Cassy Lab 2 524 221en

CASSY Lab 2
CASSY Lab 2
524 221en
© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

Phone: +49-2233-604-0 · Fax: +49-2233-604-222 · E-mail: info@ld-didactic.de · Technical alterations reserved
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CASSY Lab 2
Copyright
School licence (524 220)
The activated software may only be used by the purchaser and solely for the purpose of instruction in the respective
educational institution. This includes lessons prepared at home.
You may not reveal your licence code to colleagues at other educational institutions.
Home licence (524 220H)

The activated software may only be used on private computers belonging to the students who attend the educational
institution that purchased the home licence. The home licence may not be used on the school's computers, and it
expires three years after the date of purchase.
You may not reveal your licence code to students at other educational institutions.
LD DIDACTIC GmbH reserves the right to prosecute all violations of these terms of use to the fullest extent of the
law.
CASSY® is a registered trademark of LD DIDACTIC GmbH.
Authors
Dr. Michael Hund
Dr. Karl-Heinz Wietzke
Dr. Timm Hanschke
Dr. Werner Bietsch
Dr. Antje Krause
Frithjof Kempas
Christoph Grüner
Mark Metzbaur
Barbara Neumayr
Bernd Seithe
Graphic
Oliver Niessen
Version
2/19/2021

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CASSY Lab 2
Contents
Introduction 8
Important information after installing CASSY Lab 2 8
New features in CASSY Lab 2 9
User programs for CASSY 10
CASSY Lab 2 11
File menu 13
Measurement menu 14
Table menu 15
Diagram menu 16
Window menu 21
Help menu 21
Settings and Measuring Parameters 22
CASSYs settings 24
Analog input settings / Timer input settings 26
Power factor cos φ / phase shift φ settings 28
MCA box settings 29
Relay/voltage source settings 31
Function generator settings 32
Analog output Y settings 33
Digital input/output settings 33
Calculator settings 34
Display settings 37
Machines and their function 39
Machine parameters 41
Motor testing 42
Generator testing 47
Load simulation 50
Generator control 60
Mechanics 63
X-ray apparatus settings 65
Crystal and anode settings 67
Formula notation 69
Formula examples 72
CASSYs 73
Bluetooth CASSYs 75
Sensor-CASSY 76
Sensor-CASSY 2 78
Power-CASSY 80
Profi-CASSY 82
CASSY-Display 84
Pocket-CASSY 85
Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 87
Rechargeable Battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 89
Mobile-CASSY 90
Mobile-CASSY 2 92
Micro-CASSY 94
Joule and wattmeter 97
Universal measuring instrument physics 99
Universal measuring instrument chemistry 101
Universal measuring instrument biology 103
Power Analyser CASSY (Plus) 105
Machine Test CASSY 108
X-ray apparatus 110

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CASSY Lab 2
Sensors and sensor boxes 111

Other devices 116
ASCII, balance, VideoCom, IRPD, MFA 2001 116
Thermometer 117
Digital spectrophotometer 117
Rotating antenna platform 118
Advanced Science Kits 120
Uniformly accelerated motion - path-time diagram 121
Uniform motion between two light barriers 123
Uniformly accelerated motion between a holding magnet and a light barrier 125
Relation between acceleration and mass (F=constant) 127
Relation between acceleration and force (m=constant) 129
Ohm's law 131
Series connection of resistors 133
Parallel connection of resistors 135
Adjusting a voltage by means of a potentiometer 137
Principle of Wheatstone's bridge 139
Longitudinal expansion of solid bodies 141
Temperature change on account of thermal radiation 144
Cooling down of water 147
Temperature change when heat energy is supplied 149
Specific heat capacity of water 151
The effect of the distance between the radiation source and the end-window counter on the pulse rate 153
Experiment examples physics 155
Uniform motions between two light barriers 158
Accelerated motions between holding magnet and light barrier 160
Accelerated motions with an ultrasonic motion sensor 162
Accelerated motions with an acceleration sensor 164
Motions with spoked wheel (Newton definition) 165
Motions on the linear air track (Newton's equation of motion) 167
Conservation of momentum and energy (collision) 169
Conservation of linear momentum by measuring the motion of the center of mass (collision) 172
Confirming the relation action=reaction by measuring accelerations (collision) 174
Motion of the center of mass and action=reaction with two ultrasonic motion sensors (collision) 176
Free fall with g-ladder 178
Free fall with g-ladder (with modeling) 180
Rotational motions (Newton's equation of motion) 182
Conservation of angular momentum and energy (torsion collision) 184
Centrifugal force (rotable centrifugal force arm) 186
Centrifugal force (centrifugal force apparatus) 188
Precession of a gyroscope 190
Gyroscope nutation 192
Oscillations of a rod pendulum 194
Oscillations of a rod pendulum (with added mass) 196
Oscillations of a rod pendulum (with modeling) 198
Dependency of the period of the oscillation on the amplitude 200
Determination of the acceleration due to gravity on earth by means of a reversible pendulum 202
Pendulum with changeable acceleration due to gravity (variable g-pendulum) 204
Harmonic oscillations of a spring pendulum 207
Dependence of the period of oscillation of a spring pendulum on the oscillating mass 209
Oscillations of a spring pendulum (with modeling) 211
Oscillations of a spring pendulum with solid friction (with modeling) 214
Oscillations of a spring pendulum with lubricant friction (with modeling) 217
Oscillations of a spring pendulum with laminar liquid friction (with modeling) 219
Oscillations of a spring pendulum with turbulent liquid friction/air friction (with modeling) 221
Coupled pendulums with two tachogenerators 224
Coupled pendulums with two rotary motion sensors 226
Three-body problem (with modeling) 228

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CASSY Lab 2
Acoustic beats 229

String vibrations 231
Velocity of sound in air 233
Determining the velocity of sound in air with 2 microphones 235
Determining the velocity of sound in air with ultrasound 237
Velocity of sound in gases 238
Velocity of sound in solid bodies 241
Fourier analysis of simulated signals 243
Fourier analysis of signals of a function generator 245
Sound analysis 247
Sonic synthesis 249
Conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy 250
Conversion of electrical energy into thermal energy 253
pV diagram of a hot-air engine 256
Coulomb's law 259
Force in the magnetic field of an air coil 262
Force in the magnetic field of an electromagnet 265
Force between two current-carrying conductors (ampere definition) 267
Impulse of voltage (Faraday's law of induction) 270
Induction in a variable magnetic field 273
Voltage and current curves of a transformer as a function of time 277
Power transfer of a transformer 279
Power of arbitrary loads operated with mains AC voltage 281
Charging and discharging of a capacitor 283
Charging and discharging of a capacitor (with modeling) 285
Charging and discharging of a small capacitor (cable capacitances) 287
Damped oscillator circuit 289
Damped oscillator (with modeling) 291
Coupled oscillators 293
Forced oscillations (resonance) 295
Forced oscillations (resonance, with modeling) 297
RLC filter (low pass, high pass, band pass) 299
Low-pass filter (with modeling) 301
High-pass filter (with modeling) 304
Characteristic of an incandescent lamp 307
Characteristic of a diode 308
Characteristic of a transistor 310
Power characteristic of a solar cell 312
Temperature control 314
Brightness control 316
Voltage control 318
Diffraction at a single slit 320
Diffraction at multiple slits 323
Inverse square law for light 326
Velocity of light in air 328
Velocity of light in various materials 330
Millikan's experiment 332
Franck-Hertz experiment with mercury 335
Franck-Hertz experiment with neon 338
Bragg reflection: diffraction of X-rays at a monocrystal 341
Duane-Hunt relation and determination of Planck's constant 344
Moseley's law and determination of the Rydberg constant 347
Moseley's law (K-line X-ray fluorescence) 350
Moseley's law (L-line x-ray fluorescence) 353
Energy dispersive Bragg reflection into different orders of diffraction 356
Fine structure of the characteristic X-ray radiation of a tungsten anode 359
High-resolution fine structure of the characteristic X-ray radiation of a molybdenum and a gold anode 361
Compton effect on X-rays 363
Poisson distribution 366
Half-life of radon 368

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CASSY Lab 2
α spectroscopy of radioactive samples (Am-241) 370

Determining the energy loss of α radiation in air (Am-241) 372
Determining the energy loss of α radiation in air (Ra-226) 374
Determining the energy loss of α radiation in aluminum and in gold 376
Determining the age of a Ra-226 sample 378
Detecting γ radiation with a scintillation counter (Cs-137) 380
Recording and calibrating a γ spectrum 382
Absorption of γ radiation 384
Identifying and determining the activity of weakly radioactive samples 386
Recording a β spectrum using a scintillation counter 388
Quantitative observation of the Compton effect 390
Recording the complex γ spectrum of Ra-226 and its decay products 392
Coincidence and γ-γ angular correlation in positron decay 394
Coincidence and the decay cascade of Co-60 397
Detection of muons 399
Electrical conduction in solid bodies 401
Hysteresis of a transformer core 403
Non-destructive analysis of the chemical composition (x-ray fluorescence) 406
Determination of the chemical composition of a brass sample (x-ray fluorescence) 409
Experiment examples chemistry 412
The Bunsen burner 413
pH measurement on foodstuffs 415
pH measurement on cleaning agents 418
Determining the pKa value of acetic acid 421
Titration of phosphoric acid 424
Melting and solidification point of palmitic acid 427
Supercooling a melt of sodium thiosulphate 429
Determining the molar mass by way of freezing-point depression 432
Titration of hydrochloric acid with caustic soda solution (pH and conductivity) 436
Titration of household vinegar 439
Titration of acetic acid with caustic soda solution (pH and conductivity) 442
Automatic titration of NH3 with NaH2PO4 (piston burette) 445
Automatic titration (drop counter) 448
Gas chromatography (separation of alkanes from lighter gas) 451
Gas chromatography (separation of alcohols) 453
Gas chromatography (separation of air) 455
Reaction of marble with hydrochloric acid (determining the carbonate content) 457
Splitting of urea by urease (zero-order reaction, enzyme kinetics) 459
Hydrolysis of tertiary butyl chloride (determining the reaction order) 463
Reaction of marble with hydrochloric acid (determining the reaction order) 466
Alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl acetate (determining the reaction order) 469
Alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl acetate (determining the activation parameters) 473
Differential thermal analysis of copper sulphate 477
Preparing a freezing mixture 480
Determining the melting enthalpy of ice 482
Determining the conductivity of different solutions 485
Determining the limiting equivalent conductivity of sodium chloride 488
Determining the dissociation constant of acetic acid 491
Absorption of UV radiation 495
Simulation of the ozone hole 497
Greenhouse effect of CO2 500
Experiment examples biology 503
Pulse 504
Skin resistance 505
Electrocardiogram (ECG) 507
Electromyogram (EMG) 509
Blood pressure 510
Reaction time 512
Lung volume (spirometry) 514

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CASSY Lab 2
Long-term measurement of climate data 516

Experiment examples technology 518
Motor vehicle – ignition systems 519
Motor vehicle – mixture formation systems 522
Motor vehicle – on-board computer with radio 526
Motor vehicle – comfort system with CAN bus 528
Motor vehicle – investigating CAN data bus signals 530
Pulse code modulation (quantization) 532
Physical principles of microwave technology (characteristics of the Gunn oscillator) 534
Two-plate waveguide (TEM and TE modes) 536
Microwave propagation in waveguides (measurement of the standing wave ratio) 539
Antenna technology 542
Drive engineering 547
Appendix 549
Index 571

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CASSY Lab 2
Introduction
This manual is intended to provide an overview of the many exciting possibilities of the CASSY Lab software. The
text is identical to the help texts that can be accessed using the mouse for all program functions.
The help texts in the program provide the following additional support:
 You can jump directly to cross-referenced information using the mouse.
 You can load experiment examples and settings by clicking on them.
 The help system permits both indexed and full-text search modes.
Installation
CASSY Lab 2 can be installed either
 automatically after inserting the CD-ROM or
 manually by executing the file setup.exe
and following the instructions that appear on the screen.
Important information after installing CASSY Lab 2

Using the software with CASSY
The first time you start CASSY Lab, you should enter the licence code which you receive by registering the pur-
chased product key at https://register.leylab.de. The software then supports CASSY without restrictions (CASSY
support without the activation code is limited to 16 sessions).
Using the software with other measuring instruments

CASSY Lab supports other measuring instruments, the Joule and wattmeter and the Universal measuring instrument
physics/chemistry/biology without requiring a licence code.
Manual
CASSY Lab is supplied with a comprehensive manual. In order to exploit the full potential of CASSY Lab 2, you need
to read and understand this manual completely. You can do this in several ways:
 Open the manual from CD-ROM
 Order the printed manual (524 221en).
Download the manual from the Internet (in Adobe PDF format).
 Use the software help function (text identical to the printed manual, context-sensitive and with numerous jump
links and enhanced search capabilities).
Getting started
Displays the introduction
Displays experiment examples
You can also read the supplied experiment examples and use these for further evaluations without CASSY. You can
use the program settings from the examples to run new measurements, and match these to your experiment condi-
tions.
Support
If there should be any questions left despite the comprehensive help with its numerous experiment examples, please
mail to cassy@ld-didactic.de.
Updates
We have an ongoing commitment to expanding and enhancing CASSY Lab 2 – particularly in response to the com-
ments and experiences of our users.
Download update from the Internet

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CASSY Lab 2
New features in CASSY Lab 2

This section is intended for users who are familiar with CASSY Lab 1 and want to know quickly what has been
changed with CASSY Lab 2:
 There is a central settings window where a quick overview of all of the settings can be found. In the case of major
problems (e.g. wrong CASSY, wrong sensor box, syntax fault in a formula), a yellow indicates what to do.
 Several tables and diagrams can be displayed on the screen at the same time. To do this, one of the tabs is simp-
ly dragged with the mouse and the display is dropped as desired. With a floating window, double-clicking the win-
dow title line sorts it back in.
 New features of Sensor-CASSY 2 are supported (4 channel measuring, 1 MHz sampling rate, pre-triggering,
measuring of mains voltage. By means of the pre-triggering of Sensor-CASSY 2 and Pocket-CASSY, recording of
measured values is possible in the time before the triggering event.
 Drag & Drop is realized consistently within and between the setting window, the upper button bar, the display in-
struments, the tables and the diagrams. This allows, for example, numeric values to be copied, evaluation texts to
be shifted, sequences to be changed, and curves to be moved from one diagram to another.
 Evaluations are alive. The evaluation is already displayed while the evaluation range is being marked. The evalu-
ation range can subsequently be modified by double-clicking the evaluation. By re-starting a (repeating) meas-
urement, the old evaluations are not deleted but the new measurement is newly calculated and displayed.
 Additional evaluations (e.g. tangent, triangular interpolation, CAN/LIN decoder) add to the available options.
Gaussian fits are now found under fits, the x-ray energies under markers and the peak center below the mean
value.
 Freely selectable curve colors as well as transparent areas (e.g. for integrals and histograms) increase clarity.
 Symbols for measured and evaluated quantities are shown in display instruments, tables and diagrams, and eval-
uated results are displayed using italic fonts.
 Slower measurements can at the same time make use of different CASSY modules (e.g. Sensor-CASSY and
Pocket-CASSY). Faster measurements continue to require a single CASSY or a cascade of CASSY modules
(e.g. two Sensor-CASSYs plugged together) in order to ensure that the measurements are taken simultaneously.
 Inputs and outputs can, in most cases, be activated individually. E.g. the voltage source S can be activated with-
out the relay R, or the obscuration time tE can be activated without the obscuration time tF.
 An automatic measuring range selection (Autorange) can be selected.
 It can be triggered onto the path s (±1 mm) of the Motion transducer box or that of the Timer S. This is helpful for
measurements without a holding magnet.
 A stop condition is available which can automatically end measurements.
 Every text field in which a formula can be entered has its own help menu with information on allowed variables,
functions and operators.
 The differential equations of model values can now be dependent on formulas which in turn depend on the model
values. This allows a clearer notation of the differential equations.
 When a symbol is renamed, all dependent formulas are correspondingly changed automatically.
 The dependency of "old" in formulas is no longer necessary. Instead, the own symbol representing the formula
can be used. If the "last old" was used in a convoluted way to access a specific element in a table (e.g. starting
value U0 = (n = 1) * UA1 + (n > 1) * last old), this is now possible in a much more elegant way by stating an index
(e.g. starting value U0 = UA1[1]).
 "last" and "next" is no longer required in formulas either. The same function offers universal access via an index
(e.g. UA1[n-1] and UA1[n+1]).
 Multiple series of measurements are no longer separated from each other by means of an empty line in the same
columns but side by side in new columns in the table. This simplifies the access or deleting of specific series of
measurements in a diagram and the access of formulas to special series of measurements, e.g. UA1#1 accesses
the voltage in the first series of measurements.
 Values of outputs, such as the voltage source S, are only calculated when they are output and are then saved in
the table. If later on the formula for the output is changed, the same no longer applies retrospectively but only for
later outputs. This logic has been changed in order to keep the measuring data record comprising input values
and output values consistent.
 Several rapid and triggered digital measurements are possible by means of the Timer box or the Timer S and
analogue inputs, e.g. the obscuration times at a light barrier and a force sensor.
 The recording of MCA spectra was made similar to other operations. The settings are entered in the central set-
tings window (including the energy calibration). After the energy calibration, the energy can be dragged to the di-
agram in order to change the axes. Simultaneous measurements can be made via further CASSY inputs. The
single channel operating mode of the MCA box is no longer available.
CASSY Lab 2 can load CASSY Lab 1 files. In most cases the old measurement can be either immediately repeated
or evaluated.

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CASSY Lab 2
There are only a few idiosyncrasies to be observed:

 The measured values for the obscuration times tE and tF at the Timer box are now evaluated in the formulas in the
units in which they were measured, in milliseconds rather than seconds. The factor 1/1000 may have to be manu-
ally entered in the derived formulas. In this way these two measured values now behave like all the other meas-
ured values, with the exception of the measuring time t, which is evaluated in seconds as before wherever it oc-
curs in formulas.
 Temporal derivations are now always calculated as time-weighted symmetrical derivations. This means that the
derivations of measured values not recorded at equidistant times now fit with the measured value. Auxiliary for-
mulas which were necessary for CASSY Lab 1 for compensating for this fault now become counter-productive.
 Most measured values can be recorded both for small and for larger measuring intervals. However, there are
measured values which result in sensible values only for small time intervals (obscuration time t E, obscuration nE
of the Timer box or of Timer S and path s of the Ultrasonic motion sensor S) or only for larger time intervals (e.g.
events NE, frequency fE, temperature, CO2 concentration, rel. air humidity). Measured values in those two catego-
ries now no longer can be measured together. Instead of the rapid obscuration counter nE, the slower event coun-
ter N can be used and vice versa.
 The overview diagram of the MCA spectra and the option for adding and subtracting spectra are no longer availa-
ble. Instead, the new options for the simultaneous display of several diagrams and formulas are available, which
can access any series of measurements (e.g. NA#1-NA#2).
 There are very old serial measuring devices which are no longer supported by CASSY Lab 2.
On account of the numerous new features of CASSY Lab 2, export into the old CASSY Lab 1 data format is no longer
possible.
User programs for CASSY

You can also program CASSY-S yourself. To assist you in this, we have placed the .NET assembly LD.Api.dll as well
as a description of the protocol of the interface on the Web for free downloading.
Download SDK from the Internet
LabVIEW
Our LabVIEW driver for CASSY is also free available on the Internet. In addition to the VIs (Virtual Instruments) for
driving CASSY, the driver also contains application examples.
Download LabVIEW driver from the Internet
LabVIEW is a registered trademark of National Instruments.
MATLAB
Our MATLAB driver for CASSY is also free available on the Internet. The driver also contains numerous application
examples.
Download MATLAB driver from the Internet
MATLAB is a registered trademark of MathWorks.

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CASSY Lab 2
CASSY Lab 2
Introduction
Measurement
Evaluation
Experiment examples
New features in CASSY Lab 2
User programs for CASSY
CASSY Lab 2 supports one or more CASSY modules at the USB port or at the serial interface of the computer. The
software also supports Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth, a variety of other serial measuring instruments, the Joule and
wattmeter and the Universal measuring instrument physics/chemistry/biology.
For CASSYs with a serial interface, the serial interface is selected in the Settings CASSYs.
Licence code
When using CASSY Lab 2 together with CASSY, you need a licence code.This licence code is generated from the
purchased product key by activation at https://register.leylab.de. Please observe our copyright.
If you only intend to use CASSY Lab 2 with other devices, with the Joule and wattmeter or with the Universal measur-
ing instrument physics/chemistry/biology, no licence code is necessary.
CASSY Lab can also be used with CASSY without the licence code for a limited time (up to 16 sessions).
Future versions, such as updates available for downloading on the Internet, will also use this activation code. This
means that there are no restrictions on the use of updates.
First measurements
If one or more CASSYs have been recognized, all CASSY modules are displayed with their current configuration (if
applicable with the plugged in sensor boxes). To conduct a measurement, just click on the corresponding input or
output .
An active input or output (channel) is then marked in color and placed among the channel buttons at the top right
of the main window (here IA1 and UB1). These buttons are the fastest way to display or close a display instrument
for that channel (left mouse button) or to change a setting (right mouse button). In addition, the channel initially ap-
pears automatically in the table and in the diagram .

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CASSY Lab 2
You can access the basic functions quickly using the menu or the buttons in the top bar:
File Measurement Table Diagram Window Help
In the button line a brief comment on the measuring series can also be entered.
Below this bar, you can toggle between the displays of the table and the diagram by clicking on one of the dis-
play tabs when different Displays have been defined (here Standard and Characteristic). The table and diagram
can be enlarged or reduced with respect to each other by moving the boundary with the mouse.
Displays can be sorted differently or displayed differently by dragging their tabs (e.g. several diagrams simultane-
ously), and they can be turned into floating windows. With a floating window, double-clicking the window title line
sorts it back in.
At many points, both mouse buttons (left and right) can be used to execute different functions:
Control element Left mouse button Right mouse button
CASSY setup Activate and modify a channel Activate and modify a channel
Channel button Open and close a display instrument, drag and drop Set up a channel
in and through
Display instrument Move boundary between analog and digital display, Set up a channel
drag and drop values in
Name of display Toggle to another defined display, change the layout
Table Edit measured values, drag and drop values within Set display attributes of table, e.g.
the table or the channels to font size, delete table rows
Diagram Mark evaluation ranges Settings and evaluations in dia-
gram
Scale Move scale Set minimum, maximum and con-
version of scale
Axis symbols Toggle y-scale, drag and drop into Set up a curve
Boundary Move boundary between channel and diagram

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CASSY Lab 2
File menu
File → New (F4)
Deletes either the current measurement series maintaining the settings or, if the current measurement series is emp-
ty, all measured values, or, if no measured values are available, the current settings.
Applying this twice or three times completely deletes a measurement with its settings.
File → Open (F3)

Opens a measurement series with its settings and its evaluations.
The software is also equipped with a text import filter (file type *.txt).
File → Append
Appends a measurement series to an existing series (without loading its settings and evaluations as well). This is
possible when the same measurement quantities are used for both series. Alternatively, a further measurement se-
ries can be measured and appended subsequently.
File → Save (F2)

Saves the current measurement series with its settings and its evaluations.
You can also save just the settings (without measurement data) to make it easier to repeat an experiment at a later
date.
The software is additionally equipped with a text export filter (file type *.txt).
File → Page Setup

Establishes the paper format and margins for a printout.
File → Print Preview

Shows a preview of the printout of the current table or current diagram.
File → Print
Prints out the currently active table or diagram.
Text export and import

You can import and export text files quickly and easily by selecting the file type *.txt in the file selection dialog.
The data format begins with a header, in which all lines begin with a keyword. This specifies the measuring ranges,
(MIN, MAX), the SCALE, the number of decimal places (DEC) and the actual definition of the measurement quanti-
ties (DEF). All lines except DEF are optional. The table of measured values follows the header.
You can view the exact syntax e.g. in the file that is created using the data export function.

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CASSY Lab 2
Measurement menu
A measurement is configured by means of the measuring parameters and thereafter started and stopped by means
of this menu.
Measurement → Start/Stop Measurement (F9)

Starts and stops a new measurement.
Alternatively, you can stop measurements by setting a measuring time.
You can use the right mouse button to open the table display menu in the table and the evaluation menu in the dia-
gram.
Measurement → Continue Measurement

Continues a measurement. A measurement can be continued if the selected time interval is 100 ms or greater and
there is measuring time remaining.
Measurement → Append new Measurement Series

The Append function enables sequential recording of multiple measurement series. In the case of the automatic re-
cording of measured values, this switch has to be set only once in order to append all subsequent measurements. In
the case of the manual recording of the measured values, the switch has to be reset every time that a new measure-
ment series is started.
If more than one measurement series is being recorded, the serial index for the series is appended to the symbols in
order to distinguish them by series, e.g. UA1#1 and UA1#2. This allows the measurement series to be distinguished
from one another for the assignment of column headings in tables and the axis assignment of a diagram.
Alternatively, the individual measurement series can first be recorded one after another and saved individually. When
loading multiple comparable measurement series (with identical quantities), measured series can also be appended
"retroactively".
This selection is identical to Measuring Parameters → Append new measurement series.
Measurement → Select Measurement Series

Selects the current measurement series. The current measurement series is
 the measurement series into which values are entered if no new measurement series is appended
 the measurement series which is deleted when the current measurement series is deleted
 the measurement series whose values are dragged by Drag & Drop from the channel buttons into the table and
the diagram.
Measurement → Delete Current Measurement Series

Deletes the currently selected measurement series. Here all the values are deleted which were recorded during this
measurement series even if they are not currently being displayed.

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CASSY Lab 2
Table menu
You can change the table display also by clicking on the right mouse button when the pointer is over the table.
Editing measured values

Individual measured values can be edited after being clicked on using the left mouse button or they can be dragged
to different measured value cells (Drag & Drop).
Selecting rows
When the Shift key or the Alt key are pressed at the same time, one or more rows of the table can be selected. Once
rows have been selected, the selection is taken into account for Table → Copy Table, and with File → Print → Print
Table the selected rows can be used as the print area.
The selected rows can be deselected by double-clicking on a table cell.
Status line
A single selected table row is displayed in the status line at the bottom of the screen. You can toggle display of this
information in a larger window on and off by pressing or F6.
Table → Change Column Header

Activates the Settings Display. Here the table column headers can be edited.
Alternatively, you can move columns back and forth between channel buttons and the table using drag and drop.
Table → Select Font Size

The table's font size is selectable. Small, medium and large fonts can be selected.
Table → Delete last Row in Table (Alt+L)

Deletes the last row in the current measuring series in the table.
Table → Copy Table

Copies the table in text format into the Windows clipboard. Once there, it are available for further processing in other
Windows programs.
Table → Copy Window

Copies the main window as a bitmap into the Windows clipboard. Once there, it is available for further processing in
other Windows programs.

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CASSY Lab 2
Diagram menu
You can access a wide variety of powerful graphical evaluation functions in the diagram also by clicking the right
mouse button.
Change Axis Assignment Fit Function
Display Coordinates Calculate Integral
Select Line Width Calculate Poisson Distribution
Select Value Display Calculate Gaussian Distribution
Select Rulers Calculate Minimum and Maximum
Show Grid Calculate Form Factor
Zoom Calculate Ripple
Zoom Off Find Equivalence Point
Set Marker Carry out Triangular Interpolation
Text Find Systole and Diastole
Vertical Line Decode CAN/LIN Message
Horizontal Line Delete Last Evaluation
Measure Difference Delete All Evaluations
X-Ray Energies Delete Range (only Measured Values)
Draw Mean Copy Diagram
Calculate Peak Center Copy Table
Selecting a measured value

By clicking on a measured value, it becomes selected in the diagram and at the same time its y-value is selected in
the table. This selection can by changed by selecting a different y-value in the table or deleted by selecting an x-
value in the table.
Marking a curve section

In some cases, you may wish to mark a particular curve section for which the evaluation function is to perform a cal-
culation.
To mark a curve section, hold down the left mouse button and drag the pointer to the end of the curve section. Alter-
natively, you can also click on the starting and end points.
When a part of a curve is selected, the selected range is displayed in cyan and the evaluation is calculated.
Editing an evaluation
An evaluation can be edited by double-clicking the evaluation. When the range is edited, the evaluation is re-
calculated.
If the range is shifted out of the diagram, the evaluation is deleted.
The evaluations are automatically re-calculated whenever the measurement is re-started without first selecting Ap-
pend new Measurement Series or whenever the measured values are changed (e.g. when recording a spectrum).
Status line
Evaluation results always appear in the status line at the bottom of the window. You can toggle display of this infor-
mation in a larger window on and off by pressing or F6.
Drag & drop functionality

Using the mouse, you can drag the evaluation results from the status line and drop them in the table or the diagram.
In this way diagrams can be created which depend on the results of the evaluation or you can rapidly enter the eval-
uation results in a diagram.
If several evaluation results are displayed in the status line, the status line is copied from the evaluation result on
which the mouse was positioned when it was dragged.
Diagram → Change Axis Assignment

Activates the Settings Display. This lets you change the assignment of the diagram. Mathematical conversion of axes
is also possible.
Alternatively, you can move the axis assignments back and forth between the channel buttons and the diagram using
drag and drop.

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CASSY Lab 2
Diagramm → Display Coordinates (Alt+C)

When you activate this function, the status line shows the current coordinates of the mouse pointer, as long as it is
over a diagram. The coordinate display remains active until you deactivate this menu point by selecting it again, or an
evaluation shows a result in the status line.
You can also insert the current coordinates in the diagram. However, make sure that you access the evaluation func-
tion Text via the keyboard with Alt+T without changing the coordinates of the mouse pointer, as otherwise the wrong
coordinates would be adopted.
Diagram → Select Line Width

You can modify the line width for display of the diagrams and the evaluations which you carry out in them. You can
choose between thin, medium and thick lines.
Diagram → Select Value Display

CASSY Lab provides six functions for customizing the display of measured values.
Show Values Display as squares, triangles, circles, pound characters, …
Show Connecting Lines Connecting lines between measurement points
Akima Interpolation Values between the measuring points interpolated according to Akima's method
sinc Interpolation Values between the measuring points interpolated with sinc(x)=sin(πx)/πx
Show Bars Values shown by bars
Show Axes Zero lines of x and y axis
The Akima and sinc interpolations are neither calculated over gaps in the domain of definition nor during a measure-
ment. During the measurement, the points are only connected by straight lines. Only after the measurement does the
interpolation calculate the curve sections between the measuring points. The sinc interpolation is ideal for signals that
do not contain any frequency components higher than half the sampling frequency. In this case it leads to 10-fold
oversampling.
Diagram → Select Rulers

In the diagram the x-ruler and y-ruler can be displayed or hidden.
Diagram → Show Grid

Allows you to toggle a grid on and off in the diagram.
Diagram → Zoom (Alt+Z)

After activating this menu point, define the range which you wish to magnify. Use the left mouse button to do this.
A previously zoomed display can be zoomed further. To reset a zoom, select Zoom Off.
Diagram → Zoom Off (Alt+O)

Restores the currently selected section of the diagram to its original size.
Diagram → Set Marker

This software provides five different mark-up functions.
Diagram → Set Marker → Text (Alt+T)

This text function lets you label all parts of the diagram using any text you wish to enter. Once you have entered your
text, just move it to the desired position and anchor it with the left mouse button.
After all evaluations which return a numerical value in the status line, these numerical values are suggested as a text
insertion which you can accept, edit or reject.
Diagram → Set Marker → Vertical Line (Alt+V)

This function lets you draw vertical lines in any positions in the diagram. The respective position is given in the status
line.
Diagram → Set Marker → Horizontal Line (Alt+H)

This function lets you draw horizontal lines in any positions in the diagram. The respective position is given in the
status line.

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CASSY Lab 2
Diagram → Set Marker → Measure Difference (Alt+D)

After clicking on a reference point, you can draw a line to any point in the diagram. The coordinate difference be-
tween the starting and end points of that line are given in the status line.
Diagram → Set Marker → X-Ray Energies

Displays a periodic table and inserts the relevant X-ray energies of the selected element as marks in the diagram
provided the x-axis of the diagram has the unit keV.
Diagram → Draw Mean

After choosing mean value calculation, just select the curve section for which you wish to find the mean value with
the left mouse button. The mean value appears in the status line along with its statistical error.
Diagramm → Calculate Peak Center

This function calculates the center of the marked peak and inserts this in the status line.
Diagramm → Fit Function

The software offers various best-fit operations:
Best-fit straight line y=Ax+B
Line through origin y=Ax
Tangent y=Ax+B
Normal parabola y=Ax2
Parabola y=Ax2+Bx+C
Hyperbola 1/x y=A/x+B
Hyperbola 1/x2 y=A/x2+B
Exponential function y=A*exp(-x/B)
Envelope of an oscillation y=±A*exp(-x/B)+C (attenuation through air friction)
Gaussians of equal Width y=Σ Gaussian curves with equal σ
Gaussians of specified Energy y=Σ Gaussian curves with fixed μ and equal σ
Free Fit y=f(x,A,B,C,D)
After choosing the corresponding operation, select the curve section you wish to apply it to using the left mouse but-
ton.
In the simplest case the Gaussian fits match precisely a Gaussian curve in the selected range. If a sum of several
Gaussian curves is to be fitted the number and approximate position of the individual maxima (peaks) must be speci-
fied. This is done by means of markers set in advance (peak centers, vertical lines or selected x-ray energies).
Gaussians of equal width matches the amplitudes Ai and positions μi of all Gaussian curves and for this always
uses the same width σ:
Gaussian curves of a specified energy only fits the amplitudes Ai and the width σ. This is particularly suitable for
marked x-ray energies.
To define a free fit, you need to specify the function f(x,A,B,C,D) and meaningful starting values before marking the
range. The standard rules apply for entering the function. Choose starting values that are as realistic as possible to
increase the chances of obtaining a successful fit. If it is not possible to fit the function, try repeating this process with
different starting values. In addition, individual parameters A, B, C or D can be maintained constant during the fit.
During the fit, the current parameters of the operation (A, B, C and D) appear in the status line.
Diagram → Calculate Integral

The value of the integral corresponds to the area which is enclosed by the curve section selected by means of the
left-hand mouse button and the x-axis, by the peak area, or by the area which is enclosed by the selected curve sec-
tion from the origin. The value of the integral appears in the status line.
The result of a MCA measurement, however, is not a real integral over the x-axis (energy or channels), but simply
the sum over the channels the unit being "events".
Diagram → Other Evaluations → Calculate Poisson Distribution

(only suitable for frequency distributions)

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CASSY Lab 2
The total number n of events, the mean value μ and the standard deviation σ are calculated in the marked range of
the histogram and displayed in the status line and the Poisson distribution calculated on the basis of these appears in
the diagram:
Diagram → Other Evaluations → Calculate Gaussian Distribution

(only suitable for frequency distributions)
The total number n of events, the mean value μ and the standard deviation σ are calculated in the marked range of
the histogram and displayed in the status line and the Gaussian distribution calculated on the basis of these appears
in the diagram:
Diagram → Other Evaluations → Calculate Minimum and Maximum

The minimum and the maximum of the selected range are calculated and are displayed in the status line.
Diagram → Other Evaluations → Calculate Form Factor

(only suitable for periodic curves)
For the marked range [t1,t2] of a periodic signal (e.g. U(t)) the following values are calculated and displayed in the
status line:
Rectified mean value
(mean of the absolute
value)
Root-mean-square
value
Form factor
For these calculations, always an integer number of periods should be marked.
Diagram → Other Evaluations → Calculate Ripple

(only suitable for periodic curves)
For the marked range [t1,t2] of a periodic signal (e.g. U(t)) the following values are calculated and displayed in the
status line:
Mean value
Root-mean-square
value
Ripple
For these calculations, always an integer number of periods should be marked.
Diagram → Other Evaluations → Find Equivalence Point

(only useful for titration curves of pH over volume)
The equivalence point and the pK value are determined for the marked range of the titration curve and displayed in
the status line. In the case of strong acids or bases (with pK < 1), it is recommendable to mark only the area immedi-
ately before and after the equivalence point in order to avoid the output of an incorrect pK value.

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CASSY Lab 2
Diagram → Other Evaluations → Carry out Triangular Interpolation

For the triangular interpolation two ranges are selected in which initially a straight line is fitted.
Between the two straight lines a vertical line is fitted in such a way that the two triangles between the vertical line, the
two straight lines and the measured curve, end up having the same area.
The position of the vertical line is displayed in the status line.
Diagram → Other Evaluations → Find Systole and Diastole

(only suitable for blood-pressure curves)
The systole and diastole are determined for the marked range of the blood pressure curve and displayed in the status
line
Diagram → Other Evaluations → Decode CAN/LIN Message

By clicking on a CAN message or LIN message this is decoded and the result is displayed in the status line.
Diagram → Delete Last Evaluation

Undoes the most recent evaluation operation.
Diagram → Delete All Evaluations

Undoes all evaluation operations of this display.
Diagram → Delete Range (only Measured Values)

The measured values of the marked curve section are deleted. This only applies to measured values that are dis-
played on the y-axis. Values that are calculated (e.g. by means of a formula) or values on the x-axis cannot be delet-
ed.
Diagram → Copy Diagram

Copies the diagram as a bitmap or metafile into the Windows clipboard. Once there, it are available for further pro-
cessing in other Windows programs.
Diagram → Copy Window

Copies the main window as a bitmap into the Windows clipboard. Once there, it is available for further processing in
other Windows programs.

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CASSY Lab 2
Window menu
Window → Show Bluetooth CASSYs
Displays the CASSYs that can be connected by Bluetooth.
Window → Show CASSY Modules (F5)

Displays the current arrangement of CASSY modules and sensor boxes.
Window → Show Settings

Displays the current settings (e.g. CASSYs, computer, displays).
Window → Show Measuring Parameters

Displays the current measuring parameters.
Window → Toggle Large Display of Status Line On/Off (F6)

Toggles large display of the status-line information on and off.
Window → Toggle Display Instruments Off/On (F7)

Closes all open display instruments or reopens them.
Window → Group Display Instruments (F8)

Groups all of the open display instruments so that they can be shifted, scaled-down or scaled-up together.
Window → Align Display Instruments

Arranges all of the open display instruments in order next to one other or on top of one other.
Help menu
Help → Help (F1)
Opens this help file.
Help → New in CASSY Lab 2

Displays the most important changes in comparison to CASSY Lab 1.
Help → Experiment Examples

Displays an overview of all of the experiment examples included with CASSY.
Help → About ...

Displays the current version number of the software and enables entry of the activation code.

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CASSY Lab 2
Settings and Measuring Parameters

Window → Show Settings
All settings can be made in this central dialog window. The tree diagram provides three root nodes for this:
CASSYs (definition of the inputs and outputs of the connected CASSYs)

Calculator (definition of additional values)
Displays (changes the column assignments of the tables and axis assignments in the diagrams)
If in the tree structure in one of the sub-nodes a problem is identified (e.g. wrong CASSY, wrong sensor box, syntax
fault in one of the formulas), the first visible (higher-level) node shows a yellow , which alerts the user to the prob-
lem.
Window → Show Measuring Parameters

The measuring parameters are also displayed during every setting of an input or output and whenever no node is
selected in the tree diagram.
The defaults that appear in this dialog depend on the currently connected sensor boxes. This simplifies matching to a
particular measuring task, as the typical sensor box configuration is already finished.
Automatic recording
The software determines the exact time for the recording of a measured value. After a measurement is started with
or F9, the software first waits for any trigger that may have been set, and then records one measured-value row
each time the predefined time interval elapses. The interval, the number of measuring points per measurement as

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CASSY Lab 2
well as the total measuring time can be matched to the individual requirements before starting the experiment. You
can select continuous display by setting a repeating measurement.
For intervals below 100 ms, Sensor-CASSY 2 and Pocket-CASSY support a pre-trigger which indicates how many
measured values are to be recorded before the actual trigger time t = 0. For time intervals above 100 ms the pre-
trigger is always available.
At time intervals above 10 ms, the software evaluates the measuring condition and the stop condition in addition
to the trigger, and can also emit an acoustic signal when a measured value is recorded. The measuring condition
and the stop condition are formulas.
A measuring condition not equal to 0 means ON="Measured-value recording possible", while a measuring condition
equal to 0 means OFF="Measured-value recording inhibited". The measuring procedure is active once the measure-
ment has been started and the result of the formula is ON. For example, if you want to run a measurement on 21
April 1999 between 1:00 p.m. and 2:00 p.m. (13:00 and 14:00 hours), you can use the formula: date = 21.4.1999 and
time >= 13:00 and time <= 14:00.
A stop condition not equal to 0 means ON="Measurement stopped", while a stop condition equal to 0 means
OFF="Measurement not stopped".
For some measurement quantities (e.g. rate, frequency, transit time, obscuration time, path when using the GM box
or the timer box), the software does not evaluate the specified time interval. In this case the measurement is con-
trolled by the gate time or the measurement pulses themselves.
Manual recording
The user determines the exact time for the recording of a measured value. At each start with or F9 the software
records precisely one measured-value row, i.e. the current display values of the instruments are entered in the table
and the diagram. Thus, manual recording must be executed repeatedly in order to capture a complete measurement
series.
Append new measurement series

The Append function enables sequential recording of multiple measurement series. In the case of the automatic re-
cording of the measured values, this switch has to be set only once in order to append all subsequent measure-
ments. In the case of the manual recording of the measured values, the switch has to be reset every time that a new
measurement series is started.
If more than one measurement series is being recorded, the serial index for the series is appended to the symbols in
order to distinguish them by series, e.g. UA1#1 and UA1#2. This allows the measurement series to be distinguished
from one another for the assignment of column headings in tables and the axis assignment of a diagram.
Alternatively, the individual measurement series can first be recorded one after another and saved individually. When
loading multiple comparable measurement series (with identical quantities), measured series can also be appended
"retroactively".
This selection is identical to Measurement → Append new Measurement Series
Changing and deleting measured values / entering parameters

You can edit all measured values (except time and formulas) in the table. To do this, click on the corresponding table
row and edit the numerical value using the keyboard.
You can delete measured values in several ways:
Measurement → Delete Current Measurement Series
Table → Delete last Row in Table
Diagram → Delete Range

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CASSY Lab 2
CASSYs settings
Here the interface can be specified where serial CASSY modules are to be searched for. CASSYs with USB interfac-
es are found automatically.
Even when a CASSY module is to be connected to a USB port on the computer via a USB serial adapter, it remains
a serial CASSY module. Here the serial interface on the USB serial adapter has to be specified, which e.g. can be
identified in the Windows device manager.
Show CASSY Modules found opens a window where all identified CASSYs are displayed.
If other devices are used for the measurement, they can be selected here.

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CASSY Lab 2
The CASSY module described here identifies the detected device and the version information of the CASSY module.
If the version of the software implemented in the CASSY module is newer or older than this software, a message is
generated. Selecting Update CASSY Module causes this software version to overwrite the software implemented in
the CASSY module (regardless of whether it is newer or older).
For CASSY-Display and for Mobile-CASSY, the data logger can also be read here, and the real-time clock in CASSY
can be set to the computer system time.
For Sensor-CASSY 2, the colors and the brightness of the LEDs on the sides can be set here.
Hint
If this software is older than the CASSY module or you wish to update your software, you can download the latest
version from our website: http://www.ld-didactic.com.

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CASSY Lab 2
Analog input settings / Timer input settings

Sensor-CASSY is equipped with two electrically isolated sensor inputs A and B, which can be used to capture volt-
age values (resp. current as well at input A) as well as other measurement quantities – as determined by the at-
tached sensor box. CASSY Lab detects the sensor box and thus the measuring options automatically, i.e. the visual
image of the CASSY arrangement shows the inputs with any sensor boxes that are connected. In this display they
can also be configured for measuring by clicking on them.
The available measurement quantities and the measuring ranges thus depend on whether a sensor box is connect-
ed, and which one. You will need different sensor boxes for different measuring requirements (see also our product
catalogue).
Sensor-CASSY 2 even provides four inputs A and B, of which the left-hand inputs A and B are electrically isolated
and can be used at the same time as the right-hand sensor inputs A and B.
In addition to the function generator output for voltage or current, Power-CASSY also provides an analog input which
is used to measure the other corresponding quantity.
Profi-CASSY is equipped with two analog inputs A and B with the fixed measuring range ±10 V.
The selected quantity can be measured as an instantaneous value, averaged over several values or output as the
corresponding RMS value. Normally, measurement of instantaneous values without averaging will be sufficient.
However, if the input signal shows noise or hum, you need to measure averaged values. AC voltages are usually
measured as RMS values. If the time interval is less than 10 ms, the measured values recorded in the table and the
diagram will deviate from those shown in the display instruments in the latter two cases. This means that it is possible
to display the curve form and the RMS values simultaneously.
As a standard the averaged values and RMS values are calculated during a time interval of 100 ms. This time interval
can be changed globally for all channels. If Power-CASSY or Profi-CASSY is used, this time interval is changed on
every change in frequency of the output signal so that always an integer number of periods is evaluated.

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CASSY Lab 2
If the accuracy of the measured values is not sufficient, you an increase this by executing a correction. This can be
necessary e.g. when matching a special pH electrode to the software.
Special buttons (often hidden)

Box-LED LED on the sensor box on/off, e.g. SMOOTH (bridge box) or COMPENSATION (prerequisite for
tare compensation of B box)
→0← Zero-point adjustment (takes current value as zero point), e.g. for path, force, pressure, events,
collision
s ↔ –s Sign inversion for path (motion sensing element with the BMW box)
There are also special input fields which make it much easier to use the BMW box, GM box and timer box (e.g. gate
time, width of interrupter flag) and which are only visible when the corresponding box is attached.
When using the reaction test box, the reaction signal must first be requested by pressing a switch (hand or foot
switch). The reaction itself must then occur after the pointer appears on the display instrument in accordance with the
color of the pointer (red, green or yellow).
When using the climate box, you need to calibrate the humidity sensor (529 057) before the first measurement. The
four values C1 to C4 printed on the sensor are provided for this purpose. You only need to enter these values once;
they are then stored and retained in CASSY. These values do not need to be entered again, as they remain available
for subsequent measurements with CASSY-Display.
Correct measured values
You can correct measured values in a variety of ways, all of them easily accessible via Windows dialogs.
You can enter an offset value and/or a factor to the left of the equal sign; the software then uses these values to cal-
culate the displayed values to the right of the equals sign (target values) from the measured values displayed on the
left of the equal sign (actual values). To calculate the correction, click on the appropriate button, Correct Offset or
Correct Factor.
Alternatively, you can also define both target values, or one target value and one calculation value. Delete Correc-
tion cancels the correction.
Saving
A correction is saved with the other program settings. To ensure that the correction corresponds to the real situation
when the program is loaded subsequently, be sure to use the same electrodes and sensor boxes on the same Sen-
sor-CASSY (you may want to mark the electrodes, sensor boxes and CASSY devices).
Examples
Two buffer solutions with pH 3 and pH 9 are to be used for correction. The two target values are then 3 and 9 (enter
these on the right side). When the pH electrode is immersed in the pH 3 solution, activate the button next to the tar-
get value (e.g. Correct Offset), and activate the other button (e.g. Correct Factor) for the pH 9 solution.
A conductivity electrode with the K-factor 1.07 must be matched to the software. To do this, simply enter the factor
1.07 in the second line as a factor and select Correct Factor.

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CASSY Lab 2
Power factor cos φ / phase shift φ settings

Sensor-CASSY, Sensor-CASSY 2 and Profi-CASSY support the measurement of the power factor cos φ when effec-
tive values are measured at both voltage/current inputs. The power factor can be activated in the settings U B when
both inputs are activated.
Power-CASSY supports the measurement of the phase angle φ between the current and the voltage which can be
activated as required.
Profi-CASSY supports the measurement of the phase angle φ between output U X and input UA which can be activat-
ed as required.
The power factor and the phase shift can only be activated and de-activated. Other settings are not possible.

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CASSY Lab 2
MCA box settings
Here the settings for the MCA box are made. In principle there are two operating modes:

29
CASSY Lab 2
Multichannel measurement
Under Measurement the number of desired channels is selected. The amplification is located below. The best result
is achieved if the amplification is set to 1, 2, 5 or 10, or somewhat more.
The measuring time is as usual provided in the measuring parameters attached below.
Coincidence measurement
A coincidence measurement is only sensible if two MCA boxes are used, the first of which measures as normal and
the second of which provides the coincidence trigger for the first box.
To do this the second MCA box requires a coincidence window which decides whether an event is to trigger the other
box or not. This coincidence window can be set if, under measurement, Coincidence trigger for other box or Anti-
coincidence trigger for other box is selected. In the first case, the other MCA box only makes a measurement
when an event has been registered in this window. In the second case, the other MCA box only makes a measure-
ment when an event outside of this window has been registered.
The time window for coincidences has a fixed default value of 4 μs.
Energy calibration
Recorded spectra are first divided into channels. If one or two channels are assigned to a known energy, a spectrum
can be displayed in terms of energy.
To do this, a vertical line simply has to be entered in the spectrum or a Peak center calculated. If no energy calibra-
tion has been carried out, the channel values of the vertical line or of the peak center are automatically entered in the
corresponding input field. Alternatively, the values can be entered manually. As a third possibility, a Gaussian curve
can be fitted. The result is then dragged from the status line into a Channel edit field using drag and drop. The two
boxes for choosing the energies already contain default values for the customary radioactive preparations.
After one or two channels have been allocated to their energies, the channel E is allocated to the calibrated x-axis.
The current channel x-axis can most simply be switched to the calibrated energy x-axis by drag & drop. To do this,
the mouse is used to e.g. drag the channel button E into the diagram.
If the option Global for all spectra of this input has been chosen, the entered values are valid for all spectra rec-
orded so far and also for all following spectra of this input. If this option has not been chosen, the calibration is valid
for the current spectrum and all following spectra of this input.

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CASSY Lab 2
Relay/voltage source settings

Sensor-CASSY and Sensor-CASSY 2 are equipped with a relay R and a voltage source S which can be adjusted
using the knob. Both can be switched by the software. They must first be activated by clicking on them in the CASSY
arrangement.
The easiest way to do this is to synchronize the relay with the start of a measurement (e.g. for a holding magnet at
voltage source S). Simply activate Changeover During Automatic Recording.
However, you can also define the switching state using a formula. A formula can depend on any and all quantities
that appear in the displayed list, and must be entered using the correct formula notation (see also the examples). A
formula result not equal to 0 means ON="switched on", while a result equal to 0 means OFF="switched off". This
formula is not evaluated during the measurement when Changeover During Automatic Recording is switched on.
As these formulas are calculated by the PC and their results are transmitted to the CASSY, in the best case changes
at the relay and the voltage source are only possible every 10 ms.
PWM analog output

The voltage source S of Sensor-CASSY is actually a pulse width-modulated analog output. You can set the maxi-
mum voltage using the knob. The formula then controls not only OFF (=0) or ON (=1), but also allows intermediate
values (e.g. 0.41 = alternately ON 41 % of the time and OFF 59 % of the time over a period of 10 ms). The function
Changeover During Automatic Recording has no effect for these intermediate values.
Thus, this analog output lets you control modules for which only the average or the RMS value of the output voltage
is relevant (e.g. the formula saw(time/10) would cause a small light bulb to become brighter for 5 s and then darker
for 5 s).
Sensor-CASSY 2 offers a real analog output which outputs fractions of the set maximum voltage as a constant volt-
age (without PWM).
An analog function generator output is provided by the Power-CASSY and the Profi-CASSY.

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CASSY Lab 2
Function generator settings

Power-CASSY is a computer-controlled power function generator. The manipulated variable of the function generator
is either the voltage U (voltage source) or the current I (current source). The device simultaneously measures the
current I when used as a voltage source and the applied voltage U when used as a current source. The control and
measuring ranges are user-definable.
The Profi-CASSY also is a computer-controlled function generator at output X.
The output of the function generator can be actively limited to the actual measuring time while a measurement is
active (single shot). The function generator is then inactive between two measurements, so that no determination of
mean or RMS values is possible then either.
The output curve form, frequency f (in Hz or kHz), amplitude A (in Vp or Ap), DC voltage offset O (in V= or A=) and
duty factor (in %) can be set in specific ranges:
Power-CASSY
Curve form Frequency f Amplitude A Offset O Duty factor r
- - -10 V..10 V / -1 A..1 A -
0.01 Hz - 10 kHz -10 V..10 V / -1 A..1 A -10 V..10 V / -1 A..1 A 0 % ..100 %
, 0.01 Hz - 10 kHz -10 V..10 V / -1 A..1 A -10 V..10 V / -1 A..1 A 0 % ..100 %
, 0.01 Hz - 10 kHz -10 V..10 V / -1 A..1 A -10 V..10 V / -1 A..1 A 0 % ..100 %
0.01 Hz - 10 kHz -10 V. 10 V / -1 A..1 A -10 V..10 V / -1 A..1 A -

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CASSY Lab 2
Profi-CASSY
- - -10 V .. 10 V -
0.01 Hz - 1000 Hz -10 V .. 10 V -10 V .. 10 V 0 % .. 100 %
, 0.01 Hz - 1000 Hz -10 V .. 10 V -10 V .. 10 V 0 % .. 100 %
, 0.01 Hz - 1000 Hz -10 V .. 10 V -10 V .. 10 V 0 % .. 100 %
0.01 Hz - 1000 Hz -10 V .. 10 V -10 V .. 10 V -
Square and triangular waves can be generated in two variations. The symmetrical curve form is between –A and +A.
The asymmetrical curve from is between 0 and +A.
Negative amplitudes of A are allowed and mirror the signal through 0. The duty factor determines the ratio between
the rising and falling curve sections. Thus, e.g. it is easy to convert a triangular signal (50 %) into a sawtooth signal
(100 %).
In addition to the usual curve forms, the CASSY also offers a user-programmable curve form. To generate this, you
need to enter a formula f(x) that describes that curve form. To determine the curve form, this function is evaluated in
the variable x in the interval [0,1] and output with the specified frequency f, amplitude A and offset O. Formula entry is
governed by the standard rules. In addition, the function synth(a:b:c:...) permits definition of a harmonic synthesis
according to a*sin(360*x) + b*sin(2*360*x) + c*sin(3*360*x) + .... The signal is also output with the specified fre-
quency f, amplitude A and offset O (see also the example sonic synthesis).
The formula input box is relatively small. You can use any standard text editor to generate longer formulas and then
cut and paste these into the input box (right mouse button).
The values can be displayed as instantaneous values, averaged over multiple measured values or calculated as the
RMS value. Normally, display of instantaneous values without averaging will be sufficient. When CASSY is active
continuously (and not just during a measurement), it is also possible to display averaged values or RMS values. If
the time interval is less than 10 ms, the measured values recorded in the table and the diagram will deviate from
those shown in the display instruments in the latter two cases. This means that it is possible to display the curve form
and the RMS values simultaneously.
Hint
Instead of fixed numerical values, you can specify formulas for frequency, amplitude, offset and duty factor. Thus, for
example, the frequency of a sinusoidal oscillation or the output voltage can be controlled flexibly (e.g. for recording
resonance curves or operating control systems). However, the initialization of the output of a new frequency (or am-
plitude, offset or duty factor) in CASSY may take a few 100 ms. The parameters can thus only be increased in steps,
and not continuously.
Analog output Y settings

Apart from the analog output X, which can be used as a function generator, the Profi-CASSY provides another ana-
log output Y, whose output level can be controlled via a program if a formula is assigned to it.
As this formula is calculated by the PC and its result is transmitted to the CASSY, in the best case changes at the
analog output are only possible every 10 ms.
Digital input/output settings

The Profi-CASSY has 16 digital input and 16 digital outputs, which can be activated in groups of 8 inputs or outputs.
The inputs I0 to I15 render the current input levels. To the outputs Q0 to Q15 formulas can be assigned, whereby the
output levels are controlled via a program.
As these formulas are calculated by the PC and their results are transmitted to the CASSY, in the best case changes
at the digital output are only possible every 10 ms.

33
CASSY Lab 2
Calculator settings
Some quantities cannot be measured directly using CASSY, and are thus not available as a CASSY channel. If you
need to include these quantities in a table or diagram, you must define these quantities here.
New generates a new (data) record which begins with the name of the quantity. The new quantity must contain a
symbol with which it can be addressed. This symbol should consist of as few (meaningful) letters as possible and
may also consist of the & character followed by a letter. In this case, the corresponding Greek letter will be displayed
(otherwise the Latin letter will be displayed). Apart from that, the values proposed for the measuring range and the
scaling of the axes (important for analogue and graphical representations) and the number of significant decimal
positions (important for digital and tabulated representations) have to be adapted to individual requirements.
Greek symbols
&a &b &c &d &e &f &g &h &i &j &k &l &m &n &o &p &q &r &s &t &u &v &w &x &y &z
α β χ δ ε ϕ γ η ι φ κ λ μ ν o π θ ρ σ τ υ ϖ ω ξ ψ ζ
&A &B &C &D &E &F &G &H &I &J &K &L &M &N &O &P &Q &R &S &T &U &V &W &X &Y &Z
Α Β χ Δ Ε Φ Γ Η Ι ϑ Κ Λ Μ Ν O Π Θ Ρ Σ Τ Υ ς Ω Ξ Ψ Ζ
Parameter
The current value of a parameter is either entered in the settings window or by dragging the pointer of a display in-
strument. By setting the range to 0-1 and the number of decimal positions to 0, binary constants (switches) can be
defined as well, which can be changed over by clicking on the display instrument. In order that parameters and con-
stants can be easily distinguished from other channels, their pointers are magenta.
There are three different types of parameters:
 Constant (without table column)
 Manually into table
 Automatically into table
A constant is a quantity whose value can be accessed in formulas and models via the dedicated symbol of this con-
stant. This provides an easy possibility of varying formulas or models, for example so that the result of the calculation
agrees as accurately as possible with the measurement. If the value of a constant is modified this will apply to all
measurement series - even retrospectively.
Manual parameters can only be entered in the table by hand via the keyboard or by drag & drop, and they are neces-
sary whenever one wants to fill one's own table only with the evaluation results of other measurements.

