2]
The parametric equation of line, P = P1 + u(P2 – P1) = [1+5u 1+u]
We get different points at u =0, 0.5, -0.5, 1 and 1.5 by putting these
values in above equation.
• Pu(0) = [1 1]
• Pu(0.5) = [3.5 1.5]
• Pu(-0.5) = [-1.5 0.5]
• Pu(1) = [6 2]
• Pu(1.5) = [8.5 2.5].
A line is represented as the end points P1(2,4,6) and P2(-3,6,9). If
the value of parameter u at P1 and P2 is 0 and 1 respectively,
determine the coordinates of a point represented by, u= 0, u = 0.25,
u = -0.25, u = 1, u=1.5.
Solution:
P1 = [2 4 6] and P2 = [-3 6 9]
The parametric equation of line, P = P1 + u(P2 – P1)
= [2-5u 4+2u 6+3u]
We get different points at u =0, 0.25, -0.25, 1 and 1.5 by putting
these values in above equation.
• Pu(0) = [2 4 6]
• Pu(0.5) = [0.75 4.5 6.75]
• Pu(-0.5) = [3.25 3.5 5.25]
• Pu(1) = [-3 6 9]
• Pu(1.5) = [-5.5 7 10.5].
A line L1 is drown between two points P1(3,5,9) and P2(6,7,3) and L2 drown between P3(6,5,3) and
P4(3,8,9) Find:
a) Parametric equation of line
b) Find the tangent vector
c) Are the two line intersecting ? If yes determine point of intersection.
Solution:
For line L1 For line L2
P1 = [3 5 9] and P2 = [6 7 3] P3 = [6 5 3] and P4 = [3 8 9]
Tangent vector Tv1 = [P2 – P1] = [3 2 -6] Tangent vector Tv2 = [P4 – P3] = [-3 3 6]
Parametric equation of line, Parametric equation of line,
Pel1 = P1 + u(P2-P1) = [3+3u 5+2u 9-6u] Pel2 = P3 + u(P4-P3) = [6-3v 5+3v 3+6v]
Length of line L1= ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z 2  z1 ) 2 Length of line L1= 7.348 units
= 7 units
Tangent vector to the line Tvl1 = [(P2-P1) / L] Tangent vector to the line Tvl1 = [(P2-P1) / L]
[0.428 0.285 -0.857] [-0.408 0.408 0.816]
From above it shows that,
• Tangent vector of both line are not same i.e. lines are not parallel.
• Summation of coefficient of tangent vector i.e.
• [0.428 x (-0.408)] + (0.285 x 0.408) + (-0.857) x (0.816)] = -0.757 which is non zero, therefore
lines are not perpendicular,
• For intersection, equating the coefficients of parametric equations to get three simultaneous
equations as, 3+3u = 6-3v , 5+2u = 5+3v , 9-6u = 3+6v and solving these equations to get such
values of u and v which satisfies all three equations. In this case u = 0.6 and v = 0.4. it means
lines are interesting to each other and the intersection point can be achieved by either putting
values of u or v in either R.H.S or L. H. S of above three equations.
A line L1 is drown between two points P1(3,4,7) and P2(5,6,1) and L2 drown between P3(1,5,-2) and
P4(2,9,0) Find:
a) Parametric equation of line
b) Find the tangent vector
c) Are the two line intersecting ? If yes determine point of intersection.
Solution:
For line L1 For line L2
P1 = [3 4 7] and P2 = [5 6 1] P3 = [1 5 -2] and P4 = [2 9 0]
Tangent vector Tv1 = [P2 – P1] = [2 2 -6] Tangent vector Tv2 = [P4 – P3] = [1 4 2]
Parametric equation of line, Parametric equation of line,
Pel1 = P1 + u(P2-P1) = [3+2u 4+2u 7-6u] Pel2 = P3 + u(P4-P3) = [1+v 5+4v -2+2v]
Length of line L1= ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z 2  z1 ) 2 Length of line L1= 4.583 units
= 6.633 units
Tangent vector to the line Tvl1 = [(P2-P1) / L] Tangent vector to the line Tvl1 = [(P2-P1) / L]
[0.302 0.302 -0.905] [0.218 0.873 0.436]
From above it shows that,
• Tangent vector of both line are not same i.e. lines are not parallel.
• Summation of coefficient of tangent vector i.e.
• [0.302 x 0.218] + (0.302 x 0.873) + (-0.905) x 0.436] = -0.065 which is non zero, therefore
lines are not perpendicular,
• For intersection, equating the coefficients of parametric equations to get three simultaneous
equations as, 3+2u = 1+v , 4+2u = 5+4v , 7-6u = -2+2v and solving these equations to get such
values of u and v which satisfies all three equations. In this case we are not getting such a
values which satisfies all three equations, therefore lines are intersecting to each other. They
are independent.
A line L1 is drown between two points P1(-2,3,5) and P2(4,6,-2) and L2 drown between P3(-5,8,9) and
P4(1,11,2) Find:
a) Parametric equation of line
b) Find the tangent vector
c) Are the two line intersecting ? If yes determine point of intersection.
Solution:
For line L1 For line L2
P1 = [-2 3 5] and P2 = [4 6 -2] P3 = [-5 8 9] and P4 = [1 11 2]
Tangent vector Tv1 = [P2 – P1] = [6 3 -7] Tangent vector Tv2 = [P4 – P3] = [6 3 -7]
Parametric equation of line, Parametric equation of line,
Pel1 = P1 + u(P2-P1) = [-2+6u 3+3u 5-7u] Pel2 = P3 + u(P4-P3) = [-5+6v 8+3v 9-7v]
Length of line L1= ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z 2  z1 ) 2 Length of line L1= 9.695 units
= 9.695 units
Tangent vector to the line Tvl1 = [(P2-P1) / L] Tangent vector to the line Tvl1 = [(P2-P1) / L]
[0.619 0.309 -0.722] [0.619 0.309 -0.722]
From above it shows that,
• Tangent vector of both line are same i.e. lines are not parallel. Therefore the lines are parallel
to each other.
A line L1 is drown between two points P1(6,7,-2) and P2(0,4,-5) and L2 drown between P3(0,7,-2) and
P4(6,1,-8). Find:
a) Parametric equation of line
b) Find the tangent vector
c) Are the two line intersecting ? If yes determine point of intersection.
Solution:
For line L1 For line L2
P1 = [6 7 -2] and P2 = [0 4 -5] P3 = [0 7 -2] and P4 = [6 1 -8]
Tangent vector Tv1 = [P2 – P1] = [-6 -3 -3] Tangent vector Tv2 = [P4 – P3] = [6 -6 -6]
Parametric equation of line, Parametric equation of line,
Pel1 = P1 + u(P2-P1) = [6-6u 7-3u -2-3u] Pel2 = P3 + u(P4-P3) = [6v 7-6v -2-6v]
Length of line L1= ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z 2  z1 ) 2 Length of line L1= 10.392 units
= 7.348 units
Tangent vector to the line Tvl1 = [(P2-P1) / L] Tangent vector to the line Tvl1 = [(P2-P1) / L]
[-0.816 -0.408 -0.408] [0.577 -0.577 -0.577]
From above it shows that,
• Tangent vector of both line are not same i.e. lines are not parallel.
• Summation of coefficient of tangent vector
• i.e.[(-0.816) x 0.577] + (-0.408) x (-0.577) + (-0.408) x (-0.577)] = 0 which is zero, therefore
lines are perpendicular,
• For point of intersection, equating the coefficients of parametric equations to get three
simultaneous equations as, 6-6u = 6v , 7-3u = 7-6v , -2-3u = -2-6v and solving these equations
to get such values of u and v which satisfies all three equations. In this case u = 0.667 and v =
0.333. the intersection point can be achieved by either putting values of u or v in either R.H.S
or L. H. S of above three equations. In this case it is [2 5 -4].
A circle is defined by the center point (4,6) and radius 5. determine
the various points on the circle in the first quadrant, if the increment
between each point is 30 degrees.
Solution: Xc = 4, Yc = 6, R = 5, u = 30 degrees.
Initial point, Xn = Xc + R = 4 + 5 = 9 and Yn = Yc = 6
Xn Yn X n 1  X c  (X n  X c )cos Δc Y n 1  Y c  (Y n  Y c )cos Δc
 (Y n  Y c )sin Δs  (X n  X c )sin Δs

