SQUAR

E DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
(19MAT115)
ROOT
OF Submitted by,

SQUAR A . kumoulica
G. senthamizh

E (cse-cys)

MATRI Under the Guidance of

X Dr . Ranjith Kumar M

Assistant Professor

Department of Mathematics

Amrita school of Engineering

Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham

ABSTRACT-
Having origins in the increasingly popular Matrix Theory, the square
root function of a matrix has received notable attention in recent
years. In this thesis, we discuss some of the matrix functions and their
general properties, but we specifically explore the square root of a
square matrix and the most efficient method (Schur decomposition) of
computing it. Calculating the square root of a 2×2 matrix along with
some point about square root of a matrix and examples to solve them.
Ihab Ahmed Abd Al-Baset Al-Tamimi introduced a new method for
finding the square root of a certain class of 2 × 2 matrix using
Cayley-Hamilton theorem by establishing some theorems.

KEYWO
RDS-
Square root , Square matrix , Schur
decomposition ,eigen values , idempotent , Jordon
decomposition , eigen spaces , diagonalization , cayley-
Hamilton.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
-
In the accomplishment of this project successfully ,I would like to
express my gratitude to the people who helped us to do this project.
Primarily I would thank god for being able to complete this project
with success. Then We would like to thank my principal Dr.Shankar
and Discrete Mathematics teacher Dr.Ranjith kumar whose valuable
guidance has been the ones that helped us patch this project and
make it full proof success. His suggestions and instructions have
served as major contributor towards the completion of project.
Then we would like to thank our parents and friends who have helped
us with their valuable suggestions and guidance which has been
extremely helpful in various phases of the competition of the project.

TABLE OF CONTECT-
…………………….5
Introduction

Matrix subdivisions …………………….7

Square root of 2*2 matrix …………………….9

By diagonalization …………………….10
By schur decomposition …………………….11

By Jordon decomposition …………………….12

By cayley-Hamilton ……………………..13

Applications …………………….16

Bibliography …………………….17

INTRODU
CTION-
In mathematics, the square root of a matrix
extends the notion of square root from numbers to matrices. A matrix
B is said to be a square root of A if the matrix product BB is equal to
A.
Some authors use the name square root or the notation A 1/2 only for
the specific case when A is positive semidefinite, to denote the unique
matrix B that is positive semidefinite and such that BB = B TB = A
(for real-valued matrices, where B T is the transpose of B). Less
frequently, the name square root may be used for any factorization of
a positive semidefinite matrix A as B TB = A, as in the Cholesky
factorization, even if BB ≠ A. This distinct meaning is discussed in
Positive definite matrix § Decomposition.
When A has structure one can ask whether a square root having the
same structure, or some other related structure, exists. Results are
known for (for example)
 stochastic matrices,
 M-matrices,
 skew-Hamiltonian matrices,
 centrosymmetric matrices, and
Examples:  matrices from an automorphism group.

In general, a matrix can have several square roots. In particular, if

A=B^2 then A=(-B)^2 as well. The 2×2 identity matrix [1 0 has
0 1]
infinitely many square Roots.

They are given by [ ±1 0 and [ a b

0 ±1 ] c -a ]
where (a, b, c) are any numbers (real or complex) such that
a^2+bc=1 . In particular if (a, b, t) is any Pythagorean triple — that is,
any set of positive integers such that a^2+b^2=t^2 , then 1/t [ a b
b -a]
is a square root matrix of which is symmetric and has rational entries.
Thus,

(1 0 = square of ( 0 1 = square of ( 4/5 3/5

0 1) 1 0) 3/5 -4/5)

 Minus identity has a square root, for example:

-(1 0 = (0 -1)^2
0 1) (1 0)
which can be used to represent the imaginary unit i and hence all
complex numbers using 2×2 real matrices, see Matrix representation
of complex numbers.
 Just as with the real numbers, a real matrix may fail to have a
real square root, but have a square root with complex-valued
entries. Some matrices have no square root. An example is the
matrix
[0 1
0 0]

While the square root of a nonnegative integer is either again an

integer or an irrational number, in contrast an integer matrix can have
a square root whose entries are rational, yet non-integral, as in
examples above.

SQUARE ROOT OF A MATRIX

Now let’s see which type of matrixes have how many
square roots

 Matrices with distinct eigenvalues

An n×n matrix with n distinct nonzero eigenvalues has 2^ n square
roots. Such a matrix, A, has an eigen decomposition VDV^ −1 where
V is the matrix whose columns are eigenvectors of A and D is the
diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are the corresponding n
eigenvalues λi . Thus the square roots of A are given by VD ^1/2 V
^−1 , where D^ 1/2 is any square root matrix of D, which, for distinct
eigenvalues, must be diagonal with diagonal elements equal to square
roots of the diagonal elements of D; since there are two possible
choices for a square root of each diagonal element of D, there are 2n
choices for the matrix D^1/2 . This also leads to a proof of the above
observation, that a positive-definite matrix has precisely one positive
definite square root.

o A positive definite matrix has only positive eigenvalues, and

each of these eigenvalues has only one positive square root; and
since the eigenvalues of the square root matrix are the diagonal
elements of D ^1/2 , for the square root matrix to be itself
positive definite necessitates the use of only the unique positive
square roots of the original eigenvalues.