34
CASSY Lab 2
Automatic parameters are automatically entered in their table column during a measurement; they can also be en-
tered manually via the keyboard or by drag & drop. It is a good idea to enter the parameter before measuring, so that
the right measurement points appear in the diagram immediately in manual mode and the old parameter value does
not have to be used again.
Automatic and manual parameters can therefore have a different value in each table row and are usually not con-
stant. For this reason the model cannot make use of them.
Formula
It is possible to define a new measurement quantity using a mathematical formula, regardless of known quantities.
The known quantities are addressed via their symbols, which appear in the list the program displays. When entering
the formula itself, be sure to observe the correct formula notation (see also the examples). In order that converted
quantities can be easily distinguished from other channels, their pointers are violet.
Derivation, Integral, FFT (Fourier transform), Mean Value, Histogram

For time derivation, integral of time and FFT (Fourier transform), simply select the channel you wish to transform. To
calculate the mean value, you additionally need to specify the time interval over which values are to be averaged.
Meaningful mean values can only be generated when the interval over which the mean is taken is greater than the
measuring interval. For the histogram, the channel width has to be specified in addition. For FFT, the software auto-
matically generates the frequency spectrum, and for the histogram the software automatically generates the fre-
quency distribution as a further display mode; this can be activated using the display tabs. In order that converted
quantities can be easily distinguished from other channels, their pointers are violet.
Notes
A derivation impairs the resolution for shorter time intervals Δt. For example, if the resolution of a path measurement
is Δs = 1 mm and the measurement uses a time interval of Δt = 100 ms, the first derivation v(i) = (s(i+1)-s(i-1))/2Δt
has a resolution of Δv = 0.005 m/s and the second a resolution of Δa = 0.025 m/s2. At a time interval of Δt = 50 ms
these errors increase to Δv = 0.01 m/s and Δa = 0.1 m/s2. Thus, Δt should be set as high as possible (e.g. 200 ms for
motions on a track or 50 ms for oscillating springs).
The maximum frequency of an FFT is half the scanning rate. Thus, if a time interval Δt = 10 μs (f = 100 kHz) is used
for measuring, the frequency range of FFT extends to 50 kHz. The resolution in this frequency range, on the other
hand, depends on the number of measured values. The more original measurement points are recorded, the better is
the frequency resolution in the frequency spectrum.
Correlation
Correlation can be used to calculate the cross-correlation between two measured variables after the two channels
have been selected. This automatically creates the corresponding time channel and the appropriate display.
Modeling
The modeling tool enables values measured on real objects to be compared with a mathematical model. In particular,
suitable constants can be chosen and varied such that the model agrees with reality as accurately as possible. In
contrast to a fit (e.g. free fit), where the equation that defines the function has to be known from the beginning, model-
ing just requires first order differential equations as an input.
For the mathematical definition of the model, the initial values at the time t 0 and the differential equations are speci-
fied. These numerical values or formulas have to be entered, whereby the correct formula notation has to be ob-
served. Each formulas may depend on constants, whose values can be varied afterwards by dragging the pointer of
the display instrument. In addition, the differential equations may depend on the measuring time t, on the defined
model quantities and on formulas, which, in turn, may only depend on constants or on the measuring time t. All al-
lowed dependencies of the differential equations are listed in front of their entry field. In order that model quantities
can be easily distinguished from other channels, their pointers are blue.
The model can only calculate first order differential equations. If a higher order differential equation is to be calculat-
ed, the differential equation must be split up into several first order differential equations (see example).
The start time t0, the accuracy and the computing time are properties for all of the modeling quantities and are for
this reason directly set at the modeling node of the tree diagram.
The selectable Accuracy gives the truncation criterion, which determines when the numerical integration of the dif-
ferential equations is terminated. A lower accuracy leads to a shorter computation time, but also to a greater error of
the result.

35
CASSY Lab 2
The selectable Computation Time determines the maximum time available for the numerical integration of the dif-
ferential equation. If the computation time selected is too short with regard to the specified accuracy, the calculated
values start at the selected starting time, but stop too early.
Clarke transformation
The Clarke transformation is only available in the CASSY Lab 2 Drives & Power Systems license (524 222) and is
only useful with the devices it supports because it requires 3-phase networks. At least the voltages or the currents of
channels A to C must be activated for this purpose.
Examples
The best-known example of a second order differential equation is certainly Newton's equation of motion F=m·a or
s''=F(s,v,t)/m. In this case, the two model quantities are the path s and the velocity v, and the first differential equation
is s'=v. The accelerating force F from the second differential equation s''=v'=(F1+F2+F3)/m depends on the particular
experiment and is, e.g.:
F1 = –m·g for free-fall experiments
F1 = –D·s for oscillations of a spring
In addition, several types of friction may occur, which cause additional forces:
F2 = –c·sgn(v) for Coulomb friction (e.g. solid friction)
F2 = –c·sgn(v)·|v| for Stokes friction (e.g. laminar fluid friction)
F2 = –c·sgn(v)·|v|2 for Newton friction (e.g. aerodynamic drag, turbulent fluid friction)
In forced oscillations (resonance), an exciting force is added, e.g.:
F3 = A·sin(360·f·t), sin calculates the sine of the argument in degrees
F3 = A·rsin(ω·t), rsin calculates the sine of the argument in radian measure
Further examples that suggest themselves are charging and discharging of a capacitor, high-pass and low-pass fil-
ters, all of which can be described by a first order differential equation Q'=(U 0–Q/C)/R for the charge Q of the capaci-
tor.
In the experiment examples, modeling is applied in several cases:
• Free fall with g-ladder (with modeling)
• Oscillations of a spring pendulum (with modeling)
• Oscillations of a spring pendulum with solid friction (with modeling)
• Oscillations of a spring pendulum with lubricant friction (with modeling)
• Oscillations of a spring pendulum with laminar liquid friction (with modeling)
• Oscillations of a spring pendulum with turbulent liquid friction/air friction (with modeling)
• Three-body problem (with modeling)
• Charging and discharging of a capacitor (with modeling)
• Damped oscillator (with modeling)
• Forced oscillations (resonance, with modeling)
• Low-pass filter (with modeling)
• High-pass filter (with modeling)

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CASSY Lab 2
Display settings
If one display is not enough, you can generate additional displays using the New function; the name you give the new
display appears on the new tab in the main window beneath the channel buttons. This lets you navigate easily be-
tween the individual displays using the mouse.
For each display a choice can be made between Cartesian and polar coordinates. In polar diagrams an angle (range
0° to 360°) has to be chosen as x-coordinate. Then every y-coordinate is interpreted as the magnitude of a complex
number, which is displayed with the corresponding angle. Here the origin need not be at r = 0 but can be negative as
well (e.g. for the representation of polar diagrams of antennas in dB).
Add new Curve creates a new curve in the current display.

37
CASSY Lab 2
New creates a new curve in the current display. Any number of curves can be defined in a single display.
You can assign each measurement quantity to the x- or the y-axis, and convert them where necessary (x2, 1/x, 1/x2,
log x). Three additional quantities are pre-defined for the x-axis: n (table row), t (time), f (frequency for FFT).
If more than one y-axis is to be displayed, the visible y-axis scaling in the diagram can be toggled using the corre-
sponding button.
Usually all of the curves are plotted on the same x-axis. If this is not desired, it can be switched off by unticking Same
x-axis for all curves on this display.
The style of every curve is normally allocated by your display, but it can be modified individually. This also includes
the color of the curve and the color of its evaluations.
Notes
Alternatively, the displayed channels can also be dragged back and forth from the channel buttons to the table and
the diagram (drag and drop).
When the mouse pointer is over the rulers, you can mathematically convert the axes (x 2, 1/x, 1/x2, log x) and change
the scale maximum and minimum via the right mouse button. You can also move the rulers by grabbing them with the
left mouse button.

38
CASSY Lab 2
Machines and their function

Attention: The machines and their function must be selected correctly to ensure that the measurement, meas-
urement circuit and connection diagram are correctly assigned. These parameters limit the load range in the
load simulation tests so that machines cannot be extremely overloaded.
Machines from the 3rd quarter 2020 onwards can be directly recognized by the machine test CASSY. In the following
cases, the machine must still be selected by the user:
 Machines with several functions, such as motor and generator,
 multiple machine types, such as series-connected or shunt-connected machines.
For LEYBOLD machines with steel base or LEYBOLD machines with aluminium base the machine parameters are
already available. For all other machines, the machine parameters can be entered into the parameter set by selecting
ELWE/Feedback/other.
Attention: Prior to selecting a machine or entering your own parameters, the functions of the machines must be
preselected. If this is not done, the experiments will be performed with the data of the last selected machines,
which can lead to wrong and incorrect measurements.
Machine type: LEYBOLD with steel base These are available as parameter sets in the Ma-
LEYBOLD with aluminium base chine Test CASSY control unit. The CASSY Lab 2
software can access these parameter sets.
ELWE/Feedback/other Allows free input of parameter values after machine
functions have been selected.
Basic function: Motor Machine should be mainly operated as a motor.
Generator Machine should be mainly operated as a generator.
Excitation: Excitations in this sense are only those which are outside the armature circuit, for the
losses of these excitations to be determined separately, as specified in IEC EN DIN
60027- 1.
Machines without excitation are for example: Series motor, asynchronous motor
Machines without excitation are for example:
As motor: Shunt motor, double shunt motor, slip ring motor, synchronous motor.
As generator: Shunt motor, double shunt motor, synchronous motor.

39
CASSY Lab 2
On machines with excitation, the measuring channel D for excitation is activated and set
to the required measured variable.
For LEYBOLD generators without excitation there are no parameters (e.g. series-wound
machine, permanently excited synchronous machine). Permanently excited machines
can only be used to generate energy with downstream power electronics.
Mains type: DC Machines for operation on DC voltage. The setting of
the measurement is the mean value.
AC Machines for operation on AC voltage. The setting of
the measurement is the effective value.
Mains frequency: 50 Hz Machines intended for 50 Hz mains, for example
Europe, parts of Africa, Australia.
60 Hz Machines intended for 60 Hz mains, for example,
North America, parts of South America, Korea, Ja-
pan.
Mains voltage: 120/208 V Machines that are supplied for 120 V DC, 120 V AC
or for 120/208 V AC.
230/400 V Machines that are supplied for 220 V DC, 230 V AC
or for 230/400 V AC.
Number of phases: 1 Phase network
3 3 Phase network
Name/function: For LEYBOLD machines with steel base and LEYBOLD machines with aluminium base,
a list of the selected machine type is displayed to make a selection. Some of these ma-
chines have additional functions, e.g.: 773 186 Compound machine can be a shunt or a
double shunt machine with excitation.
If the machine type ELWE/Feedback/other has been selected, the machine type deter-
mined by the previous selection will be displayed here, for example: Squirrel cage motor.
Machine detection
Once a machine is detected by the control unit, there are only up to 2 selections to be made depending on the ma-
chine, and this depends on the desired application:
 Motor or generator operation,
 additional function such as shunt or double-shunt machine.

40
CASSY Lab 2
Machine parameters
After selecting a LEYBOLD machine, the parameters will be displayed here.

On ELWE/FEEDBACK/other, the parameter set can be freely edited. The parameters of an equivalent LEYBOLD
machine are pre-set.
Parameters that are not provided for the selected machine can also not be edited.
Power PN: For motors, this corresponds to the mechanical power in W. For generators, this
corresponds to the electrical power. The value is indicated in W for DC genera-
tors and in VA for AC generators and for three-phase generators.
Voltage UN: Mains voltage: of the machines.
Current IN: Rated current of machine.
Power factor cos φN: Specifies the cosine of the angle φ at nominal power. It can only be edited for AC
machines.
Pole pairs pN: Number of pole pairs of a machine calculated from the synchronous speed of the
mains frequency and the rated speed. Pole pairs are only required for asynchro-
nous and synchronous machines.
Frequency fN: This frequency usually corresponds to the mains frequency. It is possible howev-
er to build special machines for frequency converters that deviate from the mains
frequencies 50 Hz, 60 Hz, and 16 2/3 Hz.
Speed nN: Rated speed of the machine. This can be different for a machine with several
functions.
Torque TN: Calculated size from values of the nominal power PN and the speed nN.
The rated voltage and rated current of the excitation is a DC voltage or DC cur-
Excitation voltage UE:
rent for most machines. However, there is the additional possibility of measuring
Excitation current IE: an AC voltage and an AC current for slip ring rotors.

41
CASSY Lab 2
Motor testing
In this menu, the test method is determined first. There is the choice between control of the speed or the torque. In
the second step, the test procedure of the test method is determined. In the last step, the test method can be opti-
mized by the parameters.
In the default setting, the measuring interval is set to 100 ms. This is the best setting to measure the electrical quanti-
ties when they are output as mean or rms values. The electrical quantities of the alternating current are always de-
termined from full sine waves. For measuring only mechanical quantities, the measuring interval can also be set to 10
ms.
The tests of motors take place with clockwise rotation in the 1st Quadrant or with counter-clockwise rotation in the 3rd
quadrant. The characteristic curves can still be expanded by the 4th and 2nd quadrant, if the machines are suitable
for this.
For DC motors, the characteristic curve can only be included in the motor quadrant, since most voltage supplies are
not regenerative. For all inputs, the sign of speed and torque must be observed.
This operating mode allows the analysis of motors with 2 different methods:
 A speed controller sets a speed and under this load condition all mechanical and electrical quantities are meas-
ured.
 A torque controller sets a torque and in this load state all mechanical and electrical quantities are measured.

42
CASSY Lab 2
Measured variables for speed controller and torque controller

A speed controller alters the actual value of the speed until it reaches the specified setpoint. The following values are
then measured:
 Speed nM,
 Torque TM,
 Voltage UM,
 Current IM,
 Phase angle φM and
 Frequency fM.
From these values the following is calculated:
 the mechanical power Pmec,
 the electrical power Pel,
 the excitation power PE,
 the apparent power SM,
 the reactive power QM,
 the slip sM and
 the efficiency ηM for the specified speed value nM.
The calculated values can be displayed and processed into characteristic curves like the measured variables.
Measurements with control: Speed

The measuring methods are determined by the form of the reference variable. The reference variable: can be done
Manual or Automatic.
Reference variable: Manual

Reference source: internal
Input via input field: Machine speed nM in min-1
Reference source: Input E
The analogue input E has a voltage range of ±10 V and can be set to a speed of ±5000 min -1.
Attention: Before synchronizing the machines with the dynamometer, it must be ensured that the applied volt-
age corresponds to the no-load speed in magnitude and sign. For clockwise rotation of +1500 min -1 the voltage
at input E should be +3.000 V.
Reference variable: Automatic

For automatic reference variable, a characteristic curve can be recorded with an increasing or decreasing speed.
This automatism only runs during the measurement. The selected measured variables and calculations are written
into a table and displayed in the diagram. The assignment of the selected quantities to the x-axis and y-axis is freely
selectable in the diagram menu. In the default setting only the speed nM for the x-axis and the torque TM for the y-axis
are selected. The measuring time corresponds to the ramp time in the automatic reference variable. The experiment
time can be a little longer, since the controller may first have to reach the start condition after the start.
Ramp function: Load characteristic
With the ramp function for load characteristics, the motor is ramped to the start condition after the start. The actual
measurement does not start until the start condition is reached. The speed is reduced until the stop condition ends
the measurement. The synchronizing is cancelled, the machine is in idle speed.
Start condition:
The start condition can only be changed after the dynamometer has been synchronised with the machine to be test-
ed. When synchronizing, the speed value of the idle machine is automatically adopted with the condition TM = 0 Nm.
If a start condition is in a generator quadrant, the Quadrants setting should be considered.
Stop condition:
For the stop condition, there is a choice between a minimum speed nM or a maximum current IM. The upper current
limit protects a supply grid or a supply device from overload, for example a variable transformer or DC machine sup-
ply that is only loaded with the maximum value.

43
CASSY Lab 2
Ramp function: Run-up characteristic

With the ramp function for run-up characteristic, the motor is decelerated after the start to the start condition. The
actual measurement does not start until the start condition is reached. The speed is increased until the stop condition
ends the measurement. The synchronizing is cancelled, the machine is in idle speed.
Start condition:
The start condition is set to 0 min-1 in the basic setting. For the start condition, there is a choice between a minimum
speed nM or a maximum current IM. The upper current limit protects a supply grid or a supply device from overload,
for example a variable transformer or DC machine supply that is only loaded with the maximum value. If a start condi-
tion is in a generator quadrant, the Quadrants setting should be considered.
Stop condition:
The stop condition can only be changed after the dynamometer has been synchronised with the machine to be test-
ed. If a stop condition is located in a generator quadrant, this setting Quadrants should be noted.
Measurements with control: Torque
Several functions are available for selection when specifying the reference variable for torque limitation:
 Manual
 Automatic dynamic
 Automatic static 6 steps
 Automatic static 16 steps

44
CASSY Lab 2
Reference variable: Manual

Reference source: internal
Input via machine torque input field TM in Nm.
Reference source: Input E
The analogue input E has a voltage range of ±10 V and can be set to a speed of ±10.00 Nm.
Attention: Before the machines are synchronized with the dynamometer, it must be ensured that the applied
voltage is 0 V. For a load in clockwise rotation for motor operation of +1.50 Nm, a voltage of 1.50 V must be
applied to input E.
Reference variable: Automatic dynamic

With reference variable: With automatic loading, a characteristic curve can be recorded with a selected ramp func-
tion. This automatism only runs during the measurement. The selected measured variables and calculations are writ-
ten into a table and displayed in the diagram. The assignment of the selected quantities to the x-axis and y-axis is
freely selectable in the diagram menu. In the default setting only the speed nM for the x-axis and the torque TM for the
y-axis are selected. The measuring time corresponds to the ramp time in the automatic reference variable. The ex-
periment time can be a little longer, since the controller may first have to reach the start condition after the start.
Ramp function: Load
With the automatic ramp function for loading, the motor is brought to the start condition after the start. The actual
measurement does not start until the start condition is reached. The torque is increased until the stop condition ends
Start condition:
The start condition is set to 0 Nm in the basic setting. The start condition represents the minimum torque TM, it can
also be less than 0 - i.e. negative. If a start condition is in a generator quadrant, the Quadrants setting should be
considered.
Stop condition:
For stop conditions, there is a choice between a maximum torque TM or a maximum current IM. The upper current
limit protects a supply grid or a supply device from overload, for example a variable transformer or DC machine sup-
ply that is only loaded with the maximum value.
Ramp function: Unloading
With the automatic ramp function for unloading, the motor is brought to the start condition after the start. The actual
measurement does not start until the start condition is reached. The torque is reduced until the stop condition ends
Start condition:
For start conditions, there is a choice between a maximum torque TM or a maximum current IM. If the value of the
start condition is reached, the characteristic curve recording starts. The upper current limit protects a supply grid or a
supply device from overload, for example a variable transformer or DC machine supply that is only loaded with the
maximum value. If a start condition is in a generator quadrant, the Quadrants setting should be considered.
Stop condition:
The stop condition is set to 0 Nm in the basic setting. If the value of the stop condition is reached, the characteristic
curve recording stops. If a stop condition is located in a generator quadrant then the Quadrants setting should be
noted.
Ramp time:
The ramp time defines how long the measurement should last between the start condition and the stop condition for
the automatically dynamic measurement recordings. This can be set between 10...40 s.
Reference variable: Automatic static 6 steps

The standard method Test with load curve according to IEC EN DIN 60034- 2- 1 specifies 6 load values at 25 %, 50
%, 75 %, 100 %, 115 % and 125 %. When this method is selected, all data is recorded automatically. The moment of
inertia of a motor has no influence on the measurement result for a static measurement.
Step time:
For static measurement recordings, the step time defines how long the averaging of the measured variables should
take. This can be set between 0.1...60 s.

45
CASSY Lab 2
Reference variable: Automatic static 16 steps

This measuring method automatically records all data for 16 static load values from 0 % to 150 % in 10 % incre-
ments. The moment of inertia of a motor has no influence on the measurement result for a static measurement.
Step time:
For static measurement recordings, the step time defines how long the averaging of the measured variables should
take. This can be set between 0.1...60 s.
Other settings
Switch output Y: Off Output is inactive.

Rotational speed The switching point of the analogue voltage depends on the entered speed nM.
Current The switching point of the analogue voltage depends on the entered motor
current IM.
Quadrants: Motor (basic set- Characteristic curves are only recorded within a quadrant. There is a selection
ting) between:
Motor in clockwise rotation 1st Quadrant and motor in counter-clockwise rota-
tion 3rd quadrant.
Generator There is a selection between:
Motor in clockwise rotation 1st, 2nd and 4th quadrant.
Motor in counter-clockwise rotation 1st, 2nd and 4th quadrant.
For the quadrant release Motor and generator the correct sign must be used
for the start and stop condition!
Output Y can switch a relay for a star-delta connection or a starting capacitor. This is done depending on speed nM
and current IM. Output Y switches from 0 V to 10 V at an output current of 200 mA maximum.
Attention: If the quadrant is going to be extended from Motor to Motor and generator, then it must be checked
whether the supply unit can also absorb the energy fed back. Especially critical are DC power supplies, which
are not able to absorb this energy. Supply devices such as frequency converters and DC servo drives must
have a braking resistor.
Apply
All changes take effect only after pressing the Apply key.

46
CASSY Lab 2
Generator testing
This operating mode enables the analysis of generators. The load simulation in this operating mode is carried out by
resistive, inductive and capacitive loads. A generator can be examined in isolated operation or in mains synchronous
operation.
The dynamometer is now a pure driving machine, operating in isolated operation with a speed control and in syn-
chronised mains with a torque control.
Attention: All measurements of the Machine Test CASSY are aligned with the consumer counting arrow sys-
tem! Thus the power Pel emitted in generator mode, the mechanical power Pmec and the phase shift angle φM is
negative at pure ohmic power.
Speed set point: Input field for the speed set point.
Maximum speed: Display of the maximum settable setpoint. The value is limited to 150 % of the rated speed of the
selected machine.
Compared to the measurement on the device, it is also possible to change the value for the tar-
get speed during the measurement with CASSY Lab 2. The speed is then changed by an inter-
nally defined ramp with a gradient of approx. 940 min-1/s.
This makes it possible, for example, to automatically record a speed/voltage characteristic curve.
Quadrants: Generator (basic Characteristic curves are only recorded within a quadrant. There is a selec-
setting) tion between:
Generator in counter-clockwise rotation Quadrant and generator in coun-
ter-clockwise rotation 2nd quadrant.
Generator and Motor There is a selection between:
Generator/Motor in clockwise rotation 4th, 2nd and 3rd quadrant.
Generator/Motor in counter-clockwise rotation 2nd, 1st and 3rd quadrant.
This method is needed for recording V-curves in generator and motor op-
eration. The synchronous generator must, however, be synchronized with
a network for this purpose.
For the quadrant release Motor and generator the correct sign must be
used for the start and stop condition!

47
CASSY Lab 2
There is a manual and an automatic measuring method for recording the speed. The maximum speed depends on
the selected machine and is limited 150 % nN.
Attention: The voltage at the stator windings that is measured for UM = 230 V may be briefly exceeded without
load in the experiment. The voltage should not exceed 350 V.
Switchover during For a synchronous generator to operate stably after synchronisation, the generator must be
synchronisation: switched from speed control to torque control. The switchover occurs when the digital input F is
pulled to mass. This can be done via a switching contact or manually via a line.
Open Isolated operation of the speed controller is active.
Bridged Mains synchronous of the torque controller is active.
Torque set point: This is where a torque set point for the torque controller is entered. The input value is limited to
115 % of the rated torque.
Excitation voltage Off Analogue output Y is not active
controller:
Manual Here, a fixed value of 0...10.0 V can statically be set. Ensure that the voltage UM for
synchronous machines without load does NOT exceed the following values:
 350 V AC without load in delta connection,
 600 V AC without load in star connection,
 270 V AC with load in delta connection,
 470 V AC with load in star connection.
For DC generators, the voltage UM without load should not exceed 330 V DC and with
load not be higher than 260 V DC.
Ramp With the ramp function, several parameters are needed to control it sensibly.
Start value: Start point of the voltage is the minimum voltage at which the ramp starts.
In isolated operation of a generator this voltage is a fixed value, but in mains operation it is used
to control the reactive power. Here underexcitation also means instability of the generator. To
prevent a generator from tearing off, this voltage should be selected in a way that there is no
tearing off when recording a V-curve. This value can change depending on the load on the gen-
erator.
End value: The end point of the ramp represents the maximum excitation voltage.

48
CASSY Lab 2
During mains operation, too high of a voltage at the excitation winding is responsible for overex-
citation. Here you have to look more at the rated current IN of the generator, to prevent thermal
overload. For V-curves the measuring time should be equal to the ramp time.
Ramp time: Time in which the excitation voltage is changed from the start value to the end value.
The ramp time can be set between 5...60 s. The ramp time determines the number of measuring
points to be recorded.
Apply

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CASSY Lab 2
Load simulation
The load simulation can be used in three areas of application:
 Starting of a speed-dependent load on a supply network,
 Operating behaviour of open-loop or closed-loop controlled drives with speed-dependent loads,
 Time-dependent load simulation.
The following simulations for load characteristics are available for starting, mains and operation with speed control:
 Constant TL ~ 1
 Linear TL~ nM
 Square TL~nM2
 Reciprocal TL~ 1/nM*
 Fly wheel J
 Sum
*
The simulation of the antiproportional load characteristic curve TL~ 1/nM can only be simulated in operation with
speed control. In contrast to the other load characteristics, this behaviour is not based on any physical principle, but
is a load behaviour required for the function of the load machine.
Starting of a speed-dependent machine load on a supply network

The operating mode of load simulation Starting is intended for asynchronous motors that are started and operated
directly from the mains. The extreme switch-on behaviour, which is determined by the starting torque of the asyn-
chronous motor and the moment of inertia, cannot be demonstrated with direct torque control. Switching on a motor
is like a step response, to which the moment of inertia of the test set-up responds directly. The acceleration of the
machine is determined by the motor characteristic, but is decelerated by the moment of inertia. After reaching the
pull-out torque, the machine accelerates until it reaches the operating point.
For this operating mode the Type must be set to speed-dependent and the mode to starting.
(1): Compensation of the moment of inertia via an e-function.

(2): Acceleration of the machines through the torque of the motor.
(3): After the breakdown torque, the torque and acceleration drop until the operating point is reached.
The analysis of the starting procedure with star-delta connection, soft start, slip ring rotor or starting with frequency
converter is possible. The reciprocal load characteristic is not available with this method.
Please pay attention to the assembly and warning notes in the device instructions for 7731900.

50
CASSY Lab 2
Operating behaviour of open-loop or closed-loop controlled drives with speed-dependent loads

The Duty function is for drives that are speed-controlled or speed-regulated. The moment of inertia of the set-up
plays a minor role here. The speed behaviour can be investigated in the range between 500 min--1 and 2000 min--1. It
enables the optimization of speed controllers on machines with load-dependent behaviour.
For this operating mode the Type must be set to speed-dependent and the mode to operation.
Speed-dependent load simulation

The input of the speed-dependent load simulations can be selected between absolute and relative:
Load characteristics absolute relative
Constant TL ~ 1 Nm 100 % corresponds to the rated torque TN, of the selected machine
Linear TL~ nM Nm/min-1 100 % corresponds to the rated torque TN, at rated speed nN, of the selected
machine
Square TL~nM2 Nm/min-2 100 % corresponds to the rated torque TN, at rated speed nN to the quadrant of
the selected machine
Reciprocal TL~ 1/nM W 100 % corresponds to the rated power PN, of the selected machine
Flywheel as moment of kg m2 The setpoint here is the moment of inertia of the dynamometer and is equivalent
inertia J to 2...400 times of this machine
The characteristic preview shows the selected load characteristic. The maximum values of speed and torque are
displayed in the upper left corner. By selecting Show characteristic curve in the diagram, it will be superimposed
on the measurement in the diagram as a preview.
The load function flywheel cannot be displayed in the preview. The effect of the oscillating weight does not depend on
the speed.

51
CASSY Lab 2
Constant TL ~ 1
Machines with constant torque are
 Load lifting machines
 Cranes
 Elevators
 Piston compressors
 Rolling mills
Only a torque setpoint for TL can be set in the menu. The torque setpoint is limited to 1.3 times the rated torqueTN of
the selected machine for both directions of rotation. The torque setpoint has an influence on the ramp-up time of the
motor during during starting. The highest torque setpoint should be used to optimize the measuring time.
The rated torque of a machine is calculated as follows:
Constant torque for rated load rated torque TN = 9.55 * rated power / rated speed = 9.55 * PN / nN

52
CASSY Lab 2
Linear TL ~ nM
Machines with linear torque/speed characteristics are
 Extruder
The amount of the linear factor for the linear torque/speed behaviour of the motor is calculated as follows:
Linear factor for TL = Rated torque / Rated speed = TN / nN
In the menu the linear factor for TL can now be set. This factor is limited to 1.3 times the rated torque TN at rated
speed of the selected machine for both directions of rotation. The linear factor has no great influence on the ramp-up
time of the motor during starting.

53
CASSY Lab 2
Square TL ~ nM2
Machines with quadratic torque/speed behaviour are:
 Rotating flow machines
 Pumps
 Fans
 Turbocompressors
 Propellers
The height of the square factor for the motor is calculated as follows:
Square factor for TL = Rated torque / Rated speed2 = TN / nN2
In the menu the square factor for TL can now be set. This square factor is limited to 1.3 times the rated torque TN at
rated speed of the selected machine for both directions of rotation. The square factor has no great influence on the
ramp-up time of the motor during starting.

54
CASSY Lab 2
Reciprocal TL ~ 1/nM
Machines with anti-proportional torque/speed characteristics are:
 Lathes
 Milling machines
 Winding machines
 Rolling machines
In such machines the cutting, winding or rolling speed v as well as the cutting or tensile force F should be constant. If
the radius r becomes smaller by turning or unwinding, the speed nM = v(2πr) must increase so that the velocity v
remains constant. At the same time, with constant force F, the torque TL = F · r decreases. The mechanical power
Pmec remains constant. The torque is inversely proportional to the speed.
This characteristic curve requires a controlled or regulated drive. It is therefore only possible to perform this function
during operation. Also a minimum speed must be reached before the motor is synchronized. The power in the simula-
tion is limited to 50 % of the rated power of the motor PN, so that the drive still has control reserve.

55
CASSY Lab 2
Flywheel
Flywheels are components that have a high moment of inertia. Machines with a high moment of inertia can be simu-
lated here, such as:
 Grinding stones
 Conveyor belts for bulk material
 Oscillating masses that generate torque impulses
 Punching
 Pressing
The moment of inertia of the test set-up consisting of dynamometer and machine under test is very small; for 0.3 kW
machines about 0.0015 kgm2 to 0.0025 kgm2. The setting of the moment of inertia is limited to the value of 0.3 kgm2.
This corresponds to 120 to 200 times the rotor weight of the driving machine. The height of the moment of inertia has
a great influence on the ramp-up time during starting. A too high moment of inertia can trigger motor protection de-
vices. LEYBOLD motors are protected against overload by the overtemperature protection.
The behaviour of the moment of inertia can be explained by the following formula:
TM = αM · J M
The acceleration of the motor αM depends on the torque of the motor TM and the moment of inertia JM of the simula-
tion.
This is the typical application for simulating the heavy starting of machines.

56
CASSY Lab 2
Sum
The sum allows the simulation of real machines.
In the first step, the maximum values for the rated torque TN of the individual functions should be entered for the con-
nected motor. Afterwards, the individual functions are weighted, whereby the sum of all weightings should not exceed
the value 1. With this calculation, only the oscillating mass is disregarded. This prevents the motor from being over-
loaded.
Here too, it also applies for the starting that the antiproportional factor in the weighting must be 0.

57
CASSY Lab 2
Using the summation formula, each load behaviour can now be weighted via a factor W1 to W5.
Note on the Starting function: The oscillating mass is only effective during acceleration and has no influence on
steady-state operation.
Note on the Duty function: It must be ensured that the mean value of the rated power is not exceeded during steady
accelerations and acceleration changes.
Time-dependent load simulation
Time-dependent load simulation enables the simulation of time-recurring load changes. There are the following pos-
sibilities:
- - ±TN -
100 mHz - 2000 mHz ±TN * 1.3 ±TN 0 % .. 100 %
symmetric 100 mHz - 2000 mHz ±TN * 1.3 ±TN 0 % .. 100 %
asymmetric 100 mHz - 2000 mHz ±TN * 1.3 ±TN 0 % .. 100 %
symmetric 100 mHz - 2000 mHz ±TN * 1.3 ±TN 0 % .. 100 %
asymmetric 100 mHz - 2000 mHz ±TN * 1.3 ±TN 0 % .. 100 %
free 100 mHz - 2000 mHz ±TN * 1.3 ±TN -
Square and triangular waves can be generated in two variations. The symmetrical curve form is between –A and +A.
The asymmetrical curve from is between 0 and +A.
Negative amplitudes of A are allowed and mirror the signal through 0. The duty factor determines the ratio between
the rising and falling curve sections. Thus, e.g. it is easy to convert a triangular signal (50 %) into a sawtooth signal
(100 %).
In addition to the usual curve forms, the CASSY also offers a user-programmable curve form. To generate this, you
need to enter a formula f(x) that describes that curve form. To determine the curve form, this function is evaluated in
the variable x in the interval [0,1] and output with the specified frequency f, amplitude A and offset O. Formula entry is
governed by the standard rules. In addition, the function synth(a:b:c:...) permits definition of a harmonic synthesis

58
CASSY Lab 2
according to a*sin(360*x) + b*sin(2*360*x) + c*sin(3*360*x) + .... The signal is also output with the specified fre-
quency f, amplitude A and offset O (see also the example sonic synthesis).
The formula input box is relatively small. You can use any standard text editor to generate longer formulas and then
cut and paste these into the input box (right mouse button).
The values can be displayed as instantaneous values, averaged over multiple measured values or calculated as the
RMS value. Normally, display of instantaneous values without averaging will be sufficient. When CASSY is active
continuously (and not just during a measurement), it is also possible to display averaged values or RMS values. If
the time interval is less than 10 ms, the measured values recorded in the table and the diagram will deviate from
those shown in the display instruments in the latter two cases. This means that it is possible to display the curve form
and the RMS values simultaneously.
Hint
Instead of fixed numerical values, you can specify formulas for frequency, amplitude, offset and duty factor. Thus, for
example, the frequency of a sinusoidal oscillation or the output voltage can be controlled flexibly (e.g. for recording
resonance curves or operating control systems). However, the initialization of the output of a new frequency (or am-
plitude, offset or duty factor) in CASSY may take a few 100 ms. The parameters can thus only be increased in steps,
and not continuously.
Apply

59
CASSY Lab 2
Generator control
Generator control for synchronous generators
The Generator control operating mode allows experiments in 3 network configurations:
 Isolated network
A generator feeds a network with loads.
 Small network and supply network
 Small network
At least 2 generators feed a network with loads. A generator failure or a switching operation of a load can en-
danger the stability of the network.
 Supply network
Many generators feed a network with lots of loads. With large supply networks, individual generators and
loads are no longer relevant to the system, which means that a failure of a generator or a switching operation
of a load cannot endanger the stability of the grid.
The machine test CASSY is stamped on the consumer counting arrow system, because a motor generates a positive
torque when loaded in clockwise rotation. The motor consequently emits positive mechanical power and absorbs
positive electrical power.
Consequently, the generated power of a generator is always negative!
The generator control is designed for 3-phase networks. Direct current generators can only be operated here in iso-
lated operation. Then the frequency in the menus corresponds to the speed in s-1 (Rotation frequency).
Please refer to the device instruction 7731900 Machine Test CASSY for more detailed descriptions of the networks.
Frequency control in isolated operation
The frequency control affects the drive of the generator. It controls the speed and therefore the frequency.
The mains frequency setpoint fS corresponds to the rated frequency fN in the isolated network and is kept constant
with the control. The controller is designed as a PI-controller and is optimised via the proportional factor KPf and the
reset time TNf.
The reset time TNf can be used to simulate different time constants of power plants. After synchronisation, the fre-
quency control automatically drives the generator to the selected rotational frequency.
The time constant of the speed control should be considerably smaller than that of the voltage control to avoid too
much mutual interference.
Mains frequency set point fS: In a network with a DC generator, this corresponds to the rated rotational fre-
quency in revolutions per second:
fS = nN / 60 s/min-1.
Setting range fS: -100...+100 Hz
Proportional action coefficient KPf: 0.000...5
Integral action coefficient TNf: 0.01...1000 s
Frequency control in small mains operation and mains operation

After synchronisation, a frequency control becomes a power control with frequency power droop. A power droop
becomes effective only if the delivered power deviates from the set point value. The static then provides a new value
for the deviation for the speed of the generator and thus for the frequency of the grid. The time constant of the power
control should be significantly smaller than that of the reactive power control to avoid too much mutual interference.

60
CASSY Lab 2
Frequency power droop fdr: The frequency power droop defines how large the power deviation ΔP is in
case of a frequency deviation Δf or how large the frequency deviation Δf is
in case of a power deviation ΔP.
Setting range fdr: -1.000...1.000 %/W
Reference power PS: Value that the generator should supply to the network at rated frequency.
The reference power must not exceed the rated power PN.
Setting range PS: 0...600 W
Power or frequency droop
Voltage control in isolated operation

The voltage control acts on the excitation of the generator. The generator voltage depends on the speed and the
excitation current. At a constant speed, the generator voltage is only dependent on the excitation current. The control
is designed as a PI-control and is optimised via the proportional factor KPU and the reset time TNf. The reset time TNU
can be used to simulate different time constants of power plants. After synchronisation, the frequency control auto-
matically drives the generator to the selected rotational frequency.
Mains voltage set point US: With a synchronous generator and DC generator, the mains voltage
setpoint corresponds to the rated voltage of the isolated network. This is
specified in volts.

61
CASSY Lab 2
Setting range US: 0...+500 V

Proportional action coefficient KPU: 0.00...5
Integral action coefficient TNU: 0.01...1000 s
Voltage droop Udr: 0...1.000 %/W
Reference power PS: Power that the generator should supply to the network at rated frequen-
cy U_N. This is only needed when simulating the effect of a static in an
isolated network.
Setting range PS: 0...600 W
Reactive power control in small mains operation and mains operation

After synchronisation, a voltage regulator becomes a reactive power control with voltage reactive power droop, which
controls the reactive power to be supplied according to the reactive power setpoint and the reactive power droop. The
time constant of the reactive power control has to be considerably smaller than that of the power control to avoid too
much mutual interference.
Reactive power set point QS: Value that the generator should supply to the network at rated frequen-
cy.
Setting range QS: 0...±600 var
Reactive power droop Qdr: Amount of reactive power deviation ΔQ proportional to the deviation of
the instantaneous value of the reactive power qM from the specified
reference reactive power QS in %/var. The excitation is changed by this
difference and forms the new set point for the reactive power controller.
Setting range Qdr: -1.000...1.000 %/var
In this way the reactive power distribution between 2 generators is determined by different droops. Then generators
with different reactive powers can also work stable in parallel operation.
Apply

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CASSY Lab 2
Mechanics
The Mechanics operating mode analyses the mechanical behaviour of a machine in 2 measuring steps:
 Static recording
 Dynamic recording
During the measurements in the mechanics all windings are not connected. This is intended to prevent induction
generated by remanence from slowing down the machines.
Static measurements
The arrangement of the measuring device does not allow to measure the power loss of the machine directly, because
the losses of the dynamometer are always measured as well. In order to determine the losses of the machines to be
tested 2 tests must be carried out:
 Measurement with an electric dynamometer and the machine to be tested,
 Measurement with electric dynamometer only.
Since the rotor is held in the stator by the end shields, additional losses can occur due to remanence and flow phe-
nomena. The measurement uncertainty of the test is ±10 % of the measured value.
Static recording
Static torque measurements are always performed at constant speed. This measurement shows the mechanical
influence that acts on the rotor. Through a number of measurements at different speeds, the mechanical component
can be split into speed-independent and a speed-dependent.
Responsible for the counter-torque are friction losses in the bearings, flow losses directly at the rotor and the losses
due to cooling. These values are very small. It is important to ensure that the offset of the torque measurement with
the screw is set to approx. 0.000 Nm ±0.003 Nm for the mass weight in this experiment. The machine has to be
brought to rated temperature before the measurements.
Measuring points: Number of measuring points, selectable from 2 to 21.

Start speed: The value should be selected smaller than the rated speed.
Stop speed: The value should be selected greater than the rated speed.
Step time: The measuring time corresponds to the time interval available for the formation of the mean
value of a measurement.

63
CASSY Lab 2
The speed range can be freely selected in the range from 500 min -1 to 5000 min-1. Measurements in the range of the
rated speed nN, around ±500 min-1, are useful for the operating behaviour of a machine. If the fan characteristic curve
should be verified, the speed range must be between 1000 min-1 and 5000 min-1, if the machines allow this. If static
and dynamic measurements are made, the speed ranges should be identical so that they are comparable.
Dynamic recording
The dynamic measurement shows, in addition to the counter-torques from the static recording, the influence of the
moment of inertia on the torque according to the formula:
T=α·J
Torque T in Nm, acceleration α in rad/s2, Moment of inertia J in kgm2.
The moment of inertia is a mechanical quantity that is dependent on the design and the material used. At constant
acceleration, the moment of inertia provides a constant counter torque. This acts against the machine torque and is
inverse to the sign of the speed.
During dynamic measurement, the moment of inertia of the rotor becomes visible. The measured torque consists of
several components:
 the torque component from bearing friction measured in the static measurement test,
 flow losses and
 the torque component caused by the moment of inertia.
Start speed: The value should be selected smaller than the rated speed.
Stop speed: The value should be selected greater than the rated speed.
Ramp time: The ramp time specifies how fast the speed range between start speed and stop speed is passed
through. It can be set between 0.1 s and 30 s.
Apply

64
CASSY Lab 2
X-ray apparatus settings
With this input window, the parameters in the X-ray apparatus can be changed. It makes no difference if the settings
are made directly at the X-ray apparatus or in this input window.

65
CASSY Lab 2
Crystal calibration
The X-ray apparatus supports automatic calibration of the crystal being used. This can be necessary if the goniome-
ter zero point has been maladjusted or the microscopic lattice planes of the crystal being used are not exactly parallel
with the macroscopic surface.
To calibrate the crystal, set the lattice-plane spacing and the anode and start the search. Once the search is com-
plete, apply the calibration.
Recording
After the settings have been made and the crystal has been calibrated, the recording of a spectrum can be started
either on the X-ray apparatus by SCAN or by .
By Append new meas. series, several spectra can be recorded one after the other without overwriting the last spec-
trum.

66
CASSY Lab 2
Crystal and anode settings
The X-ray apparatus constantly transmits the value pairs rate R and angle β. Depending on the crystal (target) used,
the angles correspond to X-rays of different wavelengths. When the lattice constant d is specified, the software uses
the Bragg relationship
nλ = 2d sin β
to calculate the new x-axis nλ (with n as the order of interference). Once the order of interference is known (n = 1 for
small angles), it is possible to draw conclusions about the characteristic radiation of the x-ray tube (for the molyb-
denum Kα line, λ = 71 pm).
It is also possible to convert the wavelengths λ into the corresponding energies E of the X-rays using the equation
E = hν = hc/λ
where h = 6.626*10-34 Js and c = 2.998*108 m/s. For this the specification of the anode matrix is necessary and
Show all orders decides whether the energy should also be represented for n > 1.
Remark
The x-axis can be rearranged by Drag & Drop of the channel nλ or E into the diagram, for example.

67
CASSY Lab 2
Energies/angles
Mo NaCl / ° LiF / °
λ/pm E/keV n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4 n=5 n=6 n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4 n=5
K α2 71.36 17.37 7.27 14.66 22.31 30.40 39.24 49.39 10.23 20.81 32.20 45.27 62.63
K α1 70.93 17.48 7.22 14.57 22.17 30.20 38.96 48.99 10.17 20.68 31.98 44.92 61.97
Kβ 63.26 19.60 6.44 12.96 19.66 26.66 34.11 42.30 9.06 18.35 28.19 39.03 51.93
Kγ 62.09 19.97 6.32 12.72 19.29 26.13 33.40 41.34 8.89 18.00 27.62 38.18 50.60
Cu NaCl / ° LiF / °
λ/pm E/keV n=1 n=2 n=3 n=1 n=2
K α2 154.43 8.03 15.89 33.20 55.23 22.60 50.24
K α1 154.05 8.05 15.85 33.11 55.03 22.55 50.07
Kβ 139.20 8.91 14.29 29.58 47.77 20.27 43.86

68
CASSY Lab 2
Formula notation
Formula variables f(time,date,n,t,...)
A formula f(…) can depend on all channels listed below. To realize this, use the name of the channel as the variable
name. For example, the result of the formula UA1 > 5 is 1 when the voltage is greater than 5 V, otherwise 0.
Formula for can depend on
Measuring condition all channels
Formula inputs, serial measuring instruments, parameters and formulas
Relay/voltage source inputs, serial measuring instruments, parameters and formulas
Analog output inputs, serial measuring instruments, parameters and formulas
Digital output inputs, serial measuring instruments, parameters and formulas
Model Model quantities, constants and formulas that depend only on constants and
on the time t
In addition, formulas can also depend on the time in seconds, the date, the measuring time t in seconds and the
number of recorded measured values n. You can add a comment at the end of the formula by separating it with a
semicolon.
Symbols can consist of a & character followed by a letter. The software displays these as the corresponding Greek
letter (otherwise only Latin letters). You need to enter the & character in the formula.
Index access and access to other measuring series

Via […] any element in a table belonging to the current measuring series can be accessed, e.g. UA1[1] will always
deliver the first measured value of the measuring quantity UA1 or UA1[n-1] the preceding value.
UA1[0] is not defined. In order to avoid definition gaps during the utilization of UA1[n-1], one can write (n>1)*UA1[n-
1].
Via # a different measuring series can be accessed, e.g. NA1-NA1#1 calculates the difference between the current
spectrum and the first spectrum (background correction).
Functions of a formula
Within a formula, you can use the following functions. The function arguments must be put in brackets when they are
compounded, e.g. in square(t/10).
ramp Ramp (sawtooth between 0 and 1, ramp(x) = frac(x))
square Square-wave function (between 0 and 1, square(x) = ramp(x) < 0.5)
saw Triangle (between 0 and 1)
shift Single ramp (is 0 if argument < 0, 1 if argument > 1, otherwise equal to argument)
sin Sinus in degrees (period 360°)
cos Cosine in degrees (period 360°)
tan Tangent in degrees (period 360°)
arcsin ArcSine in degrees
arccos ArcCosine in degrees
arctan ArcTangent in degrees
rsin Sine of the argument in radian measure (period 2π)
rcos Cosine of the argument in radian measure (period 2π)
rtan Tangent of the argument in radian measure (period 2π)
rarcsin Arc sine in radian measure
rarccos Arc cosine in radian measure
rarctan Arc tangent in radian measure
delta Change with respect to last recorded measured value
new Is 1 if the argument has changed, otherwise 0
random Random number (0 <= random(x) < x)
sqr Square root
exp Exponential function
ln Natural logarithm
log Decadic logarithm
int Integer function (next lowest whole number)
frac Integer function (next lowest whole number)
abs Absolute value
sgn Signum (is 1 if argument > 0, -1 if argument < 0, 0 if argument = 0)
odd Is 1 if argument is odd, 0 if argument is even
even Is 1 if argument is even, 0 if argument is odd

69
CASSY Lab 2
not Logical inversion (is 1 if argument equals 0, otherwise 0)

defined Is 1 if argument is defined, 0 if argument is not defined
sec Rounds off the time to the nearest full second (sec(x) = int(x))
min Rounds off the time to the nearest full minute (min(x) = 60*int(x/60))
day Returns the day of the week (1 = Monday,...)
Linking variables and functions

All variables (or entered numerical values) can be linked using the usual mathematical operations.
The operators have different priorities. The higher an operation stands in the following list, the higher is its priority in
evaluating the formula ("dots before dashes"). To force a different evaluation order, place the respective expressions
in brackets.
1) ^ Powers
2) * Multiplication
/ Division
3) + Addition
- Subtraction
4) = Test for equality
<> Test for inequality
> Test for greater than
>= Test for greater than or equal to
< Test for less than
<= Test for less than or equal to
5) and Logical AND operation
6) or Logical OR operation
Examples for using the variables time, date, n and t
t <= 100
has the value of 1 during the first 100 s of the measurement, then 0. You can use this formula e.g. for the time win-
dow to stop the measurement after 100 s.
time >= 12:30:35

has the value 1 starting at the time 12:30:35, and 0 prior to that. It must be used with the operator >=, as exact
equality is only valid for 1/100 s, and is thus practically unattainable.
min(time) = 11:45 and date = 18.3.1997

is only true during the single minute on 18 March 1997 at 11:45 hours (value 1), and otherwise false (value 0).
0.5 * (n– 1)
calculates e.g. a volume from the number of the present measurement. In this case, a measured value is recorded
every 0.5 ml, so that the volume is calculated from n. In the first table line n has the value 1.
Examples for generating frequencies
ramp(t/10)
generates a ramp with a period of 10 seconds (t is the measuring time in seconds and starts at 0 when the meas-
urement is started). The ramp starts at 0 and ends at 1. If other amplitudes are required, you must additionally multi-
ply this by the desired amplitude.
saw(t/5)
generates a triangular ("sawtooth") wave form with a period of 5 seconds.
square(t/5)
generates a square wave form with a period of 5 seconds, similar to the previous example. It switches from 0 to 1
and back every 2.5 seconds.
10*(ramp(t/10) < 0.4)

also generates a square wave form. However, here the amplitude is 10 and the duty factor is 40%. 40% of the time,
the expression in brackets is 1 (true); the remaining 60% of the time it is 0 (false).

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CASSY Lab 2
shift((time-12:30)/100)
generates a single ramp starting at the time 12.30 hours with a period of 100 seconds. In this period, the value of the
formula rises continuously to 1.
sin(360*t/7)
generates a sinusoidal oscillation with a period of 7 seconds and an amplitude of 1.
Examples for the priority of arithmetic expressions
x+y^z*2
contains the operator order ^,* and +. As a result, y^z is evaluated first, the result multiplied by two, and then x is
added. To suppress the given operator order, place the respective expressions in brackets.
(x+y)^(z*2)
Unlike the previous example, here the addition x+y and the multiplication z*2 are performed first. The first result is not
raised to the power of the second until the final step.
Examples for the evaluation of Boolean expressions
x<5
can have either the value 0 (false, for x >= 5) or 1 (true, for x < 5).
x1 < 5 and x2 > 0

has the value 1 (true when x1 < 5 and x2 > 0 simultaneously), otherwise 0. You do not need to use any brackets, as
the operator and has a lower priority than < and >.
5*(T < 20)

has only the values 0 (false) and 1 (true) in the brackets. However, these values are multiplied by 5. A formula of this
type is thus only useful for analog outputs. In this case the analog output would output a voltage of 5 V when T is less
than 20 (e.g. a temperature).
time >= 12:30

has the value 1 as of 12:30 hours and 0 prior to that. It must be used with the operator >=, as exact equality is only
valid for 1/100 s, and is thus practically unattainable.
sec(time) = 11:45:07 and date = 18.3.1997

is only true during the single second on 18 March 1997 at 11:45:07 AM hours (value 1), and otherwise false (0).
day(date) = 1
is true every Monday (value 1) and otherwise false (value 0).

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CASSY Lab 2
Formula examples
Simple controller: ϑA11<25
(ϑ entered as &J) is 1 when the temperature is less than 25 °C and otherwise 0 (e.g. for controlling a heater).
Two-position controller: ϑA11<25 or (ϑA11<27 and old) ; R1 is the symbol of the formula
(ϑ entered as &J) is 1 when the temperature is less than 25 °C or – for the case that the value was already 1 – 27 °C,
and otherwise 0 (e.g. for two-position control of a heater). The controller thus switches on below 25 °C and off again
above 27 °C.
Ramp: 8*ramp(t/10)
generates a ramp from 0 to 8 with a period of 10 s (0.1 Hz).
Square wave with user-defined duty factor: ramp(t/10) < 0.8

generates a square wave from with a period of 10 s (0.1 Hz). The square wave is 1 for 80% of the period and other-
wise 0.
Temperature compensation pH: 7+(pHA1-7)*(25+273)/(ϑB1+273)

(ϑ entered as &J) corrects the pH value pHA1 calibrated at 25 °C for the new temperature ϑB1.
Temperature compensation conductivity: CA1/(1+(ϑB1-25)/45)

(ϑ entered as &J) corrects the conductivity value CA1 calibrated at 25 °C for the new temperature ϑB1.

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CASSY Lab 2
CASSYs
Window → Show CASSY Modules (F5)
This displays the current arrangement of the CASSY modules and sensor boxes. When this arrangement is altered
(e.g. by adding a new module or sensor box) this change also appears in the display. The following devices are dis-
played:
Sensor-CASSY (524 010)1
Sensor-CASSY 2 (524 013)1
Power-CASSY (524 011)1
Profi-CASSY (524 016)1
CASSY-Display (524 020)1
Pocket-CASSY (524 006)1
Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth (524 018)1
Rechargeable Battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth (524 019)1
Mobile-CASSY (524 009)1
Mobile-CASSY 2 (524 005/524 005W)1
Micro-CASSY (528 11 - 528 18)1
Joule and Wattmeter (531 831)
Universal measuring instrument physics (531 835)
Universal measuring instrument chemistry (531 836)
Universal measuring instrument biology (531 837)
Power Analyser CASSY (727 100/727 110)2
Machine Test CASSY (773 1900)2
X-ray apparatus (554 800/554 801)3
1
These devices require for unrestricted utilisation the entry of a valid Licence code (524 220 or 524 220UP).
2
These devices require for unrestricted utilisation the entry of a valid Licence code (524 222).
3
The use of the X-ray apparatus requires the entry of a valid Licence code (524 223 or 554 835).
You can activate and configure this by clicking on a channel . The available quantities depend on the CASSY mod-
ule and the attached sensor box. During measurement, the software includes measured values in the table and the
diagram for each active channel. You can also decide how these are to be displayed (column and axis assignment).
For channels already activated, the activated arrangement is displayed and any deviations to the actual arrangement
are crossed through with two red lines. Thus, for example, after loading a measurement file, it is easy to recreate the
arrangement of CASSY modules and sensor modules which were used to capture that data.

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CASSY Lab 2
If the current arrangement is not displayed the arrangment can be updated by deleting the invalid channels (either
one by one or all at the same time, by pressing File → New).
Show Measuring Parameters opens the measuring parameter window.

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CASSY Lab 2
Bluetooth CASSYs
Window → Show Bluetooth CASSYs
Unlike a USB connection, a Bluetooth connection must be created manually, so the assignment between the Blue-
tooth device and the computer is unique.
All known and still unknown CASSY modules are displayed in this window. The following Bluetooth devices are sup-
ported:
Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth (524 018)*
Devices marked with an * require for unrestricted utilisation the input of a valid activation code.
Remark
If you cannot select this menu item your computer does not use a Microsoft Bluetooth stack. If your computer uses a
different Bluetooth stack you can use the device manager to switch to the Microsoft Bluetooth stack or use our Blue-
tooth dongle (524 0031).
If a new CASSY is within range and switched on an unspecified Bluetooth symbol is displayed shortly afterwards.
After clicking on Utilize to create a successful connection the type of the Bluetooth CASSY is displayed.
The CASSY’s name can be changed while it is connected. Any CASSYs that were connected but not required to be
shown in this window anymore can be deleted by clicking the Remove button.
Remark
The Bluetooth connection is protected by a PIN. You do not need to know this PIN because CASSY Lab will enter the
PIN for you. Student cellphones cannot hijack this Bluetooth connection because the PIN is not known to them.