9 6 4 + [(9 – 4)0.866] – [(6 – 6)0.5] 6 + [(6 – 6)0.866] – [(9 – 4)0.5] = 8.5

= 8.3301
8.3301 8.5 6.5 10.33

6.5 10.33 4 11

During exam these above answers can be checked graphically or by

trigonometric method also but it needs to solve using parametric
equation only.
A circle is defined by the center point (3,3,0) and radius 3. determine
the various points on the circle if it is divided into eight equal parts.
Solution: Xc = 3, Yc = 3, Zc = 0, R = 3, u = 360 / 8 = 45 degrees.
Initial point, Xn = Xc + R = 3 + 3 = 6 and Yn = Yc = 3
As third coordinate of point is zero therefore Zn+1 = 0
Xn Yn X n 1  X c  (X n  X c )cos Δc Y n 1  Y c  (Y n  Y c )cos Δc
 (Y n  Y c )sin  u  (X n  X c )sin Δs
6 3 3 + [(6 – 3)0.7071] – [(3 – 3) 3 + [(3 – 3) 0.7071] – [(6 – 3)
0.7071] = 5.121 0.7071] = 5.121
5.121 5.121 3 6
3 6 0.879 5.121
0.879 5.121 0 3
0 3 0.879 0.879
0.879 0.879 3 0
3 0 5.121 0.879
For a CAD CAM database, determine the center point and radius of
the circle passing through two points defining its diameter. Using
these equations determine the center point and radius if the input
points are (12, 30) and (40, 60)
Solution:
Let P1 and P2 be the two points on the diameter of the circle, Pc is the
center point and R is the radius,
(Pc  P1 )  (P2  Pc )
P1  P2
Pc 
2
 X1  X 2 Y1  Y2  12  40 30  60 
[X c Yc ]       [26 45]
 2 2   2 2 
1 1
R (X 2  X1 ) 2  (Y2  Y1 ) 2  (40  12) 2  (60  30) 2  20.518
2 2
An ellipse is defined by the center point (8,12) and has major radius
of 10 units and minor radius of 4 units. Determine the various points
on the ellipse in the first quadrant, if the increment between each
point is 30 degrees. Assume major and minor axis of the ellipse are
parallel to X and Y axis respectively.
Solution: Xc = 8, Yc = 12, a =10, b = 4, R = 5, u = 30 degrees.
Initial point, Xn = Xc + a = 8 + 10 = 9 and Yn = Yc = 12.
Xn Yn X n 1  X c  (X n  X c )cos  u Y n  1  Y c  (Y n  Y c )cos  u
a b
(Y n  Y c )sin  u  (X n  X c )sin  u
b a
18 12 8 + [(18 – 8)0.866] – 2.5[(12 – 12 + [(12 – 12)0.866] + 0.4 [(18 –
12)0.5] = 16.66 8)0.5] = 14
16.66 14 13 15.464