 If a matrix is idempotent, then by definition one of its square

roots is the matrix itself.

 If U is upper triangular but has multiple zeroes on the diagonal,

then a square root might not exist, as exemplified by 0 1
0 0
 If D is a diagonal n × n matrix ,D=diag (a1,a2 ………an) then
some of its square roots are diagonal matrices , diag(b1,b2,bn)
where bi=±√ai . If the diagonal elements of D are real and
non-negative then it is positive semidefinite, and if the square
roots are taken with non-negative sign, the resulting matrix is
the principal root of D. A diagonal matrix may have
additional non-diagonal roots if some entries on the diagonal
are equal, as exemplified by the identity matrix above.

SQUARE
ROOT OF
2*2
MATRIX
If A, B ∈ Mn and A is similar to B, then A has a square root if and
only if B has a square root. The standard method for computing a
square root of an n × n diagonalizable matrix A is easily stated.
Suppose
S−1AS = D
for some nonsingular matrix S and diagonal matrix D. Then
A = SDS−1,
and by substitution we have
A = (SDSˆ −1)(SDSˆ −1) = SDS^−1,
where Dˆ is a square root of D. In general, the matrix D will have 2^n
distinct square roots (when A has n nonzero eigenvalues, which are
obtained by taking the square roots of the diagonal elements of D with
all possible sign choices). If D^1/2 is any square root of D, it follows
that B = SD^1/2S^−1 is a square root of A, that is B^2 = A. However,
even in some 2 × 2 cases, the computations can become quite messy.
• Not every 2 × 2 matrix has a square root. For example, by direct
calculation,
we can show that [ 0 1 has no square root.
0 0]

On the other hand, if b ∈ C, [ b b gives an infinite number of

−b −b]

square roots of [ 0 0 and if b not equal to 1

0 0]

1/b – 1[b 1 [ -1 0 [ 1 -1 = 1/b-1 [ -b-1 2b

1 1] 0 1] -1 b] -2 b+1]

yields an infinite number of square roots of [ 1 0

0 1]

There are many ways to solve the square root of a square

matrix. we can solve some of the methods in this case
study:

By diagonalization
An n × n matrix A is diagonalizable if there is a matrix V and a
diagonal matrix D such that A = VDV ^−1 . This happens if and only
if A has n eigenvectors which constitute a basis for C ^n . In this case,
V can be chosen to be the matrix with the n eigenvectors as columns,
and thus a square root of A is
R=VSV^-1,
where S is any square root of D. Indeed,
(VD^1/2V^-1)^2=VD^1/2(V^-1V)D^1/2V^-1=VDV^-1=A
For example,
the matrix A= 33 24 can be diagonalized as VDV ^−1 , where
48 57

V= 1 1 AND D= 81 0
2 -1 0 9
D has principal square root ,
D^1/2 = 9 0
0 3

giving the square root .

A^1/2 =VD^1/2V^-1 = 5 2
4 7
When A is symmetric, the diagonalizing matrix V can be made an
orthogonal matrix by suitably choosing the eigenvectors (see spectral
theorem). Then the inverse of V is simply the transpose, so that
R=VSV^T

Another example: https://yutsumura.com/find-all-the-square-roots-of-

a- given-2-by-2-matrix/
 By Schur decomposition
Every complex-valued square matrix A , regardless of
diagonalizability, has a Schur decomposition given by A=QUQ^*
where U is upper triangular and is unitary (meaning Q^*=Q^-1). The
eigenvalues of A are exactly the diagonal entries of U; if at most one
of them is zero, then the following is a square root

A^1/2=QU^1/2Q^*

By diagonalization By Schur decomposition where a square root

U^1/2 of the upper triangular matrix U can be found as described
above.
If A is positive definite, then the eigenvalues are all positive reals, so
the chosen diagonal of u^1/2 also consists of positive reals. Hence the
eigenvalues of QU^1/2Q^*are positive reals, which means the
resulting matrix is the principal root of A .

By Jordan decomposition

Similarly as for the Schur decomposition, every square matrix A can
be decomposed as A=P^-1JP where P is invertible and J is in Jordan
normal form.

To see that any complex matrix with positive eigenvalues has a square
root of the same form, it suffices to check this for a Jordan block. Any
such block has the form λ(I + N) with λ > 0 and N nilpotent. If (1 + z)
1/2 = 1 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + ⋯ is the binomial expansion for the square
root (valid in |z| < 1), then as a formal power series its square equals
1+ z. Substituting N for z, only finitely many terms will be non-zero
and S = √λ (I + a1 N + a2 N 2+ ⋯) gives a square root of the Jordan
block with eigenvalue √λ.