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CASSY Lab 2
Sensor-CASSY
Introduction
Sensor-CASSY (USB or serial respectively) is a cascadable interface device for recording measurement data:
 For connection to the USB port of a computer or to the RS-232 serial interface respectively, another CASSY
module or the CASSY display.
 4-fold electrical isolation (inputs A and B, relay R, voltage source S).
 Cascading of up to 8 CASSY modules possible (to expand the inputs and outputs)
 Up to 8 analog inputs per Sensor-CASSY retrofittable using sensor boxes
 Automatic sensor box detection by CASSY Lab (plug and play)
 Microprocessor-controlled with CASSY operating system (easily updatable via software for function enhance-
ments).
 For use as a benchtop, console or demonstration unit (also in CPS/TPS panel frames)
 Voltage supply 12 V AC/DC via cannon plug or adjacent CASSY module.
SDK for your own software development available on the Internet
Safety note
 For your own protection, do not connect Sensor-CASSY to voltages over 100 V.
 Transport multiple cascaded CASSY modules only in the panel frame or individually (the mechanical stability of
the connections without panel frame is sufficient for experimenting only, and not for transport).
 Use only the enclosed plug-in supply unit (12 V / 1.6 A) to power the CASSY modules.
 A Sensor-CASSY can also supply an adjacent module with a voltage as long as the total current consumption
does not exceed 1.6 A (sufficient for up to 2 modules; overload trips automatic cutout). If using additional Sensor-
CASSYs, supply these separately.

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CASSY Lab 2
Technical data
5 Analog inputs (any two inputs A and B usable simultaneously)
2 Analog voltage inputs A and B on 4-mm safety sockets
Resolution: 12 bits
Measuring ranges: ±0.3/1/3/10/30/100 V
Measuring error: ± 1 % plus 0.5 % of range end value
Input resistance: 1 MΩ
Scanning rate: max. 200,000 values/s (= 100,000 values/s per input)
No. of meas. values: virtually unlimited (PC dependent) up to 100 values/s, at a higher meas-
urement rate max. 32,000 values (= 16,000 values per input)
1 Analog current input A on 4-mm safety sockets
Measuring ranges: ±0.1/0.3/1/3 A
Measuring error: voltage error plus 1 %
Input resistance: < 0.5 Ω (except under overload)
See voltage inputs for further data
2 Analog inputs at sensor box connector sites A and B (All CASSY sensor boxes and sensors can be connect-
ed)
Measuring ranges: ±0.003/0.01/0.03/0.1/0.3/1 V
Input resistance: 10 kΩ
The technical data will change depending on a connected sensor box. In this case CASSY Lab automatically
detects the possible measurement quantities and ranges when a sensor box is attached.
4 Timer inputs with 32-bit counters at sensor box sites A and B
(e.g. for BMW box, GM box or timer box)
Counter frequency: max. 100 kHz
Time resolution: 0.25 µs
Measuring time between two events at same input: min. 100 µs
Measuring time between two events at different inputs: min. 0.25 µs
Memory: max. 10,000 time points (= 2,500 values per input)
1 Changeover relay (switching indication via LED)
Range: max. 100 V / 2 A
1 Analog output (PWM-output) (pulse-width modulated, switchable voltage source, LED switching state indicator,
e.g. for holding magnet or supplying experiment)
Variable voltage range: max. 16 V / 200 mA (load ≥ 80 Ω)
PWM range: 0 % (off), 5-95 % (1 %resolution), 100 % (on)
PWM frequency: 100 Hz
12 Digital inputs (TTL) on sensor box sites A and B
(at present only used for automatic sensor box detection)
6 Digital outputs (TTL) on sensor box sites A and B
(at present only used for automatic switching of a sensor box measuring range)
1 USB port (USB version), respectively serial interface RS232 (subD-9) for connection to a computer
1 CASSY bus for connecting additional CASSY modules or the CASSY display
Dimensions (WxHxD): 115 mm x 295 mm x 45 mm
Weight: 1 kg
Scope of supply
1 Sensor-CASSY
1 Installation guide
1 USB cable or serial cable (subD-9)
1 Plug-in supply unit 12 V / 1.6 A

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CASSY Lab 2
Sensor-CASSY 2
Introduction
Sensor-CASSY 2 is a cascadable interface device for recording measurement data:
 For connection to the USB port of a computer, another CASSY module or the CASSY-Display.
 3-fold electrical isolation (inputs A and B, relay R).
 Measurement possible parallel at 4-mm-inputs and sensor box connector sites (4 channels)
 Up to 8 analog inputs per Sensor-CASSY retrofittable using sensor boxes
ments).
 Voltage supply 12 V AC/DC via cannon plug or adjacent CASSY module.
Safety note
 For your own protection, do not connect the 4-mm inputs of Sensor-CASSY 2 to voltages over 250 V (CAT II).
 A Sensor-CASSY can also supply an adjacent module with a voltage as long as the total current consumption
does not exceed 1.6 A (sufficient for up to 2 modules; overload trips automatic cutout). If using additional Sensor-
CASSYs, supply these separately.

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CASSY Lab 2
Technical data
5 Analog inputs
Resolution: 12 bits
Measuring ranges: ±0.1/0.3/1/3/10/30/100/250 V
Scanning rate: max. 2,000,000 values/s (= 1,000,000 values/s per input)
No. of meas. values: virtually unlimited (PC dependent) up to 10,000 values/s, at a higher
measurement rate max. 200,000 values
Pre-trigger: max. 50,000 values
1 Analog current input A on 4-mm safety sockets
(alternatively to voltage input A)
Measuring ranges: ±0.03/0.1/0.3/1/3 A
Measuring error: voltage error plus 1 %
2 Analog inputs at sensor box connector sites A and B
(All CASSY sensor boxes and sensors can be connected)
Scanning rate: max. 1,000,000 values/s (= 500,000 values/s per input)
The technical data will change depending on a connected sensor box. In this case CASSY Lab automatically
detects the possible measurement quantities and ranges when a sensor box is attached.
4 Timer inputs with 32-bit counters at sensor box sites A and B
(e.g. for BMW box, GM box or timer box)
Counter frequency: max. 1 MHz
Time resolution: 20 ns
5 LED status indicators for analog inputs and USB-port
Colors: red and green, according to status
Light intensity: adjustable
1 Changeover relay (switching indication via LED)
Range: max. 250 V / 2 A
1 Analog output (LED switching state indicator, e.g. for holding magnet or supplying experiment)
Variable voltage range: max. 16 V / 200 mA (load ≥ 80 Ω)
12 Digital inputs (TTL) on sensor box sites A and B
6 Digital outputs (TTL) on sensor box sites A and B
1 USB port for connection to a computer
Weight: 1 kg
Scope of supply
1 Sensor-CASSY 2
1 USB cable

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CASSY Lab 2
Power-CASSY
Introduction
Power-CASSY (USB or serial respectively) is a cascadable interface device which can be used as a programmable
voltage or current supply (power function generator) with integrated current or voltage measurement.
 For connection to the USB port of a computer or to the RS-232 serial interface respectively, another CASSY
module or the CASSY display.
 Electrically isolated.
ments).
 Voltage supply 12 V (AC only) via cannon plug.
Safety note

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CASSY Lab 2
Technical data
1 Programmable voltage source with simultaneous current measurement
(e.g. for recording characteristics)
Resolution: 12 bits
Control range: ±10 V
Measuring range: ±0.1/0.3/1 A
Voltage error: ± 1 % plus 0.5 % of range end value
Current error: voltage error plus ±1 %
Scanning rate: 200,000 values/s(= 100,000 values/s each for voltage and current)
No. of meas. values: virtually unlimited (PC dependent) up to 100 values/s, at a higher measuring
rate max. 32,000 values(= 16,000 values/s each for voltage and current)
1 Programmable current source with simultaneous voltage measurement
(as alternative to voltage source)
Control range: ±1 A
Measuring range: ±1/3/10 V
For further data see voltage source
1 USB port (USB version), respectively serial interface RS232 (subD-9) for connection to a computer
Weight: 1.0 kg
Scope of supply
1 Power-CASSY
1 USB cable or serial cable (subD-9)
Notes on the power limit

Due to the rating of the supplied plug-in power supply unit, Power-CASSY can not always guarantee a DC current of
1 A at 10 V. In such marginal cases, Power-CASSY only has sufficient power reserves when a second plug-in unit
(not included) is used.
The scanning frequency of 100 kHz for the output channel limits the output frequency to a maximum value of 10 kHz.
Here, the signal form is resolved with 10 μs, and thus consists of at least 10 points per period, each 10 μs apart. If it
is not possible to achieve the set frequency or duty factor exactly by this means, the system attempts to achieve both
set values as exactly as possible by averaging over a longer period.
When Power-CASSY is used as a current source, the maximum frequency is additionally reduced by a virtual output
capacitance of up to 10 μF. For an ohmic load of R = 100 Ω, the output capacitance results in a time constant of R*C
= 1 ms, and thus a cut-off frequency of around 1000 Hz. For inductive loads, the cut-off frequency is much lower (a
resistor connected in series with the inductance can help). For capacitative loads the effective capacitance is up to
10 μF higher.

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CASSY Lab 2
Profi-CASSY
Introduction
Profi-CASSY is an intelligent interface for all fields of electrical engineering
 For connection to the USB port of a computer.
 Electrically isolated from the computer.
 Cascadable with Sensor-CASSY or Power-CASSY (to expand the inputs and outputs).
ments).
 Voltage supply 12 V (AC only) via cannon plug.
Safety note
 A Profi-CASSY can also supply an adjacent module with a voltage as long as the total current consumption does
not exceed 1.6 A (sufficient for up to 2 modules; overload trips automatic cutout). If using additional CASSYs,
supply these separately.

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CASSY Lab 2
Technical data
Resolution: 12 bits
Measuring range: ±10 V
Scanning rate: 20,000 values/s (= 10,000 values/s per input)
No. of meas. values: virtually unlimited (PC dependent) up to 100 values/s, at a higher measure-
ment rate max. 16,000 values (= 8,000 values per input)
2 Analog voltage outputs X and Y on 4-mm safety sockets
Resolution: 12 bits
Control range: ±10 V
Error: ± 1 % plus 0.5 % of range end value
Output current: max. 100 mA per output
Scanning rate: 10,000 values/s for output X
max. 100 values/s for output Y (PC dependent)
No. of meas. values: virtually unlimited (PC dependent) up to 100 values/s, at a higher measuring
rate max. 8,000 values (output X only)
16 Digital inputs I0 to I15
Logic: 5 V or 24 V
Scanning rate: max. 100 values/s (PC dependent)
The digital inputs are each equipped with two 10-pole plug-in connectors for direct connection to automation de-
vices. In addition, eight of them are equipped with 2-mm sockets and status LEDs.
16 Digital outputs Q0 to Q15
Logic: 5 V or 24 V
Output current: 10 mA for internal supply with 5 V
500 mA for external power supply with up to 30 V
Total current: 2A
Scanning rate: max. 100 values/s (PC dependent)
The digital outputs are each equipped with two 10-pole plug-in connectors for direct connection to automation
devices. In addition, eight of them are equipped with 2-mm sockets and status LEDs.
1 PROFIBUS connection with 9-pole subD socket
passive station (slave) at the PROFIBUS-DP fieldbus with 16 digital inputs and outputs and a bit rate of up to
max. 3 Mbit/s
address can be set via CASSY Lab
1 CASSY bus for connecting Sensor-CASSYs or Power-CASSYs
Weight: 1.0 kg
Scope of supply
1 Profi-CASSY
1 USB cable
1 GSD file LD066F.GSD for easy parameterization of the PROFIBUS on the CASSY Lab-CD
Applications
 CBS9 plant simulator for PLC, COM3LAB, digital technology and MFA
 CASSY® Lab for recording and evaluating measuring data
 WinFACT® for applications in control engineering

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CASSY Lab 2
CASSY-Display
Introduction
CASSY-Display (USB or serial respectively) is a two-channel instrument for displaying measured values without a
computer.
ments).
 Supports up to 8 Sensor-CASSY units (for 16 measuring channels)
 Values are measured using Sensor-CASSY or a sensor box connected there
(see Sensor-CASSY for measurement quantities and ranges).
 Measured values can be toggled and calibrated individually. Measurement quantity and unit change automatically
when a sensor box is added or moved.
 With integrated real-time clock and data logger.
Data storage for up to 32,000 measured values is retained when the device is switched off, enabling these to be
read out by a computer via the USB port or via the serial interface respectively.
 Voltage supply 12 V AC/DC via cannon plug.
Safety note
 Use only the plug-in supply unit (12 V / 1.6 A) to power the CASSY modules.
Data logger
CASSY-Display is equipped with an integrated memory function for storing measurement data. This data is retained
when the power supply is switched off and can later be read from the memory by CASSY Lab. When the CASSY-
Display is connected to a computer, it is displayed in the current arrangement of CASSY modules. To read out the
data, simply click on Read Out Data.
Alternatively the data can be read in the Settings CASSYs screen. The option is also available there to set the real-
time clock of the CASSY-Display.
Please refer to the CASSY-Display Instruction Sheet for more information on using the device.

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CASSY Lab 2
Pocket-CASSY
Introduction
Pocket-CASSY is an interface device for recording measurement data:
 For connection to the USB port of a computer or to an active hub.
 Compatible with USB 1.x and 2.0 (Full speed)
 Up to 8 analog inputs per Pocket-CASSY available using sensor boxes
 Up to 8 Pocket-CASSYs can be used at different USB ports (to expand the inputs even more)
 Power supply via USB port (500 mA).
Safety note
 For your own protection, do not connect sensors and sensor boxes to voltages over 30 V.
 Mind possible ground connections between the sensors and the computer.
Technical data
1 Analog input at sensor connector site (all CASSY sensor boxes and sensors can be connected)
Resolution: 12 bits
Scanning rate: max. 7,800 values/s
No. of meas. values: virtually unlimited (PC dependent) up to 100 values/s, at a higher meas-
urement rate max. 16,000 values
The technical data will change depending on a connected sensor box.
In this case CASSY Lab automatically detects the possible measurement quantities and ranges when a sensor
box is attached.
2 Timer inputs at sensor connector site (e.g. for BMW box, GM box or timer box)
Counter frequency: max. 10 kHz
Time resolution: 1 µs
Measuring time between two events: min. 100 µs
Memory: max. 5,000 time points (= 2,500 values per input)
6 Digital inputs (TTL) at sensor connector site
3 Digital outputs (TTL) at sensor connector site
1 USB port for connection to a computer and for power supply (500 mA)
Weight: 0.1 kg
Scope of supply
1 Pocket-CASSY
1 USB cable

85
CASSY Lab 2
Use of Pocket-CASSY
Pocket-CASSY is an interface designed as a low-cost device for students' practice. Therefore some features of the
Sensor-CASSY have been renounced. However, most of the experiments described can also be carried out using
Pocket-CASSY. These experiments are labeled with the Pocket-CASSY logo. The subsequent description and
equipment list nevertheless refer to the use of Sensor-CASSY.
Carrying out an experiment intended for Sensor-CASSY using the Pocket-CASSY

 For voltage and current measurements the UI sensor S (524 062) or the UIP sensor S (524 0621) is required if
the Pocket-CASSY is used.
 If both analog inputs A and B of the Sensor-CASSY are used, two Pocket-CASSYs have to be employed instead
(maybe in conjunction with two UI sensors S). In the case of a combined voltage and current measurement, a
single Pocket-CASSY with a UIP sensor S is sufficient.
 The symbols of the measurement quantities have one index less than those given in the experiment descriptions
as, in the case of the Pocket-CASSY, no distinction has to be made between input A and input B. For example,
you have U1 and U2 (two Pocket-CASSYs) instead of UA1 and UB1 (one Sensor-CASSY).
Limitations of Pocket-CASSY as compared with Sensor-CASSY

 There is only one sensor input. If there are enough USB ports available, several sensor inputs can be realized by
using several Pocket-CASSYs. As there is no direct signal transmission between several Pocket-CASSYs, trigger
time errors of up to 5 ms may arise.
 There are no voltage and current inputs on 4-mm sockets. These can be made available by means of the UI sen-
sor S or the UIP sensor S. However, the UI sensor S has only 7 measuring ranges. It lacks the ranges ±250 V,
±100 V, ±0.1 V, ±3 A, ±0.1 A, ±0.03 A. Moreover, it cannot be used to record U and I simultaneously. The UIP
sensor S only lacks the ranges ±250 V, ±100 V, ±0.03 A.
 Time resolutions Δt < 100 µs cannot be selected. Internally Pocket-CASSY scans at Δt >= 128 µs so that an in-
terpolation has already to be made for Δt = 100 µs.
 There is no relay R and no voltage source S.
 The timer inputs only have 1 µs resolution - a variable latency of up to 10 µs may arise in addition. The maximum
measurable frequency is approx. 10 kHz.
 Pocket-CASSY is not isolated. Depending on the sensor connected, a continuous ground connection may exist
between the sensor and the computer. If two Pocket-CASSYs are used simultaneously at the same computer,
even an electrical connection between two sensors may occur. In order to compensate this disadvantage, the UI
sensor S (524 062) and the UIP sensor S (524 0621), which are often employed, have been designed as differ-
ence amplifiers. Their input sockets are only connected to the ground via high resistances.

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CASSY Lab 2
Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth
Introduction
Pocket-CASSY 2 is an interface device for recording measurement data:
 For connection via Bluetooth, to the USB port of a computer or to an active hub.
 Compatible with Bluetooth 2.0, USB 1.x and 2.0 (Full speed)
 Up to 8 analog inputs per Pocket-CASSY available using sensor boxes
 Up to 7 Pocket-CASSYs can be used via Bluetooth, up to 8 Pocket-CASSYs can be used at different USB ports
(to expand the inputs even more)
 Power supply via supplied plug-in power unit, rechargeable battery or USB port (500 mA)
Safety note
 Mind possible ground connections between the sensors and the computer.
Technical data
1 Analog input at sensor connector site (all CASSY sensor boxes and sensors can be connected)
Resolution: 12 bits
The technical data will change depending on a connected sensor box.
In this case CASSY Lab automatically detects the possible measurement quantities and ranges when a sensor
box is attached.
2 Timer inputs at sensor connector site (e.g. for BMW box, GM box or timer box)
Counter frequency: max. 1 MHz
Time resolution: 20 ns
6 Digital inputs (TTL) at sensor connector site
3 Digital outputs (TTL) at sensor connector site
1 Bluetooth port
1 USB port for connection to a computer and for power supply (500 mA)
Weight: 0.1 kg
Scope of supply
1 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth
1 Instruction sheet
1 Plug-in supply unit
1 USB cable

87
CASSY Lab 2
Use of Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth

Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth is an interface designed as a low-cost device for students' practice. Therefore some fea-
tures of the Sensor-CASSY have been renounced. However, most of the experiments described can also be carried
out using Pocket-CASSY. These experiments are labeled with the Pocket-CASSY logo. The subsequent description
and equipment list nevertheless refer to the use of Sensor-CASSY.
Carrying out an experiment intended for Sensor-CASSY using the Pocket-CASSY

the Pocket-CASSY is used.
 If both analog inputs A and B of the Sensor-CASSY are used, two Pocket-CASSYs have to be employed instead
single Pocket-CASSY with a UIP sensor S is sufficient.
as, in the case of the Pocket-CASSY, no distinction has to be made between input A and input B. For example,
you have U1 and U2 (two Pocket-CASSYs) instead of UA1 and UB1 (one Sensor-CASSY).
Limitations of Pocket-CASSY as compared with Sensor-CASSY

 There is only one sensor input. Several sensor inputs can be realized by using several Pocket-CASSYs. As there
is no direct signal transmission between several Pocket-CASSYs, trigger time errors of up to 5 ms may arise.
sor S or the UIP sensor S. However, the UI sensor S has only 7 measuring ranges. It lacks the ranges ±250 V,
±100 V, ±0.1 V, ±3 A, ±0.1 A, ±0.03 A. Moreover, it cannot be used to record U and I simultaneously. The UIP
sensor S only lacks the ranges ±250 V, ±100 V, ±0.03 A.
 Time resolutions Δt < 10 µs cannot be selected.
 Pocket-CASSY is not isolated. Depending on the sensor connected, a continuous ground connection may exist
between the sensor and the computer. If two Pocket-CASSYs are used simultaneously at the same computer,
even an electrical connection between two sensors may occur. In order to compensate this disadvantage, the UI
sensor S (524 062) and the UIP sensor S (524 0621), which are often employed, have been designed as differ-
ence amplifiers. Their input sockets are only connected to the ground via high resistances.

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CASSY Lab 2
Rechargeable Battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth
Introduction
Cascadable rechargeable battery for mobile power supply of Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth.
 For connection to a plug-in power unit, another battery, the USB port of a computer or to an active hub.
 Monitoring of the charge by PC possible
Safety note
 Use only a USB port or the plug-in power unit supplied with the Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth to charge the re-
chargeable battery.
Technical data
Input: Micro-USB, 5 V/500 mA (for plug-in power unit or additional battery)
Output: Micro-USB, 5 V/500 mA (for Pocket-CASSY 2 or additional battery)
Cascadability: Batteries can be charged or discharged in series
Battery cells: 2 x NiMH cells
Capacity: 4 Wh
LEDs: yellow (charging), green (fully charged)
Charge control: Micro controller
Weight: 0.1 kg
Scope of supply
The charger and USB cable required for battery recharging are included with the Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth.

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CASSY Lab 2
Mobile-CASSY
Introduction
Mobile-CASSY is a universal hand-held measuring instrument:
 For almost all CASSY sensors and sensor boxes
 Automatic sensor box detection (plug and play)
 Up to 8 analog inputs per Mobile-CASSY available using sensor boxes
 Power supply via 4 mignon cells (AA, batteries or accumulators) or plug-in power supply 12 V AC/DC
 With integrated data logger for up to 16,000 measured values
 Can be connected to the USB port of a computer for reading the data logger or for displaying the measured val-
ues on a large screen
 Compatible with USB 1.x and 2.0
 Up to 8 Mobile-CASSYs can be used at different USB ports
Safety note
Technical data
1 Analog input at sensor connector site (almost all CASSY sensor boxes and sensors can be connected)
Resolution: 12 bits
Scanning rate: max. 5 values/s
No. of meas. values: 16,000 in the integrated data logger or virtually unlimited
(depending on the PC) if the measurements a made with a PC
The technical data will change depending on a connected sensor box. When a sensor box is attached, the possi-
ble measurement quantities and ranges are detected automatically.
1 Display for simultaneously displaying up to four values in various character sizes
Weight: 0.25 kg
Scope of supply
1 Mobile-CASSY
1 Instruction sheet
1 USB cable

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CASSY Lab 2
Use of Mobile-CASSY
Mobile-CASSY is an interface designed for mobile use. Therefore many features of the Sensor-CASSY have been
renounced, and a data logger has been integrated instead. However, some of the experiments described can also be
carried out using the Mobile-CASSY. These experiments are labeled with the Mobile-CASSY logo. The subsequent
description and equipment list nevertheless refer to the use of Sensor-CASSY.
Carrying out an experiment intended for Sensor-CASSY using the Mobile-CASSY

the Mobile-CASSY is used.
 If both analog inputs A and B of the Sensor-CASSY are used, two Mobile-CASSYs have to be employed instead
single Mobile-CASSY with a UIP sensor S is sufficient.
as, in the case of the Mobile-CASSY, no distinction has to be made between input A and input B. For example,
you have U1 and U2 (two Mobile-CASSYs) instead of UA1 and UB1 (one Sensor-CASSY).
Limitations of Mobile-CASSY as compared with Sensor-CASSY

 There is only one sensor input. If there are enough USB ports available, several sensor inputs can be realized by
using several Mobile-CASSYs.
sor S or the UIP sensor S. However, the UI sensor S has only 7 instead of 10 measuring ranges. It lacks the
ranges ±100 V, ±3 A, ±0.1 A. Moreover, it cannot be used to record U and I simultaneously. The UIP sensor S on-
ly lacks the range ±100 V.
 Time resolutions Δt < 200 ms cannot be selected.
 Support of the timer inputs is very limited.
Data logger
The Mobile-CASSY is equipped with an integrated data memory, where measurement data can be stored. This data
is retained when the power supply is switched off and can later be read from the memory by CASSY Lab. When the
Mobile-CASSY is connected to a computer, it is displayed in the current arrangement of CASSY modules. To read
out the data, simply click on Read Out Data.
Alternatively the data can be read in the Settings CASSYs screen. The option is also available there to set the real-
time clock of the Mobile-CASSY.
Please refer to the Mobile-CASSY Instruction Sheet for more information on using the device.

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CASSY Lab 2
Mobile-CASSY 2
Introduction
Mobile-CASSY 2 is a digital tool for student experiments and demonstrations:
 Universal multi-channel measuring device
 Large measured value display
 automatic detection of the sensors, compatible with all CASSY sensors and sensors M
 4 mm safety sockets for U, I, P and E as well as Type K socket for NiCr-Ni temperature probes integrated
 intuitive operation via touchwheel
 quick recording of measured values optionally with trigger and advance (can also be used as oscilloscope)
 graphical display and evaluation (e.g. free axis assignment, zoom and straight line fitting) in the instrument
 USB connection for presentation and evaluation on PC by full CASSY Lab 2 support (524 220)
 USB stick connection for easy transport of measurement data and screenshots even without PC
 with practical stand
Safety note

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CASSY Lab 2
Technical data
Graphics display: 9 cm (3,5"), QVGA, colour, high brightness (adjustable up to 400 cd/m2)
Inputs: 3 (can be used simultaneously)
Input A: U (voltage) or CASSY sensor or sensor M
Input B: I (current) or CASSY sensor or sensor M
Input ϑ: Temperature
Measuring ranges U: ±0.1/±0.3/±1/±3/±10/±30 V
Measuring ranges I: ±0.03/±0.1/±0.3/±1/±3 A
Measuring ranges ϑ: -200 ... +200 °C / -200 ... +1200 °C
Sensor sockets: 2 for CASSY sensors and 2 for M-series sensors
Resolution of analog inputs: 12 bits
Resolution of timer inputs: 20 ns
Loudspeaker: built-in for key tones and Geiger counter (can be deactivated in either case)
Data memory: built-in Micro-SD card (4 GB) for more than a thousand measurement files and screen-
shots
USB ports: 1 for USB memory stick, 1 for PC
Battery capacity: 14 Wh (6 x AA NiMH, replaceable)
Duration of use on full 8 hours of operation, several years on stand-by
charge:
Kensington lock: built-in connector for optional anti-theft device
Dimensions: 175 mm x 95 mm x 40 mm
Scope of supply
1 Mobile-CASSY 2
1 lug-in power supply with safety transformer conforming to DIN EN 61558-2-6
1 NiCr-Ni temperature sensor
1 Brief instructions
Use of Mobile-CASSY 2
Mobile-CASSY 2 is an interface designed for mobile use. Therefore some features of the Sensor-CASSY have been
renounced. However, some of the experiments described can also be carried out using the Mobile-CASSY 2. These
experiments are labeled with the Mobile-CASSY 2 logo. The subsequent description and equipment list nevertheless
refer to the use of Sensor-CASSY.
Limitations of Mobile-CASSY as compared with Sensor-CASSY


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CASSY Lab 2
Micro-CASSY
Introduction
Micro-CASSY is an interface device for recording measurement data:
 For direct connection to the USB port of a computer.
 Available for the measured quantities voltage (blue), current (red), temperature (yellow), and pH (grey)
 Automatic detection of Micro-CASSY with CASSY Lab (plug & play)
 Use of several Micro-CASSYs at different USB ports possible
ments).
 Power supply via USB port.
Safety note
 For your own protection, do not connect Micro-CASSY to voltages over 30 V.

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CASSY Lab 2
Technical data
1 Analog input depending on the Micro-CASSY
Micro-CASSY Voltage (blue)

Resolution: 12 bits
Measuring ranges: ±3/30 V
Micro-CASSY Current (red)

Resolution: 12 bits
Measuring ranges: ±0.3/3 A
Micro-CASSY Temperature (yellow)

Measuring ranges: -50 °C .. 200 °C / 0 °C .. 1200 °C
Resolution: ±0.1 °C / ±1 °C
Measuring error: ±1 °C / ±5 °C
No. of meas. values: virtually unlimited (PC dependent)
Micro-CASSY pH (gray)
Measuring ranges: 0 .. 14 pH / ±2 V
Resolution: 0.01 pH / 1 mV
Measuring error: ±0.1 pH / ±30 mV
Input resistance: > 1013 Ω
No. of meas. values: virtually unlimited (PC dependent)
1 USB port for connection to a computer and for power supply

Weight: 0.1 kg
Scope of supply
1 Micro-CASSY

95
CASSY Lab 2
Use of Micro-CASSY
Micro-CASSY is an interface designed as a low-cost device for students' practice. Therefore some features of the
Sensor-CASSY have been renounced. However, some of the experiments described can also be carried out using
the Micro-CASSY. These experiments are labeled with the Micro-CASSY logo. The subsequent description and
equipment list nevertheless refer to the use of Sensor-CASSY.
Carrying out an experiment intended for Sensor-CASSY using the Micro-CASSY

 Voltage measurements require a Micro-CASSY Voltage (528 11).
 Current measurements require a Micro-CASSY Current (528 12).
 Temperature measurements require a Micro-CASSY Temperature (528 15).
 pH measurements require a Micro-CASSY pH value (528 18).
 There is no index for the measured quantities' symbols, since Micro-CASSY may not switch between input A and
B, e.g. U (Micro-CASSY Voltage) instead of UA1 (Sensor-CASSY).
Limitations of Micro-CASSY as compared with Sensor-CASSY

 The Micro-CASSY Voltage's measuring ranges are only between ±3 V and ±30 V. The Micro-CASSY Current's
measuring ranges are only between ±0.3 A and ±3 A.
 Only one measured quantity is available. If there are enough USB ports available, several measured quantities
can be realized by using several Micro-CASSYs.
 Time resolutions Δt < 10 µs cannot be selected. When using several Micro-CASSYs, time resolutions Δt < 10 ms
cannot be selected.

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CASSY Lab 2
Joule and wattmeter
Introduction
The Joule and wattmeter is a universal multimeter with a wattmeter
 for measuring and displaying effective voltages U and effective currents I for voltages and currents of any shape
 for displaying the nonreactive power P determined from U and I and the time integrals  P(t) dt (work),  U(t) dt
(surge) and  I(t) dt (charge)
 with large power range from nW to kW (12 decades)
 with large display, which can be read from great distances
 with connection of the load optionally via 4 mm safety sockets or grounded socket (front panel)
 with possibility of connecting to the USB port of a computer for reading the time-resolved curve shapes U(t), I(t)
and P(t) and their effective values
Safety note
The device complies with the safety requirements for electrical measuring, control and laboratory equipment in ac-
cordance with DIN EN 61010 part 1. It is intended for use in dry rooms, which are suitable for electrical equipment
and devices.
If the device is used as prescribed, it's safe operation is guaranteed. However, safety is not guaranteed if the device
is improperly used or carelessly handled. If it has to be assumed that safe operation is no longer possible (e.g. in the
case of visible damage), shut the device down immediately.
When putting the device into operation for the first time:
 Check whether the value for the mains voltage indicated on the rating plate agrees with the local value.
 Look for the instruction sheet of the device on the enclosed CD "Instruction Sheets" with the aid of the catalogue
number, and read it.
Before putting the device into operation:
 Examine the housing for damage. In case of malfunction or visible damage, shut the device down and make sure
that it is not used inadvertently.
On every operation:
 Connect the device only to sockets with grounded neutral wire.
 Never apply voltages over 250 V and currents over 10 A.
 Examine connecting leads, test leads and probes for defective insulation and bare wires.
 When carrying out experiments with hazardous-contact voltages, use only 4 mm safety connecting leads.
 The socket on the front panel may be alive even if the output is not active.
 Replace a defective fuse only with a fuse that corresponds to the original value (T 10 A / 250 V).
 Never short the fuse or the fuse holder.
 Always keep the ventilation slots of the housing free in order to ensure sufficient air circulation for cooling the in-
ternal components.

97
CASSY Lab 2
 Keep metallic objects, foreign matter and water away from the ventilation slots.
 Do not put the device into operation if objects of that kind have got into the interior of the device.
 Allow only skilled persons to open the device.
 The device must not be subjected to strong shocks.
Technical data
1 Analog voltage input on 4 mm sockets
Resolution: 12 bits
Measuring ranges: ±5**/±50**/±500 mV / ±5/±50/±250 V
Measuring accuracy*: 1%
Input resistance: ≥1 MΩ
ment rate max. 16,000 values
1 Analog voltage input for grounded socket (can be used alternatively)
Resolution: 12 bits
Measuring range: 250 V
1 Analog current input for 4 mm safety sockets and grounded socket
Resolution: 12 bits
Measuring ranges: ±0.2/±2/±20 mA / ±0.2/±2/±10 A
Input resistance: 10 Ω / approx. 0.01 Ω
Connection of load: optionally via 4 mm safety sockets or grounded socket (front panel)
Display: 5 digit 7 segment display for numerical value and 7x15 matrix for unit
Height of digits: 25 mm
USB-Port: USB 1.x and 2.0 (full speed), isolated
Supply: 230 V, 50/60 Hz
Dimensions (WxHxD): 20 cm x 21 cm x 23 cm
Weight: 2 kg
* The specified accuracy is valid at the upper limit of range for DC and for AC with a frequency of 50 to 60 Hz and a
crest factor = maximum value : effective value ≤ 2.
** This range is only suited for DC (not for AC).
Scope of supply
1 Joule and wattmeter
1 CASSY Lab 2 software, without activation code, for Windows XP/Vista/7/8 with comprehensive help (can be used
for the Joule and wattmeter without limitations)
1 Instruction sheet
1 USB cable

98
CASSY Lab 2
Universal measuring instrument physics
Introduction
The universal measuring instrument physics is a universal multimeter
 for measuring and displaying many physical quantities
 with possibility of connecting to the USB port of a computer for reading the time-resolved curve shapes
Safety note
and devices.
On every operation:
ternal components.

99
CASSY Lab 2
Technical data
1 Analog sensor input at sensor connector site for many sensors S
Resolution: 12 bits
Measuring ranges: depending on sensor
Measuring error: ±1 % plus sensor error
Supply: 230 V, 50/60 Hz
Weight: 2 kg
Scope of supply
1 Universal measuring instrument physics
for the Universal measuring instrument physics without limitations)
1 Instruction sheet
1 USB cable

100
CASSY Lab 2
Universal measuring instrument chemistry
Introduction
The universal measuring instrument chemistry is a universal multimeter
 for measuring and displaying many chemical quantities
Safety note
and devices.
On every operation:
ternal components.

101
CASSY Lab 2
Technical data
Resolution: 12 bits
1 Type K socket for additional connection of a NiCr-Ni thermocouple
(e.g. for automatic temperature compensation of pH measurements)
Resolution: 12 bits
Measuring range: depending on sensor
Calibration: through 1 or 2 points (stored internally for pH, conductivity, O2 and CO2 con-
centration)
Supply: 230 V, 50/60 Hz
Weight: 2 kg
Scope of supply
1 Universal measuring instrument chemistry
for the Universal measuring instrument chemistry without limitations)
1 Instruction sheet
1 USB cable

102
CASSY Lab 2
Universal measuring instrument biology
Introduction
The universal measuring instrument biology is a universal multimeter
 for measuring and displaying many physical quantities
Safety note
and devices.
On every operation:
ternal components.

103
CASSY Lab 2
Technical data
Resolution: 12 bits
Loudspeaker: for pulse/blood pressure/hearing threshold measurement
Supply: 230 V, 50/60 Hz
Weight: 2 kg
Scope of supply
1 Universal measuring instrument biology
for the Universal measuring instrument biology without limitations)
1 Instruction sheet
1 USB cable

104
CASSY Lab 2
Power Analyser CASSY (Plus)
Introduction
The Power Analyser CASSY is a measuring instrument specially designed for educational purposes for the analysis
of voltages up to 1000 V and currents up to 16 A.
The measuring instrument is a combination of potential-free and differential oscilloscope, multimeter, wattmeter, en-
ergy analyser and data logger.
 4 galvanically isolated, electrical measuring channels with insulation class CAT III.
 simultaneous measurement of U, I, φu, φ, f and P in 4 channels
 instantaneous values U, I and P
 averaged values U, I and P
 RMS values (AC+DC) U and I
 RMS values (AC) U and I
 fundamental wave filters
 Delta connection adjustment
 Connection via an USB-C port or WLAN with a PC, tablet or smartphone
 4 electrical measurement channels galvanically isolated with insulation class CAT III for simultaneous fast meas-
urement of current and voltage.
 Starting from a measurement interval of 100 ms, the instantaneous values, mean values and the rms values of
current and voltage as well as the phase shift, power and frequency can be measured.
Meaningful areas of application

Energy networks:
 Voltage and frequency stability
 Load behaviour of networks
 Effect of harmonics
 Electrical machines:
 Inrush current from transformers and machines

105
CASSY Lab 2
 Transformation ratio of transformers

 Efficiency of machines
 Power electronics:
 Rectifier
 DC/DC converter
 DC/AC converter
 Frequency converter
 Filter
Additionally with the Power Analyser Plus

Isolation amplifiers:
 4-channel isolation amplifier
 Output of the instantaneous values of U, I or P of the measurement channels A-D to the ±10 V outputs U-X The
gain depends on the measuring ranges. Mathematical functions between the channels (A+B, AxB, etc.)
Function generator:
 1 output channel Y as function generator
 DC / sine / rectangle / triangle and free function
Safety notes
 The experiments are usually carried out with voltages greater than 25 V AC or 60 V DC, which are dangerous to
touch.
 Before starting experiments, safety devices (e.g. RCD, emergency off) must be checked for function.
 Safety experiment lines are required for all activities involving voltages that are dangerous to touch.
 Modifications to the superstructure should only be carried out when it is de-energized. For all electrical work, the 5
safety rules must be observed.
 Experiment lines and equipment must be in perfect condition.

106
CASSY Lab 2
Technical data
Operation: Push-button and rotary selector with push-button
Inputs: 4 isolated measuring channels, each with U and I measurement (max. 8 usable
simultaneously)
Input A-D: U and I connection
Output U-X: Voltage outputs ±10 V, 200 mA (only for 727 110)
Output Y: Voltage output as function generator 0.01 Hz to 20,000 Hz (only with 727 110)
Sockets for U and I: 4-mm safety sockets
Measuring ranges U: 25.0/70/250/700 VRMS, ±36/±100/±360/±1000 VAV
Measuring ranges I: 0.7/1.6/ 7/16 ARMS, ±1/±2.4/±10/±16 AAV
Scanning rate: max. 1,000,000 values/s per channel, for U and I, max. 500,000 values/s
Resolution: 16 bits (analogue inputs and outputs)
Loudspeaker: Error message when the measuring ranges are exceeded
Data memory: max. 10,000 values for each set of measurements, built-in Micro-SD card (4
GB) for more than a thousand measurement files and screenshots
WLAN: 802.11 b/g/n as access point or client (WPA/WPA2) – A client connection to an
Internet-enabled router/hotspot also enables the Internet connection of con-
nected tablets or smartphones
HTTP server: Integrated (display of multimeter, table, and diagram in a browser)
WebSocket server: Integrated (distribute current measurement data to up to four clients)
VNC server: Integrated (remote operation by transmitting the display content to a client)
USB port: USB-C
Mains voltage: 230 V, 50 – 60 Hz
Weight: 2700 g
Scope of supply
1 Power Analyser CASSY (727 100) or Power Analyser CASSY Plus (727 110)
1 USB-C cable, 1.5 m

107
CASSY Lab 2
Machine Test CASSY
Introduction
The Machine Test CASSY is a measuring instrument for the analysis of electrical machines, including transformers.
 Connection via an USB-C port or WLAN with a PC, tablet or smartphone
 4 galvanically isolated, electrical measuring channels with insulation class CAT III for simultaneous fast meas-
urement of current and voltage
 Starting from a measurement interval of 100 ms, the instantaneous values, mean values and the rms values of
current and voltage as well as the phase shift, power and frequency can be measured.
 2 measuring channels for speed and angle of rotation as well as the torque of a machine
ments).
 For use as a benchtop, console or demonstration unit (also in TPS panel frames)
 For the analysis the electrical dynamometer 7731990 with the mechanical sensors is required.
Safety notes
Electrical hazard
 The experiments are usually carried out with voltages greater than 25 V AC or 60 V DC, which are dangerous to
touch.
 Before starting experiments, safety devices (e.g. RCD, emergency off) must be checked for function.
 Safety experiment lines are required for all activities involving voltages that are dangerous to touch.
 Modifications to the superstructure should only be carried out when it is de-energized. For all electrical work, the 5
safety rules must be observed.
 Experiment lines and equipment must be in perfect condition.
Mechanical hazards from rotating machines
When working on the experimental set-up, please avoid
 loose jewellery,
 wide clothing,
 ties or
 long, open hair.
Loose objects can get caught on the rotating parts and lead to injuries!

108
CASSY Lab 2
Technical data
Operation: Push-button and rotary selector with push-button
Inputs: 4 isolated measuring channels, each with U and I measurement (max. 8 usable
simultaneously)
Input A-D: U and I connection
Output Y: Voltage output as function generator, 0.01 Hz to 20,000 Hz
Sockets for U and I: 4-mm safety sockets
Measuring ranges U: 25.0/70/250/700 VRMS, ±36/±100/±360/±1000 VAV
Measuring ranges I: 0.7/1.6/ 7/16 ARMS, ±1/±2.4/±10/±16 AAV
Scanning rate: max. 1,000,000 values/s per channel, for U and I, max. 500,000 values/s
Resolution: 16 bits (analogue inputs and outputs)
Loudspeaker: Error message when the measuring ranges are exceeded
Data memory: max. 10,000 values for each set of measurements, built-in Micro-SD card (4
GB) for more than a thousand measurement files and screenshots
WLAN: 802.11 b/g/n as access point or client (WPA/WPA2) – A client connection to an
Internet-enabled router/hotspot also enables the Internet connection of con-
nected tablets or smartphones
HTTP server: Integrated (display of multimeter, table, and diagram in a browser)
WebSocket server: Integrated (distribute current measurement data to up to four clients)
VNC server: Integrated (remote operation by transmitting the display content to a client)
USB port: USB-C
Mains voltage: 230 V, 50 – 60 Hz
Power consumption: max. 2300 W
Electrical power dynamometer: max. 1800 W
Weight: 4000 g
Scope of supply
1 Machine Test CASSY (773 1900)
1 USB-C cable, 1.5 m

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CASSY Lab 2
X-ray apparatus
Introduction
The X-ray apparatus is a fully-featured, microprocessor-controlled device designed for conducting a wide variety of
experiments in physics and related disciplines. Experiments at the boundary between physics and medicine include
the transillumination of objects and observing them on a fluorescent screen or on an X-ray film, and experiments on
ionization and dosimetry. In physics, the experiments range from atomic physics to solid-state physics.
You can set all parameters on the X-ray apparatus manually and read them from the digital display.The two arms of
the two-circle goniometer (included with 554 801) can be controlled either individually or with 2:1 coupling, and either
manually or automatically. Usually, the sensor on the sensor arm is a Geiger-Müller counter tube, while on the target
arm a crystal, a scattering body or an absorber is pivoted or turned as the target. A rate meter for a Geiger-Müller
counter tube (end-window counter) is also integrated. This means that you can use the X-ray apparatus as a stand-
alone device or in conjunction with a computer via the built-in USB port.
 School X-ray apparatus with full protection, type-approved for use in Germany (BfS 05/07 V/Sch RöV, permitting
the use of changeable tubes Fe, Cu, Mo, Ag, W, Au)
 Dose rate in 10 cm distance: < 1 µSv/h
 Doors, high voltage and tube current each supervised by two independent and monitored security circuits (as re-
quired by the German PTB for design test, 2005)
 Automatic door locking: opening only possible when X-ray radiation is no longer generated (as required by the
German PTB for design test, 2005)
 Tube high voltage: 0,0 ... 35.0 kV (stabilized DC voltage)
 Tube current: 0 ...1.00 mA (independently regulated DC current)
 Visible X-ray tube with molybdenum anode for short-wave characteristic radiation: Kɑ = 17,4 keV (71,1 pm), Kβ =
19,6 keV (63,1 pm)
 Fluorescent screen for transillumination experiments: d = 15 cm
Safety notes
The X-ray apparatus is type approved for school use in Germany (BfS 05/07 V/Sch RöV).
The built-in protective and shielding fixtures reduce the dose rate outside the X-ray apparatus to less than 1 µSv/h,
which is of the order of magnitude of the natural background radiation.
 Before putting the X-ray apparatus into operation, inspect it for damage and check whether the voltage is
switched off when the sliding doors are opened (See instruction sheet of the X-ray apparatus).
 Protect the X-ray apparatus against access by unauthorized persons.
Avoid overheating of the anode in the X-ray tube.
 When switching the X-ray apparatus on, check whether the ventilator in the tube chamber starts rotating.
The goniometer is positioned solely by means of electric stepper motors.
 Do not block the target arm and the sensor arm of the goniometer and do not use force to move them.

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CASSY Lab 2
Sensors and sensor boxes

The recordable measurement quantities of a sensor input depend greatly on the sensor box that is connected to the
sensor input. The table below defines the correlation between sensor box, measurement quantity and sensor:
Sensor box Quantity Sensor Remark
none Voltage
Current Only input A and only for currents less
than 3 A
Current supply box Resistance
(524 031) Path Displacement transducer (529 Potentiometer for measuring dis-
031) placement
BMW box (524 032) Path (Δs=±1 mm) Motion sensing element (337 Top socket on BMW box with direction
631*) of motion
Angle (Δs=±1 mm) ditto ditto
Enter radius also
Path (Δs=±1 mm) Pair of recording pulleys (337 16*) Bottom socket on BMW box
Use only first pulley
Angle (Δs=+1 cm) ditto ditto
Enter radius also
GM box (524 033) Events End-window counter (e.g. 559 01) Enter gate time
Rate ditto ditto with frequency distribution as
alternative display
GM counter tube S Events integrated Enter gate time
(524 0331) Rate integrated ditto with frequency distribution as
alternative display
Timer box (524 034) Level
Events
Frequency Enter gate time
Rate ditto with frequency distribution as
alternative display
Period
Transit time of event at E to F
Obscurations Forked light barrier (337 46*) Number of obscuration
Obscuration time ditto Duration of obscuration
Path (Δs=1 cm) Spoked wheel (e.g. 337 461) or g-
ladder (529 034) with forked light
barrier (337 46*)
Angle (Δs=1 cm) ditto Enter radius
Linear collision (v) 2 forked light barriers (337 46*) Enter flag width
Torsion collision (ω) ditto Enter flag width and radius
pH box (524 035) pH pH electrode (e.g. 667 424) Correct with two buffer solutions
Temperature compensation possible
using formula
Special evaluation for equivalence
point
Voltage ditto
KTY box (524 036) Temperature KTY sensor (529 036)
Resistance ditto
Conductivity box Conductivity Conductivity measuring cell Correct with factor k printed on meas-
(524 037) (667 426) uring cell
Temperature compensation possible
using formula
B box (524 038) Magnetic flux densi- Tangential B-probe (516 60*) or Switch on box with
ty axial B-probe (516 61*) Box-LED for offset calibration with
→0←
Relative pressure Pressure sensor (529 038*) ditto
(2000 hPa)
Relative pressure Pressure sensor 70 hPa (529 ditto
(70 hPa) 040*)
Absolute pressure Absolute pressure sensor ditto
(529 042*)

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CASSY Lab 2
Combination B probe Magnetic flux densi- integrated Offset calibration with

S (524 0381) ty (tangential or →0←
axial)
Axial B probe S, 2000 Magnetic flux densi- integrated Offset calibration with
mT (524 0382) ty (axial) →0←
Axial B probe S, Magnetic flux densi- integrated Offset calibration with
±0.3 mT (524 0383) ty (axial) →0←
dU box (524 039) Voltage No longer necessary thanks to electri-
cal isolation
µV box (524 040) Voltage Highly sensitive input (resolution to
0.5 μV)
µV Sensor S Voltage Highly sensitive input (resolution to
(524 0401) 0.05 μV)
Bridge box (524 041) Force Force sensor (314 261*) Box-LED toggles between SMOOTHed
and unsmoothed;
replaced by Force sensor S, ±1 N.
Force sensor S, ±50 N Force integrated For greater forces up to 50 N
(524 042) Acceleration integrated
Force plate S Force integrated Offset calibration with
(524 0421) →0←
3D acceleration sen- Acceleration in g integrated Offset calibration with
sor S (524 0422) Acceleration in m/s² →0←
3D acceleration sen- Acceleration in g integrated Offset calibration with
sor S (524 0424) Acceleration in m/s² →0←
30 A box (524 043/ Current Use only for currents greater than
524 0431) (otherwise without box at A)
Temperature sensor S Temperature integrated
(NTC) (524 044)
Temperature box Temperature Temperature sensor NTC
(524 045) (666 212) or NiCr-Ni (666 193)
Temperature differ- 2 NiCr-Ni (666 193)
ence
Reaction test box Reaction time Push button (662 148) or foot To start press key first – and again for
(524 046) switch (662 149) reaction depending on the color of the
pointer
Reaction test adapter Reaction time Push button (662 148) or foot To start press key first – and again for
S (524 0461) switch (662 149) reaction depending on the color of the
pointer
Pulse box (524 047) Pulse integrated Wait at least 10 s for box to stabilize
Voltage integrated Circulation curve
Pulse sensor S Pulse integrated Wait at least 10 s for sensor to stabi-
(524 0471) lize
Voltage integrated Circulation curve
Skin resistance box Skin resistance integrated Match measuring range individually
(524 048) (move axis with mouse or click on it
with right mouse button)
Skin resistance sensor Skin resistance integrated Match measuring range individually
S(524 0481) (move axis with mouse or click on it
with right mouse button)
ECG/EMG box 3 ECG leads integrated
(524 049) EMG integrated
EKG/EMG sensor S 1 ECG lead integrated
(524 0491) EMG integrated
Blood pressure box Blood pressure integrated Special evaluation for systole and
(524 050) diastole
Pulse integrated blood pressure variations only
Blood pressure sensor Blood pressure integrated Special evaluation for systole and
S (524 0501) diastole
Pulse integrated blood pressure variations only
Lux box (524 051) Illuminance Lux sensor (666 243) Correct with factor F printed on sensor
IR sensor (666 247)
UV-A sensor (666 244)
UV-B sensor (666 245)
UV-C sensor (666 246)

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CASSY Lab 2
Lux adapter S Illuminance Lux sensor (666 243) Correct with factor F printed on sensor
(524 0511) IR sensor (666 247)
UV-A sensor (666 244)
UV-B sensor (666 245)
UV-C sensor (666 246)
Optical power sensor Optical power integrated
S (524 0512)
Oxygen box (524 052) O2 saturation Oxygen electrode (667 458) Correct to 100% in O2 gas
O2 concentration ditto Correct with same factor as for satura-
tion
Temperature ditto
Oxygen adapter S O2 saturation Oxygen electrode (667 458) Correct to 100% in O2 gas
(524 0521) O2 concentration ditto Correct with same factor as for satura-
tion
Temperature ditto
Electrometer box Voltage Extremely high-ohm input, e.g. for
(524 054) electrostatics
Amplifier box Voltage Replaced by μV Box
(524 055)
Spirometer box Volume flux integrated
(524 056)
Climate box (524 057) Rel. humidity Humidity sensor (529 057) Calibrate with values C1 to C4 printed
on sensor.
Temperature Humidity sensor (529 057) Calibrate with values C1 to C4 printed
on sensor.
Temperature Temperature sensor NTC
(666 212)
Barometric pres- integrated
sure
Illuminance Lux sensor (666 243) Correct with factor F printed on sensor
Humidity sensor S Rel. humidity integrated
(524 0572) Temperature integrated
Climate sensor S Rel. humidity integrated
(524 0573) Air temperature integrated
Illuminance integrated
Barometric pres- integrated
sure
Height integrated
MCA box (524 058) Pulse height distri- Scintillation counter (559 901) α-, β-, γ- Spectroscopy
bution with Detector output stage
(559 912) or
Semiconductor detector (559 92)
with Discriminator pre-
amplifier(559 93*)
Microphone S Voltage integrated External microphone connectable
(524 059) Frequency integrated External microphone connectable
Transit time integrated External microphone connectable
Level integrated
Force sensor S, ±1 N Force integrated For forces up to 1 N
(524 060)
UI sensor S (524 062) Voltage integrated for Pocket-CASSY and Mobile-CASSY
Current 1 Ω Shunt for Pocket-CASSY and Mobile-CASSY
UIP sensor S Voltage integrated for Pocket-CASSY and Mobile-CASSY
(524 0621) Current integrated for Pocket-CASSY and Mobile-CASSY
Pressure sensor S, Relative pressure integrated
2000 hPa (524 064)
Absolute pressure Absolute pressure integrated
sensor S (524 065)
Pressure sensor S, 70 Relative pressure integrated
hPa (524 066)

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CASSY Lab 2
Chemistry box pH pH sensor (667 4172)

(524 067) Conductivity Conductivity sensor (529 670)
Temperature Conductivity sensor (529 670)
Temperature Temperature sensor (529 676)
Temperature differ- 2 Temperature sensors (529 676)
ence
Potential
Conductivity adapter S Conductivity Conductivity sensor (529 670)
(524 0671) Temperature Conductivity sensor (529 670)
pH adapter S pH pH sensor (667 4172)
(524 0672) Potential
NiCr-Ni adapter S Temperature Temperature sensor (529 676)
(524 0673) Temperature differ- 2 Temperature sensors (529 676)
ence
Centrifugal force ap- Centrifugal force integrated
paratus S (524 068)
Immersion photometer Transmission integrated
S (524 069) Extinction integrated
Concentration integrated
Ultrasonic motion Path integrated Offset calibration with
sensor S (524 070) →0←
Temperature integrated
Ultrasonic motion Path integrated Offset calibration with
sensor S (524 0701) →0←
Transit time integrated Offset calibration with
→0←
Laser motion sensor S Path integrated Offset calibration with
(524 073) →0←
Transit time integrated Offset calibration with
→0←
Timer S (524 074) Level
Events
Frequency Enter gate time
Rate ditto with frequency distribution as
alternative display
Period
Transit time of event at E to F
Obscurations Forked light barrier (337 46*) Number of obscuration
Obscuration time ditto Duration of obscuration
Path (Δs=1 cm) Spoked wheel (e.g. 337 461) or g-
ladder (529 034) with forked light
barrier (337 46*)
Angle (Δs=1 cm) ditto Enter radius
Linear collision (v) 2 forked light barriers (337 46*) Enter flag width
Torsion collision (ω) ditto Enter flag width and radius
Path (Δs=±1 mm) Combination light barrier (337 Connect to left socket
462*) with combination spoked
wheel (337 464)
Angle (Δs=±1 mm) ditto Enter radius
Car box i (524 076) Rotational speed Stand workshop TDC generator
(738 989)
Ignition angle Inductive-type pulse pick-up
(738 986)
Level
Frequency
Duty factor
Shut-off time
Operating time
Injection time

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CASSY Lab 2
Car box Z (524 077) Primary voltage Capacitive-type pick-up

(738 987)
Secondary voltage
Contact closed
interval
Rotational speed
CAN bus box CAN bus message integrated
(524 078) CAN bus data integrated
Electric field meter S Electric field integrated Offset calibration with
(524 080) strength →0←
Voltage integrated Offset calibration with
→0←
LIN bus box (524 081) LIN bus voltage integrated
LIN bus message integrated
LIN bus data integrated
Rotary motion sensor Angle integrated
S (524 082) Path integrated
Amplitude integrated
Period integrated
Frequency integrated
CO2 sensor S CO2 concentration integrated Calibration with
(524 083) → 0.037 % ←
Hearing threshold Frequency Loudspeaker
adapter S (524 085) Amplitude Loudspeaker
Voltage Loudspeaker
Sensors indicated with * require a 6-pole connecting cable (501 16) for connection to the sensor box.

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CASSY Lab 2
Other devices
In addition to CASSY, CASSY Lab also supports other devices. You can use them simultaneously with
CASSY.These include:
ASCII (configurable)
Balance (various manufacturers)
VideoCom (337 47)
IRPD (332 11)
Multifunction instrument MFA 2001 (727 230)
Thermometer (666 209 / 666 454)
Digital spectrophotometer (667 3491 / 667 3493)
Rotating antenna platform (737 405)
The devices are selected in Settings CASSYs.
ASCII, balance, VideoCom, IRPD, MFA 2001

In addition to balances, VideoCom (337 47), the IR position detector (332 11) and the Multifunction instrument
MFA 2001 (727 230), CASSY Lab supports all devices at the serial interface as long as they transmit ASCII data
(plain text, number and unit, mode 8N1 = 8 data bits, no parity, 1 stop bit or mode 7E1 = 7 data bits, even parity, 1
stop bit).
The transmission rate of VideoCom and IRPD is fixed. As balances and other devices can work with different trans-
mission rates, this can be set.
Troubleshooting
If no measured values are displayed, this may be due to one of several reasons:
 Serial interface not correctly defined
 Incorrect interface parameters: make sure that the device is using the same transmission rate and the same
mode (8N1 = 8 data bits, no parity, 1 stop bit or 7E1 = 7 data bits, even parity, 1 stop bit). VideoCom and IRPD
always fulfill this condition.
 Wrong connecting cable: depending on the device, you may need either an uncrossed (1:1) cable or a crossed
(null modem) cable. VideoCom, IRPD and MFA 2001 require a 1:1 cable, balances usually need a null modem
cable.
VideoCom restrictions
VideoCom also uses the specified display range to calibrate the path, and this should thus correspond to the width of
VideoCom's field of view.
The position of the first detected reflection only is displayed. The VideoCom software can still be used for multiple
positions.
The measurement is not processed in synchronized form. Although VideoCom transmits 80 positions per second, the
software does not synchronize measured-value recording with this rate. Therefore, you should measure with a time
interval of at least 100 ms. This is sufficient for the typical VideoCom application together with CASSY (position con-
trol).