13 15.464 8 16
Plot the hermite cubic curve having end points P0(1,3) and P1(7,2). The tangent vector for end P0
is defined by a line joining P0 and another point P2(10,8), whereas the tangent vector for end P1
is defined by a line joining P1 and another point P3(6,0).
Solution:
From given data, P0 = [1 3], P1 = [7 2], P2 = [10 8], P3 = [6 0]
The tangent vectors are, P’0 = P2 – P0 = [9 5] and P’1 = P3 – P1 = [-1 -2]
The equation for hermite cubic curve is,
P(u)  (2u 3  3u 2  1)P 0  (  2u 3  3u 2 )P1  (u 3  2u 2  u)P 0'  (u 3  u 2 )P1'
the values for x and y coordinate s can be determined as under,
P x (u)  (2u 3  3u 2  1)P x0  (  2u 3  3u 2 )P x1  (u 3  2u 2  u)P x0
'
 (u 3  u 2 )P x1
'

 (2u 3  3u 2  1)1  (  2u 3  3u 2 )7  (u 3  2u 2  u)9  (u 3  u 2 )(-1)

 (2  14  9 - 1)u 3  (  3  21 - 18  1)u 2
 9 u  1  -4u 3  u 2  9 u  1
P y (u)  (2u 3  3u 2  1)P y0  (  2u 3  3u 2 )P y1  (u 3  2u 2  u)P y0
'
 (u 3  u 2 )P y1
'

 (2u 3  3u 2  1)3  (  2u 3  3u 2 )2  (u 3  2u 2  u)5  (u 3  u 2 )(-2)

 (6  4  5 - 2)u 3  (  9  6 - 10  2)u 2
 5 u  3  5u 3  11 u 2  5 u  3
These values can be tabulated as below,
u 1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Px(u) 1 1.906 2.808 3.682 4.504 5.25 5.896 6.418 6.792 6.994 7
Py(u) 3 3.395 3.6 3.645 3.56 3.375 3.12 2.825 2.52 2.235 2
Plot the Bezier curve having endpoints P0(1,3) and P3(7,2), the other control points are P1(5,6)
and P2(6,0). Plot for values for u = 0, 0.1, 0.2……..1, if the characteristics polygon is drawn in
the sequence P0 – P1 – P2 – P3.
Solution:
From given data, P0 = [1 3], P1 = [5 6], P2 = [6 0], P3 = [7 02]
The equation for Bezier curve is,
P(u)  P 0 (1 - u) 3  3 P 1 u( 1 - u) 2  3 P 2 u 2 (1 - u)  P 3 u 3
the values for x and y coordinate s can be determined as under,
3 2 2 3
P x (u)  P x0 (1 - u)  3 P x1 u( 1 - u)  3 P x2 u (1 - u)  P x3 u
2
 1 ( 1 - 3u  3u - u 3 )  15 u( 1 - 2u  u 2
)  18 u 2
(1 - u)  7 u 3

2 3 2 3 2 3 3
 1 - 3u  3u -u  15 u  30u  15 u  18 u  18 u  7u
2 3
 1 - 1 2u - 9u  3u
3 2 2 3
P y (u)  P y0 (1 - u)  3 P y1 u( 1 - u)  3 P y2 u (1 - u)  P y3 u
2
 3 (1 - 3u  3u - u 3 )  18 u( 1 - 2u  u 2
) 3 0 u 2
(1 - u)  2 u 3

2 3 2 3 3
 3 - 9u  9u - 3u  18 u  36u  18 u 2u
2 3
 3  9u - 27u  17 u
These values can be tabulated as below,
u 1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Px(u) 1 2.113 3.064 3.871 4.552 5.125 5.608 6.019 6.376 6.697 7
Py(u) 3 3.647 3.856 3.729 3.368 2.875 2.352 1.901 1.624 1.623 2