It suffices to check uniqueness for a Jordan block with λ = 1. The

square constructed above has the form S = I + L where L is
polynomial in N without constant term. Any other square root T with
positive eigenvalues has the form T = I + M with M nilpotent,
commuting with N and hence L. But then 0 = S 2 − T 2 = 2(L − M)(I
+ (L + M)/2). Since L and M commute, the matrix L + M is nilpotent
and I + (L + M)/2 is invertible with inverse given by a Neumann
series. Hence L = M.

If A is a matrix with positive eigenvalues and minimal polynomial

p(t), then the Jordan decomposition into generalized eigenspaces of A
can be deduced from the partial fraction expansion of p(t) −1 . The
corresponding projections onto the generalized eigenspaces are given
by real polynomials in A. On each eigenspace, A has the form λ(I +
N) as above. The power series expression for the square root on the
eigenspace show that the principal square root of A has the form q(A)
where q(t) is a polynomial with real coefficients.

The square root of a certain class of 2 × 2 matrix using

Cayley-Hamilton theorem by establishing the
following theorems-
Theorem 1.1. If a 2 × 2 invertible matrix A is positive definite and
has distinct eigenvalues then the square root of A is given by
√A = b0I + b1A
where b0, b1 ∈ R.

Theorem 2.1. Let A ∈ M2(R). Then

√A = a0I + a1A
where a0, a1 ∈ R.

Proof-

It is clear that if A is a singular matrix then √A = 1/√ T r {A}*A

where T r{A} is the trace of A, whereas the proof in nonsingular case
follows from Theorem

Lemma 2.2. The square root of 3 × 3 matrix A, if exist, must satisfy

the identity
√A = a0I + a1A + a2A√A
for some a0, a1, a2 ∈ R

Proof.
Suppose on the contrary that √A # a0I +a1A+a2A√A for all a0, a1, a2
∈ R. Then B = √A does not satisfy its own characteristic equation,
thereby B contradicts Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.

Lemma 2.3. Let A ∈ M3(R) and λ1, λ2, λ3 be the eigenvalues of A.

Then the system of linear equations
√λi = a0 + a1λi + a2λi√λi
for i = 1, 2, 3, is consistent with a unique solution and the matrix
(I - a2A) is invertible.

Theorem 2.4. If A ∈ M3(R) then

√A = (a0I + a1A)(I - a2A)^- 1

where a0, a1, a2 ∈ R.

The following examples illustrates our method

Example 1. Let A = 1 1 1 . Then λ1 = 1, λ2 = 4, λ3 = 9 are the

041
009
eigenvalues of A. Solving the system of linear equations with these
eigenvalues . we get a0 = 6 /11 , a1 = 6 /11 , a2 = - 1/1 1 , and

a0I + a1A = 6/ 11[ 2 1 1

0 5 1
0 0 10 ]

(I - a2A)^-1 = 11 /12 [ 1 -1/15 -7/150

0 4/5 -1/25
0 0 3/5 ]

Therefore, √A = (a0I + a1A)(I - a2A)^- 1 = [ 1 1/3 7/30

0 2 1/5
0 0 3 ]

Example 2. Let A = 1 1 1 Then λ1 = 0, λ2 = 1, λ3 = 4 are eigenvalues

041
000

of A and a0 = 0, a1 = 3/2 , a2 = - 1/2

.
Therefore √A = (a0I + a1A)(I - a2A)^-1 = [ 1 1/3 5/6
0 2 1/2
0 0 0]

Theorem 2.5. If A ∈ Mn(R) then

(a) √A = (a0I +a1A+a3A^2+· · ·+a2k- 1A^k )(I - a2A- a4A^2−· · ·−a2k

-2A^k- 1)^- 1

if n = 2k is an even number.

(b) √A = (a0I +a1A+a3A^2+· · ·+a2k- 1A^k )(I - a2A- a4A^2−· · ·−a2k

-2A^k- 1)^- 1

if n = 2k + 1 is an odd number.

APPLI
CATIO
NS
 BIBLIOG
RAPHY-
This is a minimal set of references, which contain further useful references
within.
 Nicholas J. Higham, Functions of Matrices: Theory and
Computation, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics,
Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2008.
 Nicholas J. Higham and Lijing Lin, On th roots of stochastic
matrices, Linear Algebra Appl. 435, 448–463, 2011.
 Nicholas J. Higham, D. Steven Mackey, Niloufer Mackey and
Françoise Tisseur, Functions preserving matrix groups and
iterations for the matrix square root, SIAM J. Matrix Anal. Appl.
26(3), 849–877, 2005
 Roger Horn and Charles Johnson, Topics in Matrix Analysis,
Cambridge University Press, 1991.