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CASSY Lab 2
Thermometer
CASSY Lab supports the thermometer (666 209 or 666 454). Each of the four temperatures receives its own display
instrument, and these are arrayed in the speed buttons of the main window.
You can change the set measuring range at any time; this has nothing to do with the actual measuring range of the
thermometer.
The thermometer is equipped with a measurement storage function which can be read out. Simply activate Read
Data.
Troubleshooting
 Wrong connecting cable: use an uncrossed (1:1) cable.
 Wrong device selected: compare the catalogue number of the device with that shown in the dialog. Older versions
of the thermometer can be operated as ASCII (configurable).
 No temperature sensor attached.
Digital spectrophotometer
The Digital spectrophotometer (667 3491 and 667 3493) is supported. A display instrument is assigned to both the
current wavelength λ and the currently measured transmission T and placed near the channel buttons in the main
window.
The digital spectrophotometer (667 3493) transmits the data after the FUNC key has been pressed.
If in addition the values of the absorption (100-T) or the extinction (-log(T/100)) are to be displayed, these values can
be calculated with Formulae or the settings of the corresponding experiment example can be loaded.
Troubleshooting
 Wrong connecting cable: use only the cable delivered together with the device.
 Wrong device selected: compare the catalogue number of the device with that shown in the dialog.
 The digital spectrophotometer (667 3493) transmits the data after the FUNC key has been pressed.

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CASSY Lab 2
Rotating antenna platform

The rotating antenna platform (737 405) is supported. Apart from numerous predefined experiment examples, the
following parameters can be changed manually for optimum use:
 Range from
Starting angle for the measurement given in degrees, e.g. –180
 Range to
Target angle given in degrees, e.g. 180
 Angular Increment
In this menu for the angular resolution, one of the following intervals of rotation can be selected: 0.5° / 1° / 2°.
 Bias Current
Can be switched on / off. The Schottky detector diode used in the dipole antenna (737 411) requires a small DC
bias current of the order of magnitude of 15 μA. Without this bias current, the sensitivity of the detector is consid-
erably diminished.
 Gunn Modulation
Superimposes a square-wave voltage of approx. 1 kHz, 1 Vpp on the DC supply for the Gunn oscillator. Should
only be switched on if no PIN modulator (737 05) is available.
 Detector Characteristic
The test antennas always have to be connected to a detector (e.g. coax detector 737 03), or they have a built-in
detector diode. The original antenna signal A before the detector cannot be measured directly. Only the voltage
drop generated by the detector current at the measuring amplifier is measurable. In general, A is not proportional
to U. There are the following choices:
- Quadratic detector: A ∝ U1/2 (good approximation for small received voltages U < 5 mV)
- Linear detector: A ∝ U (approximation for high received voltages U > 5 mV)
- Free: A ∝ U1/m (here the detector characteristic has to be entered, e.g. after a gauging measurement with a cali-
brated attenuator 737 09).
 Far-Field Computer
The input is DT (greatest lateral dimension of the test antenna in mm). The extension of the of the transmitting an-
tenna DQ (e.g. large horn antenna 737 21: DQ = 100 mm) and the wavelength λ0 = 32 mm being taken into ac-
count, the minimum distance r0 between the transmitting and the receiving antenna is calculated at which the far-
field condition is fulfilled:
 Normalize Level
Forms the ratio A= U/Umax, which is 1 in the maximum. The logarithmic damping factor is a = 0 dB in the maxi-
mum.
 Rotate Maximum to 0°
Sets the maximum of the measured curve to 0°. The measured curve can be rotated and shifted manually with
the two screenshot keys. Important note regarding cursor operation: the measuring instruments (e.g. level A or
angle ϑ) display the current measured value and not the position of the cursor in the diagram or the table.
 Approach Reference Point
Interrupts the current measurement and returns the rotating platform to the starting position +/-180°. This is nec-
essary, e.g., after free movement of the rotating platform has been hindered so that errors occur in recording the
position.
 Stop Rotating Platform
Stops the rotating platform. Static measurements are possible, e.g. for determining the antenna gain. The rotating
platform may be controlled step by step via the screenshot keys.
Troubleshooting
 Wrong connecting cable: use an uncrossed (1:1) cable.
 Wrong device selected: compare the catalogue number of the device with that shown in the dialog.

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CASSY Lab 2
Experiment examples
The experiment examples fall into five main subject areas:
Advanced Science Kits
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
Technology
Note that you can print out individual experiment examples or entire collections.

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CASSY Lab 2
Advanced Science Kits

The experiment examples help you in using CASSY. The measurement data or settings for the examples can be
loaded directly into CASSY Lab. Simply click the symbols in the descriptions. New examples are labeled with a red
•.
Teacher's versions
The teacher's versions are able to load the examples with measurement data and also contain the answers to ques-
tions asked in the text. The teacher's versions are selected while installing CASSY Lab and can thereafter only be
installed or uninstalled after removal followed by a reinstallation.
Texts which are written in red in the teacher's versions are not found in the student's versions.
Mechanics
• PS1.5.2.8 Uniformly accelerated motion - path-time diagram
• PS1.5.1.3 Uniform motion between two light barriers
• PS1.5.2.7 Uniformly accelerated motion between a holding magnet and a light barrier
• PS1.5.3.6 Relation between acceleration and mass (F=constant)
• PS1.5.3.5 Relation between acceleration and force (m=constant)
Electricity
• PS3.4.3.1p Ohm's law
• P3.2.3.1a Series connection of resistors
• P3.2.3.1b Parallel connection of resistors
• P3.2.3.2 Adjusting a voltage by means of a potentiometer
• P3.2.3.3 Principle of Wheatstone's bridge
Heat
• P2.1.1.4 Longitudinal expansion of solid bodies
• PS2.1.2.4p Temperature change on account of thermal radiation
• PS2.1.3.1p Cooling down of water
• PS2.1.5.1p Temperature change when heat energy is supplied
• PS2.1.4.4p Specific heat capacity of water
Atomic and Nuclear physics

• PS6.2.2.4 The effect of the distance between the radiation source and the end-window counter on the pulse
rate

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CASSY Lab 2
Uniformly accelerated motion - path-time diagram
can also be carried out with Mobile-CASSY 2
Task
Investigate the motion of a trolley driven by a weight which is suspended from a piece of cord that runs over a pulley.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Timer S 524 074
1 Combination light barrier 337 462
1 Combination spoked wheel 337 464
1 Adapter combination light barrier
for student's track 337 465
1 Multi-core cable, 6-pole 501 16
1 Precision metal rail, 1 m 460 81
1 Trolley, 85 g 337 00
1 Set of driving weights 337 04
1 Cord 686 51
1 Single pulley on clamp rider 337 14
alternatively: 1 clamp rider 460 95
1 PC with Windows 10
Experiment setup (see drawing)

 Cut an approx. 80 cm long piece of cord, and tie loops at the ends. The length of the cord should be chosen so
that the suspended weight is just over the bottom when the trolley stands at the end of the track.
 Move the trolley on the track until the suspended weight is just before the pulley without touching it. Now attach
the single pulley on clamp rider (or a clamp rider) to the precision metal rail as the starting point for the trolley.
 At the beginning, only suspend the hanger (5.2 g) from the cord.
Carrying out the experiment

Load settings
 Move the trolley to its starting point, keep it there, and define the zero in the window Settings Path s1 with → 0 ←.
Start the measurement by clicking the button and release the trolley.
 Lay additional weights on the hanger (each time 5 g), and repeat the experiment.

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CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
 What was measured in the experiment (see table or diagram)?
 What is displayed in the diagram?
 How do the path differences covered in equal time intervals behave?
 What kind of curve is described by the measured values? Suggestion:
 Confirm the suggestion by fitting to a corresponding curve with Fit Function.

 What is your conclusion regarding the relation between the path s and the time t?
 Display the axes correspondingly in the Check sheet by clicking with the right mouse button. Then determine the
factor of proportionality by Line through origin. The results for the three motions are:
 What is your conclusion regarding the general mathematical description of the motion (equation of motion)?

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CASSY Lab 2
Uniform motion between two light barriers
Task
Investigate the relations between the path s and the time t and between the velocity v and the time t for the uniform
motion of a trolley between two light barriers.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Timer S 524 074
1 Trolley 1 337 00
1 Spring and buffer 337 03
1 Clamp rider 460 95
1 Extension pin 686 60
1 Accessories for electronic time measure- 337 466
ment
2 Combination light barriers 337 462
2 Multi-core cables, 6-pole, 1.5 m 501 16

 Set up the light barrier 1 at a distance of 40 cm from the beginning of the metal rail, and connect it to the input E
of the timer S. Connect the light barrier 2 to the input F.
 Put the trolley with spring and interrupter flag onto the metal rail.
 Mount the clamp rider and the extension pin as a start device at the beginning of the metal rail and the single pul-
ley as a stop device at the end of the metal rail.

Load settings
 Set up the light barrier 2 at a distance of 10 cm from the light barrier 1. Use the mouse to drag the pointer in the
display window Path s to 10 cm.
 To start the motion press the trolley with the spring against the holding pin. The spring should be compressed by
approximately 2 cm.
 Release the trolley. Take the measured values into the table with .
 Repeat the measurement increasing the path in steps of 5 cm.

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CASSY Lab 2
When the trolley is slid back to the zero position, the light barrier 1 is interrupted and the time measurement is start-
ed. In order to stop it, the light barrier 2 has to be interrupted as well. However, it is simpler to the take the trolley off
the rail and to put it back before the light barrier 1.
Evaluation
 Draw a straight line through the origin and the measuring points in the s(t) diagram. What relation between s and
Δt1 can be derived?
 Read the slope A of the straight line.
 Determine the mean value vm of the measuring points in the v(t) diagram.
 Compare the slope A of the straight line in the s(t) diagram with the mean value vm of the velocity.
 What equation of motion can be derived for the uniform motion?

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CASSY Lab 2
Uniformly accelerated motion between a holding magnet and a light barrier
Task
Investigate the relations between the path s and the time t and between the mean velocity vm and the time t for the
uniformly accelerated motion of a trolley between a holding magnet and a light barrier.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Timer S 524 074
1 Trolley 1 337 00
1 Fishing line 309 48
1 Holding magnet for track 336 201
1 Holding magnet adapter with a release 336 25
mechanism
ment

 Put the holding magnet with the holding magnet adapter onto the metal rail and connect it to the input E of the
timer S.
 Set up the light barrier at a distance of 20 cm from the beginning of the metal rail and connect it to the input F.
 Put the trolley with the holding pin onto the metal track.
 Fix a piece of fishing line to the trolley, and suspend the hanger and a slotted weight from it.
 Adjust the screw of the holding magnet so that the trolley is just kept from rolling.
 Shift the trolley together with the holding magnet so that the interrupter flag on the trolley still just interrupts the
light barrier (origin).

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CASSY Lab 2

Load settings
 Position the light barrier at a distance s of 10 cm behind the zero just defined.
 Use the mouse to drag the pointer in the display window Path s to 10 cm.
 Start the measurement by pressing the pushbutton of the holding magnet adapter.
 Take the path s and the travel time Δt1 into the table with .
 Increase the distance s of the light barrier in steps of 5 cm each time repeating the measurement.
Evaluation
 Draw a normal parabola through the measuring points of the s(t) diagram. What relation between s and Δt 1 can
be derived?
 Draw a straight line through the origin and the measuring points in the vm(t) diagram. What relation between the
mean velocity vm and the travel time Δt1 can be derived?

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CASSY Lab 2
Relation between acceleration and mass (F=constant)
Task
Investigate the relation between the acceleration a and the mass m for the uniformly accelerated motion of a trolley
between a holding magnet and a light barrier.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Timer S 524 074
1 Trolley 1 337 00
1 Additional weight 1 337 05
1 Weight, 50 g 340 851
mechanism
ment
1 Electronic balance 315 234

timer S.
 Fix a piece of fishing line to the trolley, and suspend the hanger and a slotted weight (F = 0.10 N) from it.
 Put the other slotted weights on the plug-in holder of the trolley.

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CASSY Lab 2

Load settings
 Determine the mass m of the trolley (including the hanger and the slotted weights) and enter it into the table.
 Position the light barrier at the distance s = 30 cm from the zero.
 Read the travel time Δt1 in the display window and accept it with for calculating the acceleration.
 Increase the mass of the trolley in steps of 50 g and repeat the measurement.
 Before recording a new measurement series, select Measurement → Append new Measurement Series
 Next increase the accelerating force by putting one and two slotted weights, respectively, on the hanger, and re-
peat the measurements.
Evaluation
 How can the acceleration a of the trolley be calculated from the path s and the travel time Δt1?
 Enter the respective masses m (trolley, additional weights, hanger weight and slotted weights) in the table. Draw
hyperbolas (1/x) through the measuring points in the a(m) diagram.
 What relation between the acceleration a and the mass m can be derived?
 On which physical quantity does the acceleration a of the trolley depend if the mass is constant?

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CASSY Lab 2
Relation between acceleration and force (m=constant)
Task
Investigate the relation between the acceleration and the force for the uniformly accelerated motion of a trolley be-
tween a holding magnet and a light barrier.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Timer S 524 074
1 Trolley 1 337 00
1 Additional weight 1 337 05
1 Weight, 50 g 340 851
mechanism
ment
1 Electronic balance 315 234

timer S.
 Fix a piece of fishing line to the trolley, and suspend the hanger and a all three slotted weights from it.

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CASSY Lab 2

Load settings
 Determine the mass m of the trolley (including the hanger and the slotted weights).
 Position the light barrier at the distance s = 30 cm from the zero.
 Take all three slotted weights from the hanger and put them on the plug-in holder of the trolley.
 Determine the accelerating force F and enter it in the table.
 Read the travel time Δt1 in the display window and accept it with for calculating the acceleration.
 One after another take a slotted weight from the plug-in holder, put it on the hanger, and repeat the measurement.
 Before recording a new measurement series, select Measurement → Append new Measurement Series
 Next increase the mass of the trolley by 0.05 kg and 0.10 kg, respectively, and repeat the measurements.
Evaluation
 How can the acceleration of the trolley be calculated from the path s and the travel time Δt 1?
 Enter the force F acting on the trolley in each case in the table. Draw a straight line through the origin and the
measuring points in the a(F) diagram.
 What relation between a and F can be derived from the graphical representation?
 On which physical quantity does the acceleration a of the trolley depend if the force acting on the trolley is con-
stant?

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CASSY Lab 2
Ohm's law
Task
Determine the relation between the voltage U applied to a conductor and the current I flowing through the conductor.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 UIP sensor S 524 0621
1 Plug-in board 576 74
1 Set of 10 bridging plugs 501 48
1 Wrapping plate for wires 567 18
2 Plug-in holder 579 331
1 Toggle switch, single pole STE 2/19 579 13
1 Chrome-nickel wire,
0.25 mm, approx. 200 cm long from 550 46
1 Resistor 100 Ω STE 2/19 577 32
3 Connecting leads, red, 25 cm 500 411
3 Connecting leads, blue, 25 cm 500 412
1 Voltage source, 0...12 V, adjustable e.g. 521 231

 Wind the chrome-nickel wire on the wrapping plate for wires, and establish electric contact with the plugs via the
screws.
 Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram. In the beginning, the switch is open.
 For measuring the voltage and the current, connect the connecting leads to the UIP sensor as shown in the draw-
ing.

Load settings
 Close the circuit with the switch. Store the first measured value at U = 0 V by clicking the button.
 Adjust various voltages (3 V, 6 V, 9 V, and 12 V) at the power supply, each time storing the measured values.

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CASSY Lab 2
Remark: Allow the current to flow for a short time only during each measurement to avoid warming of the wire be-
cause this would lead to an increase in resistance so that the measuring result would be distorted.
 Replace the wrapping plate for wires in the circuit with the STE resistor 100 Ω and two bridging plugs.
 Select Measurement → Append new Measurement Series.
 Repeat the experiment with the STE resistor 100 Ω.
Evaluation
 We have the following relation: The greater the voltage U, the
 How does the current I flowing through a wire change if the voltage U is doubled?
 Perform a fit to a Best-fit straight line in the diagram for both measurement series. How are the measured values
distributed?
 What is your conclusion regarding the relation between the voltage U and the current I in the two experiments?
 The electric resistance R is defined as the quotient of U and I:
The unit of the electric resistance is Ω (Ohm):
What can you say about the two resistors used in the experiment?
 What is the magnitude of the chrome-nickel wire and of the STE resistor used in the experiment?

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CASSY Lab 2
Series connection of resistors
Task
Measure the voltages U0, UR1, UR2 and the current I0 at two series-connected resistors R1 and R2, and establish the
relation between R1, R2 and the total resistance R0.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Resistor 220 Ω STE 2/19 577 36
1 Resistor 330 Ω STE 2/19 577 38
1 Resistor 470 Ω STE 2/19 577 40
1 Resistor 1 kΩ STE 2/19 577 44

 Set up the circuit for a combination of resistors, e.g. 220 Ω/330 Ω, as shown in the drawing.
 For measuring the voltage U0 and the current I0, connect the connecting leads to the UIP sensor S as shown in
the drawing.

Load settings
 Set a voltage of approx. 12 V at the power supply.
 Measure the voltage U0 and the current I0. Using the mouse, transfer the measured values from the display in-
struments U and I into the prepared table (drag & drop).
 Connect the connecting leads for the voltage measurement of UR1 (see drawing), and measure the voltage UR1.
Using the mouse, transfer the measured value from the display instrument U into the prepared table, and enter
the value of the resistance R1 manually.

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CASSY Lab 2
 Connect the connecting leads for the voltage measurement of UR2 (see drawing), and measure the voltage UR2.
Using the mouse, transfer the measured value from the display instrument U into the prepared table, and enter
the value of the resistance R2 manually.
 Repeat the experiment with other combinations of resistors.
Evaluation
For evaluating the experiment, the prepared table Evaluation is provided, from which the relations between the volt-
ages U0, UR1, UR2 and the resistances R0, R1, R2 become obvious.
 The current which flows through the series-connected resistors R1 and R2 is
 What is the relation between the voltages UR1 and UR2 and the total voltage U0?
 What is the relation between the ratio of the resistances R1 and R2 and the ratio of the voltages UR1 and UR2?
 What is the relation between the total resistance R0 = U0/I0 and the resistances R1 and R2?

134
CASSY Lab 2
Parallel connection of resistors
Task
Measure the voltage U0 and the currents I0, IR1, IR2 at two parallel connected resistors R1 and R2, and establish the
relation between R1 und R2 and the total resistance R0.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Resistor 220 Ω STE 2/19 577 36
1 Resistor 330 Ω STE 2/19 577 38
1 Resistor 470 Ω STE 2/19 577 40

 Set up the circuit for a combination of resistors, e.g. 220 Ω/330 Ω, as shown in the drawing.
 For measuring the voltage U0 and the current I0, connect the connecting leads to the UIP sensor S as shown in
the drawing.

Load settings
 Set a voltage of approx. 12 V at the power supply.
 Measure the voltage U0 and the current I0. Using the mouse, transfer the measured values from the display in-
struments U and I into the prepared table (drag & drop).
 Connect the connecting leads for the current measurement of IR1 (see drawing, plug the bridging plugs appropri-
ately), and measure the current IR1. Using the mouse, transfer the measured value from the display instrument I
into the prepared table, and enter the value of the resistance R1 manually.

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CASSY Lab 2
 Connect the connecting leads for the current measurement of IR2 (see drawing, plug the bridging plugs appropri-
ately), and measure the current IR2. Using the mouse, transfer the measured value from the display instrument I
into the prepared table, and enter the value of the resistance R2 manually.
 Repeat the experiment with other combinations of resistors.
Evaluation
For evaluating the experiment, the prepared table Evaluation is provided, from which the relations between the cur-
rents I0, IR1, IR2 and the resistances R0, R1, R2 become obvious.
 The voltages UR1 and UR2 at the resistors R1 and R2 are equal to
 What is the relation between the currents IR1 and IR2 and the total current I0?
 What is the relation between the ratio of the resistances R1 and R2 and the ratio between the currents IR1 and IR2?
 What is the relation between the total resistance R0 = U0/I0 and the resistances R1 and R2?

136
CASSY Lab 2
Adjusting a voltage by means of a potentiometer
can also be carried out with Mobile-CASSY 2 and Micro-CASSY
Task
Measure the partial voltage U1 at the potentiometer in the currentless, unloaded state for different potentiometer posi-
tions.
Measure the partial voltage U1 at the potentiometer as a function of the potentiometer position for different loads RL,
and compare the results with the measurement in the unloaded state (RL remains constant within a measurement
series).
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Resistor 47 Ω STE 2/19 577 28
2 Resistors 100 Ω STE 2/19 577 32
1 Resistor 150 Ω STE 2/19 577 34
1 Resistor 470 Ω STE 2/19 577 40
1 Potentiometer 220 Ω, 3 W, STE 4/50 577 90

Set up the circuit as shown in the drawing, and connect the UIP sensor for the voltage measurement. At first do not
use the load RL.

Load settings
 Apply a total voltage of approx. 9 V.
 The potentiometer being unloaded (RL = ∞), enter the voltage U1 in the prepared table for different potentiometer
positions by clicking , and enter the number corresponding to the switch position in the column PN.
 Before recording a measurement series with another load, each time select Measurement → Append new
Measurement Series.

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CASSY Lab 2
 Insert the STE resistor RL = 470 Ω in the circuit, and record a new measurement series for a loaded potentiome-
ter.
 Repeat the experiment with other loads RL = 100 Ω, 47 Ω.
Evaluation
 What is the relation between the partial voltage U1 and the resistance R1at an unloaded potentiometer?
 What is the effect of loading the potentiometer with a resistance RL?
 Where do you expect the curve of the measurement series to be located if the potentiometer is loaded with a re-
sistance RL < 47 Ω?

138
CASSY Lab 2
Principle of Wheatstone's bridge
Task
In order to measure an "unknown" resistance Rx, vary the variable resistance R3 (potentiometer) in the bridge circuit
until no current flows between the two arms of the bridge.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Resistor 220 Ω STE 2/19 577 36
2 Resistors 330 Ω STE 2/19 577 38
1 Resistor 470 Ω STE 2/19 577 40
1 Potentiometer 1 kΩ, 1 W STE 4/50 577 92
or 10-turn potentiometer 1 kΩ, 2 W 577 93

Set up the circuit with the combination of resistors R1 = 1kΩ / R2 = 470 Ω as shown in the drawing, and connect the
UIP sensor for the current measurement.

Load settings
 If necessary, set the display of the current to → 0 ← in Settings I1.
 Apply a voltage of approx. 9 V.
 Adjust the potentiometer for a selected resistance Rx (e.g. 330 Ω) so that no current I1 flows between the arms of
the bridge circuit.
 Read the value R3 of the adjusted resistance, and write it in the prepared table. The value of the resistance R3
can be estimated from the position of the rotary knob if the STE potentiometer 1 kΩ is used: the left stop corre-
sponds to approx. 1 kΩ
 Repeat the measurement for other resistances Rx.

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CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
 What is the relation between the ratios of the resistances in the two arms of the bridge circuit if no current flows
between the two arms (I1 = 0)?
 How is Rx determined if the resistances R1, R2 and R3 are known?
 What is the relation between the voltage drops U1 and U3 or U2 and Ux, respectively, at the 4 resistances R1 and
R3 or R2 and Rx, respectively, if the bridge is balanced (I1 = 0)?
 What is the effect of the applied voltage U on the determination of the resistance Rx if the bridge is balanced
(I1 = 0)?
Remark
The resistance Rx could, of course, also be determined by measuring the voltage drop U while a current I is flowing,
i.e. using the relation Rx=U/I. However, this presupposes that the internal resistances of the measuring instruments
can be neglected, which is usually the case. If the bridge circuit is used, the internal resistance of the ammeter does
not play a role at all because no current flows. Therefore the bridge circuit provides an opportunity of an accurate
measurement of the fourth resistance if the other three resistances are known precisely.

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CASSY Lab 2
Longitudinal expansion of solid bodies
Task
Heating up metal tubes and determining the change in their length.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Rotary motion sensor S 524 082
from BMC 1:
2 Stand bases MF 301 21
2 Stand rods, 50 cm 301 27
1 Double bosshead 301 09
1 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 666 555
1 Universal bosshead 666 615
1 Tape measure 311 78
from BMC 2:
1 Stopper with hole 667 2545
1 Connector, straight 665 226
1 Silicone hose, 1 m 667 194
1 Round tin 686 53
from CAL 1:
1 Erlenmeyer flask, 50 ml 664 248
1 Al tube, d = 8 mm, l = 44 cm 381 332
1 Fe tube, d = 8 mm, l = 44 cm 381 333
1 Stirring thermometer 382 21
additionally required:
1 Heat source, e.g. butane gas burner 666 714
1 Stand ring with stem 666 573
1 Wire gauze 666 685
Water

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CASSY Lab 2
Experiment setup (see diagram)

 Push a length of silicone hose (approx. 60 cm) across the transverse hole in the iron tube so that no hot water
can escape during the experiment.
 Clamp the iron tube. Adjust the measuring length by shifting the feet of the stand: to do this set the distance from
the clamping point (screw in the double sleeve) in the direction of the point of support on the shaft (axle) of the ro-
tary motion sensor initially to l = 40 cm.
 The clamped iron tube must be at right angles and firmly attached to the shaft (axis) of the rotary motion sensor in
order for the measuring result not to be falsified by slipping.
 Fill approx. 20 ml water into the Erlenmeyer flask. Firmly insert the stopper with the hose connector and the sili-
cone hose.
Warning
Hot steam! During the experiment hot steam escapes from the short hose end. All metal parts and hoses will contin-
ue to be hot even after the boiling has discontinued.

Load settings
 Enter the length of the clamped iron tube (distance between the clamping point and the shaft) in the table.
 Measure the room temperature TR.
 Set the origin in the window Settings α1 (right mouse button on button α1) by clicking → 0 ←. Thereafter do not
change anything in the setup.
 Switch on the heat source and bring the water to the boil.
 Continue boiling the water until the display for the length change Δl remains constant and enter the measured
value in the table.
 Allow the iron tube to cool down.
Note: If the setup has been done correctly, the display of the length change Δl will return to 0 mm, i.e. no slippage
occurred.
 Repeat the experiment with the aluminum tube.
Additional task
 Repeat the experiment using different lengths l (e.g. 35 cm, 30 cm, 25 cm, 20 cm,...). Always allow the tube to
cool down to room temperature.
 For distinguishing between the two tubes, select Measurement → Append New Measurement Series.
Evaluation
 What happens when the metal tubes are heated?
 Which metal expands more and which less?
 Δl = α · l · ΔT or α = Δl / l / ΔT applies here. What is the value for the coefficient of linear expansion for aluminum
and for iron?
 What does the coefficient of linear expansion α indicate:

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CASSY Lab 2
 The table below indicates the coefficient of linear expansion α of various materials:
Material Coefficient of linear expansion α / 10-6/K
Polystyrene 60 ... 80
Aluminum 23.8
Copper 16.8
Stainless steel 16
Iron 12.1
Chromium alloy steel 10.0
Concrete 6 ... 14
Optical glass 9.5
Duran glass 3.2
 Why is iron (steel) used for reinforcing concrete and no other material?
 Why do railway tracks have expansion joints?
Additional task
 Fit a straight line (gradient A) to the measured values in the diagram. What can be said about the relationship?
 Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion from the gradient of the fitted straight line:

143
CASSY Lab 2
Temperature change on account of thermal radiation
Task
To investigate the heat absorption and heat emission of dark and shiny surfaces.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 NiCr-Ni adapter S 524 0673
1 NiCr-Ni temperature sensor 1.5 mm 529 676
from BMC 1:
1 Stand rod, 25 cm 301 26
1 Tape measure 311 78
from CAL 1:
1 Pair of radiation sensors 384 531

 First of all clamp the radiation sensor with the black surface at the same level as the flame in the universal clamp.
 Insert the temperature sensor through the hole in the stopper into the radiation sensor. In order to seal the joint,
push the cover disk of the temperature sensor in front of the opening so as to avoid convective heat loss.
 Carefully clamp the temperature sensor into the double bosshead.

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CASSY Lab 2

Load settings
 Clamp the radiation sensor with the black surface.
 Switch on the radiation source so that a yellow flame is located at a distance of approx. 2 cm.
Warning! Ensure that direct contact of the flame with the plastic housing is avoided.
 Start the measurement with .
 Observe the temperature change with time and discontinue the measurement after approx. 5 minutes.
Remarks
In order for the second experiment to be carried out under identical conditions
Do not extinguish the radiation source. This ensures that the flame glows at the same intensity.
Allow the temperature sensor to cool down to room temperature before commencing the second experiment.
Adjust the distance between the radiation sensor and the flame to an equal value.
 Repeat the experiment using the radiation sensor with the metallic surface.
 Observe the temperature change with time and discontinue the measurement after approx. 5 minutes.
 Remove the flame and immediately re-start the measurement.
 Observe the temperature change with time during the cooling process and discontinue the measurement after
approx. 5 minutes.
 Again clamp the radiation sensor with the black surface.
 Place the radiation source in front of the radiation sensor in order to heat the radiation sensor with the metallically
reflective surface again.
 Observe the temperature:
Remove the flame when the temperature is slightly above the starting temperature for the cooling process of the
radiation sensor with the metal surface.
Re-start the measurement when the starting temperature for the cooling process of the radiation sensor with the
metal surface has been reached.
 Observe the temperature change with time during the cooling process and discontinue the measurement after
approx. 5 minutes.
Evaluation
 What happens to the radiation sensors when they are close to a flame?
 How does the energy (heat) reach the radiation sensors?
 Which radiation sensor heats up faster?
 Which radiation sensor cools down faster?
 What can be concluded from the observation above?
 Examples of applications:

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CASSY Lab 2
Additional evaluation task

 Connect the measured values e.g. using Diagram → Fit Function → Free Fit with the exponential function of the
form A*exp(-x/B)+C (two rising and two falling curves).
A gives the difference between the starting temperature and the end temperature, i.e. it is negative for rising and
positive for falling exponential functions.
B is the time constant, i.e. it gives the time when the temperature difference has fallen or risen to 1/e.
C gives the end temperature which is reached after a sufficiently long time.
Enter estimated values as starting values of the free fit.
 How do the time constants (parameter B) behave in the case of the black and the metallically shiny surfaces?
 How do the time constants behave for the heating (absorption) and the cooling (emission) process?

146
CASSY Lab 2
Cooling down of water
Task
To investigate the cooling behavior of hot water.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
from BMC 1:
from BMC 2:
1 Beaker, 250 ml 664 130
2 Double bossheads, e.g. 301 09
Water
Cardboard, approx. 10 cm x 10 cm or diam-
eter 10 cm

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CASSY Lab 2

 Pour approx. 50 ml water into the beaker.
 Clamp the temperature sensor into the universal clamp so that the measuring point is in the water but does not
make contact with the bottom of the glass.
 Place the heat source under the beaker.

Load settings
 Switch on the heat source and wait until the water is boiling.
 Switch off the heat source and start the measurement with .
 Discontinue the measurement after approx. 10 minutes.
 Make a small hole in the center of the cardboard and stick the measuring point of the temperature sensor through
it.
 Switch on the heat source and wait until the water is boiling.
 Switch off the heat source.
 Rapidly clamp the temperature sensor into the universal clamp so that the measuring point is in the water but
does not make contact with the bottom of the glass. Gently press the cardboard down onto the beaker.
 Start the measurement with . Attempt to start at the same temperature as in the first experiment.
 Discontinue the measurement after approx. 10 minutes.
Additional experiment
 Repeat the experiment with insulation, e.g. paper wrapped around the beaker.
Evaluation
 How does hot water cool? (Describe the curves.)
 What is the effect of the cover?
 Reason:
Note: Other vessels, in particular e.g. a Dewar vessel, can be investigated.

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CASSY Lab 2
Temperature change when heat energy is supplied
Task
To investigate the temperature change of water with time when heat energy is uniformly supplied.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
from BMC 1:
from CAL 1:
1 Erlenmeyer flask, 50 ml 664 248
Water
Ice

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CASSY Lab 2

Remark:
Care has to be taken that
- the cable of the temperature sensor does not make contact with the flame or hot parts
- the setup is protected from drafts
 Fill the Erlenmeyer flask with ice and top up with water to the 50 ml mark.
 Immerse the temperature sensor with its measuring point into the ice water.
 If necessary, set the starting temperature to ϑ = 0° C in Settings ϑ11 by selecting Correct Offset.

Load settings
 Start the measurement at a constant temperature (ϑ11 = 0 °C) with .
 Switch on the heat source and place it under the Erlenmeyer flask.
 During the entire measurement carefully stir using the temperature sensor. Care has to be taken that the measur-
ing point does not make contact with the bottom of the Erlenmeyer flask.
 After the measurement extinguish the heat source.
Warning – risk of burning! Hot parts.
Evaluation
 Description of the temperature change when heat energy is supplied:
 How is the supplied heat energy used in the various sections?

Ice water (ϑ = 0 °C):
Water:
Water (ϑ = 100 °C):
Additional task
 Estimation of the heat output P (supply of heat energy per time) from the gradient of the straight line:

150
CASSY Lab 2
Specific heat capacity of water
Task
To investigate the dependency of the temperature change of water on the energy supplied.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
from BMC 2:
1 Plastic beaker 664 123
1 Beaker 664 130
1 Measuring cylinder 590 08
from CAL 1:
1 Immersion heater 590 48
1 Voltage source, 12 V 521 210
Water

 Prepare a beaker with 250 ml water.
 Pour 100 ml water into the plastic beaker by means of the measuring cylinder.

Load settings
 Place the immersion heater into the plastic beaker in such a way that it is fully immersed into the water.

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CASSY Lab 2
 Connect the immersion heater to the voltage source and continuously stir for approx. 1 minute using the tempera-
ture sensor.
Note: The warming up of the immersion heater (heat capacity) itself should not affect the measured result.
 Start the measurement with and continue measuring for approx. 5 minutes.
 During the entire measurement, stir using the temperature sensor.
Evaluation
 Where does the energy for heating the water come from?
 Calculation of the specific heat capacity cH2O by means of the equation cH2O = P · Δt / (m · Δϑ) using
P: electrical power (P = U · I = U2 / R with applied voltage U and the resistance R)
Δt : time (for P · Δt = E energy supplied)
m: mass of the water
Δϑ: temperature change
Δϑ / Δt: gradient of the straight line in the recorded diagram
 How much energy is required for bringing 1 liter of water at 20 °C room temperature to the boil?
 How long will one theoretically need to do this when using a hotplate with a power of P = 1.5 kW? (Estimation, as
the heat capacity of the pot and the plate are not taken into consideration. Furthermore, heat loss occurs.)

152
CASSY Lab 2
The effect of the distance between the radiation source and the end-window counter
on the pulse rate
Task
Increase the distance d between the radiation source and the end-window counter step by step, each time measuring
the pulse rate R.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 524 006 or 524 018
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 GM counter tube S 524 0331
1 RAD experiment board 686 651
1 Holders for counter tube and preparation 686 653
1 Ra226 preparation 30.3 kBq 559 430

 When handling the radioactive preparation, observe the safety notes (see Instruction sheet 559 430), i.e. in par-
ticular, take the preparation out of the protective container only as long as is required for carrying out the experi-
ment, do not allow the aperture for the emission of the radiation to get close to your eyes, and do not touch it.
 Mount the counter tube and the Ra226 preparation on the RAD experiment board so that they are placed oppo-
site each other at a distance of 2 cm.
 Remove the protective cap from the counter tube.
Remark: Under no circumstances touch the end-window with your finger or with the preparation as it is very thin and
therefore easily destroyed.

Load settings
 Enter the distance 2 in the column d/cm of the table. Start measurement with . As soon as the measurement
has been finished, the pulse rate R is entered in the table automatically.
 Repeat the experiment with the distance between the counter and the preparation being increased step by step.
Each time increase the distance by 1 cm up to 10 cm.
 Put the Ra226 preparation back into the protective container.
 Repeat the experiment without preparation to obtain the zero rate from the background radiation.
 After carrying out the experiment, put the protective cap carefully onto the counter tube without keeping the cap
closed for the pressure compensation.

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CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
 What is the difference between N1 and the pulse rate R?
 How does the pulse rate R change with respect to the distance d between the preparation and the counter tube?
 What kind of curve is described by the measured values? Suggestion:
 Confirm the suggestion by fitting to a corresponding curve with Fit Function.

 What is your conclusion regarding the relation between the pulse rate R and the distance d?
 What protective measure derives from this relation for handling radioactive materials?
 What is the magnitude of the zero rate R0?
 At what distance does the preparation used in this experiment lead to an additional irradiation which is of the or-
der of magnitude of the background radiation? To determine this distance, activate Zoom in order that the value
can be read.

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CASSY Lab 2
Experiment examples physics
These experiment examples support you in using CASSY Lab. Where applicable, the corresponding experiment
number from the General Catalogue of Physics Experiments is also given. The measurement data or settings for the
examples can be loaded directly into CASSY Lab. Simply click the symbols in the descriptions. New examples are
labeled with a red •.
Mechanics
• Uniform motions between two light barriers
• Accelerated motions between holding magnet and light barrier
• Accelerated motions with an ultrasonic motion sensor
• P1.3.2.5 Accelerated motions with an acceleration sensor
• P1.3.2.3a Motions with spoked wheel (Newton definition)
• P1.3.3.4-6 Motions on the linear air track (Newton's equation of motion)
• P1.3.4.1+8 Conservation of momentum and energy (collision)
• Conservation of linear momentum by measuring the motion of the center of mass (collision)
• Confirming the relation action=reaction by measuring accelerations (collision)
• P1.3.4.5 Motion of the center of mass and action=reaction with two ultrasonic motion sensors (collision)
• P1.3.5.3 Free fall with g-ladder
• Free fall with g-ladder (with modeling)
• P1.4.1.2 Rotational motions (Newton's equation of motion)
• Conservation of angular momentum and energy (torsion collision)
• Centrifugal force (rotable centrifugal force arm)
• P1.4.3.3 Centrifugal force (centrifugal force apparatus)
• P1.4.4.3 Precession of a gyroscope
• P1.4.4.3 Gyroscope nutation
• P1.5.1.3 Oscillations of a rod pendulum
• Oscillations of a rod pendulum (with added mass)
• Oscillations of a rod pendulum (with modeling)
• P1.5.1.3 Dependency of the period of the oscillation on the amplitude
• P1.5.1.3 Determination of the acceleration due to gravity on earth by means of a reversible pendulum
• P1.5.1.6 Pendulum with changeable acceleration due to gravity (variable g-pendulum)
• P1.5.2.1 Harmonic oscillations of a spring pendulum
• P1.5.2.1 Dependence of the period of oscillation of a spring pendulum on the oscillating mass
• Oscillations of a spring pendulum (with modeling)
• Oscillations of a spring pendulum with solid friction (with modeling)
• Oscillations of a spring pendulum with lubricant friction (with modeling)
• Oscillations of a spring pendulum with laminar liquid friction (with modeling)
• Oscillations of a spring pendulum with turbulent liquid friction/air friction (with modeling)
• P1.5.4.4 Coupled pendulums with two tachogenerators
• Coupled pendulums with two rotary motion sensors
• Three-body problem (with modeling)
• P1.7.1.3 Acoustic beats
• P1.7.2.1 String vibrations
• P1.7.3.3 Velocity of sound in air
• Determining the velocity of sound in air with 2 microphones
• Determining the velocity of sound in air with ultrasound
• P1.7.3.4 Velocity of sound in gases
• P1.7.3.5 Velocity of sound in solid bodies
• P1.7.7.1 Fourier analysis of simulated signals
• P1.7.7.2 Fourier analysis of signals of a function generator
• P1.7.7.4 Sound analysis
• Sonic synthesis
Heat
• P2.3.3.2 Conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy
• P2.3.4.3 Conversion of electrical energy into thermal energy
• P2.6.2.4 pV diagram of a hot-air engine

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CASSY Lab 2
Electricity
• Coulomb's law
• P3.3.3.3 Force in the magnetic field of an air coil
• P3.3.3.2 Force in the magnetic field of an electromagnet
• Force between two current-carrying conductors (ampere definition)
• P3.4.1.1 Impulse of voltage (Faraday's law of induction)
• P3.4.3.2 Induction in a variable magnetic field
• P3.4.5.3 Voltage and current curves of a transformer as a function of time
• P3.4.5.4 Power transfer of a transformer
• Power of arbitrary loads operated with mains AC voltage
• Charging and discharging of a capacitor
• Charging and discharging of a capacitor (with modeling)
• Charging and discharging of a small capacitor (cable capacitances)
• Damped oscillator circuit
• Damped oscillator (with modeling)
• P1.7.7.3 Coupled oscillators
• Forced oscillations (resonance)
• Forced oscillations (resonance, with modeling)
• RLC filter (low pass, high pass, band pass)
• Low-pass filter (with modeling)
• High-pass filter (with modeling)
Electronics
• P4.1.2.1 Characteristic of an incandescent lamp
• P4.1.3.4+6 Characteristic of a diode
• Characteristic of a transistor
• D3.4.7.7a Power characteristic of a solar cell
• Temperature control
• E6.2.1.1 Brightness control
• E6.2.1.2 Voltage control
Optics
• Diffraction at a single slit
• Diffraction at multiple slits
• Inverse square law for light
• P5.6.3.3 Velocity of light in air
• P5.6.3.4 Velocity of light in various materials
Atomic and Nuclear physics

• P6.1.2.3-4 Millikan's experiment
• P6.2.4.2 Franck-Hertz experiment with mercury
• P6.2.4.4 Franck-Hertz experiment with neon
• P6.3.3.1 Bragg reflection: diffraction of X-rays at a monocrystal
• P6.3.3.3 Duane-Hunt relation and determination of Planck's constant
• P6.3.3.6 Moseley's law and determination of the Rydberg constant
• P6.3.5.4 Moseley's law (K-line X-ray fluorescence)
• P6.3.5.5 Moseley's law (L-line X-ray fluorescence)
• P6.3.5.6 Energy dispersive Bragg reflection into different orders of diffraction
• P6.3.6.5 Fine structure of the characteristic X-ray radiation of a tungsten anode
• P6.3.6.17 High-resolution fine structure of the characteristic X-ray radiation of a Mo and an Au anode
• P6.3.7.2 Compton effect on X-rays
• P6.4.2.1 Poisson distribution
• P6.4.3.2 Half-life of radon
• P6.5.4.1 α spectroscopy of radioactive samples (Am-241)
• P6.5.4.2 Determining the energy loss of α radiation in air (Am-241)
• Determining the energy loss of α radiation in air (Ra-226)
• P6.5.4.3 Determining the energy loss of α radiation in aluminum and in gold
• P6.5.4.4 Determining the age of a Ra-226 sample
• P6.5.5.1 Detecting γ radiation with a scintillation counter (Cs-137)
• P6.5.5.2 Recording and calibrating a γ spectrum
• P6.5.5.3 Absorption of γ radiation

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CASSY Lab 2
• P6.5.5.4 Identifying and determining the activity of weakly radioactive samples

• P6.5.5.5 Recording a β spectrum using a scintillation counter
• P6.5.6.1 Quantitative observation of the Compton effect
• Recording the complex γ spectrum of Ra-226 and its decay products
• P6.5.5.6 Coincidence and γ-γ angular correlation in positron decay
• P6.5.5.7 Coincidence and the decay cascade of Co-60
• P6.6.2.1 Detection of muons
Solid State Physics

• P7.2.2.1-2 Electrical conduction in solid bodies
• P7.3.2.1 Hysteresis of a transformer core
• P7.5.1.1 Non-destructive analysis of the chemical composition (X-ray fluorescence)
• P7.5.1.2 Determination of the chemical composition of a brass sample (X-ray fluorescence)

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CASSY Lab 2
Uniform motions between two light barriers
can also be carried out with Mobile-CASSY 2 and Pocket-CASSY
Experiment description
This experiment measures the times t that a trolley requires to travel different distances (paths) s between two light
barriers with a constant velocity v. The path s is read directly from a scale on the track and the s(t) diagram is gener-
ated.
Additionally, the software calculates the average velocities vm = s/t and shows these in a vm(t) diagram.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Timer box or Timer S 524 034 or 524 074
1 Track 337 130
1 Trolley 337 110
1 Slotted mass hanger 315 411
4 Slotted weights 315 417
1 Holder for combination light barrier 337 463

Set up the two light barriers on the track so that the interrupter flag of the trolley breaks both beams. Connect the light
barriers to inputs E and F of the timer box at input A of Sensor-CASSY. The direction of motion must always be from
the light barrier at E to the one at F.
To achieve a constant velocity between the two light barriers, compensate the friction by inclining the track slightly.
Before each measurement the trolley must be accelerated to a constant, reproducible velocity. To this end, it is ac-
celerated from a fixed position by a drive weight which is trapped at the end of a defined acceleration path (e.g.
comes to rest on a supporting surface). The trolley continues to roll with a constant velocity.

Load settings
 Accelerate the trolley to a constant speed as described above and allow it to pass through both light barriers.

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CASSY Lab 2
 Save your measured value with .

 Read off path s between the two light barriers and enter this in the table (activate keyboard input in the correct
table cell using the mouse).
 Repeat the measurement for other paths s; again, accelerate the trolley to the same velocity, let it pass both light
barriers and save the measured value with .
Evaluation
The s(t) diagram of a uniform motion is a straight line. The slope of the straight line corresponds to the velocity v and
can be determined e.g. by fitting a straight line. If you click on the display Average Velocity, you can also read off
the respective quotients vm = s/t directly.

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CASSY Lab 2
Accelerated motions between holding magnet and light barrier
This experiment measures the times t that a uniformly accelerated trolley requires to travel different distances
(paths) s between a holding magnet and a light barrier. The path s is read directly from a scale on the track and the
s(t) diagram is generated.
Additionally, the software calculates the average velocities vm = s/t and shows these in a vm(t) diagram.
The obscuration times Δt of the light barrier, which are caused by a flag having the width Δs, are also determined.
This permits determination of the instantaneous velocities v = Δs/Δt at the site of the light barrier within close approx-
imation and their display in a v(t) diagram. The difference between the average velocity and instantaneous velocity
becomes easily recognizable.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Track 337 130
1 Trolley 337 110
4 Slotted weights 315 417
1 Holding magnet 683 41
1 Holder for combination light barrier 337 463
1 Pair of cables, 100 cm, red and blue 501 46

Set up the light barrier on the track so that the interrupter flag of the trolley breaks the beam. Connect the light barrier
to input E of the timer box at input A of Sensor-CASSY. The holding magnet receives its voltage supply from voltage
output S of Sensor-CASSY. Sensor-CASSY de-energizes this output simultaneously with the start of time measure-
ment.

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CASSY Lab 2
To achieve good measuring results, compensate the friction by inclining the track slightly.
Accelerate the trolley over the spoked wheel using a constant mass. Adjust the holding-magnet voltage so that it just
holds the trolley.

Load settings
 You may need to adjust the maximum measuring time in the Measuring Parameters dialog (current setting: 2 s).
 Hold the trolley in place with the holding magnet.
 Start the measurement with (trolley starts to move).
 Read off path s between the holding magnet and the light barrier and enter this in the table (activate keyboard
input in the correct table cell using the mouse).
 Repeat the measurement for other paths s; fix the trolley in place using the holding magnet and start the meas-
urement with .
Evaluation
The s(t) diagram of a uniformly accelerated motion is a parabola. You can confirm this e.g. by fitting a parabola.
Click on the display Average Velocity to see the rise in the average velocities vm = s/t. However, for an accelerated
motion these do not correspond with the instantaneous velocities at the same times t.
The instantaneous velocities v can be determined to within a close approximation from the obscuration times Δt of
the light barrier interrupted by the flag with the width Δs. Both the curves of the obscuration times and the instantane-
ous velocities over time can be read directly from the corresponding displays, simply by clicking on the appropriate
tab.
It is apparent that the v(t) diagram of a uniformly accelerated motion is a straight line. The slope of the straight line
corresponds to the acceleration a and can be determined e.g. by fitting a straight line.

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CASSY Lab 2
Accelerated motions with an ultrasonic motion sensor
This experiment measures without contact the path s(t) that a uniformly accelerated trolley travels, e.g. on an inclined
plane. The measuring method applied involves a precise ultrasonic motion sensor, which allows the path to be de-
rived twice thanks to its high resolution and hence also enables v(t) and a(t) diagrams to be plotted.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Ultrasonic motion sensor S 524 0701
1 Track 337 130
1 Trolley 337 110
1 Support blocks, set of 6 300 761
1 Extension cable, 15 pin 501 11
1 Support block 301 25
2 Coupling plugs 340 89

The ultrasonic motion sensor is mounted on the sides of the track with the support block and two coupling plugs.
When doing so, ensure its height is only just above the track in order to avoid destructive ultrasonic interferences due
to the track surface. This is necessary so as to exclude interfering measuring errors in the v(t) and a(t) curves.
The starting point of the motion must be at least 25 cm away from the ultrasonic motion sensor.

Load settings
 Hold the trolley firmly.
 Define the path zero point (→ 0 ← in Settings sA1)

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CASSY Lab 2
 Start the measurement with (software waits for the trigger signal).
 Release the trolley.
Evaluation
The motion begins after letting go of the trolley at t=0. The s(t) diagram of a uniformly accelerated motion is a parabo-
la. You can confirm this e.g. by fitting a parabola.
It is apparent that the v(t) diagram of a uniformly accelerated motion is a straight line. The slope of the straight line
corresponds to the acceleration a and can be determined e.g. by fitting a straight line.
Alternatively, the constant acceleration can be determined from averaging in the a(t) diagram.

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CASSY Lab 2
Accelerated motions with an acceleration sensor
This experiment measures without contact the acceleration a(t) that acts on a uniformly accelerated trolley, e.g. on an
inclined plane. The measuring method applied involves a precise 3D acceleration sensor, which allows direct logging
of the relatively small accelerations on a track thanks to its high resolution. The twice repeated integration of the ac-
celeration also enables v(t) and s(t) diagrams.
Equipment list
1 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 524 018
1 Rechargeable Battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 524 019
Bluetooth
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 3D acceleration sensor S 524 0424
1 Track 337 130
1 Trolley 337 110
1 Additional weights, pair 337 114
1 Support blocks, set of 6 300 761

The combination of battery, Pocket-CASSY and 3D acceleration sensor is fastened on an additional weight using the
Velcro tape provided with the acceleration sensor. 5 cm of Velcro tape under the Pocket-CASSY are sufficient for
this.
Position the combination of battery, Pocket-CASSY and 3D acceleration sensor so that the acceleration sensor
points in the direction of travel.
Plug in the connector between Pocket-CASSY and the acceleration sensor fully so that the position of the accelera-
tion sensor to the track does not change during travel.

Load settings
 Hold the trolley firmly.
 Define the zero of the acceleration (→ 0 ← in Settings axA1).
 Release the trolley. If the measurement does not start, turn the acceleration sensor around.
Evaluation
The a(t) diagram of a uniformly accelerated motion is a constant whose value can be determined e.g. by averaging.
The two other representations for v(t) and s(t) are derived from integration of the constant acceleration a(t). They can
be evaluated by a straight line fit and a parabola fit.
Remark
The acceleration sensor is actually a force sensor that measures the force on an installed test mass in all three spa-
tial directions. However, it can also be used as an acceleration sensor for one spatial direction if it does not change
its position with respect to the gravitational field of the earth in respect to this spatial direction and has been set to
→ 0 ← during the experiment.

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CASSY Lab 2
Motions with spoked wheel (Newton definition)
This experiment investigates motion sequences that are transmitted to a spoked wheel by means of a thin cord. The
spoked wheel serves as an easy-running deflection pulley, and at the same time enables path measurement. The
signals generated by the spoked wheel in the light barrier are recorded and converted into a path-time diagram. As
this diagram is generated in real time while the experiment is running, the relationship between the motion and the
diagram is extremely clear.
The same experiment sequence can also be used to demonstrate the effect of acceleration of a mass m = 1 kg with a
force F = 1 N. The resulting acceleration a is then determined to be a = 1 m/s2 (newton definition) as theory predicts.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Track 337 130
1 Trolley 337 110
1 Newton weights 337 115

The combination spoked wheel serves simultaneously as the deflection pulley and the signal generator. Here, the
combination light barrier, which is connected to input E of the timer box at input A of Sensor-CASSY, holds the
spoked wheel. Each spoke interrupts the light barrier, so that a signal is sent to Sensor-CASSY for every centimeter.
The holding magnet receives its voltage supply from voltage output S of Sensor-CASSY. Sensor-CASSY de-
energizes this output simultaneously with the start of time measurement.
To obtain an accelerating force of F = 1 N, you need to use a driving mass of 102 g. The trolley (including the equiva-
lent roller mass) must be augmented to a total mass of 898 g so that the total accelerated mass m = 1 kg. This is
possible using the additional weights for Newton definition.

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CASSY Lab 2
To achieve good measuring results, compensate the friction by inclining the track slightly.
Adjust the holding-magnet voltage so that it just holds the trolley.

Load settings
 You may want to modify the automatic measuring stop parameter in Settings sA1 (current setting 70 edges for
0.7 m).
 Start the measurement with (trolley starts to move).
 The measurement stops automatically after the predefined number of edges.
 If desired, repeat the measurement for other forces F; fix the trolley in place using the holding magnet, define the
path zero point and start the measurement with .
Evaluation
The s(t) diagram of a uniformly accelerated motion is a parabola. You can confirm this e.g. by fitting a parabola.
Clicking on the Velocity display shows the calculated velocities v(t). It is apparent that the v(t) diagram of a uniformly
accelerated motion is a straight line. The slope of the straight line is the constant acceleration a and can be deter-
mined e.g. by fitting a straight line.
In this example the accelerating force used is F = 1 N and the accelerating mass m = 1 kg (Newton definition). In this
case the v(t) diagram gives us of velocity v of 1 m/s after t = 1 s. Also, the straight line in the f(t) diagram has the
slope a = 1 m/s2.

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CASSY Lab 2
Motions on the linear air track (Newton's equation of motion)
A trolley with a constant mass m is accelerated with different forces F. When the accelerations a determined in the
experiment are plotted as a function of the accelerating forces F, F is found to be proportional to a (with m as the
proportionality factor), thus confirming Newton's equation of motion F=m·a.
Alternatively, the accelerating force can also be kept constant and the mass m can be varied. The result here is m
proportional to 1/a (with F as the proportionality factor).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 BMW box 524 032

1 Motion sensing element 337 631
or
1 Timer S 524 074
1 Linear air track 337 501

1 Air supply 337 53
1 Power controller 667 8231

First put the linear air track into operation; adjust the holding-magnet voltage so that it just holds the trolley. The trol-
ley is accelerated by means of weights suspended from the transmission cord. The transmission cord passes around
the motion sensing element, which is connected to the top socket of the BMW box on Sensor-CASSY.
The small weights are also accelerated, and thus are considered part of the accelerated mass m. If the mass is to be
kept constant, then the weights not suspended from the cord must be placed on the trolley.

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CASSY Lab 2

Load settings
 Enter the maximum travel path sA1 as the stop condition in the Measuring Parameters (Window → Show Meas-
uring Parameters); current setting: sA1 > 0.8 for 0.8 m
 You may want to modify the time interval (currently 200 ms) in the Measuring Parameters window; a longer inter-
val means fewer measured values and less scattering in a(t).
 You may need to invert the sign of path measurement (s ↔ -s in Settings sA1).
 Start the measurement with . You can delete a faulty measurement series from the table with Measurement →
Delete Current Measurement Series.
 Repeat the measurement with different parameters (different accelerating force or accelerated mass). Be sure to
redefine the path zero point.
Evaluation
In addition to the s(t) diagrams, the software also calculates the v(t) and a(t) diagrams. You can see these simply by
clicking on the tabs of the other displays. Suitable evaluation functions include parabola and line fits and calculation
of mean value.
To confirm Newton's equation of motion, you need to fill out a further table, which has already been prepared on the
Newton display tab. After determining an acceleration value as the mean of an a(t) diagram or the slope of a v(t)
diagram, you can use the mouse to drag this value from the status line and drop it into the table (drag & drop). Enter
the parameter force F or mass m directly via the keyboard. The desired diagram is generated as you enter the val-
ues. You can easily convert or rescale the axes by clicking on them (e.g. a → 1/a).
As a further evaluation, you can e.g. compare the kinetic energy with the work performed using formulas. The kinetic
energy is
E = 0.5*m*v^2 (type in the numerical value for m)
and the work performed is
W = F*sA1 (type in the numerical value for F).

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CASSY Lab 2
Conservation of momentum and energy (collision)
Alternatively (with linear air track):
On a track, the velocities v of two trolleys before and after their collisions can be measured from the obscuration
times of two light barriers. By this means, it is possible to verify the law of conservation of momentum for elastic and
inelastic collision, as well as that of conservation of energy for elastic collision.

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CASSY Lab 2
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Track 337 130
2 Trolleys 337 110
1 Pair of additional weights 337 114
1 Impact spring for trolley 337 112
1 PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8
Alternatively (with linear air track)

1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Linear air track 337 501
1 Air supply 337 53
1 Power controller 667 8231
2 Forked light barriers 337 46

First put the track into operation and position the two light barriers (at inputs E and F of the timer box) so that the
trolleys collide between the light barriers. The flags of the two trolleys must interrupt the light barriers when they pass
through.

Load settings
 Enter masses m1 and m2 in the table (activate keyboard input in the cells beneath m1 and m2 with the mouse).
 Enter the trolley arrangement before collision in relation to light barriers E and F (Settings v1, v2, v1' or v2'). There
are four different arrangements:
Both trolleys outside of light barriers.
Left trolley between light barriers, right trolley outside.
Right trolley between light barriers, left trolley outside.
Both trolleys inside (explosion).
 Enter the flag width (also in Settings v1, v2, v1' or v2').
 Initiate the collision (if velocities are displayed before the collision, you can clear these with → 0 ←) and watch to
make sure that the light barriers do not register any extra pulses (e.g. due to reflection of a trolley at the end of the
track).
 Terminate the measurement with End of Collision (the measurement is terminated automatically after four
measured velocities).
 Transfer the measured values to the table for evaluation with or initialize the next measurement with → 0 ←.
Evaluation
Tables have been pre-defined for momentum before and after collision, total momentum, energy, total energy and
energy loss; you can transfer measured values to these tables with . Click on the table tabs to display these. If you
want these quantities to be visible immediately after collision, open the corresponding display instruments.
You can also define additional formulas to compare your results with theory. For elastic collision, we say that
v1' = (2*m2*v2 + (m1-m2)*v1) / (m1+m2)
v2' = (2*m1*v1 + (m2-m1)*v2) / (m1+m2)
For inelastic collision, the following applies:
v1' = v2' = (m1*v1 + m2*v2) / (m1+m2).

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CASSY Lab 2
Table for converting specified units to SI units

Quantity SI unit = Factor · specified unit
Mass m kg 1 kg
Velocity v m/s 1 m/s
Momentum p N·s = kg·m/s 1000 mN·s
Energy E J = kg·m2/s2 1000 mJ

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CASSY Lab 2
Conservation of linear momentum by measuring the motion of the center of mass (col-
lision)
The motion of the center of mass is observed during elastic and inelastic collision of two trolleys. As a result, it is
shown for both cases that the velocity of the center of mass is constant during the whole collision process. Conserva-
tion of linear momentum during the whole collision process is an immediate consequence of this experiment.
Principle of measurement
On a track the motion of the center of mass s of two colliding trolleys with masses m1 and m2 is easily determined by
the supporting force F on a force sensor.
For, if the sum of torques M around the left supporting point is considered, this sum has to be 0 - as the track is at
rest -, i.e.
m1·g·s1 + m2·g·s2 + F·d = 0,
where d is the distance between the two supporting points. The center of mass s is given by
s = (m1·s1 + m2·s2) / (m1+m2).
From this
s·g/(m1+m2) + F·d = 0
or
s = -F·d/(m1+m2)/g is obtained.
Thus measurement of the supporting force F is sufficient, to determine the motion of the center of mass during a
collision. If s(t) is a straight line, this means that the center of mass moves at a constant velocity v, i.e.
v = (m1·v1 + m2·v2) / (m1+m2) = p / (m1+m2) = constant.
It follows that the total linear momentum p is conserved.

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CASSY Lab 2
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Force sensor S, ±50 N 524 042
1 Track 337 130
2 Trolleys 337 110
1 Impact spring 337 112

The force sensor S is laid under the track instead of the right support so that the track is still aligned horizontally or, if
desired, so that compensation of friction is ensured. As the force sensor is somewhat shorter than the support, the
force sensor has to be bedded.

Load settings
 Enter the masses m1 and m2 and the distance d between the two support points into the display instruments (click
with the right mouse button and enter them as parameters). The total mass of a trolley is the sum of the mass of
the trolley (0.5 kg) and, if present, the spring (0.01 kg) and an additional weight (0.5 kg).
 Set the force to → 0 ← in Settings FA1; thereby the center of mass s is set to 0 as well.
 Make an elastic or inelastic collision; the measurement is stopped automatically after 5 s.
Evaluation
The display Standard shows the F(t) diagram, and the display Center of mass shows the associated s(t) diagram
(see Principle of measurement).
Both diagrams exhibit a linear course, also while the collision occurs. From the s(t) diagram the velocity v of the cen-
ter of mass and thus the constant total linear momentum p(t) = (m1+m2)·v is obtained by a linear fit.
On the other hand, it follows from conservation of linear momentum that
0 = d/dt (p1(t) + p2(t)) = m1·a1(t) + m2·a2(t) = F1(t) + F2(t),
i.e.
F1(t) = -F2(t) ("Action = Reaction").
The conclusion relies on the fact that p(t) is a constant, particularly during the collision process. The mere fact that
the total linear momentum before and after the collision is the same (e.g. by measurement with light barriers) does
not justify the conclusion.

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CASSY Lab 2
Confirming the relation action=reaction by measuring accelerations (collision)
During an elastic collision the accelerations a1(t) and a2(t) of the two trolleys are measured. If the measured accelera-
tions are multiplied by the masses m1 and m2, the forces F1(t) and F2(t) are obtained. The relation F1(t) = -F2(t) is
confirmed for the time interval during which the collision takes place.
Principle of measurement
If a force sensor with mass m is attached to a trolley so that that half of the sensor to which the lead is fixed is firmly
mounted to the trolley, the other half of mass m/2 hangs in the air and is movable. If the trolley then is accelerated,
this mass exerts the force of inertia F=m·a/2. This force is measured by the force sensor and automatically converted
into the acceleration a.
After the two accelerated masses (trolley + force sensor + spring) have been entered, the software computes the two
forces F1(t) = m1·a1(t) and F2(t) = m2·a2(t).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
2 Force sensors S, ±50 N 524 042
1 Track 337 130
2 Trolleys 337 110
1 Large impact spring 337 473
1 Stand base, V-shape, 20 cm 300 02
1 Stand rod, 1 m 300 44
1 Clamp with ring 608 100

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CASSY Lab 2

Attach the two force sensors to the outside of the trolleys with 2 coupling plugs each so that the leads are fixed rela-
tive to the trolleys and not to the movable halves of the force sensors. Lock the leads so that they do not move within
the force sensors during the collision (e.g. stick them to the trolleys with adhesive tape). In addition, guide the leads
so that they do not hinder the trolleys during the collision.
The collision is intercepted by the large impact spring, which is attached to the inside of one of the trolleys. The large
impact spring has been proposed deliberately because it leads to a longer collision time so that more measured val-
ues can be recorded. However, the spring is relatively soft and should not be overloaded in the collision process.

Load settings
 Enter the masses m1 and m2 into the display instruments (click with the right mouse button and enter them as
parameters). The total mass of a trolley is the sum of the mass of the trolley (0.5 kg), of the force sensor (0.1 kg)
and, if present, the mass of the spring (0.01 kg) and an additional mass (0.5 kg).
 Set the acceleration to → 0 ← in Settings aA1 and aB1.
 Perform an elastic collision; the measurement is stopped automatically after 5 s.
Evaluation
The display Standard shows the two a(t) diagrams and the display Force the associated F(t) diagrams (see principle
of measurement).
In the F(t) diagrams it is easy to see that
F1(t) = -F2(t) ("Action = Reaction").
From this conservation of linear momentum can be inferred immediately as the integrals over both curves (momen-
tum transfers) between arbitrary times t1 and t2 always have the same magnitude and opposite signs.

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CASSY Lab 2
Motion of the center of mass and action=reaction with two ultrasonic motion sensors
(collision)
The paths s1(t) and s2(t) of both trolleys are measured during an elastic collision. This involves the use of two precise
ultrasonic motion sensors, which allow a the path to be derived twice thanks to their high resolution and hence also
enable v(t) and a(t) diagrams to be plotted.
If the calculated accelerations a1(t) and a2(t) are multiplied by the masses m1 and m2, this yields the forces F1(t) and
F2(t). It is confirmed that F1(t) = -F2(t) applies during the collision. This yields the conservation of momentum during
the entire collision process:
Δp1 + Δp2 = ∫ F1(t) dt + ∫ F2(t) dt = ∫ (F1(t)+F2(t)) dt = 0.
In addition, the motion s3(t) of the center of mass is observed and shows that the velocity v 3(t) of the center of mass
is constant during the entire collision process. This alternatively yields the conservation of momentum during the
entire collision process:
v3 = (m1·v1 + m2·v2) / (m1+m2) = p / (m1+m2) = constant.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
2 Ultrasonic motion sensors S 524 0701
1 Track 337 130
2 Trolleys 337 110
1 Additional weights, pair 337 114
1 Impact spring, soft 337 473
2 Extension cables, 15 pin 501 11
2 Support blocks 301 25

The ultrasonic motion sensors are mounted on the sides of the track with a support block and two coupling plugs
each. When doing so, ensure their height is only just above the track in order to avoid destructive ultrasonic interfer-

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CASSY Lab 2
ences due to the track surface. This is necessary so as to exclude interfering measuring errors in the v(t) and a(t)
curves.

Load settings
 Specify the mass of the left trolley (trolley 1) in the Settings m1.
 Specify the mass of the right trolley (trolley 2) in the Settings m2.
 Position the right trolley (trolley 2) at least 25 cm in front of the left ultrasonic motion sensor and define its path
zero point (→ 0 ← in Settings sB1)
 Position the left trolley (trolley 1) at the same location and also define its path zero point (→ 0 ← in Settings sA1)
 Move both trolleys to their initial positions. At the same time, make sure that both trolleys maintain a minimum
distance of 25 cm to the two ultrasonic motion sensors during the measurement.
 Hold the left trolley firmly.
 Briefly accelerate the left trolley or both trolleys, observe the collision and intercept the trolleys with your hands
before they reach the sensors.
Evaluation
The measurement begins with the motion of the left trolley, records the motion for 1.5 s and indicates it in the repre-
sentations Path, Velocity and Acceleration.
As an evaluation, coordinates can be queried there or average values plotted.
The Force representation is behind the Acceleration representation. The relation F1(t) = -F2(t) can be read off direct-
ly there or the momentum transfers are determined by area calculations.
The corresponding representations of the calculated center of mass are behind the Path and Velocity representa-
tions. There you can see that the velocity of the center of mass is constant during the collision process, i.e. the total
momentum is conserved.
Remarks
To ensure a long collision duration, a soft impact spring is used. The experiment also works with the normal impact
spring (or also without an impact spring in the case of an inelastic collision). However, the calculated derivations a 1(t)
and a2(t) then no longer reproduce the real accelerations so accurately.
If you wish to start the measurement with the motion of the right trolley, you must modify the set trigger from s A1 to
sB1.
Both ultrasonic motion sensors measure alternately so as not to mutually affect each other. As a result, all measuring
points of the first trolley have other time coordinates than the measuring points of the second trolley. The center of
mass
s3(t) = (m1·s1(t1) + m2·s2(t2)) / (m1 + m2)
cannot therefore be calculated with the values of the same table line, because t 1 ≠ t2 in a table line. The problem was
solved in this example by an averaging of two neighbouring values for s 2. These average values then match the time
points t1.

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CASSY Lab 2
Free fall with g-ladder
When a ladder falls through a light barrier, the software registers the times of the obscurations of the light barrier
caused by the rungs of the ladder. The known rung spacing together with the time information gives us the s(t) dia-
gram of the fall. This is then used to calculate the v(t) and the a(t) diagram. Each of the three diagrams can be used
to determine the gravitational acceleration g.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 g-ladder 529 034
1 Forked light barrier 337 46
1 Set of weights, 50 g, optional 342 61

Suspend or hold the g-ladder above the light barrier so that its rungs interrupt the light beam when falling. The light
barrier is connected to Sensor-CASSY via input E of the timer box. The independence of gravitational acceleration
from mass can be verified by suspending weights from the ladder. Moreover, the aerodynamic drag of the g-ladder
can be increased or decreased by sticking small wings or transparent plastic sheets to it.

Load settings
 Allow the ladder to fall through the light barrier so that all 21 rungs pass the beam.
 The measurement stops automatically 0.2 seconds after detection of the first rung, or after 21 rungs. You can de-
lete a faulty measurement series from the table with Measurement → Delete Current Measurement Series.
 You can repeat the measurement with different masses or falling heights. Simply restart it with .
Evaluation
This example contains prepared display tabs for path s(t), velocity v(t) and acceleration a(t) which can be accessed
by clicking on them. The gravitational acceleration g can be determined in the s(t) diagram by fitting a parabola, in the

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CASSY Lab 2
v(t) diagram by fitting a straight line and in the a(t) diagram by finding the mean value. You can enlarge display of the
numerical values of the evaluation shown in the status line with .
As the ladder had an initial velocity when the light barrier was interrupted by the first rung, the peak of the s(t) parabo-
la is not visible, and the v(t) straight line does not pass through the origin. However, to better illustrate the matter, you
can move e.g. the t and s axes with the mouse so that after fitting a parabola its peak is also visible.

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CASSY Lab 2
Free fall with g-ladder (with modeling)
When a ladder falls through a light barrier, the software registers the times of the obscurations of the light barrier
caused by the rungs of the ladder. The known rung spacing together with the time information gives us the s(t) dia-
gram of the fall.
As a supplement to the previous experiment, the measured motion is now compared with the motion described by the
equation
s'' = a = g.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 g-ladder 529 034
1 Set of weights, 50 g, optional 342 61

Suspend or hold the g-ladder above the light barrier so that its rungs interrupt the light beam when falling. The light
barrier is connected to Sensor-CASSY via input E of the timer box.

Load settings
 Allow the ladder to fall through the light barrier so that all 21 rungs pass the beam.
 The measurement stops automatically 0.2 seconds after detection of the first rung, or after 21 rungs. You can de-
lete a faulty measurement series from the table with Measurement → Delete Current Measurement Series.
 You can repeat the measurement with different masses or falling heights. Simply restart it with .

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CASSY Lab 2
Modeling
In the present example, the two initial conditions s(t=0)=0 and v(t=0)=v 0 and the acceleration g=9.81 m/s2 were cho-
sen, whereby g and v0 can be altered by dragging the pointer of the corresponding display instrument (or by clicking
to the left or to the right of the pointer) until the model agrees with the measurement.

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CASSY Lab 2
Rotational motions (Newton's equation of motion)
A rotating body with a constant moment of inertia J is accelerated with different torque values. When the angular
accelerations α determined are plotted as a function of the accelerating torques M, M is found to be proportional to α
(with J as the proportionality factor), thus confirming Newton's equation of motion M=J· α.
Alternatively, you can keep the accelerating torque M constant and vary the moment of inertia J. The result here is J
proportional to 1/α (with M as the proportionality factor).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 BMW box 524 032

or
1 Timer S 524 074
1 Rotation model 347 23

1 Saddle base 300 11
1 Bench clamp, simple 301 07
1 Laboratory stand II 300 76
1 Paper clip

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CASSY Lab 2

Tie the transmission thread to the flag of the rotation model (r = 10 cm) or to one of the pins of the extra disk (r =
5 cm, 2.5 cm) and run it over the motion sensing element, which is connected to Sensor-CASSY via the top socket of
the BMW box. The holding magnet prevents the start of rotation when it is placed close to the paper clip attached to
the flag of the rotation model.
The accelerating force is generated e.g. by 3 small suspended weights of 1 g each (F = 0.0294 N). The different tor-
ques at a constant moment of inertia are realized using the different pulley radii (M = r·F = 2.94 mNm, 1.47 mNm,
0.73 mNm). Alternatively, you can realize different moments of inertia for a constant torque using extra disks.

Load settings
 Modify the maximum rolling angle βA1 in the stop condition of the Measuring Parameters (Window → Show
Measuring Parameters); current setting: &bA1 > 6 for 6 radii, &b stands for β)
 You may want to modify the time interval (currently 500 ms) in the Measuring Parameters window; a longer inter-
val means fewer measured values and less scattering in α(t).
 You may need to invert the sign of angular measurement (s ↔ -s in Settings βA1).
 Allow the rotating disk to fall from the holding magnet.
 Define the current rolling radius and the path zero point (both in Settings βA1)
 Start the measurement with . You can delete a faulty measurement series from the table with Measurement →
Delete Current Measurement Series.
 Repeat the measurement with different parameters (different accelerating torque or accelerated moment of iner-
tia). Be sure to redefine the rolling radius and path zero point.
Evaluation
In addition to the β(t) diagrams, the software also calculates the ω(t) and α(t) diagrams. You can see these simply by
clicking on the tabs of the other displays. Suitable evaluation functions include parabola and line fits and calculation
of mean value.
To confirm Newton's equation of motion, you need to fill out a further table, which has already been prepared on the
Newton display tab. After determining an angular acceleration value as the mean of an α(t) diagram or the slope of an
ω(t) diagram, you can use the mouse to drag this value from the status line and drop it into the table (drag & drop).
As the parameter, enter the parameter angular momentum M or moment of inertia directly via the keyboard. The
desired diagram is generated as you enter the values. You can easily convert or rescale the axes by clicking on them
with the right mouse button (e.g. α → 1/α).
As a further evaluation, you can e.g. compare the rotational energy with the work performed using formulas. The
rotational energy is
E = 0.5*J*&w^2 (enter the numerical value for J, &w stands for ω)
and the work performed is
W = M*&bA1 (enter the numerical value for M, &b stands for β).

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CASSY Lab 2
Conservation of angular momentum and energy (torsion collision)
With the rotation model, the angular velocities ω of two bodies before and after their collisions can be measured from
the obscuration times of two light barriers. By this means, it is possible to verify the law of conservation of angular
momentum for elastic and inelastic torsion collision, as well as that of conservation of energy for elastic torsion colli-
sion.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Rotation model 347 23
2 Forked light barriers 337 46
1 Laboratory stand II 300 76

First position the rotation model and the two light barriers (connected to inputs E and F of the timer box) so that the
flags of the rotating bodies are between the light barriers when torsion collision occurs. The flags of the two bodies
must interrupt the light barriers when they pass through.

Load settings
 Enter the moments of inertia J1 and J2 in the table (activate keyboard input in the cells beneath J1 and J2 with the
mouse).
 Enter the arrangement of the flags before collision in relation to light barriers E and F (Settings ω1, ω2, ω1' or
ω2'). There are four different arrangements:
Both flags outside of light barriers.
Left flag between the light barriers, right flag outside.
Left flag outside the light barriers, right flag between them.
Both flags inside (explosion).
 Enter the flag width and radius (also in Settings ω1, ω2, ω1' or ω2').

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CASSY Lab 2
 Initiate the collision (if angular velocities are displayed before the collision, you can clear these with → 0 ←) and
watch to make sure that the light barriers do not register any extra pulses (e.g. due to reflection of a rotating
body).
 Terminate the measurement with End of Collision (the measurement is terminated automatically after four
measured angular velocities).
 Transfer the measured values to the table for evaluation with or initialize the next measurement with → 0 ←.
Evaluation
Tables have been pre-defined for angular momentum before and after collision, overall angular momentum, energy,
total energy and energy loss; you can transfer measured values to these with . Click on the table tabs to display
these. If you want these quantities to be visible immediately after collision, open the corresponding display instru-
ments.
You can also define additional formulas to compare your results with theory. For elastic torsion collision, we say that
&w1' = (2*J2*&w2 + (J1-J2)*&w1) / (J1+J2)
&w2' = (2*J1*&w1 + (J2-J1)*&w2) / (J1+J2)
For inelastic torsion collision, the following applies:
&w1' = &w2' = (J1*&w1 + J2*&w2) / (J1+J2).
In all formulas, the character combination & plus w is used to represent (and generate) the Greek ω.
Table for converting specified units to SI units

Quantity SI unit = Factor · specified unit
Moment of inertia J kg·m2 1000 g·m2
Angular velocity ω rad/s 1 rad/s
Angular momentum L N·s·m = kg·m2/s 1000 mJ·s
Energy E J = kg·m2/s2 1000 mJ

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CASSY Lab 2
Centrifugal force (rotable centrifugal force arm)
The centrifugal force F acting on a rotating mass m is described by F = m·ω2·r (ω: angular velocity, r: distance of the
center of mass from the axis of rotation). This law is confirmed by varying the three parameters m, ω and r.
The centrifugal force F can be measured by means of the force sensor S, ±50 N. As the sensor almost exclusively
measures forces in one direction, the measurement results in a sinusoidal shape of the force, the minima and maxi-
ma corresponding to the radial centrifugal force.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Rotable centrifugal force arm 347 211

Use the stand rod to mount the force sensor horizontally as close as possible to the stand base. Tighten all screws
firmly! Then align the stand base horizontally with the leveling screws so that the rotable centrifugal force arm swings
as little as possible and rotates at a constant velocity even if the angular frequency is low.

Load settings
 Screw the weights at a certain distance (r is determined between the axis of rotation and the center of the weight)
onto the rotable arm.
 Set the force sensor to → 0 ← in Settings Force FA1.
 Make the rotable arm rotate by tapping it with your finger near the axis of rotation. When the force has reached
about 5 N, start data recording with . Repeat the measurement every 5 to 10 s until the measured force has
reached about 1 N. A set of sine curves is obtained with decreasing amplitudes and increasing periods. In the ex-
ample the trigger is set so that all curves start in the coordinate origin.
Evaluation
Determine the period T and the minimum and maximum force Fmin and Fmax of the first period for each sine curve by
clicking with the mouse and reading the table values. Transfer these values into the display Input (mouse click). If
there are inaccuracies in the setup or the zero adjustment of the force sensor, these are compensated by taking into
account Fmin and Fmax.

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CASSY Lab 2
In the display Centrifugal Force, the result of this evaluation is plotted automatically. The centrifugal force F = (Fmax-
Fmin)/2 shown in the diagram and the angular velocity ω=2π/T are calculated from the input values. The proportionali-
ty F ∝ ω2 is clearly seen.
For confirming the proportionalities F ∝ m and F ∝ r, the measurements have to be repeated with other weights and
radii and then evaluated all together. It is recommendable to evaluate each measurement individually and to store it
in a separate file because several measurements are confusing for an evaluation in a graphic representation. After-
wards several evaluated measurements can be loaded into a common display.
Hint
As the experiment has to be repeated with other masses m and radii r for a complete evaluation, manual evaluation
is very tedious. However, the period T and the two forces Fmin and Fmax can also be determined automatically. For
this the display instruments T', F'min, and F'max in the upper line have to be opened. Immediately after an individual
measurement, the values calculated there can be shifted into the display Input with the mouse (drag & drop). As long
as the rotable arm is still rotating and the measured force is greater than 1 N, this procedure is repeated for decreas-
ing angular velocities ω in short intervals.
Alternatively, this evaluation can be made for each of the measurement series subsequently by selecting the meas-
urement series via Measurement → Select Measurement Series.

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CASSY Lab 2
Centrifugal force (centrifugal force apparatus)
The centrifugal force apparatus enables experimental investigation of the centrifugal force F as a function of the rotat-
ing mass m, the distance r of the mass from the center of rotation and the angular velocity ω, thus making it possible
to confirm the relation F = m·ω2·r for the centrifugal force.
In the centrifugal force apparatus, the force F acting on a rotating mass m is transmitted via a lever with ball-and-
socket joint and a push pin in the axis of rotation to a leaf spring, whose deflection is measured electrically by means
of a bridge-connected strain gauge. In the measuring range relevant for the experiment, the deformation of the leaf
spring is elastic and thus proportional to the force F.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Centrifugal force apparatus S 524 068
1 Power supply 521 491
1 Bench clamp 301 06
If there are centrifugal force apparatus (347 21) available, they can be upgraded by means of the centrifugal force
adapter (524 0681). Handling and measuring results of this combination do not differ from those of the centrifugal
force apparatus S (524 068). Before the centrifugal force apparatus (347 21) is used with the centrifugal force adapt-
er (524 0681) for the first time, the zero and the gain at the centrifugal force apparatus should once be readjusted
according to the instruction sheet of the centrifugal force adapter.

Use the bench clamp to fix the centrifugal force apparatus to the table. The light barrier is set up by means of the
stand rod and the stand base so that the rotating arm can freely rotate between the legs of the light barrier; the light
beam should not be interrupted by the weight. The centrifugal force apparatus is connected to Input B and the light
barrier via the 6-pole cable to the timer box at Input A of the Sensor-CASSY. The power supply is connected to the

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CASSY Lab 2
driving motor of the centrifugal force apparatus via two connecting leads. The maximum voltage for driving the motor
should be selected so that the force measuring range does not exceed 15 N.

Load settings
 Set the force display to 0 while the rotating arm is at rest. For this set the centrifugal force apparatus to → 0 ← in
Settings Force FB1 (right mouse button).
 Adjust the compensating weight on the short arm of the apparatus so that no force F is measured when the
measurement is made without additional weight m but with the safety screw.
 Starting with low angular velocities ω, store the measured force manually with in the table.
 Repeat the measurement with higher angular velocities ω.
 After finishing a measurement series, repeat the measurements with other masses m (r=constant) or radii r (m =
constant). For this select Measurement → Append New Measurement Series and restart at low angular veloci-
ties.
Evaluation
Each individual measurement series immediately confirms the proportionality between the force F and ω2 by a fit to a
straight line. If you want to confirm the two other proportionalities between F and m (ω,r constant) and between F and
r (ω,m constant), the forces F have to be determined for constant angular velocities ω. To do this, draw a vertical line
at a value of ω2 in the diagram and read the coordinates of the intersections with the F(ω 2) line (switch the coordinate
display on). Enter these coordinates manually into the prepared second display F(m) or F(r) (click the field in the table
with the mouse). There the desired proportionality eventually shows up.
F = m·ω2·r is confirmed by determining the proportionality factors.

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CASSY Lab 2
Precession of a gyroscope
Principle
In the experiment, the precession frequency f P of a gyroscope is investigated as a function of the exerted force F, i.e.
the torque M = F · d and the rotational frequency fD of the gyroscope disk.
The following relationship applies:
The moment of inertia of the gyroscope disk is given approximately by:
The precession frequency (frequency f B1) is measured directly using the rotary motion sensor. The rotational fre-
quency is determined by means of the reflection light barrier. To do this, the period T D of the rotational motion of the
gyroscope disk is measured, and from this the rotational frequency f D = 1/TD is calculated.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Timer S 524 074
1 Reflection light barrier 337 468
1 Gyroscope 348 20
1 Double spring clip 590 021
2 Weights, 50 g 342 63

 Attach the reflection light barrier by means of the spring clip approx. 1 cm in front of the gyroscope disk. The sup-
ply cable is to be laid in such a way that it does not exert any forces on the gyroscope and so that the gyroscope
can rotate freely for at least one turn.

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CASSY Lab 2
 Fit the rotary motion sensor onto the gyroscope axis from below and fix it with the thumb screw.
 Shift the balancing mass so that the gyroscope is balancing, i.e. it is initially free of forces. Then hang a weight
(50 g) on the end of the gyroscope rod on the same side as the balancing mass.
 The gyroscope should be precisely horizontally aligned above the adjustment screws on the foot.

Load settings
 Testing of the correct adjustment of the reflection light barrier
Start the gyroscope disk by hand. The rotational frequency (approx. 1 Hz) should be displayed. If necessary,
move the reflection light barrier slightly.
 Test of the correct adjustment of the rotary motion sensor
Rotate the gyroscope slowly about its vertical axis, the precession frequency (approx. 0.05 Hz) should be dis-
played after a short time.
 Start the gyroscope disk rotating rapidly by means of a piece of string. The maximum rotational frequency is ap-
prox. 10 Hz.
 Allow the gyroscope to precess and - once the gyroscope precesses uniformly - take a measurement by means of
.
The precession motion must not be overlaid by the nutation movement. The precession of the gyroscope is best
obtained by starting up the gyroscope without nutation. Rotate the gyroscope back and start precession repeated-
ly for decreasing rotational frequencies and make measurements. If necessary, the gyroscope disk may be
braked somewhat.
 Repeat the experiment with two suspended weights (100 g).
Evaluation
In the diagram of the dependency of the precession frequency f P on the rotational frequency fD a hyperbola is found,
or, in the diagram of fP plotted against 1/fD a straight line, i.e. fP ∝ 1/fD. The gradient of the straight line is the propor-
tionality factor
for the example with one weight 0.45, with two weights 0.91.
With the estimated moment of inertia (with the simplifying assumption of an homogeneous and point mass)
JS = ½m·r2 ≈ 0.010 kg·m2 (with m = 1.54 kg, r = 11.5 cm)
results, with a single weight (m2 = 50 g), in a proportionality factor of 0.43 or with two weights (m2 = 0.1 kg) of 0.86.

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CASSY Lab 2
Gyroscope nutation
Principle
In the experiment, the nutation frequency f N of a free gyroscope as a function of the rotational frequency f D for the
gyroscope disk is being investigated.
The relationship fD = JS/JK · fN applies
with JS = ½m·r2: moment of inertia of the gyroscope disk about its rotational axis
and JK: moment of inertia of the gyroscope about the gyroscope axis (point of suspension)
The moment of inertia of the gyroscope JK is essentially the combination of the moments of inertia of the gyroscope
rod J1, the gyroscope disk J2 and the balancing mass J3 about the rotational axis.
For J1, with the help of the parallel axes theorem: J1 = mSt/12 · l2 + mSt · s2, applies,
with l: rod length, mSt: rod mass, s: distance of the gyroscope axis from the center of gravity (center) of the rod.
For J2: J2 = mKS · aKS2 applies,
with mKS: mass of the gyroscope disk, aKS: distance from the gyroscope axis.
J3 is calculated similarly (with mAM: balancing mass).
The nutation frequency is determined by means of a rotary motion sensor which is fitted to the gyroscope axis. In
addition, the time of oscillation TN of the vertical component of the nutation motion of the gyroscope is measured, and
from this the nutation frequency f N = 1/TN is calculated. The rotational frequency is determined by means of the re-
flection light barrier. To do this, the period TD of the rotational motion of the gyroscope disk is measured, and from
this the rotational frequency fD = 1/TD is calculated.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Timer S 524 074
1 Reflection light barrier 337 468
1 Gyroscope 348 20

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CASSY Lab 2
1 Double spring clip 590 021


 Attach the reflection light barrier by means of the spring clip approx. 1 cm in front of the gyroscope disk.
 Fit the rotary motion sensor from below onto the gyroscope axis and fix with the thumb screw.
 The supply cable is to be laid in such a way that it does not exert any forces on the gyroscope and so that the gy-
roscope can rotate freely for at least one turn.
 Shift the balancing mass so that the gyroscope is balancing, i.e. it is free of forces.

Load settings
 Testing of the correct adjustment of the reflection light barrier
Start the gyroscope disk by hand. The rotational frequency (approx. 1 Hz) should be displayed). If necessary,
move the reflection light barrier slightly.
 Test of the correct adjustment of the rotary motion sensor
Move the gyroscope uniformly up and down about its axis. The nutation frequency should be displayed (approx. 1
Hz).
 Start the gyroscope disk rotating rapidly by means of a piece of string. The maximum rotational frequency is ap-
prox. 10 Hz.
 Start the gyroscope nutation by gently pushing it.
 Record the measured value with .
 Start up nutation repeatedly for slowly decreasing rotational frequencies and make measurements. If necessary,
the gyroscope disk may be braked somewhat.
Evaluation
In the diagram of the nutation frequency f N as a function of the rotational frequency f D a straight line appears, i.e. fN ∝
fD. The gradient of the straight line is the proportionality factor JS/JK; in the example JS/JK = 0.0659.
With the estimated moment of inertia (with the simplifying assumption of an homogeneous and point mass)
JS = ½m·r2 ≈ 0.010 kg·m2 (with m = 1.54 kg, r = 11.5 cm)
J1 = mSt/12 · l2 + mSt · s2 ≈ 0.056 kg·m2 (with mSt = 0.50 kg, l = 57 cm, s = 6.6 cm)
J2 = mKS · aKS2≈ 0.056 kg·m2 (with mKS = 1.54 kg, aKS = 19 cm)
J3 = mAM · aAM2 ≈ 0.063 kg·m2 (with mAM = 1 kg, aAM = 25 cm)
JK = J1 + J2 + J3 ≈ 0,136 kg·m2
results in JS/JK ≈ 0.074.

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CASSY Lab 2
Oscillations of a rod pendulum
The equation of motion for a physical pendulum with moment of inertia J, mass m and distance s between fulcrum
and center of gravity
M = J·α'' = –m·g·s·sin α
describes for small deflections (sin α≈α) an harmonic oscillation with period of oscillation
T = 2π·sqrt(J/mgs).
For a better understanding, the reduced pendulum length lr = J/ms is introduced. Then the period of oscillation is
T = 2π·sqrt(lr/g).
For mathematical pendulums, the entire pendulum mass is concentrated at a single point. It has therefore the mo-
ment of inertia J = ms2 and the reduced pendulum length is lr = J/ms = s, which is equivalent to the distance between
the pendulum mass (center of gravity) and fulcrum.
A physical pendulum with the reduced pendulum length lr corresponds to a mathematical pendulum of this length.
In this experiment the reduced pendulum length is determined from the measured period of oscillation and compared
with the reduced pendulum length.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Physical pendulum 346 20
1 Stand rod, 25 cm, d = 10 mm 301 26

The pendulum is screwed on the axle of the rotary motion sensor.

Load settings
 Define the zero point in the equilibrium position of the pendulum (→ 0 ← in Settings αA1)
 Deflect the pendulum by approx. 5° only and release
 Start the measurement with . The measurement will stop automatically after 10 s
 Repeat the measurement without the mass or with a further mass added

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CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
After several oscillations, the duration of these oscillations can be determined by means of a vertical line and from
this the period of oscillation. In the example, the result is T = 0.840 s. With g = 9.81 m/s2 this results in a reduced
pendulum length of lr= g·T2/4π2 = 17.5 cm.
This corresponds well to the calculated (using an approximation) pendulum length l r of the rod. The moment of inertia
of the rod for rotation through the center of gravity is J S = 1/12·ml2. The axis of rotation of this pendulum is, however,
s = 1/3·l displaced from the center of gravity. According to Steiner's theorem this gives J = J S + ms2 = 7/36 ml2 and
lr= 7/36·ml2 / ms = 7/12·l = 17.5 cm (for l = 30 cm).
Conversely, from the calculated reduced pendulum length and the measured period of oscillation the earth's acceler-
ation due to gravity can also be calculated g = lr·4π2/T2 .
Experimental determination of the reduced pendulum length

If mass m2 is shifted on the pendulum rod until the period of oscillation T compared to the rod without added mass is
unchanged, then the reduced pendulum length lr will also be unchanged. The position x when the (point) mass is now
found increases the moment of inertia of the pendulum by J 2 = m2·x2. Because the reduced pendulum length l r has
not been changed, the following applies
lr = J/ms = (J + J2)/(m + m2)/s'
with s' being the distance between the new center of gravity and the fulcrum, therefore s' = (m·s+m2·x)/(m+m2). From
this you get
J/ms = (J + m2·x2)/(m·s+m2·x) = J/ms · (1 + m2·x2/J)/(1 + m2·x/ms) or m2·x2/J = m2·x/ms, therefore
x = J/ms = lr.
The (point) mass is then exactly located at the reduced pendulum length. But, because in reality it has a finite size,
this is only an approximation.

195
CASSY Lab 2
Oscillations of a rod pendulum (with added mass)
The oscillations of a physical rod pendulum are recorded as a function of time t. For the evaluation, the angle α, ve-
locity ω and acceleration a are compared to one another. There is a choice of displaying them as a function of time t
or in the form of a phase diagram.
In addition, the reduced pendulum length lr = J/ms is determined from the measured oscillation period T =
2π·sqrt(lr/g).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Stand rod, 25 cm, d = 10 mm 301 26

The pendulum is screwed on the axle of the rotary motion sensor and the weight is attached to the lower end of the
pendulum.

Load settings
 Deflect the pendulum by approximately 20° and release
 Start the measurement with . The measurement will stop automatically after 10 s
 Repeat the measurement without the mass or with a further mass added
Evaluation
In addition to the angular diagram, an overview diagram with α(t), ω(t) and a(t) and a phase diagram ω(α) have al-
ready been prepared. The various diagrams can be selected by clicking on them.
After several oscillations, the duration of these oscillations can be determined by means of a vertical line and from
this the period of oscillation. In the example the result is T = 0.96 s. With g = 9.81 m/s2, this results in the reduced
pendulum length lr = g·T2/4π2 = 22.9 cm. This is a somewhat less than the distance between the weight and the ful-
crum (25 cm).

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CASSY Lab 2
Remark
The recorded curve forms depend greatly on the selected time interval. The time interval can only be a compromise
between rapid measuring sequence, clearly marked α(t) minima and maxima (short time interval) and low errors in
the ω(t) and a(t) diagram (longer time interval).

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CASSY Lab 2
Oscillations of a rod pendulum (with modeling)
A rod pendulum is excited and the free oscillation is recorded. In addition to an investigation of the oscillations of a
rod pendulum purely based on measurements, the measured oscillation is compared to the oscillation α(t) which
results from the equation of motion
with moment of inertia J, mass m and the distance s between the fulcrum and the center of gravity. The required
modeling equation is
α'' = a = –m·g·s·sin α / J = g/lr· sin α
with the reduced pendulum length lr = J/ms.
For small angles α, sin α is usually approximated by α and then the equation can be solved analytically. In this exam-
ple, this approximation is not required, because the solution is found numerically.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Stand rod, 25 cm, d = 10 mm 301 26

pendulum.

Load settings
 Deflect the pendulum by approximately 20° (this corresponds to an angle of approximately 0.35 rad) and release
 Start the measurement with . The measurement will stop 10 s later.
Modeling
In the present example, the two starting conditions are selected α(t=0)=0 and ω(t=0)=ω 0 because the oscillation was
triggered at the origin. The starting speed ω0 and reduced pendulum length lr can be modified by pulling the pointer
of the corresponding display instrument (or by clicking on the left-hand button or after clicking on the right-hand but-
ton) until Model corresponds to the measurement.

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CASSY Lab 2
For confirmation of the model, the weight can be moved to a different position and the experiment be repeated. The
new measured oscillation will again correspond to the mathematical model.
Influence of the approximation sinα ≈ α

It is very impressive to observe the influence of the otherwise commonly used approximation for small deflections (sin
α≈α). For this the model equation can be reduced from –9.81/lr*rsin &a to –9.81/lr*&a. The change to the period
through the influence of the approximation is already clearly apparent for a deflection of 20°.
In the following Example this influence is investigated in more detail.

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CASSY Lab 2
Dependency of the period of the oscillation on the amplitude
The period T depending on the amplitude of the oscillation is recorded. For this the pendulum is activated once at the
beginning and the amplitude and period are continuously recorded. Because of the low degree of friction, the ampli-
tude reduces slowly. This in turn results in a small reduction in the oscillation period.
The equation of motion for a physical pendulum with moment of inertia J, mass m and distance s between fulcrum
and center of gravity
describes for small deflections (sin α≈α) an harmonic oscillation with the period
T = 2π·sqrt(lr/g),
with the reduced pendulum length being lr = J/ms. Without this approximation, in general the following applies
T = 2π·sqrt(lr/g) · (1 + (1/2)2· (sin(α/2)2 + (3/4)2· (sin(α/2)4 + (5/6)2· (sin(α/2)6 + ... )))).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Stand rod, 25 cm, d = 10 mm 301 26

pendulum.

Load settings
 Deflect the pendulum by approximately 30° and release
 Once the displayed value for the oscillation period TA1 has settled to a constant value, start the measurement by
pressing
 If after a while no measuring points appear, click on the y-axis with the right mouse button and select Find Mini-
mum and Maximum.
 Stop the measurement by clicking as soon as the amplitude falls below 5°. Below this the determined oscilla-
tion period will become unreliable.

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CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
During the measurement, the amplitude decreases slowly. This causes a minor reduction in oscillation period. The
theoretical connection between amplitude and period is
T = T0· (1 + (1/2)2· (sin(α/2)2 + (3/4)2· (sin(α/2)4 + (5/6)2· (sin(α/2)6 + ... ))))
and can be easily confirmed by carrying out a free fit.

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CASSY Lab 2
Determination of the acceleration due to gravity on earth by means of a reversible

pendulum
For a physical pendulum with small deflections, the oscillation period is given by
T = 2π·sqrt(lr/g)
with the reduced pendulum length lr = J/ms. If the reduced pendulum length lr and the oscillation period T are known,
this can be used for calculating the acceleration due to gravity g = lr·4π2/T2.
Often the reduced pendulum length cannot be determined with the desired precision if the precise determination of
the moment of inertia or of the center of gravity are difficult. With the reversible pendulum, the mass distribution is
modified in such a way that the oscillation period is identical for both rotational axes. From this it can be concluded
that the reduced pendulum length lr corresponds to the distance between the two axes and therefore is known to a
high degree of precision.
According to Steiner's theorem, J = JS + ms2 with JS being the moment of inertia of the pendulum with respect to the
axis through the center of gravity and s being the distance between the center of gravity and rotational axes. The
reduced pendulum length is therefore
lr = J/ms = JS/ms + s.
The second rotational axis is now located on the other side of the center of gravity and, with the same oscillation
period and the same reduced pendulum length, is at a distance x from the center of gravity. In this case
lr = JS/mx + x.
If the equation is rearranged to give the value for x, x = lr – s. The distance between the two rotational axes s+x there-
fore precisely corresponds to the reduced pendulum length l r.
Because the oscillation period T can be determined precisely, the reversible pendulum is very suitable for the deter-
mination of the value of the earth's acceleration g.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Stand rod, 25 cm, d = 10 mm 301 26

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CASSY Lab 2

The pendulum is screwed on the axle of the rotary motion sensor and the mass is attached to the pendulum as
shown in (1).
The rod of the pendulum is marked starting from the top in 1 cm steps using a pencil. A range from 10 cm to approx-
imately 21 cm is adequate for this.

Load settings
 Attach the variable pendulum mass at the position x = 10 cm and deflect by approximately 10°.
 Once the value displayed for the oscillation period TA1 has settled to a constant value and the amplitude αA1 has
fallen to approximately 5°, record the measuring value by pressing and enter the position in column x (click at
the cell in the table with the mouse)
 Push the pendulum mass 1 cm down and measure again. Repeat until x = 21 cm is reached.
 Move the mass back to x = 10 cm and change the suspension point of the pendulum as shown in (2); reverse the
pendulum
 Again deflect the pendulum by approximately 10° and wait until the value displayed for the oscillation period TA1
has settled to a constant and the amplitude αA1 has fallen to approximately 5°, record the measuring value by
pressing and enter the position in column x (click on the cell in the table with the mouse)
 Push the pendulum mass 1 cm upwards and measure again. Repeat until x = 21 cm is reached.
Evaluation
In the graphic display, two intersections of the oscillation period curves can be seen. In both intersection the period of
oscillation and therefore the reduced pendulum length are equal. It corresponds to the displacement of the two axes
of rotation, that is lr = 0.20 m.
By means of a horizontal mark the corresponding period can be determined. In this example it is T = 0.898 s. This
results in an earth's acceleration due to gravity of g = lr·4π2/T2 = 7.896 m/T2 = 9.79 m/s2.
Alternatively, the earth's acceleration due to gravity can be found with somewhat higher resolution in diagram g.
Comments about the measuring error

In addition to the manufacturing error in the rod, which will appear as an error in the reduced pendulum length lr (ap-
proximately Δlr = ±0.1 mm, that is Δg = ±0.005 m/s2), an error in the oscillation period T is to be considered. Besides
the simple measuring fault (in this case approximately ΔT = ±0.001·T, corresponding to Δg = ±0.02 m/s 2) there is also
a systematic fault. As already demonstrated in the experiment Dependency of the period of the oscillation on the
amplitude, the oscillation period shows a weak dependency on the amplitude. For the 5° amplitude this systematic
error is ΔT = +0.0005·T, corresponding to Δg = -0.01 m/s2. With even smaller amplitudes the determination of the
oscillation period by means of the rotary motion sensor will become unreliable. For greater amplitudes, this systemat-
ic fault will soon exceed the normal measuring fault (for 10° amplitude it is ΔT = +0.002·T, corresponding to Δg = -
0.04 m/s2)

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CASSY Lab 2
Pendulum with changeable acceleration due to gravity (variable g-pendulum)
With a variable g-pendulum (pendulum after Mach) only the component g·cos ϑ of the earth's gravitational accelera-
tion affects the pendulum. Depending on the inclination ϑ, different oscillation periods result
T = 2π·sqrt(lr/g/cos ϑ)
with the reduced pendulum length lr = J/ms.
In the experiment, the oscillation period is investigated depending on the angle of inclination. Alternatively, the accel-
eration due to gravity of a number of simulated celestial bodies can be determined. The reduced pendulum length lr =
17.5 cm was calculated in the experiment Oscillations of a rod pendulum and confirmed experimentally. The effective
part of the acceleration due to gravity is therefore a = g·cos ϑ = lr·4π2/T2 = 6.91 m/T2.
On the printable angle scale the settings for
Celestial body ϑ g·cos ϑ
Earth (reference location) 0° 9.81 m/s2
Venus 25.3° 8.87 m/s2
Mars 67.8° 3.71 m/s2
Mercury 67.8° 3.70 m/s2
Moon 80.5° 1.62 m/s2
Pluto 86.6° 0.58 m/s2
are already entered.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Angle scale with the entered celestial bod- print out
ies
1 Leybold multiclamp 301 01
2 Stand rods, 25 cm, d = 10 mm 301 26

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CASSY Lab 2
1 Stand rod, 50 cm, d = 10 mm 301 27


The pendulum is screwed on the axle of the rotary motion sensor. The scale is pushed onto the stand rod of the rota-
ry motion sensor. To do this cut the scale as indicated by means of a sharp knife.

Load settings
 Set up pendulum vertically (ϑ = 0°), align the experiment setup and deflect the pendulum by approximately 10°
 Once the displayed value for the oscillation period TA1 has settled to a constant value, start the measurement by
pressing and enter the angle in column ϑ (click with the mouse onto the table cell)
 Increase the angle repeatedly by 10° and repeat measurement until ϑ = 80° is reached.
Evaluation
During the measurement, the effective part of the acceleration due to gravity a = l r·4π2/T2 with lr = 17.5 cm is entered
into the diagram.
With a free fit the relationship a = g·cos ϑ can easily be confirmed.
Alternatively, a range of celestial bodies can be simulated and their acceleration due to gravity determined. To do this
align the pendulum with the red markers on the angle scale.

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CASSY Lab 2

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CASSY Lab 2
Harmonic oscillations of a spring pendulum
This experiment records the harmonic oscillations of a spring pendulum as a function of the time t. The evaluation
compares the path s, velocity v and acceleration a. These can be displayed either as a function of the time t or as a
phase diagram.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 BMW box 524 032

or
1 Timer S 524 074

1 Helical spring, 3 N/m 352 10
5 Weights, 50 g 342 63
1 Stand rod, 150 cm 300 46
2 Leybold multiclamps 301 01
1 Clamp with hook 301 08
1 Fishing line, 10 m 309 48

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CASSY Lab 2

Lay the string of the spring pendulum over the deflection pulley of the motion sensing element so that the oscillation
of the pendulum is transmitted to the sensor without slip; connect the sensor to the top socket of the BMW box. The
holding magnet enables a defined measurement start by holding the pendulum weight in the bottom reversing point
of the oscillation before the start of measurement recording.
This experiment can be expanded to investigate air friction (e.g. with a piece of cardboard on the weight) or the effect
of a change in the pendulum mass.

Load settings
 If necessary, change the time interval in the Measuring Parameters (Window → Show Measuring Parameters).
A shorter interval enables more measured values and smoother s(t) and v(s) diagram, while a longer interval
generates fewer measured values and less scattering in a(t).
 You may need to invert the sign of path measurement (s ↔ -s in Settings sA1).
 Define the zero point in the equilibrium position of the pendulum (→ 0 ← in Settings sA1)
 Deflect the pendulum approx. 10 cm and hold it there with the holding magnet.
 Start the measurement with and stop it with when the experiment is finished.
 Always check that the path zero point is at the equilibrium position before repeating the experiment.
Evaluation
In addition to the path display, this example also contains an overview display with s(t), v(t) and a(t) and a phase
diagram v(s). The various diagrams can be selected by clicking on them.
The phase relations and the damping are easy to see.
Remark
The recorded curve forms depend greatly on the selected time interval. The time interval is necessarily a compromise
between a rich sequence of measured values, clearly apparent s(t) minima (shorter interval) and low inaccuracy in
the v(t) and a(t) diagram (longer interval).

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CASSY Lab 2
Dependence of the period of oscillation of a spring pendulum on the oscillating mass
The harmonic oscillations of a spring pendulum as a function of the time t are recorded for various suspended mass-
es. From the path-time diagram s(t), the period of oscillation T2 is determined. A plot of T 2 as a function of the sus-
pended mass m confirms the relation T2 = (2π)2·m/D (D = spring constant).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 BMW box 524 032

or
1 Timer S 524 074

5 Weights, 50 g 342 63
1 Stand rod, 150 cm 300 46
1 Clamp with hook 301 08

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CASSY Lab 2

 Clamp the stand rod in the stand base, and fasten the clamp with hook to the upper end of the stand rod.
 Suspend the spring from the hook, and elongate it via a piece of fishing line of approx. 45 cm length by means of
the desired number of weights.
 Fasten a multiclamp with the motion sensing element close to the middle of the piece of fishing line.
 Lay the piece of fishing line over the deflection pulley of the motion sensing element so that the oscillations of the
pendulum are transmitted to the motion sensing element without slip. In order to keep damping of the oscillation
low, see to it that the axis of the spring does not deviate too much from the vertical.
 Position the holding magnet at the lower dead point of the oscillation of the spring pendulum.
 Connect the motion sensing element via the upper socket of the BMW box to the input A of the Sensor-CASSY.
 Connect the holding magnet to the output S of the Sensor-CASSY.
Experiment notes
The holding magnet provides a well-defined start of the oscillation by keeping the weights suspended for a particular
measurement in the lower dead point of the oscillation. Depending on the number of suspended weights, the motion
sensing element and the holding magnet have to be displaced vertically with respect to the position of the hook. The
ideal position of the motion sensing element is close to the middle of the fishing line when the pendulum is in its equi-
librium position.

Load settings
 Suspend the desired number of weights, and adjust the height of the holding magnet and of the motion sensing
element.
 Calibrate the zero of the path sA1 in the equilibrium position of the pendulum – to do this, click the → 0 ← button
in Settings sA1.
 If required, invert the sign of the path measurement (s ↔ –s button in Settings sA1)
 Elongate the pendulum so that the weights are held by the holding magnet.
 When repeating a measurement, check the zero of the path in the equilibrium position of the pendulum before
recording data.
Evaluation
For every path-time diagram, the period of oscillation T is determined by clicking Measure Difference with the right
mouse button (or Alt+D) and subsequently clicking two corresponding zero passages with the left mouse button. The
value of the period of oscillation then displayed in the status line can be transferred into the prepared display Input by
means of the mouse (drag & drop). In addition, the mass m associated with T has to be entered in the table. By a fit
to a straight line in the display Evaluation, the proportionality T2 ∝ m is confirmed in a further step.
The spring constant D can be determined from the slope of the straight line. Note that the straight line does not pass
the origin. For a description of this experiment result, the mass of the spring has also to be taken into account.
Hint
As a complete evaluation requires the experiment to be repeated for various masses m, the period of oscillation T
would have to be determined manually in each case. Alternatively, the period of oscillation T can also be determined
automatically. For this you only have to open the display instrument T' in the upper line. After the oscillation has been
measured, the value display there can be copied directly into the display Input (drag & drop).

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CASSY Lab 2
Oscillations of a spring pendulum (with modeling)
Safety note
Mind the safety notes in the instruction sheet of the laser motion sensor S.
A spring pendulum is excited, and the free oscillation is recorded for various masses m.
As a supplement to the investigation of the oscillations of a spring pendulum merely by way of measurement, the
measured oscillation is now additionally compared with the oscillation s(t) which is obtained from the equation
s'' = a = –D/m·s
The gravitational force –m·g is not taken into account (see Remark concerning the gravitational force). The constants
D and m correspond to the spring constant and the oscillating mass. As a certain portion of the spring oscillates too,
the oscillating mass is greater than the mass of the pendulum bob by approximately 20 g (=1/3 of the mass of the
spring).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Laser motion sensor S 524 073

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CASSY Lab 2
1 Stand rod with thread 688 808

1 Pair of helical springs 352 15
1 Slotted weight 100 g 315 456
1 Stand rod, 1 m 300 44
Alternative
Instead of the laser motion sensor S, the force sensor S, ±50 N (524 042) can also be used for the path measure-
ment. From the measured force FA1 and the spring constant D, the deflection sA1=FA1/D can be calculated using a
formula.

Set up the spring pendulum with the large spring (=3.5 cm). For the path measurement, attach a piece of retrore-
flecting foil to the lowest turn of the spring so that the laser spot of the motion sensor hits the foil during the entire
oscillation (if necessary, attach the foil outside the spring).
Due to the reversal of its helical sense in the middle, this particular spring makes possible a free stable up and down
oscillation because no torsional oscillation is excited.

Load settings
 If modeling is not yet desired, switch to the Standard display during the measurement.
 Define the pendulum's equilibrium position as the zero point of the path (→ 0 ← in Settings sA1; before doing so,
you may allow the laser motion sensor S to warm up for some minutes).
 Deflect the pendulum bob downwards.
 Release the pendulum bob. The measurement starts automatically when the equilibrium position at s=0 is passed
for the first time.
 After carrying out the evaluation, repeat the experiment for various masses (slotted weights), and compare the
results with the prediction of the model.
Modeling
In the present example, the two initial conditions s(t=0)=0 and v(t=0)=v 0 were chosen because the triggering took
place in the zero point of the path. The initial velocity v0, the spring constant D and the mass m can be altered by
dragging the pointer of the corresponding display instrument (or by clicking to the left or to the right of the pointer)
until the model agrees with the measurement.
In order to confirm the model, you can increase the mass m and repeat the experiment with this increased mass. The
new measured oscillation will again agree with the mathematical model (you may have to adjust the initial velocity).
Solution of the differential equation

The differential equation can also be solved analytically, and, with the initial conditions s(t=0)=0 and v(t=0)=v 0, we
obtain
s(t) = v0/ω0·sin(ω0·t)
with ω0=sqr(D/m).
Remark concerning the gravitational force

In the model equation used above, the action of the gravitational force m·g on the pendulum mass m was not taken
into account. Strictly speaking, the model equation should read
s'' = a = –D/m·s – g = –D/m·(s + m·g/D) = –D/m·(s – s0)
with s0=–m·g/D. This shift of the zero point of the pendulum is exactly displayed in the display Modeling with g,
which can be selected with the mouse. As only the zero point is shifted, the gravitational force is usually omitted in

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CASSY Lab 2
the model equation. This is also done in the following examples, where solid friction, lubricant friction, laminar liquid
friction and turbulent liquid friction/air friction will be investigated.

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CASSY Lab 2
Oscillations of a spring pendulum with solid friction (with modeling)
Safety note
As a supplement to the experiment Oscillations of a spring pendulum, the oscillating body is subjected to an addition-
al frictional force F through sliding friction on a metal rod (Coulomb friction). The magnitude of this frictional force is
constant and its direction is always opposite to that of the motion. Thus it can be written in the form F=–F0·sgn(v) with
a constant F0. The model equation then reads
s'' = a = –D/m·s – F0/m·sgn(v).
spring).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

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CASSY Lab 2

1 Stand rod, 1 m 300 44
1 Stand rod, bent at right angles 300 51
Alternative
formula.

When the pendulum bob is in its equilibrium position, it should be near the middle of the bent stand rod. During the
oscillation, the pendulum bob should always slide along the bent stand rod with friction.

Load settings
for the first time.
 After carrying out the evaluation, repeat the experiment for other frictional forces, and compare the results with
the prediction of the model. In order to vary the frictional force, clamp the bent stand rod in slightly varied posi-
tions.
Modeling
place in the zero point of the path. The initial velocity v0, the spring constant D, the mass m and the frictional force F0
can be altered by dragging the pointer of the corresponding display instrument (or by clicking to the left or to the right
of the pointer) until the model agrees with the measurement.
The dependence of the model's frictional force on the velocity can be seen in the Frictional force display.
In order to confirm the model, you can increase the frictional force F0 (shift the bent stand rod correspondingly). If the
magnitude of the frictional force F0 in the model is increased correspondingly and, if necessary, the initial velocity v0
is adjusted, the new measured oscillation will again agree with the mathematical model.
Estimating the frictional force

The order of magnitude of the force of sliding friction can be estimated directly from the experiment setup. In the case
of sliding friction, the magnitude of the frictional force is
F0 = μ·FN = μ·m·g·sin α
with the coefficient of sliding friction μ and the normal force F N=m·g·sin α. In this example, the angle α between the
vertical and the axis of friction was approximately 2° and μ=0.12 (coefficient of sliding friction for steel on steel), and
we obtain F0=20 mN, which is in agreement with the model.

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CASSY Lab 2
Envelope
The linear decrease of the amplitude of the oscillation in the case of a frictional force with constant magnitude follows
from energy conservation. Between two subsequent reversal points s1>0 and s2<0, the work performed by the friction
is W = F0·s1+(–F0)·s2. Since the kinetic energy at the reversal points is 0, only the energy of the spring 1/2·D·s 12 and
1/2·D·s22 is left (see also Remark concerning the gravitational force).
The energy balance thus is
1/2·D·s12 = 1/2·D·s22 + W or
W = 1/2·D·(s12–s22) = 1/2·D·(s1+s2) (s1–s2) = F0·(s1–s2).
From this it follows that the difference of the magnitudes of the amplitudes is |s1|–|s2| = s1+s2 = 2F0/D. Then it follows
that the constant decrease of the amplitude for an entire period is Δs = 4F0/D.
The initial amplitude s0 of the envelope also derives from the constants of the model from
1/2·m·v02 = 1/2·D·s02.
For small frictional forces, the function describing the envelope can be written in the form
±f(t) = s0–4F0/D·t/T = |v0|/ω0–4F0/D·t/(2π/ω0) = |v0|/ω0·(1–2/π·F0/m/|v0|·t) = s0·(1–2/π·k·t)
with ω0=sqr(D/m), s0=|v0|/ω0 and k=F0/m/|v0|.

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CASSY Lab 2
Oscillations of a spring pendulum with lubricant friction (with modeling)
Safety note
al frictional force F through lubricant friction (Reynolds friction). The magnitude of this frictional force is proportional to
the square root of the velocity, but its direction is always opposite to that of the motion. Thus it can be written in the
form F=–F0·sqr|v/v0|·sgn(v). F0 is the magnitude of the frictional force acting on the system at the initial velocity |v0|.
The model equation then reads
s'' = a = –D/m·s – F0/m·sqr|v/v0|·sgn(v).
spring).

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CASSY Lab 2
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Paraffin, viscous, 100 ml 674 0800
1 Petri dish 664 183
1 Stand rod, 1 m 300 44
1 Stand rod, bent at right angles 300 51
Alternative
formula.

When the pendulum bob is in its equilibrium position, it should be near the middle of the bent stand rod. During the
oscillation the viscous paraffin should always form a film between the pendulum bob and the bent stand rod. Other
suitable lubricants are liquid soaps or vaseline (675 3100) mixed with oil.

Load settings
 Apply a good deal of viscous paraffin to the bent stand rod in order that there is always a film between the pendu-
lum bob and the stand rod during the measurement.
for the first time.
Modeling
In the present example, the two initial conditions s(t=0)=0 and v(t=0)=v0 were chosen because the triggering took
place in the zero point of the path. The initial velocity v0, the spring constant D, the mass m and the friction con-
stant F0 can be altered by dragging the pointer of the corresponding display instrument (or by clicking to the left or to
the right of the pointer) until the model agrees with the measurement.
Envelope
For small frictional forces proportional to the square root of the velocity, the function describing the envelope is given
by
±f(t) = |v0|/ω0·(1–0.2782·F0/m/|v0|·t)2 = s0·(1–0.2782·k·t)2

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CASSY Lab 2
Oscillations of a spring pendulum with laminar liquid friction (with modeling)
Safety note
al frictional force F through laminar liquid friction (Stokes friction) in water. The magnitude of this frictional force is
proportional to the velocity, but its direction is always opposite to that of the motion. Thus it can be written in the form
F=–F0·v/|v0|. F0 is the magnitude of the frictional force acting on the system at the initial velocity |v0|. The model
equation then reads
s'' = a = –D/m ·s – F0/m·v/|v0|.
D and m correspond to the spring constant and the oscillating mass. As water is moved and a certain portion of the
spring oscillates too, the oscillating mass is greater than the mass of the pendulum bob.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

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CASSY Lab 2

1 Hollow cylinder for liquid friction 342 11
1 Beaker, 3000 ml 664 134
1 Stand rod, 1 m 300 44
Alternative
formula.

When the hollow cylinder is in its equilibrium position, it should be near the middle of the water-filled beaker. In order
to obtain approximately laminar friction, align the hollow cylinder vertically as precisely as possible.

Load settings
 Deflect the hollow cylinder downwards.
 Release the hollow cylinder. The measurement starts automatically when the equilibrium position at s=0 is
passed for the first time.
Modeling
Solution of the differential equation

In contrast to Coulomb friction, Reynolds friction and Newton friction, the differential equation can be solved analyti-
cally in the case of Stokes friction. With the initial conditions s(t=0)=0 and v(t=0)=v0,
s(t) = v0/ω sin(ω·t) exp(–1/2·k·t)
is obtained, with ω0=sqr(D/m), ω=sqr(ω02–k2/4) and k=F0/m/|v0|.
Envelope
For frictional forces proportional to the velocity, the function describing the envelope therefore has the form
±f(t) = s0·exp(–1/2·k·t)
with s0=|v0|/ω.

220
CASSY Lab 2
Oscillations of a spring pendulum with turbulent liquid friction/air friction (with model-
ing)
Safety note
al frictional force F through turbulent liquid friction or turbulent air friction (Newton friction). The magnitude of this
frictional force is proportional to the square of the velocity, but its direction is always opposite to that of the motion.
Thus it can be written in the form F=–F0·(v/v0)2·sgn(v). F0 is the magnitude of the frictional force acting on the system
at the initial velocity |v0|. The model equation then reads
s'' = a = –D/m ·s – F0/m·(v/v0)2·sgn(v).
D and m correspond to the spring constant and the oscillating mass. As water is moved and a certain portion of the
spring oscillates too, the oscillating mass is greater than the mass of the pendulum bob.
From the friction constant F0 the drag coefficient (cw value) for the cylindrical pendulum bob can be estimated.

221
CASSY Lab 2
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Beaker, 3000 ml 664 134
1 Stand rod, 1 m 300 44
Alternatives
formula.
For investigating air friction, attach a piece of cardboard to the pendulum bob to create air friction.

When the pendulum bob is in its equilibrium position, it should be near the middle of the water-filled beaker.

Load settings
for the first time.
Modeling
The drag force FL for the pendulum bob around which the liquid flows is given by
FL = cw· 1/2·ρ·v2· A = F0·(v/v0)2
with the drag coefficient cw, the dynamic pressure p=1/2·ρ·v2 and the backwater surface A=π·r2. The drag coefficient
is the ratio of the measured force and the imagined dynamic force p·A. We obtain
cw = 2F0/v02/(ρ·A).
In the present example, we have r = 2.5 cm and ρ = 1 g/cm3, and therefore ρ·A = 1.96 kg/m. The modeling process
gives F0 = 0.1828 N and v0 = 0.325 m/s. Thus we find cw = 1.7.
Envelope
For small frictional forces proportional to the square of the velocity, the function describing the envelope is given by

222
CASSY Lab 2
±f(t) = |v0|·sqr(m/D)/(1+4/3π·F0/m/|v0|·t) = s0/(1+4/3π·k·t)


223
CASSY Lab 2
Coupled pendulums with two tachogenerators
Two coupled pendulums swing in phase with a frequency f 1 when they are deflected from the rest position by the
same distance. When the second pendulum is deflected in the opposite direction, the two pendulums oscillate in
opposing phase with the frequency f 2. Deflecting only one pendulum generates a coupled oscillation with the fre-
quency
fn = ½ (f1 + f2)
in which oscillation energy is transferred back and forth between the two pendulums. The first pendulum comes to
rest after a certain time, while the second pendulum simultaneously reaches its greatest amplitude. The time from
one standstill of a pendulum to the next is called Ts. For the corresponding beat frequency, we can say
fs = | f1 – f2 |.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Pair of bar pendulums, 40 cm 346 03
1 Set of weights 340 85
2 Support clips, for plugging in 314 04
2 STE tachogenerators 579 43
2 Support blocks 301 25
1 Stand rod, 25 cm, d = 10 mm 301 26
2 Stand rods, 50 cm, d = 10 cm 301 27
2 Pairs of cables, 100 cm, red and blue 501 46

224
CASSY Lab 2

The motions of the pendulums are transmitted to the tachogenerators. The voltages of the tachogenerators are
measured at Sensor-CASSY inputs A and B. To vary the coupling, the coupling spring can be connected at different
heights.

Load settings
 Start the measurement with and deflect both pendulums in phase (measurement stops after 30 s).
 Start the measurement with and deflect both pendulums in opposing phase (measurement stops after 30 s).
 Start the measurement with and deflect only the first pendulum (measurement stops after 30 s).
Evaluation
Click on the Natural Oscillations display to view the two natural oscillations:
U+ = UA + UB
U- = UA – UB
When the pendulums are excited in phase, only U+ oscillates with a frequency f1; only U- oscillates for opposing
phase oscillation and has the frequency f 2. Only when the single pendulum alone is deflected does the system oscil-
late with both natural frequencies, thus generating the typical beat in the Standard display.
To determine the beat frequency f s and the new oscillation frequency fn, you can mark e.g. the diagram with vertical
lines or measure the difference directly (to increase the accuracy you should average the values over several periods
when determining the oscillation frequency fn).
In this example we obtain f1 = 0.875 Hz, f2 = 0.986 Hz, fn = 0.93 Hz, fs = 0.11 Hz, which closely confirms the theory
fn = ½ (f1 + f2) = 0.93 Hz and fs = | f1 – f2 | = 0.11 Hz.
In the Frequency Spectrum, you can compare the frequencies and amplitudes U+, U- and UA. The easiest way to
determine the frequency is to find the peak centers.
Theory
When we apply suitable approximations (small deflections, negligible weight of coupling spring and pendulum bar, no
damping), the motion equations of the pendulum bodies are as follows:
F1 = ma1 = –Dx1 + C(x2 – x1)
F2 = ma2 = –Dx2 – C(x2 – x1)
-Dxi (where D = mg/l) represents the restoring force of the individual pendulum, and C(x 2 – x1) describes the force of
the coupling between the two pendulums. These resolve to the superposition
x(t) = A cos(ω1·t) + B cos(ω2·t)
with the fundamental frequencies ω1 and ω2. The specific initial conditions provide the values for A and B:
In-phase excitation gives us A = x0, B = 0 (harmonic oscillation with ω1)
Opposing phase excitation gives us A = 0, B = x0 (harmonic oscillation with ω2)
Deflection of one pendulum gives us A = B = ½ x0.
In the latter case we can say:
x(t) = ½ x0 ( cos(ω1·t) + cos(ω2·t) ) = x0 cos(½ωs·t) cos(ωn·t)
where ωs = | ω1 – ω2 | and ωn = ½ (ω1 + ω2) or fs = | f1 – f2 | and fn = ½ (f1 + f2).
When the difference between frequencies f 1 and f2 is small, this equation describes an oscillation with the frequency
fn which is modulated by the slower frequency fs – i.e. a beat.

225
CASSY Lab 2
Coupled pendulums with two rotary motion sensors
Two coupled pendulums swing in phase with a frequency f 1 when they are deflected from the rest position by the
same distance. When the second pendulum is deflected in the opposite direction, the two pendulums oscillate in
opposing phase with the frequency f 2. Deflecting only one pendulum generates a coupled oscillation with the fre-
quency
fn = ½ (f1 + f2)
in which oscillation energy is transferred back and forth between the two pendulums. The first pendulum comes to
rest after a certain time, while the second pendulum simultaneously reaches its greatest amplitude. The time from
one standstill of a pendulum to the next is called Ts. For the corresponding beat frequency, we can say
fs = | f1 – f2 |.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
2 Rotary motion sensors S 524 082
2 Physical pendulums 346 20
1 Stand rod, 25 cm, d = 10 mm 301 26

The pendulums are screwed on the axle of the rotary motion sensors and the masses are attached to the lower end
of the pendulums. To vary the coupling, the coupling spring can be connected at different heights.

Load settings
 Define the zero points in the equilibrium position of the pendulums (→ 0 ← in Settings αA1 and αB1)
 Start the measurement with and deflect both pendulums in phase (measurement stops after 40 s).
 Start the measurement with and deflect both pendulums in opposing phase (measurement stops after 40 s).
 Start the measurement with and deflect only the first pendulum (measurement stops after 40 s).

226
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
Click on the Natural Oscillations display to view the two natural oscillations:
α + = αA + αB
α - = αA – α B
When the pendulums are excited in phase, only α+ oscillates with a frequency f1; only α- oscillates for opposing phase
oscillation and has the frequency f 2. Only when the single pendulum alone is deflected does the system oscillate with
both natural frequencies, thus generating the typical beat in the Standard display.
To determine the beat frequency f s and the new oscillation frequency fn, you can mark e.g. the diagram with vertical
lines or measure the difference directly (to increase the accuracy you should average the values over several periods
when determining the oscillation frequency fn).
In this example we obtain f1 = 1.059 Hz, f2 = 1.151 Hz, fn = 1.097 Hz, fs = 0.092 Hz, which closely confirms the theory
fn = ½ (f1 + f2) = 1.105 Hz and fs = | f1 – f2 | = 0.092 Hz.
In the Frequency Spectrum, you can compare the frequencies and amplitudes α +, α- and αA. The easiest way to
determine the frequency is to find the peak centers.
Theory
When we apply suitable approximations (small deflections, negligible weight of coupling spring and pendulum bar, no
damping), the motion equations of the pendulum bodies are as follows:
F1 = ma1 = –Dx1 + C(x2 – x1)
F2 = ma2 = –Dx2 – C(x2 – x1)
-Dxi (where D = mg/l) represents the restoring force of the individual pendulum, and C(x 2 – x1) describes the force of
the coupling between the two pendulums. These resolve to the superposition
x(t) = A cos(ω1·t) + B cos(ω2·t)
with the fundamental frequencies ω1 and ω2. The specific initial conditions provide the values for A and B:
In-phase excitation gives us A = x0, B = 0 (harmonic oscillation with ω1)
Opposing phase excitation gives us A = 0, B = x0 (harmonic oscillation with ω2)
Deflection of one pendulum gives us A = B = ½ x0.
In the latter case we can say:
x(t) = ½ x0 ( cos(ω1·t) + cos(ω2·t) ) = x0 cos(½ωs·t) cos(ωn·t)
where ωs = | ω1 – ω2 | and ωn = ½ (ω1 + ω2) or fs = | f1 – f2 | and fn = ½ (f1 + f2).
When the difference between frequencies f1 and f2 is small, this equation describes an oscillation with the frequency
fn which is modulated by the slower frequency fs – i.e. a beat.

227
CASSY Lab 2
Three-body problem (with modeling)

The three-body problem of celestial mechanics is the calculation of the paths of e.g. sun, earth and moon. The three
bodies move on account of the gravitational forces acting between them which in the vector notation can be de-
scribed as FS, FE, FM :
The modeling is able to calculate any number of coupled differential equations, including the following 12 differential
equations:
xS' = vxS vxS' = FxS/mS yS' = vyS vyS' = FyS/mS
xE' = vxE vxE' = FxE/mE yE' = vyE vyE' = FyE/mE
xM' = vxM vxM' = FxM/mM yM' = vyM vyM' = FyM/mM
With appropriate initial conditions, this solves the three-body problem.
In order for the calculation to be able to run in real time, in this example some of the constants have been modified,
e.g.:
G = 1 m3/(s2·kg)
mS = 1 kg
mE = 1 g
mM = 0.01 g
This gives distances of the order of magnitude of 1 m, and a year only takes a few seconds.

Load settings
 Start the calculation with .
 Stop the calculation after a few years with .
Evaluation
The first two of Kepler’s laws can be verified:
1. The planets move on elliptical paths at one of the foci of which is the sun.
2. A line connecting the planet to the sun sweeps out the same area in the same time. For confirmation, the evalua-
tion Diagram → Calculate Integral → Area to Origin can be used. As the calculation is carried out at constant inter-
vals, for calculating the integral an equal number of values always have to be marked.Select Value Display → Show
Values , with this as it is already prepared in the display for the evaluation.
Kepler's laws apply exactly only for a two-body problem. For a closer approximation the mass of the moon can be
selected to be even smaller.
The initial conditions have been chosen so that the center of gravity of the system is at the origin of the coordinate
system.
By means of Diagram → Zoom, the movement of the sun at the origin can be investigated more closely.
Change to the initial conditions

The initial velocity of Earth vE0 or the initial distance of the moon from Earth dEM0 can be rapidly modified by dragging
the pointer of the corresponding display unit. This also allows unstable solar systems to be simulated.

228
CASSY Lab 2
Acoustic beats
can also be carried out with Mobile-CASSY 2, Pocket-CASSY and Micro-CASSY
This experiment records a beat caused by two tuning forks having slightly different frequencies. The individual fre-
quencies f1 and f2, the new oscillation frequency f n and the beat frequency fs are determined and compared with the
theoretical values
fn = ½ (f1 + f2) and fs = | f1 – f2 |.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Multi-purpose microphone 586 26

with Base 300 11
or
1 Microphone S 524 059
1 Pair of resonance tuning forks 414 72


Position the two tuning forks and the multipurpose microphone and connect the latter to input A of Sensor-CASSY
(don't forget to set the microphone to "Signal" mode and switch it on). "Mistune" one of the tuning forks slightly by
attaching an additional weight.

Load settings
 Strike the first tuning fork and start the measurement with .
 Optimize the signal strength using the control on the microphone.
 Determine the frequency f1 (e.g. by marking the Standard display with vertical lines or finding the peak center in
the Frequency Spectrum).
 Delete the measurement with .
 Strike the second tuning fork and start the measurement with .

229
CASSY Lab 2
 Find frequency f2.

 Delete the measurement with .
 Strike both tuning forks equally hard and start the measurement with .
Evaluation
When the amplitudes of the two tuning forks are equal, the nodes and antinodes in the beat become clearly distin-
guished. The beat frequency fs is determined from the interval Ts between two nodes as fs = 1/Ts.
To ensure satisfactory accuracy in determining the new oscillation period T n, you should average the measurements
over 10 periods before determining the new oscillation frequency as fn = 1/Tn. To determine the time differences you
can e.g. insert vertical lines in the diagram or measure the difference directly.
In this example we obtain f1 = 425 Hz, f2 = 440 Hz, fn = 433 Hz, fs = 14.5 Hz, which closely confirms the theory f n = ½
(f1 + f2) = 432.5 Hz and fs = | f1 – f2 | = 15 Hz.
Click on the Frequency Spectrum to read out the two frequencies f 1 and f2 of the tuning forks and their amplitudes.
The easiest way to determine the frequency is to find the peak centers.

230
CASSY Lab 2
String vibrations
When a string is stretched, the string length L is equal to half the wavelength of the fundamental mode: L = λ/2.
Therefore the frequency f of the fundamental tone of the string is
f = c/(2L),
where c is the phase velocity of the string. It depends on the tensile force F, the cross-sectional area A, and the den-
sity ρ. This dependence is described by the following relation:
c2 = F/(Aρ)
In this experiment, the vibrational frequency f and thus the pitch of the string is measured as a function of the string
length L and the tensile force F. For this the CASSY is used as a high-resolution stopwatch for measuring the period
of vibration T. The relations f2 ∝ F and f ∝ 1/L are confirmed.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Forked light barrier, infrared 337 46
1 Multicore cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 501 16
1 Monochord 414 01
1 Precision dynamometer, 100 N 314 201

The period of vibration T is measured by means of a forked light barrier, which is positioned between the wooden
resonance box of the monochord and the string. The light barrier is connected to the input A of the Sensor-CASSY
via the timer box by means of the multicore cable.
Experiment notes
The period of vibration T is determined unambiguously if the passages of the string through its position of rest are
determined. For this the string has to be positioned so that the red LED on the side of the forked light barrier does not
shine when the string is in its position of rest. The forked light barrier has two small apertures for the infrared beam.
The best results are obtained if the string is positioned immediately over the smaller one of the two apertures (if nec-
essary, turn the light barrier correspondingly).
The string is made vibrate by plucking it parallel to the surface of the resonance box.

231
CASSY Lab 2
The tensile force F is measured manually with the precision dynamometer. For this the hook is replaced with the
precision dynamometer. The tension of the string on the monochord can be varied by means of a tuning key. In the
first experiment, the best results are obtained if a string tension of 100 N is adjusted at first and then the measure-
ment is carried out starting from high tension to lower tensions.
In the measurement with varying string length L, the string length is varied by displacing the bridge. When plucking
the string, do not touch the part which does not vibrate with the other hand. For an optimal measurement of the peri-
od of vibration T, always position the forked light barrier in the middle of the vibrating part of the string.

a) Variation of the tensile force
Load settings
 Adjust the desired string tension F by turning the tuning key.
 Write the force F displayed on the dynamometer in the prepared column of the table.
 Position the forked light barrier under the string at rest and check whether the red LED is out; if necessary, posi-
tion the forked light barrier anew.
 Make the string vibrate by plucking it (while the string vibrates, the LED shines), and immediately transfer the dis-
played measured value into the table with .
b) Variation of the string length
Load settings
 Adjust the desired string length by positioning the bridge.
 Read the string length, and write it in the prepared column.
 Check whether the red LED is out; if necessary, position the forked light barrier anew.
 Make the string vibrate by plucking it (while the string vibrates, the LED shines), and immediately transfer the dis-
played measured value into the table with .
Evaluation
a) Variation of the tensile force
The T(F) and the f(F) diagram already appear while the measurement is running. In the prepared display Evaluation,
the square of the frequency f is plotted against the tensile force F. The relation f2 ∝ F can be confirmed by fitting a
line through the origin (right mouse button). That means, the pitch, and thus the frequency, of a vibrating string in-
creases with increasing string tension. Correspondingly, the pitch of a string can be lowered by decreasing the string
tension.
b) Variation of the string length
The T(L) and the f(L) diagram already appear while the measurement is running. In the prepared display Evaluation,
the square of the frequency f is plotted against 1/L. The relation f ∝ 1/L can be confirmed by fitting a line through the
origin (right mouse button). That means, the pitch, and thus the frequency, of a vibrating string increases with de-
creasing length.

232
CASSY Lab 2
Velocity of sound in air
This experiment determines the speed of propagation of a sound pulse in air, and thus, since the group and phase
velocities coincide, the velocity of sound. The sound pulse is generated by "shaking" the membrane of a loudspeaker
with a steep voltage edge; this motion causes the pressure variation in the air. The sound pulse is registered by a
microphone at a specified distance from the loudspeaker.
To determine the velocity of sound c, we measure the time t between generation of the pulse at the loudspeaker and
registration at the microphone. As the exact point of origin of the sound pulse in the loudspeaker cannot be deter-
mined directly, two measurements are conducted, once with the microphone located at point s 1, and one at s2. The
velocity of sound is determined from the path difference Δs = s1-s2 and the corresponding difference in the transit
time Δt = t1-t2 as c = Δs/Δt.
The apparatus for sound and velocity lets you heat the air with a heater; at the same time, this apparatus blocks out
ambient effects such as temperature differences and air convection which can interfere with measuring. In this sys-
tem the pressure p remains constant (actual ambient barometric pressure). As the temperature T rises, the density ρ
decreases and the velocity of sound c increases.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Timer box 524 034
1 Temperature box 524 045

1 Temperature sensor NiCr-Ni 666 193
or
1 Temperature sensor NiCr-Ni, type K 529 676
1 Apparatus for sound velocity 413 60

1 Stand for tubes and coils 516 249

233
CASSY Lab 2
1 Tweeter 587 07
1 Transformer 12 V/3.5 A, e.g. 726 890
1 Scaled metal rail, 0.5 m 460 97
2 Saddle bases 300 11

 Attach the heater of the apparatus for sound and velocity in the plastic tube on the plug pins of the cover.
 Place the plastic tube on the stand for tubes and coils and push the tweeter against it so that it seals the plastic
tube as tightly as possible.
 Insert the multipurpose microphone approx. 1 cm deep into the middle hole of the cover and align it so that it
moves parallel to the plastic tube when displaced. Set the function switch of the multipurpose microphone to the
"Trigger" mode. Do not forget to switch the microphone on.
 Lay the scaled metal rail immediately under the saddle base.
 Plug in the timer box at input A and the temperature box at input B on Sensor-CASSY and set up the circuit as
shown in the drawing; set the maximum output voltage at the voltage source S.
Safety notes
The plastic tube of the apparatus for sound and velocity can be destroyed by excessive temperatures.
 Do not heat it above 80 °C.
 Do not exceed the maximum permissible voltage of 25 V (approx. 5 A) for the heating filament.

a) Measuring at room temperature
Load settings
 Store multiple single measurements with .
 Slide the multipurpose microphone all the way into the plastic tube and read off the change in distance Δs from
the scaled metal rail.
 Store multiple single measurements with .
 Determine the velocity of sound using c = Δs/Δt (determine the mean values of the transit times in the diagram
using Draw Mean).
b) Measuring as a function of temperature
Load settings
 Pull out the universal microphone.
 At room temperature, determine the transit time ΔtA1 again and, using the velocity of sound c already determined,
calculate the distance s=c·ΔtA1 between the microphone and the speaker and write this value in the table (click on
the first row in the s-column).
 Connect the heating filament to the voltage supply (12 V / approx. 3.5 A) via the sockets in the cover of the appa-
ratus.
 Save the current transit times with (e.g. every 5 °C).
Evaluation
Once you determine the velocity of sound at room temperature in a) and thus the distance s between the microphone
and the speaker in b), the software calculates the correct sound velocity c for each transit time Δt A1 simultaneously.
The sound velocities are plotted in the Temperature display as a function of the temperature while the measurement
is running. By fitting a straight line you can easily confirm the literature value of
c = (331.3 + 0.6 ·ϑ/°C) m/s.

234
CASSY Lab 2
Determining the velocity of sound in air with 2 microphones
This experiment determines the speed of propagation of a sound pulse in air, and thus, since the group and phase
velocities coincide, the velocity of sound. The sound pulse is generated by banging two stand rods together. This
causes a pressure fluctuation in the air. The sound pulse is recorded in succession by two microphones which are at
a distance Δs from each other.
For determining the velocity of sound c the time interval Δt between the two recordings at the microphones is meas-
ured. The velocity of sound is then obtained from the path difference Δs and the associated run time difference Δt. It
is c = Δs/Δt.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Microphone S or
1 PC microphone 586 281
1 Metal rule, 1 m 311 02

The external microphone is set up in front of the internal microphone at a distance Δs = 0.50 m. When sound is gen-
erated by means of the stand rods, the source of sound has to be located on the direct extension of the line between
the two microphones. Moreover, sound coupling via the table should be as weak as possible because otherwise too
high velocities may be measured.

Load settings
 Trigger several measurements by banging the stand rods together. Thereby noise from the surroundings, which
might affect the measurement, should be avoided.
 Stop the measurement with .
 Increase the distance Δs between the microphones.
 Repeat the measurement.
Evaluation
During the measurement, noise from the surroundings may lead to faulty measurements, which can easily be delet-
ed. For this, just click the faulty value and delete it (backspace).
Next determine the mean values of the run times in the diagram using Draw Mean. There is a comfortable way of
taking every mean value into the display Velocity of sound (mouse click) immediately after it has been calculated by
shifting it from the Status line into the new table (Drag & Drop).

235
CASSY Lab 2
In addition, the associated distance Δs between the two microphones is entered into the corresponding column,
whereby a Δs(Δt) diagram is generated. The slope of the straight line in this diagram is c = Δs/Δt.
The velocity of sound obtained at room temperature is approx. c = 346 m/s.

236
CASSY Lab 2
Determining the velocity of sound in air with ultrasound
In this experiment, the ultrasonic motion sensor S is used as a time-of-flight meter because it is also capable of out-
putting the time-of-flight t directly. The proportionality between the distance and the time-of-flight of ultrasound is
confirmed, and the velocity of sound is calculated.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Ultrasonic motion sensor S 524 0701
1 Extension cable, 15 pin 501 11
1 End buffer from 337 116

Lay the ultrasonic motion sensor on the table and connect it to the input A of the CASSY. Place the end buffer on the
rule at 30 cm distance in front of the ultrasonic motion sensor.

Load settings
 Define the zero of the time-of-flight (→ 0 ← in Settings ΔtA1).
 Enter the distance d=0 in the first column of the table (click on the first field of the table with the mouse).
 Record the first measuring point (d=0 m, Δt) with .
 Displace the end buffer away from the ultrasonic motion sensor by 10 cm, and enter the distance 0.1 m in the first
column of the table (click on the second field of the table with the mouse).
 Record the second measuring point (d=0.1 m, Δt) with .
 Repeat the measurement for greater distances up to approximately 100 cm.
Evaluation
The acoustical path s of the ultrasonic pulse is equal to twice the distance d. This is already taken into account in the
s(t) diagram in the Velocity of sound display. The proportionality between s and t, i.e. s = c·t, is confirmed by the s(t)
diagram. Adapting a straight line through the origin yields a proportionality constant about c = 0.35 m/ms = 350 m/s,
depending on the room temperature.

237
CASSY Lab 2
Velocity of sound in gases
Be careful when handling Minican gas cans

 The cans are pressurized; use only the fine regulating valve (660 980) to discharge gas.
 Protect the cans against sun light or warming over 50 °C.
 Do not use force to open the cans.
 Only dispose of completely emptied cans.
 Never refill the cans.
In this experiment, the velocity of propagation of a sound pulse in carbon dioxide and in the noble gases helium and
neon is determined. As sound waves in gases exhibit only little dispersion, – i.e., the group and phase velocity are
equal to a good approximation when sound propagates in gases – the velocity of sound c can simply be determined
experimentally from the velocity of propagation of a sound pulse:
c2 = p κ/ρ with κ = Cp/CV
κ: adiabatic exponent
ρ: density
p: pressure
Cp, CV: specific heat capacity
The sound pulse is generated by a steep voltage edge which causes the diaphragm of a tweeter to perform a jerky
motion. This motion of the diaphragm leads to a pressure variation in the gas, which can be detected by means of a
microphone.
For determining the velocity of sound c in a gaseous medium, the travel time t between the pulse generation at the
tweeter and the detection at the microphone is measured. As the sound pulse cannot be located exactly at the tweet-
er, the effective measuring distance is first determined by determining the velocity c air of sound in air. To do this, two

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CASSY Lab 2
travel time measurements are carried out with the microphone being located at the location s A1 in one measurement
and at the location sA2 in the other measurement. The velocity of sound in air is then obtained from the path differ-
ence Δs = sA1-sA2 and the associated travel time difference Δt = t1-t2: cair = Δs/Δt. This enables the effective measur-
ing distance seff = cair · t1 to be calculated for the location sA1, which eventually enables a direct measurement of the
velocity of sound in a gas.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Timer box 524 034
1 Apparatus for sound velocity 413 60
1 Tweeter 587 07
1 Scaled metal rail, 0.5 m 460 97
1 Minican gas can, carbon dioxide 660 999
1 Minican gas can, helium 660 984
1 Minican gas can, neon 660 985
1 Fine regulating valve for Minican gas cans 660 980
1 Silicone tubing, 7 x 1.5 mm, 1 m 667 194
1 Rubber tubing, d = 4 mm 604 481
1 Tubing connector 604 510

 Lay the plastic tube (without heating coil) on the stand for tubes and coils, and turn it so that the two hose nipples
are one above the other.
 Move the tweeter close to the plastic tube so that the plastic tube is closed as tight as possible.
 Insert the multipurpose microphone in the central bore of the cap to a depth of approx. 1 cm, and align it so that it
moves parallel to the plastic tube when it is displaced. Set the function switch of the multipurpose microphone to
the "Trigger" mode. Do not forget to switch the microphone on.
 Lay the scaled metal rail immediately under the saddle base.
 Plug the timer box on the input A of the Sensor-CASSY, and set up the circuit as shown in the drawing; set the
maximum output voltage at the voltage source S.
Experiment notes
To avoid unintended loss of gas, turn the handwheel of the fine regulating valve to the right stop before screwing the
fine regulating valve on the gas can.
Any leakage of the measuring apparatus leads to an escape of gas and thus to a distortion of the measuring result;
therefore the tweeter has to be placed as close to the plastic tube as possible.
In order to fill the plastic tube with carbon dioxide, put the silicone tubing on the lower hose nipple of the plastic tube.
In this way, the gas is almost completely exchanged because the lighter air is pressed out through the upper hose
nipple when carbon dioxide enters. Correspondingly, proceed the other way round when filling the plastic tube with
the noble gases helium and neon: when helium or neon, respectively, enters through the upper hose nipple, the air,
which is heavier, is pressed out through the lower hose nipple.
Concerning the measurements on helium and neon, keep in mind that the measuring apparatus cannot be perfectly
sealed so that part of the highly-volatile gas in the plastic tube escapes. This results in a relatively high proportion of
air, which distorts the measurements – therefore the measurements should be carried out quickly.

Load settings
First determine the effective measuring distance seff:
 Insert the multipurpose microphone in the plastic tube by approx. 1 cm, read the position s A1, and write it in the
first line of the table. Write the travel time ΔtA1 in the table with . Repeat the measurement of the travel time
several times to improve the accuracy of measurement.

239
CASSY Lab 2
 Insert the multipurpose microphone entirely in the plastic tube, read the position s A2, and write it in the next line of
the table. Write the travel time ΔtA1 in the table with . Repeat the measurement of the travel time several times
to improve the accuracy of measurement.
 In order to determine the average travel times t1 and t2, select Draw Mean, and determine the velocity of sound in
air cair = Δs/Δt = (sA1-sA2)/(t1-t2).
 Determine the effective measuring distance seff = cair · t1; for this enter the determined travel times t1 and t2 in the
Settings seff (right mouse button on seff) in the formula (sA1-sA2)/(t1-t2)*t1.
Now the velocity of sound in carbon dioxide, helium and neon can be measured directly:
 Shift the multipurpose microphone back to the position sA1.
 Let gas in through the hose nipple. Open the fine regulating valve very cautiously until the gas flowing out of the
gas can is heard.
 Read the velocity of sound, and write it in the prepared display Input in the table or enter it there using drag &
drop. In addition, write the density ρ in the table:
Gas Density ρ Adiabatic exponent κ = Cp/CV
Carbon dioxide 1.98 kg/m3 1.29
Nitrogen (air) 1.25 kg/m3 1.40
Neon 3 1.64
0.90 kg/m
Helium 3 1.63
0.18 kg/m
Evaluation
In the prepared display Evaluation, the relation between c2 and 1/ρ is shown. There you can, e.g. by entering the
formula 101300*1.4*x in Free fit, draw the straight line which corresponds to the mean adiabatic coefficient κ=1.4 at
normal air pressure.
Deviations of the measured values from this straight line are normal, particularly in the case of helium, which is highly
volatile, because then the actual density of the gas is higher.
The great differences in the velocity of sound are essentially due to the different densities ρ of the gases as the dif-
ferences in the adiabatic exponents Cp/CV are relatively small.

240
CASSY Lab 2
Velocity of sound in solid bodies
The object of this experiment is to determine the velocity of sound in aluminum, copper, brass and steel rods. This
measurement exploits the multiple reflections of a brief sound pulse at the rod ends. The pulse is initially generated
by tapping the top end of the rod with a small hammer, and initially runs downward. The pulse is reflected several
times in succession at the two ends of the rod, whereby the pulses arriving at one end are delayed with respect to
each other by the time Δt. As Δt is the sum of the transit time out and back, we can calculate the velocity of sound c
using the rod length s as
c = 2s / Δt.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Set of 3 metal rods 413 651
1 Stand rod, 150 cm 300 46
1 Piezoelectric body 587 251
1 Cable, 200 cm, red 501 35
1 Cable, 200 cm, blue 501 36
1 Small hammer

The metal rods rest on the piezoelectric body, which converts the pressure oscillations of the sound pulses into elec-
trical oscillations. These are recorded at input B of Sensor-CASSY.

Load settings
 Tap the top end of the first metal rod with the small hammer (to generate the trigger signal).

241
CASSY Lab 2
 Repeat the experiment with a different metal rod, or delete a faulty measurement with Measurement → Delete
Current Measurement Series.
Evaluation
You can determine the time differences Δt of the minima or maxima e.g. using 230113853vertical lines, finding the
peak centers or by measuring the difference directly. As Δt is the sum of the transit time out and back, we can calcu-
late the velocity of sound c using the rod length s as
c = 2s / Δt.
This example gives us the following sound velocity values:
Metal Measurement Literature value
Brass 3530 m/s 3500 m/s
Copper 3900 m/s 3800 m/s
Aluminum 5000 m/s 5110 m/s
Steel 5170 m/s 5100 m/s

242
CASSY Lab 2
Fourier analysis of simulated signals

Harmonic analysis is a common method in many applications where time-variant signals (or measured values) occur.
In acoustics, for example, exact knowledge of the overtones of a sound is important for the artificial generation of
sounds or language.
In this experiment, the Fourier transform of simple periodic signals is studied as an introduction to the topic of Fourier
transformation. In a first step, the Fourier transform of a numerically simulated signal is calculated and the frequen-
cies of the associated amplitudes are determined (Fourier analysis). Based on this harmonic analysis, the time-
variant signal is composed in a second step according to Fourier's theorem and compared with the theoretically cal-
culated Fourier series and the numerically simulated original signal (Fourier synthesis).
Experiment setup
Remark: the experiment is a pure simulation experiment on Fourier analysis with CASSY Lab. For an experiment with
electric signals of corresponding shapes see the subsequent experiment. The signals S1 investigated in this experi-
ment are generated by the following functions:
Delta: S1 = 4*(1-2*saw(f*t))
Square wave: S1 = 4*(2*square(f*t)-1)
with the frequency f = 0.5 Hz.
Remarks concerning the Fourier transformation

A continuous time-variant signal S1 is sampled during the computer-aided measurement at certain times. In this way,
a digitized signal is obtained, which can be further processed using common methods of digital signal processing
(improving the signal-to-noise ratio by means of Fourier transformation, smoothing the signal by averaging, etc.). The
sampling theorem tells at what time intervals the signal value has to be measured so that the time dependence of the
signal can be recovered from the digitized measured values (data points). For a digitization of the signal with a suffi-
cient number of data points, the sampling frequency fs has to be at least twice the maximum frequency fmax that oc-
curs in the signal and determines the width of the frequency spectrum. If this condition, fs ≥ 2fmax is not fulfilled, i.e., if
the digitization takes place at a lower sampling frequency f s, the shape of the signal is no longer captured (aliasing).
The sampling frequency fs of the measuring signal is determined by the interval Δt=1/f s set in the Measuring Parame-
ters (Window → Show Measuring Parameters).
Fourier's theorem says that any time-dependent periodic signal S1 can be represented by a weighted sum of sin or
cos functions. For the delta and square-wave functions used in this experiment, the series expansions of S 1 in trigo-
nometric functions up to order 9 read:
Delta:
S3 = 4*8/3.14^2 * (cos(360*f*t) + 1/9*cos(360*3*f*t) + 1/25*cos(360*5*f*t) + 1/49*cos(360*7*f*t)) + 1/81*cos(360*9*f*t)
Square wave:
S3 = 4*4/3.14 * (sin(360*f*t) + 1/3*sin(360*3*f*t) + 1/5*sin(360*5*f*t) + 1/7*sin(360*7*f*t) + 1/9*sin(360*9*f*t)
Thus a discrete frequency spectrum with different amplitudes corresponds to the time-dependent function S1. The
generalization of this decomposition to non-periodic signals leads to the Fourier integral, which assigns a continuous
frequency spectrum F1 to the time-dependent signal S1.
The numerical computation of the frequency spectrum F1 is particularly efficient if a digitized signal of N=2 p data
points is taken as a basis. In this case, only approx. N · log2(N) arithmetic operations have to be carried out instead
of approx. N2 operations. This procedure, which is significantly less time consuming, is called fast Fourier transfor-
mation (FFT).
CASSY Lab computes the frequency spectrum F1 using such an algorithm. However, first of all the given measured
points are weighted so that non-periodic portions on the boundaries do not play an important role (on the boundaries
0, in the middle maximum, Kaiser-Bessel window(4.0)). In order that always exactly 2p measuring points are availa-
ble, zeros are added for measuring points that may be missing.
As a result of the FFT, CASSY Lab displays a total of N/2+1 amplitudes (i.e., phase differences are not evaluated).
These amplitudes are represented as "excess" amplitudes, i.e. A i := Ai-1 + Ai + Ai+1, in order that the amplitudes of
sharp peaks are in approximate agreement with theory. Without this excess, an amplitude determination as it is car-
ried out in this experiment would require the calculation of the sum over all amplitudes of a peak.

243
CASSY Lab 2
There are limitations to the use of FFT for frequency analysis due to two basic relations. The first one relates the
highest frequency fmax that can be analyzed to the sampling frequency f s:
fmax = fs/2.
Any frequency which is greater than f max appears in the frequency spectrum between zero and f max and can then no
longer be distinguished from the frequency contributions which really arise from the range between 0 and f max. The
resulting change in the signal shape is called aliasing.
The second relation relates the resolution of the frequency spectrum Δf (= distance of neighbouring points of the
frequency spectrum) to the sampling frequency fs:
Δf = fmax/(N/2) = fs/N = 1/Δt/N = 1/T
with T = N·Δt.
That means that the resolution of the frequency spectrum can only be increased by a longer measuring time.

Load settings
 Using the mouse, set the pointer of the display instrument f to the desired frequency.
 simulates the recording of measured values of the function S 1. The simulation takes 50 s and records 500 val-
ues (Δt = 100 ms).
Longer recording times increase the frequency resolution of the FFT step by step whereas shorter recording times
decrease the resolution.
Evaluation
The S1(t) diagram of the numerically simulated signal appears already during the simulation of the measurement.
After the simulation, the Fourier transform F1 is available in the display Frequency Spectrum.
The frequency spectrum exhibits peaks at odd multiples of the set signal frequency f, i.e. at f, 3*f, 5*f, 7*f, etc.. The
amplitudes of the peaks can be read by clicking the curve or from the coordinate display.
Now enter the first 5 amplitudes as coefficients of the sin(360*n*f*t) functions in the Settings A1, A3, A5, A7 and A9
for the analysis. In the display Fourier Analysis, the time dependence of the individual terms A1, A3, A5, A7 and A9 is
shown.
In the diagram Fourier Synthesis, the series S2 = A1 + A3 + A5 + A7 + A9 which has been determined experimentally
is compared with theoretical Fourier series S3 and the numerically simulated function S1. It turns out that in practical
applications the periodic signal S1 is satisfactorily approximated by a trigonometric polynomial S 2 or S3, respectively,
containing only a few terms.

244
CASSY Lab 2
Fourier analysis of signals of a function generator
Harmonic analysis is a common method in many applications where time-variant signals (or measured values) occur.
In acoustics, for example, exact knowledge of the overtones of a sound is important for the artificial generation of
sounds or language. In metrology, Fourier analysis is used, for example, for checking electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) of electronic devices.
In this experiment, the Fourier transform of simple periodic signal shapes is studied as an introduction to the topic of
Fourier transformation. Electric (analog) signals of a function generator are read, and the Fourier transform of the
digitized signal is calculated. From the frequency spectrum the amplitudes of the different harmonics (Fourier analy-
sis) are calculated and compared with the theoretical values.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Function generator S12 522 621

Connect the continuously adjustable signal of the function generator to the input A of the Sensor-CASSY.
Remark: This experiment concerns the Fourier analysis of digitized signals of a function generator. For remarks con-
cerning fast Fourier analysis and the treatment of the Fourier synthesis of corresponding signal shapes see the pre-
vious simulation experiment.
Experiment notes
For some types of function generators it may be necessary to set the DC offset exactly to zero in order to avoid dis-
torted frequency spectra.

Load settings
 Set the desired signal shape and a frequency of approx. 500 Hz at the function generator (set the DC offset to
zero).
 Start the measurement with for recording the signal.
 If necessary, adjust the sampling rate (interval) and the number of measuring points in the Measuring Parameters
(Window → Show Measuring Parameters) corresponding to the selected signal frequency in order to obtain a
frequency spectrum of sufficient resolution.

245
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
While the signal is recorded, the UA1(t) diagram already appears, representing a digitized version of the analog signal
of the function generator. After the signal UA1 has been recorded, the Fourier transform of UA1 is available for the
harmonic analysis in the display Frequency Spectrum.
For determining the amplitudes of the harmonics, carry out the following steps one after another:
 Select the display Frequency Spectrum, and determine the amplitudes of the harmonics of order N with a hori-
zontal line.
 Go to the display Evaluation, transfer the value of the amplitude from the status line into the prepared table in
column A using the mouse (drag & drop), and enter the order N of the N-th harmonic.
The theoretical dependence of the amplitudes of the N-th harmonics can be confirmed for the respective signal shape
by a subsequent free fit to a hyperbola A/x2 (delta: N = 1, 3, 5, ...) or A/x (square wave: N = 1, 3, 5, ...; sawtooth: N =
1, 2, 3, 4, ...), respectively. Alternatively, the dependence of the amplitudes on N obtained by way of theoretical calcu-
lations can be checked by converting the x-axis into 1/x2 (delta) or 1/x (square wave, sawtooth) and a subsequent fit
to a line through the origin.
Depending on the signal shape selected, the frequency spectrum also exhibits contributions of small amplitudes at
frequencies between the theoretical frequencies (e.g. between N = 1, 3, 5, ... in the case of the delta signal). This is
due to the fact that the signal shape is not ideal and that the signal is not strictly periodic over the range covered by
the recording time window.
Remark: for an example of using Power CASSY as a function generator see the experiment on sonic synthesis.

246
CASSY Lab 2
Sound analysis
The object of this experiment is the analysis of sounds having different tones and pitches (e.g. sounds of the human
voice or of musical instruments) by means of Fourier analysis. The resulting frequency spectrum shows the funda-
mental frequency f0 and the harmonics.
The various vowels of a language differ mainly in the amplitudes of their harmonics. The fundamental frequency f 0
depends on the pitch of the voice. This is approx. 200 Hz for high-pitched voices and approx. 80 Hz for low-pitched
voices. The vocal tone is determined by variations in the excitation of the harmonics. The same applies for the tone of
musical instruments.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

with Base 300 11
or
1 Microphone S 524 059

Connect the multipurpose microphone to input A of Sensor-CASSY (don't forget to set the microphone to "Signal"
mode and switch it on).

Load settings
 Select the Standard display and optimize the signal strength using the control on the microphone.
 Record and compare different sounds (Standard shows the signal form and Frequency Spectrum shows the
Fourier analysis).

247
CASSY Lab 2
 To stop the measurement, deactivate Repeating Measurement in the Measuring Parameters window or press
immediately after the end of a recording.
 To compare different frequency spectra, select Measurement → Append New Measurement Series and restart
the measurement with .
Evaluation
The fundamental frequency and each harmonic can be determined easily in the Frequency Spectrum (click with the
mouse) using the coordinate display or by finding the peak centers. The amplitudes of the harmonics determine the
tone of the recorded sound.
As the human ear perceives sound intensities in a logarithmic fashion, the logarithmic display of the frequency spec-
trum is better suited to the sensitivity of the human ear than a linear representation. Select the logarithmic represen-
tation by clicking on the y-axis of the frequency spectrum with the right mouse button (increase the lower limit, e.g. to
–3).

248
CASSY Lab 2
Sonic synthesis
This experiment generates sounds of different timbre and pitch by defining the fundamental frequency f 0 as well as
the amplitude ratio between the fundamental frequency and its harmonics. The result is visible as an oscillogram and
a frequency spectrum, and audible as a tone.
This experiment verifies that the timbre of a sound is determined by the specific excitation of harmonics. Also, the
experiment illustrates how periodic functions can be generated through the harmonic combination of sinusoidal oscil-
lations.
Equipment list
1 Power-CASSY 524 011 or 524 011USB
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Broad band speaker 587 08

Connect the speaker to the output of Power-CASSY.

Load settings
 A square-wave oscillation approximated using sinusoidal oscillations is output at the loudspeaker. The formula for
the curve form was defined as synth(1:0:1/3:0:1/5:0:1/7:0:1/9:0:1/11:0:1/13:0: 1/15:0:1/17:0:1/19). This is an
abbreviation for the long form 1*sin(360*x)+ 0*sin(2*360*x)+ 1/3*sin(3*360*x)+ 0*sin(4*360*x)+ 1/5*sin(5*360*x)+
0*sin(6*360*x)+ 1/7*sin(7*360*x)+ 0*sin(8*360*x)+ 1/9*sin(9*360*x)+ 0*sin(10*360*x)+ 1/11*sin(11*360*x)+
0*sin(12*360*x)+ 1/13*sin(13*360*x)+ 0*sin(14*360*x)+ 1/15*sin(15*360*x)+ 0*sin(16*360*x)+
1/17*sin(17*360*x)+ 0*sin(18*360*x)+ 1/19*sin(19*360*x), which could also be entered.
 You can change the amplitudes of individual harmonics in the Settings U1. You can set the fundamental frequen-
cy and the amplitude here as well. The result is immediately audible, as well as visible using after the start of
the measurement.
 To approximately synthesize a triangular signal, we can use the formula synth(1:0:-1/3^2:0:1/5^2:0:-1/7^2:0:
1/9^2:0:-1/11^2:0:1/13^2). You do not need to type in this formula; simply copy it from this help text and insert it
in the formula box (right mouse button).
Evaluation
After recording with , we can readily observe a change in the ratios of the amplitudes of the harmonics in the Fre-
quency Spectrum display (click on this tab with the mouse).

249
CASSY Lab 2
Conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy
Safety note
Make sure that the experimenter stands so that he or she cannot be injured when the 5 kg weight is dropped inad-
vertently.
Energy is one of the fundamental quantities in physics. Energy occurs in different forms, which can be converted one
into the other. In a closed system, the total energy is conserved in the course of conversion processes.
In this experiment, the equivalence of mechanical energy E m and thermal energy Eth is established experimentally.
Mechanical work Em is expended by turning a crank handle against the frictional force. This leads to a temperature
rise of the calorimeter and thus to an increase in the thermal energy E th. The two energy forms can be registered
quantitatively in units of newton meter (Nm) and Joule (J) by measuring the temperature ϑ and the number of revolu-
tions so that their numerical equivalence can be demonstrated experimentally: E m = Eth.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

or
1 Forked light barrier, infrared 337 46

1 Equivalent of heat, basic apparatus 388 00

250
CASSY Lab 2
1 Calorimeter
e.g.
water calorimeter 388 01
or
copper calorimeter with heating 388 02
or
aluminum calorimeter with heating 388 03
or
large aluminum calorimeter with heating 388 04
1 Clamp with jaw clamp 301 11
1 Weight, 5 kg 388 24

 Fasten the equivalent of heat basic apparatus to a corner of the table.
 Fasten the bench clamp at the edge of the table at a distance of approx. 40 cm from the plastic mounting of the
basic apparatus. Clamp the clamp with jaw clamp with the aid of the stand rod 25 cm in order to be able to fix the
temperature sensor as shown in the drawing.
 Set up the calorimeter so that the bore points upwards and pour water into the opening.
 Insert the gasket in the bore, and hold it with the locking screw.
 Attach the filled calorimeter body to the basic apparatus by inserting the rivet pins in the sockets of the plastic
mounting and twisting the calorimeter body to lock the pins in place.
 Insert the temperature sensor as deeply as possible in the opening of the calorimeter, and tighten the locking
screw of the calorimeter. Fix the temperature sensor by means of the stand material that has already been pre-
pared as shown in the drawing.
 Put the 5 kg weight under the calorimeter body.
 Wind the nylon band approx. 4 times (6 at maximum) around the calorimeter, and attach it to the weight on the
floor. The weight has to hang down on the side of the crank on the front.
 Operate the crank handle, and check whether the 5 kg weight is lifted a few centimeters and is kept at a constant
height when the handle is turned further. If it is lifted too high, reduce the number of turns of the nylon band; if it
does not lift at all, increase the number of turns.
 For measuring the number of revolutions NA1 (=number of obscurations), position the forked light barrier with the
aid of the stand base as shown in the drawing, and connect it to the input A of the Sensor-CASSY via the timer
box.
 Connect the temperature sensor to the input B of the Sensor-CASSY via the temperature box (socket T1) for
measuring the temperature ϑB11.

Load settings
 Set the number of revolutions to zero by clicking → 0 ← in Settings NA1.
 Turn the crank handle, and measure the increase in temperature as a function of the number of revolutions.
 Stop the measurement with at the desired final temperature ϑB11.
Evaluation
The temperature ϑB11 is already displayed graphically as a function of the number of revolutions NA1 during the
measurement. In the prepared diagram Evaluation, the thermal energy is plotted against the mechanical energy that
has been provided by turning the crank against the friction. The mechanical energy Em is equal to the product of the
frictional force and the covered path s:
Em = F·s
with F = m·g
F = frictional force
m = mass of the weight = 5 kg
g = acceleration of gravity = 9.81 m/s2
and s = N·d·π

251
CASSY Lab 2
s = frictional path
N = number of revolutions
d = diameter of the calorimeter = 0.047 m
Thus the mechanical energy is: Em = m·g·d·π·N.
The increase in thermal energy as a result of the temperature increase is given by:
Eth = C·(ϑ2 - ϑ1)
The heat capacity C depends on the calorimeter used and has to be entered in the Settings C according to the follow-
ing table:
Calorimeter Heat capacity C/(J/K)
Water (388 01) 40 + mH2O/g · 4.2 (mass of the water in g)
Copper (388 02) 264 + 4.2 (for 1 g water in the bore)
Aluminum (388 03) 188 + 4.2 (for 1 g water in the bore)
Aluminum, large (388 04) 384 + 4.2 (for 1 g water in the bore)
The equivalence of the mechanical energy Em and the thermal energy Eth can be confirmed by means of a fit to a line
through the origin. Usually the slope of the straight line through the origin is somewhat smaller than 1. This is due to
heat loss which is not registered, e.g. by thermal contact of the calorimeter with the nylon band or the plastic mount-
ing.

252
CASSY Lab 2
Conversion of electrical energy into thermal energy
Alternatively:
Safety note
Danger of implosion: the Dewar vessel is a thin-walled, highly evacuated glass vessel which can break under me-
chanical stress.
Do not knock or drop the Dewar vessel.
Do not allow any hard objects to fall on or into the glass mantle.
Do not scratch the glass mantle with sharp objects.

253
CASSY Lab 2
Energy is a measure of stored work. It occurs in different forms, which can be converted one into the other. In a
closed system, the total energy is conserved in conversion processes. therefore the energy is one of the fundamental
quantities of physics.
In this experiment, the equivalence of electrical energy E el and thermal energy Eth is established experimentally. The
supplied electrical energy Eel is converted into heat Eth in the heating coil (or heating spiral). This leads to a tempera-
ture rise in the calorimeter (or water, in which the heating spiral is immersed). As the current I and the temperature ϑ
are measured simultaneously as functions of the time, the constant voltage U being known, the two energy forms can
be registered quantitatively in units of wattsecond (Ws) and Joule so that their numerical equivalence can be demon-
strated experimentally: Eel = Eth.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

or
1 Voltage source, 0...12 V, e.g. 521 491

1 Calorimeter with connecting cables,
e.g.
copper calorimeter with heating 388 02
pair of connecting cables for calorimeter 388 06
or
aluminum calorimeter with heating 388 03
or
large aluminum calorimeter with heating 388 04
or
Electric calorimeter attachment 384 20
Dewar vessel 386 48
Beaker, squat shape, Duran, 250 ml 664 103
Graduated cylinder, plastic base, 250 ml 665 755
Pair of cables, 50 cm, red and blue 501 45
Connecting lead, 50 cm, black 501 28
Experiment setup with calorimeter (see drawing)

 Set up the calorimeter so that the bore points upwards and pour water into the opening.
 Insert the gasket in the bore, and hold it with the locking screw.
 Insert the temperature sensor as deeply as possible in the opening of the calorimeter, and tighten the locking
screw of the calorimeter.
 For the current and voltage measurement, connect the CASSY to the variable extra-low voltage transformer S as
shown in the drawing.
 Connect the heating coil of the calorimeter to the input A of the Sensor-CASSY (plug the large banana plugs to-
gether and connect one cable to the blue safety socket and one cable to the red safety socket).
Experiment setup with electric calorimeter attachment (see drawing)

 Using the graduated cylinder, pour approx. 200 ml of water into the Dewar vessel.
 Put the electric calorimeter attachment into the Dewar vessel, and fix the cover with the aid of the springs.
 Immerse the temperature sensor with the sealing washer in the Dewar vessel through the rubber stopper. The
temperature sensor has to be held by the sealing washer so that the tip of the sensor is below the heating spiral.
However, the tip of the temperature sensor must not touch the bottom of the Dewar vessel.

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CASSY Lab 2
 For the current and voltage measurement, connect the CASSY to the variable extra-low voltage transformer S as
shown in the drawing.
 Connect the heating spirals in series to the input A of the Sensor-CASSY (lay a cable from one heating spiral to
the red safety socket and another cable from the other heating spiral to the blue safety socket, and connect the
free connectors with a black cable).
Experiment note
If the experiment is carried out with the electric calorimeter attachment, the water has to be stirred while the voltage is
switched on in order that the warming takes place uniformly. Slowly move the stirrer up and down during the meas-
urement.

Load settings
 Select the Voltage UA1 as measurement quantity in Settings IA1.
 Switch the variable extra-low voltage transformer S on, and set the voltage UA1 to approx. 9 V (calorimeter) or
approx. 4 V (electric calorimeter attachment).
 Read the exact value of UA1, and enter it in Settings U as parameter.
 Switch the variable extra-low voltage transformer S off, and select the Current IA1 as measurement quantity and
0...2.1 A as range in Settings UA1.
 When the initial temperature ϑB11 is constant, start the measurment with .
 Switch the variable extra-low voltage transformer S on, and switch it off again at the desired final temperature
ϑB11.
 Stop the measurement with when a constant final temperature is reached.
Evaluation
The temperature ϑB11 and the current IA1 are already displayed graphically as functions of the time during the meas-
urement. The thermal energy Eth = C · (ϑB11 - ϑ1) is plotted against the electrical energy Eel = ∑ U·I·Δt in the pre-
pared diagram Evaluation. The heat capacity C depends on the calorimeter used and has to be entered in the Set-
tings C according to the following table:
Calorimeter Heat capacity C/(J/K)
Copper (388 02) 264 + 4.2 (for 1 g water in the bore)
Aluminum (388 03) 188 + 4.2 (for 1 g water in the bore)
Aluminum, large (388 04) 384 + 4.2 (for 1 g water in the bore)
Electr. calorimeter attachment (384 20) (mH2O/g + 24) · 4.2 (with the mass of the water in g and the
with Dewar vessel (386 48) water equivalent mD = 24 g of the Dewar vessel)
The equivalence of the electrical energy Eel and the thermal energy Eth can be confirmed by fitting a line through the
origin. Usually the slope of the straight line through the origin is somewhat smaller than 1 because of heat loss due to
emission of heat radiation. This becomes particularly obvious in the case of long measuring times, where the measur-
ing data deviate significantly from the straight line through the origin.
Hint
As an alternative, the measurement can be evaluated manually: determine the mean value of the initial temperature
ϑ1 and the final temperature ϑ2 (select Draw Mean with the right mouse button), and calculate the thermal energy
Eth = C · (ϑ2 - ϑ1). Determine the time of electrical energy supply with Set Marker → Measure Difference, calculate
Eel = U · I · Δt, and compare it with Eth.

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CASSY Lab 2
pV diagram of a hot-air engine
Safety notes
 Before each experiment, make sure that the hot plate is seated in the notches and the heating filament does not
touch the displacement piston.
 The heating head of the hot air engine can become very hot and the connecting rods of the drive and displace-
ment pistons can cause injury when the engine is running. Therefore always use the touch protection covers
when the engine is in operation.
 Never use the engine without a cooling water flow. You can connect the engine to tap water or use a circulation
pump with reservoir; in this case the use of distilled or boiled (scale-free) water is recommended.
If the flow should drop off when using tap water, flush the entire system with a warm scale-removing compound.
 Lubricate the two cylinders of the hot air engine regularly with silicone oil. The easiest way to do this to remove
the hot plate, move the displacement piston to bottom dead center and, using a straw, drip silicone oil from a
squeeze bottle so that it runs down the wall of the cylinder onto the top piston ring. As the seal is not fully tight,
sufficient oil will reach the lower piston ring in a short time.
When lubrication is insufficient the engine becomes loud and only runs at a reduced speed!
 Never connect the mains coil (562 21) without the transformer core.
Thermodynamic cycles are often described as a closed curve in a pV diagram (p: pressure, V: volume). The work
added to or withdrawn from the system (depending on the direction of rotation) corresponds to the area enclosed by
the curve.
This experiment records the pV diagram of a hot air engine operated as a heat engine. The pressure sensor
measures the pressure p in the cylinder and a displacement sensor measures the position s, from which the volume

256
CASSY Lab 2
is calculated, as a function of the time t. The measured values are displayed on the screen directly in a pV diagram.
In the further evaluation, the mechanical work performed as piston friction per cycle
is calculated.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Current source box 524 031

with Displacement transducer and 529 031
or
1 B box 524 038

with Pressure sensor and 529 038
Multi-core cable, 6-pole 501 16
or
1 Pressure sensor S, ±2000 hPa 524 064
1 Hot air engine 388 182

1 Helical spring 352 08
1 U-core with yoke 562 11
1 Clamping device with spring clip 562 121
1 Mains coil, 500 turns 562 21
1 Low-voltage coil, 50 turns 562 18
2 PVC tubings,  8 mm 667 194
1 Immersion pump 12 V 388 181
1 Low-voltage power supply 521 231
1 Can 604 3131
2 Connecting leads, 100 cm, black 501 33
1 Water reservoir 10 l

Set up the demountable transformer and clamp the yoke onto it.
Set up the hot plate as described in the experiment setup and connect the heater to the two outermost sockets of the
low-voltage coil using the two connecting leads.
Connect the hose of the pressure sensor to the pressure fitting of the working-piston connecting rod. The pressure
sensor is connected to the B box at input B of Sensor-CASSY. Attach the displacement transducer to the base plate
with two coupling plugs and connect it to input A via the current source box; wind a cord as shown in the diagram.
The working piston is provided with a pin with eyelet at the bottom end for attaching the cord. Hang the restoring
spring in the hole on the frame head. This must be under tension when the cylinder is at bottom dead center. Wind
the cord two times around the pulley of the displacement transducer to prevent slip! Set the potentiometer so that a
volume of approx. 50 cm3 is indicated when the working cylinder is at top dead center.

Load settings
 Test the displacement transducer to ensure that it is working properly: turn the motor once by hand and observe
whether the volume display is within the measuring range. If it is not, loosen the cord slightly and turn the wheel of
the displacement transducer until the displayed value is correct.
 Turn on the heating using the switch at the mains coil. When starting the first time, you should wait approx. 1 mi-
nute before pushing the motor, until the gas is hot enough for easy starting. In subsequent experiments you can
start the motor when the heating coil begins to glow.
 Start the measurement with . The software automatically records and displays the predefined number of meas-
uring points; the measurement is set to run for just a few cycles to simplify the subsequent integration.

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CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
Determination of volume (already conducted in example): the inside diameter of the working cylinder is 60 mm, which
gives us a piston surface area of 28.3 cm2. Together with the path sA1, we obtain the formula for the volume with the
corresponding measuring instrument.
The work per cycle is determined from the enclosed area. We obtain this as follows: select Calculate Integral (Peak
Area) in the Evaluations menu (click the right mouse button in the diagram) and mark one cycle (click on the starting
point, hold down the left mouse button and drag the pointer along the cycle). The measuring points used for integra-
tion are highlighted. It is usually not possible to capture all measuring points of a cycle; however, it has no effect on
the calculation of the area if one or two measuring points are substituted by a straight line. When you release the
mouse button, the area is filled in and the corresponding value is displayed in the status line.
In this example, we obtain a value for work W = 18,900 hPa·cm3 = 1.89 Nm.
Remark
The power of the motor is P = W · f with the f being the no-load frequency or speed.
You can determine the frequency f using a light barrier and a counter. Another way is to use the Frequency Spec-
trum display (click on this tab with the mouse). However, better frequency resolution requires more measured values
than recorded in the example (increase the number from 125 to e.g. 2000 in the Measuring Parameters dialog).

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CASSY Lab 2
Coulomb's law
can also be carried out with Mobile-CASSY 2, Pocket-CASSY and Mobile-CASSY
Use caution when working with high voltage

The plug pin is under high voltage and must never be allowed to touch either the experimenter or any parts of the
experiment setup! In particular, neither the force sensor nor Sensor-CASSY are protected against high voltage.
Furthermore, the distance between the high voltage cable and the other insulated cables should be kept at its maxi-
mum value while the length of time the high voltage is switched on be kept to a minimum.
Earthing of experimental setup and experimenter

In order to reduce the risk of damage from high voltage, the force sensor and the Sensor-CASSY should be earthed.
With the Sensor-CASSY 1 (524 010), both ground sockets of the analog inputs are to be connected to earth if at all
possible. With Sensor-CASSY 2 (524 013), the black socket on the voltage source S is suitable for this.
Please do not mistake the earth socket (yellow-green) on the high voltage power unit for the negative socket (blue).
In order to prevent interference from induced charges, during the experiment the experimenter should hold an
earthed rod in his/her hand.
Two spheres with identical or opposing charges exert a force on each other. This force is proportional to the charge
Q on each sphere and inversely proportional to the square of the distance x between the spheres. The experiment
verifies the proportionality F ∝ 1/x2.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Bridge box 524 041

with Force sensor and 314 261
Multicore cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m 501 16
or

259
CASSY Lab 2

or
1 High voltage power supply 25 kV 521 721

1 Cable for high voltages, 1.5 m 501 051
1 Set of bodies for electric charge 314 263
1 Precision metal rail 460 82
1 Trolley 1 337 00
2 Clamp riders 460 95
1 Small clip plug 590 02
1 Connection rod 532 16
1 Connecting lead, 25 cm, black 500 414
1 Cable, 200 cm, yellow-green 501 43

The force sensor is connected to the bridge box at input A of Sensor-CASSY. Place one of the spheres from the set
of bodies for electric charge on the force sensor using the insulating spacer. Place the second sphere on the trolley,
which should be able to move freely along the precision metal rail as far as the clamp rider.
The distance between the spheres is measured by the displacement transducer connected to the current supply box
at input B of Sensor-CASSY. To this end, lay a thread from the trolley over the deflection pulley of the motion trans-
ducer and tie a weight to it. Make sure the path indicator sB1 increases with the distance and reads approx. 0 cm at
contact.
For safety reasons the current supply box and the force sensor have to be grounded. Connect the force sensor to the
ground socket of the high voltage power supply using a clip plug and a connecting lead.
Experiment notes
Imparting sufficient charge to the spheres, and maintaining this charge (at least during the brief period of this experi-
ment), is an essential prerequisite for the success of this experiment. After charging the two spheres, you should be
able to measure a force of at least 5 mN at a distance of 0.5 cm, and this force should remain constant for a few sec-
onds. If not:
 Clean the insulators and spheres (e.g. with water and dish soap; rinse with distilled water)
 Dry the insulators and spheres (e.g. carefully with the non-luminous flame of a Bunsen burner or with hot air from
a blow dryer).
 Avoid open flames in the vicinity of the experiment while conducting the experiment (otherwise this ionizes the
air).
 You can try other charge sources (e.g. a PVC rod rubbed in freshly washed hair) as an alternative to the high
voltage source.
 However, you need dry weather for this.

Load settings
 Calibrate the path zero point: allow the spheres to touch, select Correct in the Settings sB1 dialog, set the first
target value to 3.8 cm (distance between sphere centers) and click on Correct Offset.
 Put the spheres in the starting position with a gap of about 0.5 cm between them.
 Discharge both spheres using the grounded connection rod.
 Set the force zero point in Settings FA1 with → 0 ← (repeat as required) and, where necessary, switch on the
smoothing LED of the bridge box with LED On/Off.

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CASSY Lab 2
 Charge the spheres with like or unlike charges by connecting one pole of the high voltage supply to ground and
placing the other against the sphere for a few seconds. This should produce a force of at least 5 mN (see experi-
ment notes above). If necessary, you can change the zero point of the force instrument (and thus the y-axis of the
diagram) in Settings FA1 from center to left or right.
 Slowly move the trolley away from the force sensor by hand.
 Stop the measurement with at approx. 15 cm.
Evaluation
The F(x) diagram appears during the measurement. You can verify Coulomb's law by fitting a hyperbola 1/x2 or by
converting the x-axis to 1/x2 (click on the axis with the right mouse button) and then fitting a straight line.
It becomes apparent that the proportionality F ∝ 1/x2 does not apply until a distance of approx. 6 cm between the two
sphere centers is reached. At shorter distances the spacing would have to be corrected, as these are not point-
shaped charges.

261
CASSY Lab 2
Force in the magnetic field of an air coil
Magnetic flux density, or more simply the magnetic field B, is a vectorial quantity. A force F acts on a charge q pass-
ing through a magnetic field B with a velocity v; the size of the force depends on the strength and direction of the
magnetic field. We can say
F = q · (v × B).
The Lorentz force F is also a vectorial quantity, and is perpendicular to the plane defined by v and B.
We can understand the force acting on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field as the sum of the individual
forces acting on the moving charge carriers which make up the current. The Lorentz force F acts on every single
charge carrier q moving with the drift velocity v. For a straight conductor, this gives us the total force
F = q · nAs · (v × B),
as the number of charge carriers in the conductor is the product of the density n of the charge carriers, the conductor
cross-section A and the length s of the section of the conductor within the magnetic field.
It is common to introduce the vector s, which points along the direction of the conductor segment. Also, the product
qnAv is equivalent to the current I. Thus, the force of a magnetic field on a straight, current-carrying conductor section
is defined by
F = I · (s × B)
and the absolute value of the force by
F = I · s · B,

262
CASSY Lab 2
when s and B are perpendicular to each other. The force F and the current I are thus proportional to each other, and
the proportionality factor is B.
This experiment measures the force on a conductor loop in a homogeneous magnetic field of an air coil as a function
of the conductor loop current I. The homogeneous magnetic field is generated in a long, slotted air coil, and the con-
ductor loop with the length s = 8 cm attached to the force sensor is inserted in the slit. Only the horizontal part of the
conductor generates a force component that can be measured by the force sensor. Thus, the proportionality between
force F and conductor loop current I can be used to determine the magnetic flux density B.
The advantage of the air coil is that the magnetic flux density B within it can be calculated easily and compared with
the value arrived at through experiment. For a long air coil, we can say
B = μ0· N · IC / L
with the magnetic field constant μ0 = 4π·10-7 Vs/Am, the number of turns N of the coils, the coil current I C and the
length L of the air coil.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

or
1 30-A box 524 043(1)

1 Support for conductor loops 314 265
1 Conductor loops for force measurement 516 34
1 Field coil, d = 120 mm 516 244
1 DC power supply 0...20 A 726 890
1 DC power supply 0...16 V 521 546
1 Connecting lead, 50 cm, blue 501 26
2 Connecting leads, 100 cm, red 501 30
2 Connecting leads, 100 cm, blue 501 31

The force sensor holds the 8 cm long conductor loop via the support and is positioned so that the conductor loop is
inserted in the slot of the air coil. The conductor loop must not touch the air coil. The two 4-mm sockets on the bottom
of the force sensor are intended for supplying the conductor loop support. They are not connected internally. The
force sensor is connected to the bridge box at input A of Sensor-CASSY.
The current flows from the 20 A supply unit via the 30 A box on input B of Sensor-CASSY through the conductor loop
and back to the power supply. The current of the second 5 A power supply flows through the air coil.

Load settings
 Set the force zero point in Settings Force FA1 with → 0 ← and, where necessary, switch on the smoothing LED of
the bridge box with LED On/Off.
 You may want to set the current zero point in Settings IB1 with → 0 ←.
 At the power supply of the air coil, set about IC = 5 A.
 Increase the conductor loop current I from 0-20 A in steps of 2 to 5 A, and record a measured value with each
time. You can delete a faulty measurement from the table with Table → Delete Last Table Row.
 If only negative forces are measured, reverse the connections on the conductor loop support.
 Carry out the experiment rapidly, as the conductor loop and support may be subjected to loads of 20 A only brief-
ly.
 At the end of the experiment, set the conductor loop current to 0 A.

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CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
The force increases linearly with the current. The proportionality factor F/I = B·s is derived from the slope of the
straight line fit. This in turn enables us to determine the magnetic field strength B.
In this example F/I = 0.138 mN/A and with s = 0.08 m it follows that B = 1.725 mT.
Using B = μ0· N · IC / L the values μ0 = 1.257 μVs/Am, N = 120, IC = 4.75 A and L = 0.41 m give us the calculated
value B = 1.75 mT. The two results agree very well within the limits of measuring accuracy.

264
CASSY Lab 2
Force in the magnetic field of an electromagnet
In this experiment, a homogeneous magnetic field B is generated using an electromagnet with U core and pole-shoe
yoke. The object is to measure the force F acting on a conductor loop as a function of the current I (F proportional to
I). The measuring results for different conductor lengths s are compiled and evaluated in the overview graph (F/I
proportional to s). The ultimate aim is to verify
F=I·s·B
By means of differentiation we verify Faraday's law of induction
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

or
1 30-A box 524 043(1)

265
CASSY Lab 2

1 Conductor loops for force measurement 516 34
2 Coils with 500 turns 562 14
1 Pole-shoe yoke 562 25
1 DC power supply 0...16 V 521 546

Slide the two coils onto the U-core. Place the two heavy pole pieces transversely on top of them. You can adjust the
height using the lateral stand. The gap can be changed by moving one of the two pole pieces and adjusted with non-
magnetic spacers.
The force sensor holds a conductor loop via the support and is positioned so that the conductor loop is inserted in the
gap between the pole pieces of the electromagnet. The conductor loop must not touch the pole pieces. The two 4-
mm sockets on the bottom of the force sensor are intended for supplying the conductor loop support. They are not
connected internally. The force sensor is connected to the bridge box at input A of Sensor-CASSY.
The current flows from the 20 A supply unit via the 30 A box on input B of Sensor-CASSY through the conductor loop
and back to the power supply. The current of the second 5 A power supply flows through the two coils on series.
Make sure that the magnetic fields of the two coils add together (connect A to A and both E to the power supply as
shown in the drawing).

Load settings
 At the power supply of the coils, set about 2.5 A.
 Increase the conductor loop current I from 0-20 A in steps of 2 to 5 A, and record a measured value with each
time. You can delete a faulty measurement from the table with Table → Delete Last Table Row.
ly.
 Record additional measurement curves with a different conductor loop length s. Select Measurement → Append
new Measurement Series.
Evaluation
Fit a straight line to each measurement series F(I). After each best-fit straight line, switch to the display Magnetic
Field (click the tab with the mouse). Here, an additional table is filled out by dragging the slope F/I just determined
from the status line using the mouse and dropping it next to the respective conductor loop length (drag & drop). Enter
the conductor loop length s directly via the keyboard. The desired diagram is generated as you enter the values.
In this display, the slope of the best-fit straight line gives us the magnetic field strength B between the pole pieces, as
F/I = B·s (in this example, B = 164 mN/(A·m) = 164 mT).

266
CASSY Lab 2
Force between two current-carrying conductors (ampere definition)
The force F acting on a conductor with the length s and carrying a current I in a field with the magnetic flux density B
is
F = I · s · B.
If the flux density B is generated by a long conductor at a distance r, we say
B = const. · I / r.
Thus, the force F acting between two parallel conductors carrying the same current I is determined using
F = const. · I2 · s / r.
Electrical current (the ampere) is defined as follows: the current I has the value 1 A when the absolute value of the
force per unit of length s between two parallel, straight and infinitely long conductors with a diameter tending to zero
and carrying the identical current is
F / s = 2 · 10-7 N/m.
const.
const. = 2 · 10-7 N/A2
is expressed as μ0/2π, which gives us:
F = μ0/2π · I2 · s / r
where μ0 = 4π·10-7 N/A2 = 4π·10-7 Vs/Am.
In this experiment a conductor with the length s = 0.30 m is suspended at a distance r of just a few millimeters above
a somewhat longer conductor. This experiment measures the force F acting on the suspended conductor at different
currents I and distances r. The result verifies the ampere definition.

267
CASSY Lab 2
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

or
1 30-A box 524 043(1)

1 Set of conductors for ampere definition 516 33
1 Vertically adjustable stand 516 31
1 Connecting lead, 100 cm, red 501 30

The force sensor holds the top conductor loop with the support and is positioned so that the distance between the
two conductor loops is about 5 mm for medium extension of the vertically adjustable stand.
The two 4-mm sockets on the bottom of the force sensor are intended for supplying the conductor loop support. They
are not connected internally. The force sensor is connected to the bridge box at input A of Sensor-CASSY. The cur-
rent flows from the 20 A supply unit via the 30 A box on input B of Sensor-CASSY through the two conductor loops in
series and back to the power supply.
Now, slowly bring the conductor loop on the stand closer to the suspended conductor loop until the two are just
touching (the wire centers now have the distance r = 2 mm). Check to make sure that the vertically adjustable stand
is still parallel to the conductor loop, and adjust it if necessary using the adjusting screws.
Set the zero-point slider of the vertically adjustable stand to a defined mark and set the desired distance between the
two conductor loops using the height adjustment mechanism (e.g. r = 4 mm).
Good measuring results require careful adjustment here.

Load settings
 Increase the conductor loop current I from 0-20 A in steps of 2 A, and record measured values with each time.
You can delete a faulty measurement from the table with Table → Delete Last Table Row.
ly.
 Record additional measurement curves with different conductor spacings r. Select Measurement → Append
new Measurement Series.
Evaluation
Fit a parabola to each measurement series F(I). After each best-fit straight line, switch to the display Ampere Defini-
tion (click the tab with the mouse). Here, an additional table is filled out by dragging the parameter F/I 2 of the parabo-
la just determined from the status line using the mouse and dropping it next to the respective conductor loop spacing
r in the table (drag & drop). Enter the conductor loop spacing r directly via the keyboard. The desired diagram is gen-
erated as you enter the values.
In this display, the parameter F/I2·r of a hyperbola 1/x gives us the constant for the ampere definition as

268
CASSY Lab 2
μ0/2π = F/I2·r / s = F/I2·r / 0.3 m.

In our example this means
μ0/2π = 0.000062 mN·m/A2 / 0.3 m = 2.1·10-7 N/A2 = 2.1·10-7 Vs/Am.
Alternatively, you can convert the x-axis from r to 1/r in the ampere definition display (click on the axis with the right
mouse button). In this display, we obtain the value μ0/2π by fitting a straight line.
Remark
This measurement contains systematic errors. For one thing, the conductor has a finite length. That means that the
assumed magnetic field does not exist at the end of the conductor, so that the forces are less. Additionally, a minute
opposing force component acts on the suspended conductor due to the conductor segment running upward.

269
CASSY Lab 2
Impulse of voltage (Faraday's law of induction)
In 1831, Faraday discovered that each change in the magnetic flux Φ through a closed conductor loop generates an
electrical voltage in that loop. The magnetic flux here is given by the integral of the conductor-loop area of the mag-
netic flux density resp. induction B:
In particular, he demonstrated that this induced voltage is proportional to the derivation of the magnetic flux Φ over
time, and thus that the voltage impulse
is dependent only on the change in the magnetic flux. He thus discovered Faraday's law of induction
This experiment measures the induced voltage U(t) for various magnetic flux densities B and numbers of turns N for
various coils, determines the time integral and thus the voltage impulse in the evaluation of a recorded curve and
ultimately verifies Faraday's law of induction.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Cylindrical bar magnets, pair 510 12
1 Coil with 250 turns 562 13

Connect a coil to input A of Sensor-CASSY.

270
CASSY Lab 2

a) Measuring as a function of the magnetic flux Φ
Load settings
 Connect the coil with 250 turns to input A.
 Insert one magnet half-way and remove it.
 Stop the measurement with (or the measurement stops automatically after 10 seconds).
 Start the measurement with and wait until the new measurement has proceeded far enough so that it no longer
covers the old measurement.
 Insert two magnets half-way and remove them.
b) Measuring as a function of the number of turns N
Load settings
 Insert the magnet half-way and remove it.
Evaluation
In experiment part a), the integral quickly reveals that the voltage impulses have the same absolute value but differ-
ent signs when the magnet is inserted in and withdrawn from the coil, i.e.
The use of two magnets additionally verifies the proportionality between the voltage impulses and the number of
magnets used resp.
the difference in the magnetic flux produced in this manner:
By means of differentiation we verify Faraday's law of induction

The magnetic flux through a coil depends on the number of turns, as each individual turn causes a flux difference
ΔΦ0 and the total flux is calculated as ΔΦ = N · ΔΦ0.
When we look at experiment part b), the relationship between a voltage impulse and the number of turns N of the
respective coil, we can also confirm this relationship. To do this we determine e.g. all positive areas and enter these
in the Number of Turns display together with the number of turns N (click on the correct table cells). Once again, the
proportionality gives us
The slope of the straight line in the display of voltage impulses as a function of the number of turns corresponds to
the magnetic flux Φ0 generated by the magnet in each individual coil winding.
Hints on integration
To integrate, you need to find the start of the range, which is not always easy when multiple curves are superim-
posed. It is easier when the measurement is stopped with immediately following the voltage impulse (do not wait

271
CASSY Lab 2
for the 10 seconds to elapse) and the integral is calculated immediately after measuring. If you wait until after the end
of the previous measuring curve before starting the next voltage impulse measurement, no curve covers the others
while integrating.

272
CASSY Lab 2
Induction in a variable magnetic field
Alternatively (without Power-CASSY):
Voltages and currents which are produced as a result of variations in magnetic fields are called induction voltages
and currents, and the phenomenon itself is referred to as electromagnetic induction. When a conductor loop is placed
within a magnetic field B, the magnetic flux permeating the loop is determined by the integral of the conductor loop
area:

273
CASSY Lab 2
If instead of a conductor loop we use a coil with N1 turns, all perpendicular to the magnetic field, Φ increases corre-
spondingly to
If the magnetic field B does not vary, the magnetic flux Φ remains constant. When the magnetic field, and thus the
magnetic flux through the area of the coil, changes over time, a voltage and consequently a current as well are in-
duced in the coil; their magnitude and direction depend on how the field varies. Faraday's law of induction applies:
and thus
Conversely, an electric current generates a magnetic field, e.g. when a current I flows through a coil. For the magnet-
ic field inside a large cylindrical coil with the length L and the number of turns N2, the following applies:
where μ0 = 4π·10-7 Vs/Am (magnetic field constant).

This experiment uses a large cylindrical coil as a field coil through which a varying current I(t) flows, which generates
a varying magnetic field B(t) within the coil. Rectangular induction coils having different cross-sections (areas) A and
numbers of turns N1 are placed inside this field coil. A voltage U is induced in these coils, which can be calculated as:
This experiment verifies the proportionalities between the induced voltage U and the change over time dI/dt of the
field-coil current I, the area A of the induction coils and the number of turns N1 of the induction coils. Power-CASSY
(524 011) or the triangular wave form power supply (521 56) are particularly suitable for this experiment, as the out-
put current I over time can be controlled so that the slope | dI/dt | is constant. The slope | dI/dt | is continuously ad-
justable from 0.2 A/s to 2.2 A/s. Three induction coils are also provided, with N 1 = 300 turns each. Coil 1 has the
cross-section A = 50 × 50 mm2, coil 2 A = 30 × 50 mm2 and coil 3 A = 20 × 50 mm2. Coil 1 is also provided with addi-
tional taps at N1 = 100 and N1 = 200 turns.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 μV box or µV adapter S 524 040(1)
1 Field coil, d = 120 mm 516 244
1 Set of induction coils 516 241
Alternatively (without Power-CASSY)

1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 30-A box 524 043(1)
1 Field coil, d = 120 mm 516 244
1 Set of induction coils 516 241
1 Triangular wave form power supply 521 56

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CASSY Lab 2

The large coil is supplied with a constant | dI/dt | using either Power-CASSY or the triangular wave form power sup-
ply. In the latter case, the flowing current must be measured at input A of Sensor-CASSY using the 30 A box. The
induced voltage of the induction coils is measured using the μV box at input B.

a) Measuring the induction voltage U as a function of the area (cross-section) A of the induction coils
Load settings
 Place coil 1 (A = 0.0025 m2, N1 = 300 turns) in the large field coil and connect it to the μV box.
 Execute the measurement with .
 Repeat the measurement with coils 2 (A = 0.0015 m2) and 3 (A = 0.0010 m2).
b) Measuring the induction voltage U as a function of the number of turns N1 of the coils
Load settings
 Connect coil 1 (N1 = 100 turns) in the large field coil to the μV box.
 Repeat the measurement with N1 = 200 and N1 = 300 of coil 1.
c) Measuring the induction voltage U as a function of dI/dt
Load settings
 Repeat the measurement with the reduced maximum current Imax or dI/dt respectively; to do this, move the point-
er of the display instrument to the desired position using the mouse.

a) Measuring the induction voltage U as a function of the area (cross-section) A of the induction coils
Load settings
 Place coil 1 (A = 0.0025 m2, N1 = 300 turns) in the large field coil and connect it to the μV box.
 Turn the voltage knob on the triangular wave form power supply all the way to the right, and turn up the current
knob until the power limiting (LED Pmax) is just below the cut-in threshold.
 Choose the middle setting for dI /dt and press the key to activate triangle mode.
 Start the measurement with (the measurement begins with a rising edge of the induction voltage U B1; you may
need to deactivate the trigger).
 Stop the measurement with after a few current periods.
 Repeat the measurement with coils 2 (A = 0.0015 m2) and 3 (A = 0.0010 m2).
b) Measuring the induction voltage U as a function of the number of turns N1 of the coils
Load settings
 Stop the measurement with after a few current periods.
 Repeat the measurement with N1 = 200 and N1 = 300 of coil 1.
c) Measuring the induction voltage U as a function of the frequency of the excitation field
Load settings
 During the measurement increase dI/dt in steps of about 0.4 A/s.

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CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
Depending on the experiment section, activate the appropriate display (click on Area, Number of Turns or dI/dt)
with the mouse. A further table is filled out in which the induction voltage is determined for the respective parameter
A, N1 or dI/dt (by entering via the keyboard; dI/dt can be determined by fitting a straight line). You can find the induc-
tion voltage U e.g. by determining the mean value. You can then use the mouse to drag this value from the status line
and drop it into the table (drag & drop). The desired diagram is generated as you enter the values.
All three diagrams confirm the proportionalities between the induction voltage U and the area A, number of turns N1
and dI/dt.
In this example, we obtain the proportionality factor U/A = 101 mV/m2 (or 129 mV/m2 without Power-CASSY) be-
tween the induction voltage U and the coil cross-section A. Theory expects the proportionality factor
By comparison, the number of turns of the induction coil N 1 = 300 and N2 = 120 of the air coil, the air coil length L =
0.41 m, the calculated current increase dI/dt = 1.00 A/s (resp. 1.19 A/s) and the magnetic field constant μ 0 = 4π·10-7
Vs/Am taken together give us the proportionality factor U/A = - 110 mV/m2 (resp. -131 mV/m2), which agrees with the
experiment result. The sign depends on the direction of the turns and the connection to the μV box.
Notes
The μV box may have a slight offset, which can be corrected in Settings by selecting Correct, setting value 0 mV and
choosing Correct Offset; be sure to interrupt the circuit of the air coil first.
Power-CASSY can also output a significantly higher frequency, and thus make the μV box unnecessary. However,
note that in this case the current regulation of Power-CASSY tends to slight overshoots at higher frequencies and
inductive loads, which negatively affect the induced voltage (1st derivation of the current). You can resolve this by
connecting a resistor of around 10 Ω in series.

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CASSY Lab 2
Voltage and current curves of a transformer as a function of time

277
CASSY Lab 2
This experiment records the primary and secondary currents and voltages of a transformer under load as time-
dependent quantities. From these, CASSY Lab directly calculates the time-dependent power values in the primary
and secondary circuit, as well as the RMS values of current and voltage, the phase relation and the active power
values.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Transformer for students' experiments 562 801
1 Rheostat 100 Ω 537 34

2 Sensor-CASSYs 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 AC/DC power supply 521 391
1 Transformer for students' experiments 562 801
1 Rheostat 100 Ω 537 34

The primary side of the transformer is supplied by Power-CASSY or by the variable transformer (approx. 6 V AC). In
the latter case, the primary voltage, primary current and phase relation (cos φ) must be measured using a second
Sensor-CASSY unit.
Sensor-CASSY performs the necessary measurements of voltage, current and phase relation (cos φ) on the second-
ary side. The transformer is under resistive load (cos φ = 1) in the form of a rheostat. However, where available the
transformer can also be operated under inductive or capacitive load (cos φ < 1). You can improve the response of the
transformer to load by connecting two coils each in parallel on the primary and secondary side of the transformer for
students' experiments.
In place of the transformer for students' experiments, you can also use the demountable transformer.

Load settings
 Vary the load (e.g. also inductive or capacitive load) and observe the effect on the secondary and primary circuits.
 Vary the number of coils on the primary and secondary side of the transformer and observe the behavior under
load.
 If desired, alter the curve form or the frequency of the primary voltage in Settings U1 on Power-CASSY and ob-
serve the result.
Evaluation
You can change to the Power display with the mouse during or after measuring. This display shows both power val-
ues as a function of time.
Hint
You can show and hide all measuring instruments simultaneously with .

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CASSY Lab 2
Power transfer of a transformer

279
CASSY Lab 2
This experiment examines the power transfer of a transformer. This is done by simultaneously measuring the RMS
values of the primary and secondary voltage as well as the primary and secondary current for a variable load resistor
R = 0-100 Ω. The experiment also determines the phase shift between the voltage and current on the primary and
secondary side. The evaluation determines the primary power P1, the secondary power P2 and the efficiency
η = P2/P1 and plots these as a function of the load resistance R.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Rheostat 100 Ω 537 34

2 Sensor-CASSYs 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 AC/DC power supply 521 391
1 Rheostat 100 Ω 537 34

The primary side of the transformer is supplied by Power-CASSY or by the variable transformer (approx. 6 V AC). In
the latter case, the primary voltage, primary current and phase relation (cos φ) must be measured using a second
Sensor-CASSY unit.
Sensor-CASSY performs the necessary measurements of the RMS values of voltage, current and their phase rela-
tion (cos φ) on the secondary side. The transformer is under resistive load (cos φ = 1) in the form of a rheostat.
Instead of the demountable transformer, you can use the transformer for students' experiments.

Load settings
 Set the rheostat to the minimum position (approx. 0 Ω).
 Increase the resistance in steps and record measured values for each step with .
Evaluation
The points of maximum power output and maximum efficiency can be easily read from the diagram.
Hint

280
CASSY Lab 2
Power of arbitrary loads operated with mains AC voltage
Safety note
At the socket of the joule and wattmeter, the mains voltage is present. Even though this voltage can be switched off
through the software settings, it remains a potential danger. The voltage is present again at the latest when the soft-
ware is left.
The time dependent quantities U(t), I(t) and P(t) are recorded for several loads connected to the mains AC voltage. In
addition, the active power P, the apparent power S, the reactive power Q and the power factor cosφ are displayed
and can be compared with one another.
The active power P is the mean value of the instantaneous power P(t)=U(t)·I(t). The apparent power S is defined as
the product of the two RMS values U and I, i.e. S=U·I. The power factor cosφ is the ratio of the active and the appar-
ent power, i.e. cosφ = P/S. This also applies in the case of an arbitrary shape of the voltage U(t) and the current I(t).
Yet, φ cannot be interpreted as the phase shift between the current and the voltage in this case. Finally, the reactive
power Q is calculated from the active power P and the apparent power S:
Equipment list
1 Joule and wattmeter 531 831
1 Lamp socket E27 451 17
1 Halogen lamp 46 W, E27 505 302
1 Energy-saving lamp 14 W, E27 505 3181
1 Clamping device 562 12
1 Mains coil, 230 V 562 21

Screw the lamps into the lamp socket or put the mains coil onto the U-core, close the U-core with the yoke and fasten
the yoke firmly using the clamping device.
Connect the plug of the lamp socket or the mains coil (switch the mains coil on) to the socket of the joule and wattme-
ter.

281
CASSY Lab 2

Load settings
 Switch the load on by clicking on the display instrument Switch X.
 Switch the load off again.
Evaluation
The mains AC voltage U(t) has always an approximately sinusoidal shape.
Incandescent lamp
The functions I(t) and P(t) are approximately sinusoidal. The instantaneous power P(t) takes only positive values. The
active and the apparent power are identical. The reactive power is negligible. The power factor cosφ is 1.
Energy-saving lamp
The functions I(t) and P(t) are not sinusoidal. The instantaneous power P(t) takes only positive values. The active
power is smaller than the apparent and the reactive power. The power factor cosφ is approximately 0.64.
Mains coil with iron core
The functions I(t) and P(t) are not sinusoidal. The instantaneous power P(t) takes both positive and negative values.
The active power is much smaller than the apparent und the reactive power. The power factor cosφ is approximately
0.18.
Remark
Other loads can be investigated as well. However, it may be necessary to adjust the measuring range of the current
(right mouse button on the I button). Then formulas and units for S and Q may have to be adjusted (e.g. U*I/1000, if
U and I are to be displayed in V and A, but S in kW).

282
CASSY Lab 2
Charging and discharging of a capacitor
A capacitor is charged or discharged via a resistor. This experiment measures the voltage curves at the capacitor
and the charging or discharge current. From these it is possible to calculate the time constant τ = RC and the energy
content of the capacitor.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Plug-in board 576 74 or 576 81
3 STE capacitors 100 μF 578 39
1 Resistor 100 Ω STE 2/19 577 32

Connect the charging and discharging circuit to Sensor-CASSY inputs A (current) and B (voltage) as shown in the
drawing. The relay R charges the capacitor with the voltage from the voltage source S in the ON position (LED on)
and discharges the capacitor in the OFF position (LED off).

a) Discharging
Load settings
 Set the charging voltage UB1 at the capacitor to about 9.5 V using the knob on the voltage source S.
 Start the discharge with .
 Repeat the discharge with different capacitances (e.g. 200 μF and 300 μF).
b) Charging
 Switch the relay manually: in Settings Relay R1 change the formula from 1 to 0 and press Enter.
 Start charging with .
 Repeat charging with different capacitances (e.g. 200 μF and 300 μF).
Evaluation
To determine the time constant τ = RC you can apply a logarithmic representation to the Voltage and Current dis-
plays. Simply click on the y-axis with the right mouse button to convert it. To optimize the display, you may want to
specify the minima manually when applying logarithmic representation (e.g. 0.1 for log U and 0.001 for log I). In both
cases, the slope A of a best-fit straight line is A = -log e/RC = -0.4343/RC or RC = -0.4343/A.
The time constant is obtained either from a fit to an exponential function or a free fit of the function A*exp(-x/B) or
A*(1-exp(-x/B)) with suitable starting values for the charging voltage A and the time constant B = RC = τ.

283
CASSY Lab 2
However, you can also determine the capacitances C from the applied or discharged charges Q. The charge Q is
determined from the integral of the I(t) diagrams, and Q = CU (where U is the charging voltage).
The stored energy E = ½CU2 is the integral of the P(t) diagrams in the display Power.
Hint
The easiest way to define a time zero point is by setting a trigger. The most suitable quantity is the current IA1 (when
charging e.g. 0.001 A, rising edge, when discharging e.g. –0.001 A, falling edge). When the trigger is switched on, an
external changeover switch can be used instead of the relay for more clarity of the circuit.

284
CASSY Lab 2
Charging and discharging of a capacitor (with modeling)
A capacitor is charged or discharged via a resistor. The voltage curve at the capacitor is measured.
As a supplement to the previous experiment, the measured voltage curve is compared with the voltage curve UC(t).
For a capacitor applies:
UC(t) = QC(t) / C
and the model equation is:
QC'(t) = IC(t) = (U - UC(t)) / R
U is the voltage supplied by an external source and is equal to the voltage at the end of the charging or discharging
process. The constants R and C correspond to the resistor and to the capacitor used.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
3 STE capacitors 100 μF 578 39
1 Resistor 100 Ω STE 2/19 577 32

Connect the charging and discharging circuit to Sensor-CASSY inputs A (current) and B (voltage) as shown in the
drawing. The relay R charges the capacitor with the voltage from the voltage source S in the ON position (LED on)
and discharges the capacitor in the OFF position (LED off).

a) Discharging
Load settings
 Repeat the discharge with different capacitances (e.g. 200 μF and 300 μF).
b) Charging
Load settings
 Repeat charging with different capacitances (e.g. 200 μF and 300 μF).

285
CASSY Lab 2
Modeling
When the capacitor is charged, the initial condition is QC(t=0)=0. The constants R (resistance) and C (capacitance)
and the voltage U supplied by an external source can be altered by dragging the pointer of the corresponding display
instrument (or by clicking to the left or to the right of the pointer) until the model agrees with the measurement.
When the capacitor is discharged, the initial condition is QC(t=0)=C·U0. The constants R (resistance) and C (capaci-
tance) and the initial voltage U0 of the capacitor can be altered by dragging the pointer of the corresponding display
instrument (or by clicking to the left or to the right of the pointer) until the model agrees with the measurement.

286
CASSY Lab 2
Charging and discharging of a small capacitor (cable capacitances)
A capacitor is charged or discharged via a resistor. This experiment measures the voltage curves U B(t) at the capaci-
tor and the charging or discharge current IA(t)=(UA-UB(t))/R. From these it is possible to calculate the time constant τ
= RC and the energy content of the capacitor.
Small STE capacitors or a BNC cable, whose cable capacitance can be determined, are used as capacitors.
For the high-resistance measurement on a capacitor, the electrometer box is used.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Electrometer box 524 054
1 STE resistor 1 GΩ 577 02
1 STE capacitor 47 pF 578 21
1 Screened cable BNC/4 mm, 120 pF 575 24

Connect the charging and discharging circuit to Sensor-CASSY inputs A and B as shown in the drawing. The relay R
charges the capacitor with the voltage from the voltage source S in the ON position (LED on) and discharges the
capacitor in the OFF position (LED off).

a) Discharging
Load settings
 Repeat the discharge with different capacitances (e.g. 100 pF and 220 pF).
b) Charging
 Switch the relay manually: in Settings Relay R1 change the formula from 1 to 0 and press Enter.
 Repeat charging with different capacitances (e.g. 100 pF and 220 pF).
Evaluation
To determine the time constant τ = RC you can apply a logarithmic representation to the Voltage and Current dis-
plays. Simply click on the y-axis with the right mouse button to convert it. To optimize the display, you may want to

287
CASSY Lab 2
specify the minima manually when applying logarithmic representation (e.g. 0.1 for log U and 0.001 for log I). In both
cases, the slope A of a best-fit straight line is A = -log e/RC = -0.4343/RC or RC = -0.4343/A.
The time constant is obtained either from a fit to an exponential function or a free fit of the function A*exp(-x/B) or
A*(1-exp(-x/B)) with suitable starting values for the charging voltage A and the time constant B = RC = τ. For R =
1 GΩ, the time constant in s corresponds to the capacitance in nF.
However, you can also determine the capacitances C from the applied or discharged charges Q. The charge Q is
determined from the integral of the I(t) diagrams, and Q = CU (where U is the charging voltage).
The stored energy E = ½CU2 is the integral of the P(t) diagrams in the display Power.
Hint
The easiest way to define a time zero point is by setting a trigger. The most suitable quantity is the voltage UA1 (when
charging e.g. 0.5 V, rising edge, when discharging e.g. 0.5 V, falling edge). When the trigger is switched on, an ex-
ternal changeover switch can be used instead of the relay for more clarity of the circuit.

288
CASSY Lab 2
Damped oscillator circuit
An electrical oscillator is excited and the free oscillation is recorded. The damping and the phase difference between
U(t) and I(t) become apparent. In the evaluation the calculated frequency ω and damping coefficient δ of the oscilla-
tion are compared with theory.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 STE coil, 1000 turns 590 84
1 STE capacitor 1 μF, 5 % 578 15
1 STE key switch (n.o.) 579 10
1 Set of bridging plugs 501 48

Set up the oscillator circuit on the plug-in board as shown in the drawing. The current flows via input A of Sensor-
CASSY and the capacitor voltage is measured at input B. At the start of the experiment the capacitor is charged from
voltage source S. The oscillation is started with the key switch, which shorts the voltage source S.
Remark
You can also use relay R instead of the key switch. However, this can bounce so hard when switching that the oscil-
lation is disturbed in the first few milliseconds.

Load settings
 Set the charging voltage UB1 at the capacitor to about 9.5 V using the knob at voltage source S.
 Close the oscillator circuit with the key switch (generates trigger signal).
Evaluation
The easiest way to determine the frequency f is in the Frequency Spectrum display (click on this tab and calculate
the peak center). The initial amplitude and time constant of the damping can be determined from parameters A and B
by fitting an envelope.
These parameters can demonstrate impressive agreement of U(t) with y(t) = A*exp(-t/B)*sin(f*t*360). To realize this,
change parameters A, B and f in the formula settings and select the display tab Matching.

289
CASSY Lab 2
Example
From the U(t) envelope the experiment example gives us the initial amplitude A = 6.64 V and the time constant B =
1.77 ms. The oscillation frequency is determined to be 1235 Hz. The function of the oscillation is thus
y(t) = 6.64*exp(-t/0.00177)*sin(1235*t*360)
and is entered as the function for matching to U(t). The same time constant and frequency apply for I(t), but with a
different initial amplitude and phase relation.
The calculated parameters also enable conclusions regarding the parameters R, L and C of the oscillator circuit, as in
a damped oscillator the following applies:
U(t) = U0 exp(-δt) sin(ωt) where
(1) ω2 = ω02 - δ2,
(2) ω02 = 1/LC and
(3) δ = R/2L (= 1/B of envelope).
When we insert the determined values we obtain:
ω = 2πf = 7760 /s
δ = 565 /s
ω0 = 7781 /s from (1).
(2) now allows us to calculate the inductance L of the coil when the capacitance C is known. In this example we ob-
tain L = 0.0165 H (with C = 1 μF). (3) gives us the damping resistance R = 18.6 Ω. This agrees well with the specifi-
cation of the coil used here (R = 18 Ω).

290
CASSY Lab 2
Damped oscillator (with modeling)
An electrical oscillator is excited and the free oscillation is recorded.
As a supplement to the previous experiment, the measured voltage curve is compared with the voltage curve UC(t).
For the oscillator circuit the following applies:
UC(t) = QC(t) / C
0 = UC(t) + R·IC(t) + L·IC'(t)
and the model equations are:
QC'(t) = IC(t)
IC'(t) = (–UC(t) – R·IC(t)) / L
The constants R, L and C correspond to the resistor, the coil and the capacitor used.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 STE capacitor 1 μF, 5 % 578 15
1 STE key switch (n.o.) 579 10

Set up the oscillator circuit on the plug-in board as shown in the drawing. The current flows via input A of Sensor-
CASSY and the capacitor voltage is measured at input B. At the start of the experiment the capacitor is charged from
voltage source S. The oscillation is started with the key switch, which shorts the voltage source S.

Load settings
Modeling
The initial condition for the charge Q of the capacitor is Q(t=0)=-U0·C with the initial voltage U0. This voltage U0 is not
exactly the charging voltage of the capacitor because the measurement is only triggered somewhat later. Therefore

291
CASSY Lab 2
the second initial condition is simply I(t=0)=0. The constants R (resistance), C (capacitance) and L (inductance) and
the initial voltage U0 can be altered by dragging the pointer of the corresponding display instrument (or by clicking to
the left or to the right of the pointer) until the model agrees with the measurement. The ohmic resistance of the coil
(approx. 20 Ω) has to be taken into account when the attenuation resistance R is determined.

292
CASSY Lab 2
Coupled oscillators
The frequency spectrum of coupled electric oscillator circuits is compared with the spectrum of an uncoupled oscilla-
tor circuit. The Fourier-transformed signal of the coupled oscillator circuits shows the split into two distributions lying
symmetrically around the uncoupled signal, with their spacing depending on the coupling of the oscillator circuits.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 STE key switch 579 10
2 STE capacitors 1 μF, 5 % 578 15

Assemble the first oscillator circuit as shown in the drawing. The capacitor voltage is measured at input B of Sensor-
CASSY. At the start of the experiment the capacitor is charged from voltage source S. The oscillation is started with
the key switch, which shorts the voltage source S.
Assemble the second oscillator circuit separately. To couple the oscillators, place its coil directly beside the first coil.
Remark
You can also use relay R instead of the key switch. However, this can bounce so hard when switching that the oscil-
lation is disturbed in the first few milliseconds.

Load settings
 Place the coil of the second oscillator directly beside that of the first to couple the oscillators.

293
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
The uncoupled case produces a damped harmonic oscillation. The coupled oscillation is a beat with the same enve-
lope and the same oscillation frequency.
In the uncoupled case, the Frequency Spectrum display shows only one peak, for which the frequency can be cal-
culated as the peak center.
In the coupled case the frequency splits symmetrically into two frequencies. The amplitudes are just half as great as
in the uncoupled case, and the interval depends on the coupling.
Given the differential equations of the coupled oscillation circuits
with coupling k (0 ≤ k < 1), we can calculate the two natural frequencies ω1 and ω2 as
In particular, the oscillation frequency of the coupled system is equal to
and is thus practically unchanged with respect to the uncoupled system (for small k values).
Remark
The split into two peaks of precisely the same size is only possible with completely identical oscillators. This is not
always precisely the case due to the tolerances of the inductances L and capacitances C.

294
CASSY Lab 2
Forced oscillations (resonance)
A sinusoidal oscillation with the frequency f and a constant amplitude is applied to an electric RLC series oscillator
circuit. After a short settling time, the oscillator also oscillates with the frequency f.
This experiment investigates the RMS value of the flowing current I and the phase relation φ of the current to the
applied voltage as a function of the frequency f and the attenuating resistance R. The loci illustrate the addition of
complex resistances.
Equipment list
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 STE capacitor 4.7 μF, 5 % 578 16
2 STE resistors 1 Ω 577 19
1 STE resistor 5.1 Ω 577 21
1 STE resistor 10 Ω 577 20
1 Resistor 47 Ω STE 2/19 577 28

Set up the oscillator as shown in the drawing and connect it to Power-CASSY. Connect additional attenuating resis-
tors in series as needed.

Load settings
 Start the measurement with . The frequency f is automatically increased in small steps. After a short settling
time, the software measures and displays the RMS value of the current I and the phase relation cos φ between
the current and the voltage for each frequency.
The step size is variable and depends on the specifications of the number n0, the starting frequency f0 and the
approximate value f1 of the resonance frequency. Between the two frequencies f 0 and f1, n0 measuring values are
recorded. Then the frequency f is further increased in a way that around f=f 1, i.e. the resonance frequency, values
are recorded at a particularly high density. Thereby the measuring time required is considerably reduced as com-
pared with equally spaced frequency steps. The specifications can be changed by shifting the pointer with the
mouse or by changing the parameter value after clicking with the right mouse key.
The measuring condition delta t > 2/f+2 provides a settling time of 2/f+2 s after the frequency has been in-
creased.
The stop condition f > 5000 or f > 5*f1 terminates the measurement at 5 kHz or 5 times the resonance frequency.
 Repeat the measurement with other attenuation resistances as necessary.

295
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
The resonance frequency can be exactly determined, for example, by determining the peak center in the display
Resonance.
In other displays, also the Power and the Phase are shown as functions of the frequency.
The last two displays show the Loci for the complex resistance Z of the oscillating circuit and the complex conduct-
ance Y. In the Z representation, the addition of complex resistances in series connection is nicely displayed:
Z = R + iωL + 1/iωC. As in the example only the frequency ω, that is the imaginary part of Z, is varied for each damp-
ing resistance, the real ohmic part remains constant. Thus vertical lines are generated in the complex plane whose
distance from the imaginary axis is equal to the ohmic resistance R. The coil in the example has an ohmic internal
resistance of approximately 4 Ω. Therefore the distance from the imaginary axis is larger than the individual damping
resistances by approximately 4 Ω.
Remark
For an AC circuit we can write
U = |U| * eiωt and I = |I| * ei(ωt-φ)
where the complex resistance Z = U/I no longer depends on t
Z = |U|/|I| * eiφ = |Z| * eiφ (Z locus)
On the other hand we have
Y = 1/Z = 1/|Z| * e-iφ (Y locus)
The Y locus corresponds to the complex inversion of the Z locus (r -> -r, φ -> -φ). This transformation turns the
straight lines Z = R + iωL + 1/iωC of the Z loci into circles in the Y representation (inversion with respect to the unit
circle).
Hints
You can logarithmically scale the frequency axis or the current axis easily by clicking on the corresponding axis with
the right mouse button.

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CASSY Lab 2
Forced oscillations (resonance, with modeling)
A sinusoidal oscillation with the frequency f and a constant amplitude is applied to an electric RLC series oscillator
circuit. After a short settling time, the oscillator also oscillates with the frequency f.
As a supplement to the previous experiment, the measured current curve is compared with the current curve IC(t).
For the oscillator circuit the following applies:
UC(t) = QC(t) / C
U(t) = L·IC'(t) + UC(t) + R·IC(t)
QC'(t) = IC(t)
IC'(t) = (U(t) – UC(t) – R·IC(t)) / L
Equipment list
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
2 STE resistors 1 Ω 577 19
1 STE resistor 5.1 Ω 577 21
1 Resistor 47 Ω STE 2/19 577 28

Set up the oscillator as shown in the drawing and connect it to Power-CASSY. Connect additional attenuating resis-
tors in series as needed.

Load settings
 Repeat the measurement with another frequency f (shift the pointer in the display instrument) or with other atten-
uation resistances as necessary.

297
CASSY Lab 2
Modeling
The initial conditions for the charge Q and the current I C are both zero as there is no voltage and no current in the
oscillator circuit before the measurement. The constants R (resistance), C (capacitance) and L (inductance) can be
altered by dragging the pointer of the corresponding display instrument (or by clicking to the left or to the right of the
pointer) until the model agrees with the measurement. The ohmic resistance of the coil (approx. 4 Ω) has to be taken
into account when the attenuation resistance R is determined.
The Power-CASSY only switches the exciting frequency on when the measurement is started. Therefore the transient
oscillation process of the oscillator circuit is seen. Depending on the attenuation and the frequency, you see that the
oscillator circuit first oscillates at its natural frequency (resonance frequency) before it is forced to oscillate at the
exciting frequency.

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CASSY Lab 2
RLC filter (low pass, high pass, band pass)
A sinusoidal oscillation with frequency f and having a constant amplitude is applied to an electrical filter consisting of
a resistor and a capacitor (RC), resistor and coil (RL) or a resistor and a parallel LC oscillator circuit (RLC). After a
short settling time, the output of the filter also oscillates with the frequency f.
This experiment examines the RMS values of the output voltage U and the flowing current I, the impedances Z1 =
1/(1/iωC) + iωL) (LC only) and Z = R + 1/(1/iωC) + iωL) (R with LC) and the phase relation φ between the current and
the applied voltage as a function of the frequency f.
This experiment illustrates in a particularly clear fashion the function of a low pass (RC), high pass (RL) and band
pass (RLC) filter, as well as impedances, phase shifts and the parallel resonance of the RLC filter. The loci illustrate
the addition of complex resistances.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 Power-CASSY 524 011
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Resistor 100 Ω STE 2/19 577 32

Connect the electrical filter to Power-CASSY and Sensor-CASSY as shown in the diagram. You can vary the type of
filter (RC, RL or RLC) during the experiment by removing or plugging in the coil (L) or the capacitor (C).

Load settings
 Realize the RC filter by removing the coil.

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CASSY Lab 2
 Start the measurement with . The frequency f is automatically increased in small steps. After a short setting
time, the software measures and displays the respective RMS value of the output voltage U and the current I.
The step size is variable and depends on the specifications of the number n0, the starting frequency f0 and the
approximate value f1 of the resonance frequency. Between the two frequencies f 0 and f1, n0 measuring values are
recorded. Then the frequency f is further increased in a way that around f=f 1, i.e. the resonance frequency, values
are recorded at a particularly high density. Thereby the measuring time required is considerably reduced as com-
pared with equally spaced frequency steps. The specifications can be changed by shifting the pointer with the
mouse or by changing the parameter value after clicking with the right mouse key.
The measuring condition delta t > 2/f+3 provides a settling time of 2/f+3 s after the frequency has been in-
creased.
The stop condition f > 5000 or f > 5*f1 terminates the measurement at 5 kHz or 5 times the resonance frequency.
 Repeat the measurement with the RL filter and the RLC filter.
Evaluation
The Output Voltage and Input Current displays (accessible with the mouse) show the curves of the output voltage
and the current as function of the frequency. The RC filter attenuates the output voltage at high frequencies by about
half (low pass) for each octave (doubling of frequency). The RL filter, on the other hand, attenuates the lower fre-
quencies by about half (high pass) for each octave (half frequency). The RLC filter attenuates frequencies outside of
the resonance frequency of the parallel LC oscillator corresponding to the individual filters. However, the output volt-
age shows a visible maximum in the resonance range (band pass). The resonance frequency is independent of R.
The two impedances Z1 (LC only) and Z (R with LC) are also calculated and displayed. The resistance of the parallel
LC oscillator reaches its maximum at its resonance frequency (in an ideal circuit this would be infinite). The flowing
current is thus minimal, as is the voltage drop at the resistor. Consequently, the output voltage reaches its maximum
where resonance occurs.
The Phase view shows the phase shift between the applied voltage and the flowing current.
The last two displays show the Loci for the complex resistance Z of the filter and the complex conductance Y. In the
Z representation, the addition of complex resistances in series connection is nicely displayed. For a low pass we
have Z = R + 1/iωC and for a high pass Z = R + iωL. As only the frequency ω, that is the imaginary part of Z, is var-
ied, the real ohmic part remains constant. Thus vertical lines are generated in the complex plane whose distance
from the imaginary axis is equal to the ohmic resistance R. The coil in the example has an ohmic internal resistance
of approximately 4 Ω. In the case of the high pass, the distance from the imaginary axis is therefore larger by approx-
imately 4 Ω than in the case of the low pass.
Remark
For an AC circuit we can write
U = |U| * eiωt and I = |I| * ei(ωt-φ)
where the complex resistance Z = U/I no longer depends on t
Z = |U|/|I| * eiφ = |Z| * eiφ (Z locus)
On the other hand we have
Y = 1/Z = 1/|Z| * e-iφ (Y locus)
The Y locus corresponds to the complex inversion of the Z locus (r -> -r, φ -> -φ). This transformation turns the
straight lines Z = R + 1/iωC and Z = R + iωL of the Z loci into semicircles in the Y representation (inversion with re-
spect to the unit circle).
Hints
You can logarithmically scale the coordinate axes easily by clicking on the corresponding axis with the right mouse
button.
The attenuations of 6 dB/octave (resp. 20 dB/decade) can be read off easily in a log-log display as the slope ±1.

300
CASSY Lab 2
Low-pass filter (with modeling)
In the first experiment, rectangular pulses with a constant amplitude are applied to a first-order low-pass filter con-
sisting of a resistor and a capacitor (RC) or a second-order low-pass filter consisting of a resistor, a coil and a
capacitor (RLC). The response of the filter to these pulses is investigated (step response) and compared with a mod-
el.
In the second experiment, an input signal of variable frequency (chirp) is applied to the low-pass filter. A Fourier
transform is applied to both the input signal and the measured output signal, and the two frequency spectra are divid-
ed one by the other. The frequency-dependent amplitude change (amplitude response) obtained in this procedure is
displayed and compared with a model.
For the first-order low-pass applies for the output voltage
URC(t) = QRC(t) / C
QRC'(t) = IRC(t) = (U(t) - URC(t)) / R
For the second-order low-pass applies for the output voltage
URLC(t) = QRLC(t) / C
QRLC'(t) = IRLC(t)
IRLC'(t) = (U(t) – URLC(t) – R·IRLC(t)) / L
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

301
CASSY Lab 2

1 Resistor 47 Ω STE 2/19 577 28
1 Resistor 100 Ω STE 2/19 577 32
recommended:
1 Tweeter 587 07
1 Iron core, laminated from 593 21

Connect the first-order or second-order low-pass filter to the Power-CASSY and the Sensor-CASSY as shown in the
drawing. In order to increase the inductance L of the coil, you may use a laminated iron core. It is recommended to
connect the tweeter to the output of the Power-CASSY for a better understanding of the measurement of the ampli-
tude response.

a) Step response
Load settings
 Realize the RC filter (first order) or RLC filter (second order).
 Repeat the measurement with another frequency f (shift the pointer in the display instrument) or with another or-
der as necessary.
b) Amplitude response
Load settings
 Repeat the measurement with another order as necessary.
Modeling
The constants R (resistance), C (capacitance) and L (inductance) can be altered by dragging the pointer of the corre-
sponding display instrument (or by clicking to the left or to the right of the pointer) until the model agrees with the
measurement. The ohmic resistance of the coil (approx. 4 Ω) has to be taken into account when the attenuation re-
sistance R is determined.
a) Step response
The displays Model RC and Model RLC (select using the mouse) show the comparison of the measured filter re-
sponse with the corresponding model. The Power-CASSY outputs the exciting frequency continuously. Therefore the
transient oscillation process of the filter is not seen in the measured signal. The start time for the computation was
chosen a period before zero, i.e. t0=–1/f, in order that the transient oscillation process is also invisible in the model.
The additional displays Frequency Spectrum RC and Frequency Spectrum RLC make it possible to compare the
attenuation of the input signal depending on the frequency and the order of the filter. This comparison is also possible
by direct measurement of the amplitude response.
The Power-CASSY excites the filter at a variable frequency (chirp). In this chirp the frequency is increased very
quickly from 0 Hz to approx. 2500 Hz. In the Amplitude Response, the ratio of the amplitudes of the output signal
and the input signal of the filter is displayed. The black curve is the measured curve, the red curve is the result of the
first-order model, and the blue curve shows the second-order model.
During the measurement, the filter response must not overdrive the Sensor-CASSY (see Standard display). If nec-
essary, repeat the measurement with a decreased amplitude A or an increased resistance R.
Remark concerning the measurement of the amplitude response

When the basic frequency f of the chirp (f = 2.5 Hz in the example) is changed, the measuring interval has to be
changed, too, so that the measuring time T corresponds to the chirp period again (T= 400 ms in the example).

302
CASSY Lab 2
Moreover, the range of the amplitudes AB, ARC and ARLC has to be adjusted. In the example, the amplitude ratios are
only defined if the amplitude of the FFT in the denominator is at least 1.5 % of the input amplitude A.
The computation time of the models is limited to 5 s. If this is not sufficient in the case of slow computers, the subse-
quent Fourier analysis is only computed for the incomplete solution. In this case, please increase the maximum com-
putation time of the models.

303
CASSY Lab 2
High-pass filter (with modeling)
In the first experiment, rectangular pulses with a constant amplitude are applied to a first-order high-pass filter
consisting of a resistor and a capacitor (RC) or a second-order high-pass filter consisting of a resistor, a coil and a
capacitor (RLC). The response of the filter to these pulses is investigated (step response) and compared with a mod-
el.
In the second experiment, an input signal of variable frequency (chirp) is applied to the high-pass filter. A Fourier
transform is applied to both the input signal and the measured output signal, and the two frequency spectra are divid-
ed one by the other. The frequency-dependent amplitude change (amplitude response) obtained in this procedure is
displayed and compared with a model.
For the first-order high-pass applies for the output voltage
URC(t) = U(t) – QRC(t) / C
QRC'(t) = IRC(t) = URC(t) / R
For the second-order high-pass applies for the output voltage
URLC(t) = U(t) – R·IRLC(t) – QRLC(t)/C
QRLC'(t) = IRLC(t)
IRLC'(t) = URLC(t) / L
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

304
CASSY Lab 2

1 Resistor 47 Ω STE 2/19 577 28
1 Resistor 100 Ω STE 2/19 577 32
recommended:
1 Tweeter 587 07
1 Iron core, laminated from 593 21

Connect the first-order or second-order high-pass filter to the Power-CASSY and the Sensor-CASSY as shown in the
drawing. In order to increase the inductance L of the coil, you may use a laminated iron core. It is recommended to
connect the tweeter to the output of the Power-CASSY for a better understanding of the measurement of the ampli-
tude response.

a) Step response
Load settings
 Repeat the measurement with another frequency f (shift the pointer in the display instrument) or with another or-
der as necessary.
Load settings
 Repeat the measurement with another order as necessary.
Modeling
The constants R (resistance), C (capacitance) and L (inductance) can be altered by dragging the pointer of the corre-
sponding display instrument (or by clicking to the left or to the right of the pointer) until the model agrees with the
measurement. The ohmic resistance of the coil (approx. 4 Ω) has to be taken into account when the attenuation re-
sistance R is determined.
a) Step response
The displays Model RC and Model RLC (select using the mouse) show the comparison of the measured filter re-
sponse with the corresponding model. The Power-CASSY outputs the exciting frequency continuously. Therefore the
transient oscillation process of the filter is not seen in the measured signal. The start time for the computation was
chosen a period before zero, i.e. t0=–1/f, in order that the transient oscillation process is also invisible in the model.
The additional displays Frequency Spectrum RC and Frequency Spectrum RLC make it possible to compare the
attenuation of the input signal depending on the frequency and the order of the filter. This comparison is also possible
by direct measurement of the amplitude response.
The Power-CASSY excites the filter at a variable frequency (chirp). In this chirp the frequency is decreased very
quickly from approx. 2500 Hz to 0 Hz. In the Amplitude Response, the ratio of the amplitudes of the output signal and
the input signal of the filter is displayed. The black curve is the measured curve, the red curve is the result of the first-
order model, and the blue curve shows the second-order model.
During the measurement, the filter response must not overdrive the Sensor-CASSY (see Standard display). If neces-
sary, repeat the measurement with a decreased amplitude A or an increased resistance R.
Remark concerning the measurement of the amplitude response

When the basic frequency f of the chirp (f = 2.5 Hz in the example) is changed, the measuring interval has to be
changed, too, so that the measuring time T corresponds to the chirp period again (T= 400 ms in the example).

305
CASSY Lab 2
Moreover, the range of the amplitudes AB, ARC and ARLC has to be adjusted. In the example, the amplitude ratios are
only defined if the amplitude of the FFT in the denominator is at least 1.5 % of the input amplitude A.
The computation time of the models is limited to 5 s. If this is not sufficient in the case of slow computers, the subse-
quent Fourier analysis is only computed for the incomplete solution. In this case, please increase the maximum com-
putation time of the models.

306
CASSY Lab 2
Characteristic of an incandescent lamp
In an incandescent lamp the voltage and current are not proportional to one another. Their resistance depends great-
ly on the temperature. As an incandescent lamp heats up when electricity is supplied, different characteristics are
obtained when the current is switched on and off. The characteristic also depends on the rate of increase dU/dt of the
voltage.
Equipment list
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Set of 10 lamps 12 V /3 W 505 08
1 STE Lamp holder E 10, top 579 06

You can attach the lamp directly to Power-CASSY.

Load settings
 Execute the measurement with (the lamp is switched on and then off).
 If desired, vary the switching frequency of the lamp in Settings U1 and the measuring time in the Measuring Pa-
rameters (Window → Show Measuring Parameters) and repeat the experiment.
Evaluation
In the characteristic, you can determine the inverse values of the cold and hot resistance of the incandescent lamp by
fitting a straight line.

307
CASSY Lab 2
Characteristic of a diode
Alternatively (with Power-CASSY):
The semiconductor diodes are among the simplest semiconductor components. They consist of a semiconductor
crystal in which an n-conducting zone meets a p-conducting zone. Recombination of the charge carriers, i.e. the elec-
trons in the n-conducting and the holes in the p-conducting zones, creates a low-conductivity zone at the boundary
layer. The conductivity is increased when electrons or holes are removed from the boundary layer by an external
electric field. This direction of the electric field is called the reverse direction. Reversing the electric field drives the
electrons and holes into the boundary layer, allowing current to flow more easily through the diode.
This experiment records and compares the current-voltage characteristics of various diodes (Si, Ge and light-emitting
diodes).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Resistor 100 Ω STE 2/19 577 32
1 STE Si-diode 1N4007 578 51
1 STE Ge-diode AA118 578 50
1 STE Light emitting diode green 578 57
1 STE Light emitting diode yellow 578 47
1 STE Light emitting diode red 578 48
1 STE Light emitting diode infrared 578 49

308
CASSY Lab 2

Alternatively (with Power-CASSY)

1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Resistor 100 Ω STE 2/19 577 32
1 STE Si-diode 1N4007 578 51
1 STE Ge-diode AA118 578 50
1 STE Light emitting diode green 578 57
1 STE Light emitting diode yellow 578 47
1 STE Light emitting diode red 578 48
1 STE Light emitting diode infrared 578 49

Connect the circuit to Sensor-CASSY inputs A (current) and B (voltage across the diode) as shown in the drawing.
The diode is protected by a 100 Ω series resistor.
When using Power-CASSY place this to the left of Sensor-CASSY to supply the circuit and measure the current.

Load settings
 Reverse the polarity of voltage source S (for negative characteristic segment) and set UB1 to about –3 V.
 Slowly reduce the voltage to zero (turn to the left; the negative characteristic segment is recorded simultaneous-
ly).
 Restore the original polarity of voltage source S (for positive characteristic segment).
 Slowly increase the voltage (the positive characteristic segment is recorded simultaneously); be sure not to ex-
ceed the maximum current of the LED.
 Repeat the measurement with a different diode; reverse the polarity of voltage source S and start the measure-
ment with .
Alternative (with Power-CASSY)

Load settings
 Record the characteristic of each diode with (Power-CASSY sweeps the voltage range automatically).
Evaluation
At negative voltages the current is zero regardless of the applied voltage (reverse direction). At positive voltages, a
current appears starting at a conducting-state voltage U (conducting direction).
We can compare the conducting-state voltages U of various diodes. For the LEDs, we can use the equation
e·U = h·c/λ
to estimate roughly the wavelength λ of the emitted light. In this example the conducting-state voltage of the red LED
is approx. U = 1.4 V. From this we obtain λ = hc/eU = 880 nm.
Remark
It is not possible to precisely determine the wavelength of light emitted by LEDs, as these emit a relatively broad
frequency band that is usually filtered through a colored housing. Therefore the above wavelength determination is
merely a rough estimate.

309
CASSY Lab 2
Characteristic of a transistor
Transistors are among the most important semiconductor components in electronic circuit technology. The electrodes
of a bipolar transistor are called the emitter, the base and the collector. The transistor consists of a total of three n-
conducting and p-conducting layers, in the order npn or pnp.
This experiment measures the two output characteristics of an npn transistor, i.e. the collector current I C as a function
of the base current IB (at a constant collector-emitter voltage) and the collector current IC as a function of the collec-
tor-emitter voltage UCE (at different constant base currents IB).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 STE transistor BD 137 578 67
1 STE resistor 10 kΩ, 0.5 W 577 56
1 STE capacitor 1 µF 578 15

Power-CASSY supplies the collector-emitter voltage UCE and simultaneously measures the collector current IC that is
flowing. The cascaded Sensor-CASSY (mounted directly to the right of Power-CASSY) supplies an adjustable base
current IB and simultaneously measures the voltage drop across a 10 kΩ resistor. The small 0.1 μF capacitor con-
nected between the base and the emitter suppresses interference during measurement.
This experiment uses base currents up to about 1 mA and collector currents up to about 100 mA. Be sure to use
suitable transistors (e.g. BD 137).

a) Control characteristic of collector current IC as a function of base current IB
Load settings
 Power-CASSY maintains the collector-emitter voltage at a constant UCE = 2 V and measures the collector current
IC continuously.
 Set the displayed base current IB at voltage source S of Sensor-CASSY to 0 mA.
 Slowly increase the base current until the characteristic is recorded.

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CASSY Lab 2
b) Characteristic of collector current IC as a function of collector-emitter voltage UCE

Load settings
 Power-CASSY increases the collector-emitter voltage to UCE = 2 V during the measurement and measures the
collector current IC.
 Set the displayed base current IB at voltage source S of Sensor-CASSY to 0.1 mA.
 Start the measurement with (the characteristic is recorded automatically).
 Increase the base current IB in steps of 0.1 mA and record additional characteristics with .
Evaluation
The current gain can be determined easily from control characteristic a) by fitting a straight line. In the example, we
obtain a current gain factor of IC/IB = 149.6.
Characteristic b) also shows the current gain of a transistor in an impressive manner. Starting from a relatively low
collector-emitter voltage UCE, the output current IC remains virtually constant, depending only on the base current IB.

311
CASSY Lab 2
Power characteristic of a solar cell
The power P of a solar cell is recorded for various illuminances as a function of a load resistance R 1. From the
shapes of the curves, the optimal load resistances Rmax are determined at which the maximum power of the solar cell
is reached in each case.
Moreover, at each illuminance (different angles of inclination α of the solar cell), the open-circuit voltage and the
short-circuit current are measured and the internal resistances R0 of the solar cell are calculated: R0=U0/I0. The inter-
nal resistances R0 are compared with Rmax.
Equipment list
1 Joule and wattmeter 531 831
1 Solar cell 664 431
1 Halogen lamp, 1000 W 450 73
1 Rheostat 100 Ω 537 34
1 Steel tape measure 311 78
1 Stand rod, 100 mm 300 40
2 Pairs of cables, 100 cm 501 46

Set up the floodlight lamp at a distance of approx. 40 cm from the solar cell. First set up the solar cell perpendicularly
to the incident light and connect it to the 4 mm sockets on the OUTPUT panel. Connect the load resistor to the 4 mm
sockets on the INPUT panel.
Remark
The power of the solar cell also varies with the temperature. To ensure that the temperature remains essentially con-
stant during the measurement, the solar cell should be illuminated by the light source already 15 min before meas-
ured values are recorded.

312
CASSY Lab 2

Load settings
a) Recording the characteristic
 Adjust the rheostat so that a resistance of 2 Ω is displayed in the display instrument Load Resistance R1.
 Take the measured value into the table manually with .
 Increase the load resistance in steps of 2 Ω, and record further measured values.
 In order to vary the illuminance, incline the solar cell by an angle of 45° or 30°, respectively, relative to the inci-
dent light. Repeat the experiment for each angle.
 For each illuminance, determine the load resistance Rmax at which the maximum power of the solar cell is
reached.
b) Measuring the open-circuit voltage and the short-circuit current
 Open the display instruments U, I, U0, I0 and R0 by clicking on .
 Connect the solar cell to the 4 mm sockets of the joule and wattmeter marked with U.
 Using the mouse, take the value measured in the display instrument U to the display instrument Open-Circuit
Voltage U0 (drag & drop).
 Connect the solar cell to the socket of the joule and wattmeter marked with I.
 Using the mouse, take the value measured in the display instrument I to the display instrument Short-Circuit Cur-
rent I0 (drag & drop). Read the internal resistance R0 of the solar cell.
Evaluation
The power supplied by a solar cell depends on the load resistance and on the illuminance.
The maximum power of the solar cell is reached if the load resistance is approximately equal to the internal re-
sistance of the solar cell.
The maximum power of the solar cell is the larger, the larger the illuminance is (at constant temperature).

313
CASSY Lab 2
Temperature control
A temperature controller is an ideal application for demonstrating the function of a two-position controller and a PI
controller. The inertia of the controlled temperature system leaves sufficient time for exact observation of the control
algorithms.
In a two-position controller, the heating element is switched on when the temperature falls below threshold ϑ1, and
switched off when the temperature exceeds a second threshold ϑ2.
Alternatively, the temperature can be controlled using PI control. A PI controller determines the system deviation w-x
from the measured value x = ϑA1 (temperature) and the reference variable w (set value of the temperature).
Together with the base load y0, this gives us the manipulated variable y = y0 + KP*(w-x) + KI*(w-x)*dt for the PI con-
troller. The proportional-action coefficient KP and the integral-action coefficient KI as control parameters can be opti-
mized so that after a deviation (e.g. a change in the reference variable w) the system returns to a system deviation w-
x of about 0 as soon as possible. The base load y0 can be assumed as constant here.
If only a P-controller is used (KI = 0), a residual system deviation w-x occurs which does not disappear until an I-
component is applied.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 KTY box 524 036

1 KTY sensor 529 036
or
or
1 Socket board section 576 71 or 576 73

1 Heating element, 100 Ω, 2 W 579 38

314
CASSY Lab 2

The voltage source S supplies the heating element. The temperature of the heating element is measured using a
KTY-sensor with the KTY-box at CASSY connector site A. For this purpose, fill a few drops of water in the heating
element and immerse the KTY-sensor in the water.

a) Two-position controller
Load settings
 Turn the potentiometer of the voltage source S all the way to the right.
 Replace switching thresholds ϑ1 and ϑ2 with individual values by moving the pointer of the display instrument with
the mouse or changing the value of the parameter in the Settings ϑ1 or ϑ2 (right mouse button).
 If desired, you can record the temperature curve during control with , and stop recording with .
b) PI controller
Load settings
 Set the reference variable w about 5 °C above the current temperature ϑA1 by moving the pointer of the display
instrument with the mouse or changing the value of the reference variable in the Settings w (right mouse button).
 Replace the proportional-action (KP) and integral-action (KI) coefficients using individual values of the parameter
in the Settings KP or KI (right mouse button).
 Start (and stop) temperature control with .
Evaluation
For the two-position controller, we can set horizontal lines to mark the two switching thresholds ϑ1 and ϑ2.
The quality of the PI controller depends significantly on the choice of the proportional-action coefficient KP and the
integral-action coefficient KI. The black line represents the reference variable w (set value). The red curve represents
the controlled variable x (measured value) and should converge with the black curve quickly following a deviation.
The blue curve represents the manipulated variable y and thus corresponds to the heating voltage.
Empirically optimizing the PI temperature controller

The controlled temperature system is very slow. This is why the effects of changes in K P and KI can only be seen with
a large delay. Empirical optimization will thus take a certain amount of time.
 Set KI to 0, and increase KP in moderate steps (e.g. by 1) until the control loop oscillates.
 Reduce KP again until the oscillations die out. A residual system deviation is created.
 Increase KI in moderate steps (e.g. by KP/200) until the system oscillates again.
 Reduce KI again until the oscillations die out. Note that the controller becomes slower, the lower K I becomes.
In this example, we have used KP=5 and KI=0.05 /s.
Automatically varying the reference variable

The reference variable w (set value) can be varied not only manually, but automatically as well. We can do this, for
example, by entering the formula 30+sin(360*t/1000) in the Settings w. This controls a sinusoidal temperature curve
between 29 °C and 31 °C with a period of 1000 s.

315
CASSY Lab 2
Brightness control
This experiment realizes a brightness control for a light bulb using variable series resistors. A PI controller is used
here. A PI controller determines the system deviation w-x from the measured value x = RA1 (resistance of an LDR)
and the reference variable w (set value of the LDR resistance).
mized so that after a deviation (e.g. an additional series resistor, a change in the reference variable w or the base
load y0) the system returns to a system deviation w-x of about 0 as soon as possible.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Lamp socket E10, side 579 05
1 Set of 10 lamps 3.8 V/0.07 A 505 10
1 Toggle-switch, single-pole 579 13
1 Photoresistor LDR05 578 02
1 STE resistor 10 Ω, 2 W 577 20

The voltage source S supplies the lamp via a 100 Ω protective resistor. The brightness of the lamp is measured using
a light-dependent resistor together with the current source box at CASSY input A.
Additional series resistors can be switched on with the toggle switch to produce deviations. A closed toggle switch
shorts the series resistor, and an open toggle switch leaves it in the circuit.

Load settings

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CASSY Lab 2
 The lamp lights up already, as a base load y0 of 0.5 has been set. This means that PWM output S is operating at
a duty factor of 50 %.
 Change the base load y0 as you like, by setting the corresponding parameter value in the Settings y0 (right
mouse button).
 Enter the measured resistance as the reference variable w by moving the pointer of the display instrument with
the mouse or changing the value of the parameter in the Settings w (right mouse button).
 Start the control with and stop it at the appropriate time with .
 During control, a deviation can be applied, e.g. by switching a series resistor or changing the reference variable or
base load.
 You can optimize your controller by varying the proportional-action (KP) and integral-action (KI) coefficients; set
the corresponding values in Settings KP or KI (right mouse button).
Evaluation
The recorded curves clearly illustrate the quality of the controller. The black line represents the reference variable w
(set value). The red curve represents the controlled variable x (measured value) and should converge with the black
curve quickly following a deviation. The blue curve represents the manipulated variable y and thus corresponds to the
lamp voltage.
Empirically optimizing the PI brightness controller

Set negative values for KP and KI, as the measured resistance value of the sensor box becomes less the greater the
voltage at the voltage source S is.
 Set KI to 0, and increase KP in moderate steps (e.g. by -0.1) until the control loop oscillates.
 Increase KI in moderate steps (e.g. by 10*KP) until the system oscillates again.
In this example, we have used KP = 0.5 and KI = 5 /s.

example, by entering the formula 1+0.5*sin(360*t/20) in the Settings w. This results in control of a sinusoidal re-
sistance curve of the LDR between 0.5 kΩ and 1.5 kΩ with a period of 20 s.

317
CASSY Lab 2
Voltage control
This experiment realizes voltage control of a generator under a variable load. A PI controller is used here. A PI con-
troller determines the system deviation w-x from the measured value x = UB2 (voltage of the generator) and the refer-
ence variable w (set value of the generator).
mized so that after a deviation (e.g. an additional load, a change in the reference variable w or the base load y0) the
system returns to a system deviation w-x of about 0 as soon as possible.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Plug-in board 576 74 or 2 x 576 81
2 DC motors and tacho generators 579 43
1 Toggle-switch, single-pole 579 13
3 Lamp socket E10, top 579 06
1 Set of 10 lamps 3.8 V/0.07 A 505 10
1 Plastic tubing, 6 mm 307 641

318
CASSY Lab 2

Power-CASSY supplies the motor (left), which drives the generator (right) via a section of plastic tubing approx. 25
mm long. The voltage of the generator is measured at input B of Sensor-CASSY. Make sure that the connections of
either the motor or the generator are reversed, as the motor and the generator are linked in opposing directions.
The load on the generator is varied using three light bulbs, two of which can be switched on using a toggle switch.

Load settings
 The motor is already turning, as a base load y0 of 6 V has been set.
 Change the base load y0 as you like, by setting the corresponding parameter value in the Settings y0 (right
mouse button).
 Check the measured voltage UB2; this must be positive (reverse polarity if necessary).
 Enter the measured voltage as the reference variable w by moving the pointer of the display instrument with the
mouse or changing the value of the parameter in the Settings w (right mouse button).
 Start the control with and stop it at the appropriate time with .
 During control, a deviation can be applied, e.g. by varying the generator load or changing the reference variable
or base load.
 You can optimize your controller by varying the proportional-action (KP) and integral-action (KI) coefficients; set
the corresponding values in Settings KP or KI (right mouse button).
Evaluation
The recorded curves clearly illustrate the quality of the controller. The black line represents the reference variable w
(set value). The red curve represents the controlled variable x (measured value) and should converge with the black
curve quickly following a deviation. The blue curve represents the manipulated variable y and thus corresponds to the
motor voltage.
Empirically optimizing the PI voltage controller

 Set KI to 0, and increase KP in moderate steps (e.g. by 0.1) until the control loop oscillates.
 Increase KI in moderate steps (e.g. by 10*KP) until the system oscillates again.
In this example, we have used KP=0.5 and KI=4 /s.

example, by entering the formula 4+sin(360*t/20) in the Settings w. This controls a sinusoidal voltage curve between
3 V and 5 V with a period of 20 s.
Other control loops

This example can also be adapted to other control loops. As long as the controlled variable is a voltage, it is only
necessary to modify the correcting range and the measuring range as well as the control parameters K P and KI.
If the controlled quantity is provided by a sensor box, first of all the channel U B2 has to be deleted by switching it off in
the selection box in Settings UB2. Then, in Settings → CASSYs (Window → Show CASSY Modules), activate the
sensor box with the mouse and again select Averaged Values. The unit and symbol of the reference variable w and
the system deviation w-x must also be modified, as well as the calculation formula for system deviation (e.g. w-RB2
instead of w-UB2). As in all CASSY experiments, you can change the settings by clicking on channel w or w-x with
the right mouse button.

319
CASSY Lab 2
Diffraction at a single slit
Be careful when experimenting with the He-Ne laser

The He-Ne laser meets the requirements according to class 2 of EN 60825-1 "Safety of laser equipment". If the cor-
responding notes of the instruction sheet are observed, experimenting with the He-Ne laser is safe.
Never look into the direct or reflected laser beam.
No observer must feel dazzled.
Diffraction phenomena always occur when the free propagation of light is changed by obstacles such as iris dia-
phragms or slits. The deviation from the rectilinear propagation of light observed in this case is called diffraction.
The voltage of a photocell is measured as a function of the diffraction angle. It is observed that the diffraction pattern
moves more and more into the geometrical shadow area as the slit width decreases. The measuring values recorded
are compared with the prediction of a model calculation for the diffraction intensity U ∝ (sin(πb/λ·α)/(πb/λ·α))2, where
the slit width b and the wavelength λ enter as parameters. For small diffraction angles α, α is easily determined from
the distance L between the diffraction object and the photocell and the path of displacement s of the photocell as α≈
tan α = s/L.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220


320
CASSY Lab 2
or
1 He-Ne laser, linearly polarized 471 830

1 Precision optical bench, 2 m 460 33
4 Riders, H=90 mm/B=60 mm 460 374
1 Sliding rider 460 383
1 Lens in frame, f = +5 mm 460 01
1 Adjustable slit 460 14
1 Holder for plug-in elements 460 21
1 Photocell STE 2/19 578 62
1 Weight, 50 g 342 63

Remark: the adjustment should be carried out in a slightly darkened room.
 Using a rider, mount the He-Ne laser to the optical bench as shown in the drawing.
 Set up the photocell at a distance of approx. 1.90 m from the laser by means of the sliding rider and the holder for
plug-in elements. The photocell should be located in the middle of the sliding rider. Stick two strips of dark paper
on the photocell so that an entrance slit of approx. 1 mm is left.
 Direct the laser towards the photocell, and switch it on.
 Adjust the height of the laser so that the laser beam impinges on the center of the photocell.
 Place the spherical lens with the focal length f = +5 mm in front of the laser at a distance of approx. 1 cm. The
laser beam has to cover the photocell.
 Position the converging lens with the focal length f = +50 mm in front of the spherical lens at a distance of approx.
55 mm and displace it on the optical bench towards the spherical lens until the laser beam is sharply imaged on
the photocell.
 Displace the converging lens on the optical bench somewhat further towards the spherical lens until the diameter
of the laser beam on the photocell is approx. 6 mm. Now the laser beam should have a circular profile of constant
diameter along the optical axis.
 Put the adjustable slit on the optical bench, and displace it until the distance L between the photocell and the slit
diaphragm is 1.50 m.
 Fix the bench clamp with the displacement sensor to the table as shown in the drawing.
 The path of displacement sA1 perpendicular to the optical axis is measured via the displacement sensor at the
current supply box on input A of the Sensor-CASSY.
 In order to measure the voltage, the photocell is connected to input B of the Sensor-CASSY via the μV-box.

Load settings
 Set the photocell to the position -6.0 cm opposite the displacement sensor.
 Turn the wheel of the displacement sensor to the stop so that the display of the path sA1 is approximately -6.0 cm.
If it turns out that the path measurement will lead to a wrong sign, connect the current supply box to the other arm
of the displacement sensor.
 Tie a piece of fishing line to the holder for plug-in elements, wind it once around the wheel of the displacement
sensor, and suspend a weight from it.
 Calibrate the zero of the path – for this place the photocell in the middle of the sliding rider (= zero of the scale or
of the position of the principal intensity maxima, respectively).
 Enter the target value 0 cm in Settings sA1 Correct, and then select Correct Offset.
 Slide the photocell back to the position opposite the displacement sensor, and keep it there.
 If necessary, Correct the background brightness in the Settings UB1. For this enter the target value 0 mV, and
then select Correct Offset.
 Start the measurement with (the message No Trigger Signal appears).
 Displace the photocell very slowly by hand towards the displacement sensor. As soon as you pass the starting
point at -5.5 cm, recording of measured values begins.

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CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
The intensity distribution of the diffraction pattern appears already during the measurement. The measured intensity
distribution can now be compared with the result of the model calculation for small diffraction angles α ≈ tan α = sA1/L
by performing a Free fit. Use the following formula:
A*(sin(180*B/0.633*(x-C)/150)/(180*B/0.633*(x-C)/150))^2
with
x: displacement sA1 perpendicular to the optical axis
A: intensity I0
B: slit width b in μm
C: correction of the position of the principal maximum
L: distance between the diaphragm and the photocell (here: L = 150 cm)
λ: wavelength of the He-Ne laser (here: λ = 0.633 μm)
In this fit, the wavelength λ = 0.633 μm of the He-Ne laser has been assumed to be known and the slit width b has
been determined. The other way round, the wavelength λ of the laser can be determined if the slit width b is known.
For this, the formula can be modified, e.g., in the following way:
A*(sin(180*240/B*(x-C)/150)/(180*240/B*(x-C)/150))^2
For the Free fit, always a reasonable starting value for the slit width should be chosen, e.g., B=240 (μm) for
b=0.24 mm.
Remark
In this experiment on diffraction of light at a single slit, the intensity distribution is recorded manually. The measuring
values can be recorded automatically with the aid of VideoCom (experiment P5.3.1.6).

322
CASSY Lab 2
Diffraction at multiple slits
Be careful when experimenting with the He-Ne laser

The He-Ne laser meets the requirements according to class 2 of EN 60825-1 "Safety of laser equipment". If the cor-
responding notes of the instruction sheet are observed, experimenting with the He-Ne laser is safe.
Never look into the direct or reflected laser beam.
No observer must feel dazzled.
Diffraction phenomena always occur when the free propagation of light is changed by obstacles such as iris dia-
phragms or slits. The deviation from the rectilinear propagation of light observed in this case is called diffraction.
The voltage of a photocell is measured as a function of the diffraction angle. It is observed that the diffraction pattern
moves more and more into the geometrical shadow area as the slit width decreases. The measuring values recorded
are compared with the prediction of a model calculation for the diffraction intensity U ∝ (sin(πb/λ·α)/(πb/λ·α))2
* (sin(Nπd/λ·α)/(πd/λ·α))2, where the slit width b, the slit spacing d, the number of slits N, and the wavelength λ enter
as parameters. For small diffraction angles α, α is easily determined from the distance L between the diffraction ob-
ject and the photocell and the path of displacement s of the photocell as α≈ tan α = s/L.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220


323
CASSY Lab 2

or
1 He-Ne laser, linearly polarized 471 830

1 Precision optical bench, 2 m 460 33
4 Riders, H=90 mm/B=60 mm 460 374
1 Sliding rider 460 383
1 Diaphragm with 3 double slits 469 84
1 Diaphragm with 4 double slits 469 85
1 Diaphragm with 5 multiple slits 469 86
1 Holder with spring clips 460 22
1 Photocell STE 2/19 578 62
1 Holder for plug-in elements 460 21
1 Weight, 50 g 342 63

Remark: the adjustment should be carried out in a slightly darkened room.
 Using a rider, mount the He-Ne laser to the optical bench as shown in the drawing.
 Set up the photocell at a distance of approx. 1.90 m from the laser by means of the sliding rider and the holder for
plug-in elements. The photocell should be located in the middle of the sliding rider. Stick two strips of dark paper
on the photocell so that an entrance slit of approx. 1 mm is left.
 Direct the laser towards the photocell, and switch it on.
 Adjust the height of the laser so that the laser beam impinges on the center of the photocell.
 Place the spherical lens with the focal length f = +5 mm in front of the laser at a distance of approx. 1 cm. The
laser beam has to cover the photocell.
 Position the converging lens with the focal length f = +50 mm in front of the spherical lens at a distance of approx.
55 mm and displace it on the optical bench towards the spherical lens until the laser beam is sharply imaged on
the photocell.
 Displace the converging lens on the optical bench somewhat further towards the spherical lens until the diameter
of the laser beam on the photocell is approx. 6 mm. Now the laser beam should have a circular profile of constant
diameter along the optical axis.
 Put the holder with spring clips on the optical bench with the diaphragm being clamped, and displace it until the
distance L between the photocell and the slit diaphragm is 1.50 m.
 Fix the bench clamp with the displacement sensor to the table as shown in the drawing.
 The path of displacement sA1 perpendicular to the optical axis is measured via the displacement sensor at the
current supply box on input A of the Sensor-CASSY.
 In order to measure the voltage, the photocell is connected to input B of the Sensor-CASSY via the μV-box.

Load settings
 Set the photocell to the position -6.0 cm opposite the displacement sensor.
 Turn the wheel of the displacement sensor to the stop so that the display of the path sA1 is approximately -6.0 cm.
If it turns out that the path measurement will lead to a wrong sign, connect the current supply box to the other arm
of the displacement sensor.
 Tie a piece of fishing line to the holder for plug-in elements, wind it once around the wheel of the displacement
sensor, and suspend a weight from it.
 Calibrate the zero of the path – for this place the photocell in the middle of the sliding rider (= zero of the scale or
of the position of the principal intensity maxima, respectively).
 Enter the target value 0 cm in Settings sA1 Correct, and then select Correct Offset.
 Slide the photocell back to the position opposite the displacement sensor, and keep it there.
 If necessary, Correct the background brightness in the Settings UB1. For this enter the target value 0 mV, and
then select Correct Offset.
 Start the measurement with (the message No Trigger Signal appears).

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CASSY Lab 2
 Displace the photocell very slowly by hand towards the displacement sensor. As soon as you pass the starting
point at -5.5 cm, recording of measured values begins.
Evaluation
The intensity distribution of the diffraction pattern appears already during the measurement. The measured intensity
distribution can now be compared with the result of the model calculation for small diffraction angles α ≈ tan α = sA1/L
by performing a Free fit. Use the following formula:
A*(sin(180*B/0.633*(x-C)/150)/(180*B/0.633*(x-C)/150))^2 *
(sin(2*180*D/0.633*(x-C)/150)/sin(180*D/0.633*(x-C)/150))^2
with
x: displacement sA1 perpendicular to the optical axis
A: intensity I0
B: slit width b in μm
C: correction of the position of the principal maximum
D: slit spacing d in μm
N: number of slits (here double slit: N = 2)
L: distance between the diaphragm and the photocell (here: L = 150 cm)
λ: wavelength of the He-Ne laser (here: λ = 0.633 μm)
In this fit, the wavelength λ = 0.633 μm of the He-Ne laser has been assumed to be known and the slit width b and
the slit spacing d have been determined. The other way round, the wavelength λ of the laser can be determined if the
slit width b and the slit spacing d are known.
For the Free fit, always reasonable starting values for the slit width and the slit spacing should be chosen, e.g.,
B=200 (μm) for b=0.2 mm and D=250 (μm) for d=0.25 mm.
If the secondary maxima are not clearly seen for N > 2, the slit spacing d cannot be determined by the Free fit. In this
case, the correct slit spacing d should be entered in μm as a starting value for the fit and then be kept constant (e.g.
250 for 0.25 mm).
Remark
In this experiment on diffraction of light at multiple slits, the intensity distribution is recorded manually. The measuring
values can be recorded automatically with the aid of VideoCom (experiment P5.3.1.7).

325
CASSY Lab 2
Inverse square law for light
This experiment measures the illuminance E as a function of the distance d between an incandescent lamp filament
and a lux sensor. It demonstrates that E is proportional to 1/d2.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Lux box or Lux adapter S 524 051(1)
1 Lux sensor 666 243
1 Lamp, 6 V, 30 W 450 511
1 Lamp housing 450 60
1 Voltage source, 6 V, 30 W, e.g. 521 210
1 Small optical bench 460 43
1 Small clip plug from 590 02ET2
1 Perforated stand rod 590 13

Set up the lamp housing with lamp and the lux sensor on the optical bench. Attach the lux sensor to the perforated
stand rod using the small clip plug. Slide the movable insert of the lamp housing all the way in.

Load settings
 Enter the correction factor F of your particular lux sensor (stamped on device) by opening Settings EA1, selecting
Correct, entering the factor and clicking Correct Factor.
 Correct the background brightness with Settings EA1, Correct, Correct Offset.
 Switch on the lamp and set a distance of 10 cm between the lamp filament and the lux sensor.
 Enter this value in the table (click on the column d in the first table row and type in the value).

326
CASSY Lab 2
 Transfer the illuminance value to the table with .

 Increase the distance in steps, write the distances in the table and accept each new illuminance value with .
Evaluation
The measurements are displayed in the diagram while the measurement is running. To confirm the inverse square
law for light, you can fit a hyperbola 1/x2 to the diagram, or alternatively convert the x-axis to 1/x2 (click on the axis
with the mouse) and fit a straight line.

327
CASSY Lab 2
Velocity of light in air
Safety note
Modern distance meters use a periodically modulated laser beam for the measurement. They determine the phase
shift between the emitted and the reflected modulated laser beam and, with the modulation frequency being known,
obtain the time-of-flight t of the light on its path to and back from the reflector. Only afterwards do the distance meters
calculate the distance with the aid of the known velocity of light.
In this experiment, the laser motion sensor S (laser S) is used as a time-of-flight meter because it is also capable of
outputting the time-of-flight t directly. The proportionality between the distance and the time-of-flight of light is con-
firmed, and the velocity of light is calculated.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

Lay the laser S on the table with its broad side down, and connect it to the input A of the CASSY. Stick a piece of
retroreflecting foil enclosed with the laser S to the end buffer, and put the end buffer on the ruler at a distance of
30 cm from the laser so that the laser beam impinges perpendicularly on the center of the foil.
Before the measurement, allow the laser S to warm up for approximately 5 minutes in order that the zero shift be-
comes as small as possible.

Load settings
 Enter the distance d=0 in the first column of the table (click on the first field of the table with the mouse).
 Record the first measuring point (d=0 m, Δt) with .
 Displace the end buffer away from the laser by 10 cm, and enter the distance 0.1 m in the first column of the table
(click on the second field of the table with the mouse).
 Record the second measuring point (d=0.1 m, Δt) with .
 Repeat the measurement for greater distances up to approximately 50 cm.

328
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
The optical path s of the laser beam is equal to twice the distance d. This is already taken into account in the s(t)
diagram in the Velocity of Light display. The proportionality between s and t, i.e. s = c·t, is confirmed by the s(t)
diagram. Fitting a straight line through the origin leads to the proportionality constant c = 0.3 m/ns = 300,000 km/s.

329
CASSY Lab 2
Velocity of light in various materials
Safety note
Modern distance meters use a periodically modulated laser beam for the measurement. They determine the phase
shift between the emitted and the reflected modulated laser beam and, with the modulation frequency being known,
obtain the time-of-flight t of the light on its path to and back from the reflector. Only afterwards do the distance meters
calculate the distance with the aid of the known velocity of light.
In this experiment, the laser motion sensor S (laser S) is used as a time-of-flight meter because it is also capable of
outputting the time-of-flight t directly. Water and acrylic glass of thickness d are held into the path of the beam, and
then the resulting increase of the time-of-flight Δt is measured. With the velocity of light c in air measured in the pre-
vious experiment, the velocity of light cM in matter can now be determined:
cM = 2d/(2d/c+Δt) = 1/(1/c+Δt/2d)
Finally, the refractive index n is determined according to:
n = c/cM = c·(1/c+Δt/2d) = 1 + c/2d·Δt
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Cuvette,
45 mm x 12,5 mm x 52,5 mm 477 32
1 Acrylic glass block 476 34

Lay the laser S on the table with its broad side down, and connect it to the input A of the CASSY. Stick a piece of
retroreflecting foil enclosed with the laser S to the end buffer, and put the end buffer on the ruler at a distance of ap-
proximately 50 cm from the laser so that the laser beam impinges perpendicularly on the center of the foil.
Before the measurement, allow the laser S to warm up for approximately 5 minutes in order that the zero shift be-
comes as small as possible.

330
CASSY Lab 2

Load settings
 Hold the empty and dry plate glass cell into the path of the beam such that the visible reflections of the laser
beam from the glass surface are not reflected back to the laser (rotate the cell by approximately 3°). Otherwise
the laser also sees these reflections and will not be able to determine the time-of-flight correctly. The increase of
the length of the path resulting from this rotation is smaller than 1 % and can thus be neglected.
 Record the first "measuring point" (air) with .
 Fill the plate glass cell with water.
 Record the second measuring point (water) with .
 Remove the plate glass cell.
 Define the zero of the time-of-flight (→ 0 ← in Settings ΔtA1) anew.
 Hold the acrylic glass block into the path of the beam such that the visible reflections of the laser beam from the
glass surface are not reflected back to the laser (rotate the acrylic glass block by approximately 3°).
 Record the third measuring point (acrylic glass) with .
Evaluation
The two displays Velocity of Light and Refractive Index show the measuring results in the form of bar diagrams.
The velocity of light in materials having a greater optical density decreases and the refractive index increases.
The literature values of the refractive indices of water and acrylic glass are n=1.33 and n=1.5.

331
CASSY Lab 2
Millikan's experiment
In 1910, R. A. Millikan succeeded in demonstrating the quantized occurrence of smallest amounts of electrical charge
using his famous oil droplet method. He observed charged oil droplets in a vertical electrical field of a plate capacitor
with the plate distance d and determined the charge q of a floating droplet from its radius r and the electrical
field E=U/d. In his experiment, he found that q only occurs as integral multiples of an elementary charge e, i.e. q =
n·e.
Theory
When an oil droplet with radius r0 falls with the velocity –v1, this droplet is subject to Stokes friction, which leads to
the upward directed force F1 = 6π·η·r0·v1 (η = viscosity of air). When the oil droplet rises with the velocity v2 in an
external electrical field E, the downward directed force due to Stokes friction is F2 = –6π·η·r0·v2. The difference be-
tween these two forces is exactly the force q0·E exerted by the applied electrical field E, i.e.
q0·E = q0·U/d = F1–F2 = 6π·η·r0·(v1+v2) or
q0 = 6π·η·r0·d·(v1+v2) / U.
In order to determine the charge q0, only the radius r0 of the oil droplet under consideration is required, which, how-
ever, is easily obtained from the equilibrium of forces between its resultant gravitational force F = –V·Δρ·g and the
Stokes frictional force F1 in the case of the falling droplet, where Δρ is the difference between the densities of oil and
air.

332
CASSY Lab 2
Thus we have:
0 = F+F1 = –4/3 π·r03·Δρ·g + 6π·η·r0·v1 or
r0 = √(9ηv1 / 2Δρg).
For a more precise determination of the charge q, it has to be taken into account that Stokes friction has to be cor-
rected for very small radii r because these are of the order of magnitude of the mean free path of the air molecules.
The corrected formula for the frictional force, which depends on the air pressure p, reads
F = 6πηrv / (1+b/rp)
with b = 80 µm·hPa (constant).
With the abbreviation A = b/p, the corrected radius r is
r = √(r02 + A2/4) – A/2
and the corrected charge q is
q = q0 / (1+A/r)1.5.
Floating method
In this version of the experiment, the voltage U at the plate capacitor is adjusted such that a particular oil droplet
floats, i.e. the rising velocity is v2=0. The falling velocity v1 is measured after switching off the voltage U at the capaci-
tor. Because of v2=0, the above formulas are slightly simplified.
However, v2=0 cannot be adjusted very precisely for fundamental reasons. Therefore the floating method leads to
larger measurement errors and broader scattering in the frequency distribution than in the case of the following
method.
Falling/rising method
In the second version, the two velocities v1 and v2 the voltage U are measured. This method makes possible more
precise measured values than the floating method because the velocity v2 is really measured.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Timer box 524 034
1 Millikan apparatus 559 412
1 Millikan supply unit 559 421
1 Pair of cables, 100 cm, black 501 461

Set up the Millikan apparatus as described in the instruction sheet, fill in oil, and set up the circuit as shown in the
drawing. Connect the stopwatch output 1 to the input E and the stopwatch output 2 to the input F of the timer box.
Connect the voltage output of the supply unit to the input B of the Sensor-CASSY.
Attention: the microscope creates an inverted image. Therefore all directions of motions are inverted. In the following,
however, the real motion is described.
For a better demonstration of the oil droplets, it is recommended to record the image of the microscope by means of
a video camera (e.g. VideoFlex from ken-a-vision). In this case, the camera can record upside down so that the visi-
ble direction of motion corresponds to the real direction of motion.

a) Floating method
Load settings
 Orient the eyepiece micrometer vertically and turn the lens holder of the eyepiece until you can clearly see the
micrometer scale.
 First set the switches U and t in the down position.

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CASSY Lab 2
 Switch the voltage at the capacitor on with the switch U and adjust it with the rotary potentiometer so (400-600 V)
that a selected oil droplet rises with a velocity of approximately 1-2 scale graduation marks per second (i.e. it is
seen falling when observed through the eyepiece). Then reduce the voltage until the oil droplet floats.
 Switch the voltage at the capacitor off with the switch U.
 As soon as the oil droplet is located at the height of a selected scale graduation mark, start the time measurement
with the switch t.
 As soon as the oil droplet has fallen by another 20 scale graduation marks (corresponds to 1 mm), stop the time
measurement with the switch t and switch the voltage at the capacitor on again with the switch U.
 Enter the measured values of the falling time t1 and the voltage U in the table with . The calculated charge q is
entered in the histogram automatically.
 Repeat the measurement for other oil droplets.
b) Falling/rising method
Load settings
 Orient the eyepiece micrometer vertically and turn the lens holder of the eyepiece until you can clearly see the
micrometer scale.
 First set the switches U and t in the down position.
 Switch the voltage at the capacitor on with the switch U and adjust it with the rotary potentiometer so (400-600 V)
that a selected oil droplet rises with a velocity of approximately 1-2 scale graduation marks per second (i.e. it is
seen falling when observed through the eyepiece).
 Switch the voltage at the capacitor off with the switch U.
 As soon as the oil droplet is located at the height of a selected scale graduation mark, start the time measurement
with the switch t.
 As soon as the oil droplet has fallen (i.e. risen as observed in the eyepiece) by another 20 scale graduation marks
(corresponds to 1 mm), switch the voltage at the capacitor on again with the switch U. Thereby the time meas-
urement t2 is started automatically.
 As soon as the oil droplet is at the height of the first scale graduation mark again, stop the time measurement with
the switch t.
 Enter the measured values of the falling time t1, the rising time t2 and the voltage U in the table with . The calcu-
lated charge q is entered in the histogram automatically.
 Repeat the measurement for other oil droplets.
Evaluation
In the evaluation, mean values can be drawn the in measured frequency distribution and the relation q = n·e (with e
=1.6022 · 10-19 C) can be confirmed.
Remarks
If oil droplets with a small charge are selected, statistical significance is achieved more quickly. Oil droplets carrying a
small charge are identified by their small size and their slow motion in the electric field.
If there is not enough time during the lessons for observing about 20-30 oil droplets, the example with its measured
values can be loaded instead of merely the settings. The new measured values then appear in the histogram as red
bars thus confirming the results of the example drawn in black within the usual statistical uncertainty.
In order to measure negative charges q, the connections at the plate capacitor and at the input B of the CASSY have
to be exchanged.
If the local air pressure differs considerably form 1013 hPa, the air pressure should be changed correspondingly in
the formula defining the correction parameter A. However, the diplayed example values may then be wrong.

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CASSY Lab 2
Franck-Hertz experiment with mercury
In 1914, James Franck and Gustav Hertz reported an energy loss occurring in distinct "steps" for electrons passing
through mercury vapour, and a corresponding emission at the ultraviolet line (λ = 254 nm) of mercury. Just a few
months later, Niels Bohr recognized this as evidence confirming his model of the atom. The Franck-Hertz experiment
is thus a classic experiment for confirming quantum theory.
In this experiment, the acceleration voltage U2 is increased from 0 to 30 V while the driving potential U1 and the brak-
ing voltage U3 are held constant, and the corresponding collector current I A is measured. This current initially in-
creases, much as in a conventional tetrode, but reaches a maximum when the kinetic energy of the electrons closely
in front of grid G2 is just sufficient to transfer the energy required to excite the mercury atoms (E Hg = 4.9 eV) through
collisions. The collector current drops off dramatically, as after collision the electrons can no longer overcome the
braking voltage U3.
As the acceleration voltage U2 increases, the electrons attain the energy level required for exciting the mercury atoms
at ever greater distances from grid G2. After collision, they are accelerated once more and, when the acceleration
voltage is sufficient, again absorb so much energy from the electrical field that they can excite a mercury atom. The
result is a second maximum, and at greater voltages U2 further maxima of the collector current IA.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Hg Franck-Hertz tube 555 854

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CASSY Lab 2
1 Socket for Hg Franck-Hertz tube 555 864

1 Electric oven, 230 V 555 81
1 Franck-Hertz supply unit 555 880

 Make sure the Franck-Hertz supply unit is switched off.
 Connect the heating oven via the 4-mm safety sockets on the rear of the supply unit. In particular, ensure that the
yellow and green plug is connected to the yellow and green safety socket (earth).
 Additionally, connect the copper lead of the copper sleeve with 4-mm plug to the green-yellow safety socket (to
screen the Franck-Hertz tube from interference fields).
 Connect temperature sensor to the "NiCr-Ni" DIN socket and Franck-Hertz tube to the "Franck-Hertz tube" DIN
socket of the supply unit.
 Insert the temperature sensor in the corresponding blind hole of the heating oven as far as it will go and slide the
Franck-Hertz tube with copper sleeve into the oven.
Note: If the thermal contact of the temperature sensor is poor, the measured oven temperature will be too low, re-
sulting in overheating of the tube.
 Turn the operating-mode switch to RESET and switch on the supply unit (after a few seconds, the LED indicator
for mercury (Hg) changes from green to red).
 Check the default setting ϑS = 180 °C and wait until the operating temperature is reached (LED indicator changes
from red to green; the temperature ϑ first reaches a maximum, and then declines to the final value).
If the indicator in the display flashes:
 There is a mistake in the setup for temperature measurement (see the Instruction Sheet).
 Connect voltage input A for the Sensor-CASSY to output UA for the voltage proportional to the collector voltage
and the voltage input B of Sensor-CASSY at output U2/10 for the acceleration voltage.

Load settings
 Set the driving potential U1 = 1.5 V and the braking voltage U3 = 1.5 V and record the Franck-Hertz curve in the
"Ramp" operating mode. To do this, start the measurement by pressing and immediately set the operating
mode switch to "Ramp". The measurement is automatically stopped after 15 s, then return the operating mode
switch to RESET.
1) Optimizing ϑ
If the Franck-Hertz curve rises abruptly (a) and you can see a gas discharge in the Franck-Hertz tube through the
insertion opening of the oven (blue glow):
 Immediately turn the operating-mode switch to RESET and wait until the setup reaches the operating tempera-
ture.
 If necessary, raise the set value ϑS using the screwdriver potentiometer (e.g. by 5 °C) and wait a few minutes until
the system settles into the new thermal equilibrium.

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CASSY Lab 2
2) Optimizing U1
A higher driving potential U1 results in a greater electron emission current.
If the Franck-Hertz curve rises too steeply, i.e. the overdrive limit of the current measuring amplifier is reached at
values below U2 = 30 V and the top of the Franck-Hertz curve is cut off (b):
 Reduce U1 until the curve steepness corresponds to (d).
If the Franck-Hertz curve is too flat, i.e. the collector current IA remains below 5 nA in all areas (c):
 Increase U1 until the curve steepness corresponds to (d).
If the Franck-Hertz curve is flat even after increasing U1:
 Reduce the set value ϑS for the oven temperature using the screwdriver potentiometer.
3) Optimizing U3
A greater braking voltage U3 causes better-defined maxima and minima of the Franck-Hertz curve; at the same time,
however, the total collector current is reduced.
If the maxima and minima of the Franck-Hertz curve are insufficiently defined (d):
 Alternately increase first the braking voltage U3 and then the driving potential U1 until you obtain the curve form
shown in (f).
If the minima of the Franck-Hertz curve are cut off at the bottom (e):
 Alternately reduce first the braking voltage U3 and then the driving potential U1 until you obtain the curve form
shown in (f).
The Hg Franck-Hertz tube in the experimental example was measured using the parameters U 1 = 2.58 V, U3 =
1.95 V und ϑS = 180 °C.
Evaluation
The recorded curve is evaluated by drawing vertical lines or peak centers to find the distance between the subse-
quent maxima. In the experimental example, an average value of U2 = 5.07 V is found. This corresponds to an ener-
gy transfer ΔE = 5.07 eV.
The value found in the literature for the transfer energy of the mercury atoms from the basic state 1S0 to the first 3P1
state is EHg = 4.9 eV.
The position of the first maximum is determined through the contact voltage of the electrode materials used and the
driving potential U1. The larger distance between the maxima of higher order is caused by superposition of the
Franck-Hertz curve by the characteristic tube line.

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CASSY Lab 2
Franck-Hertz experiment with neon
In 1914, James Franck and Gustav Hertz reported an energy loss occurring in distinct "steps" for electrons passing
through mercury vapour, and a corresponding emission at the ultraviolet line (λ = 254 nm) of mercury. Just a few
months later, Niels Bohr recognized this as evidence confirming his model of the atom. The Franck-Hertz experiment
is thus a classic experiment for confirming quantum theory.
In this experiment, the energy loss of free electrons through inelastic scattering (excitation through impact) from neon
atoms is investigated. Most probably the excitation occurs from the ground state to the ten 3p states, which are
18.4 eV and 19.0 eV above the ground state. The four slightly lower 3s states at 16.6 eV to 16.9 eV are less likely to
be excited. The de-excitation of the 3p states to the ground state by emission of photons is only possible with a de-
tour via the 3s states. The light emitted during this process within the visible range between red and green and can
therefore be observed without any equipment.

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CASSY Lab 2
An evacuated glass tube is filled with neon at room temperature to a gas pressure of about 10 hPa. The glass tube
contains a system of four electrodes. Electrons are emitted by the hot cathode and form a charge cloud. These elec-
trons are attracted by the driving potential U1 between the cathode and the grid-shaped control electrode G1 and then
accelerated by the acceleration voltage U2 in the direction of grid G2. Between G2 and the collector electrode, a brak-
ing voltage U3 is applied. Only electrons with sufficient kinetic energy can reach the collector and contribute to the
collector current.
In this experiment, the acceleration voltage U2 is increased from 0 to 80 V while the driving potential U1 and the brak-
ing voltage U3 are held constant, and the corresponding collector current IA is measured. This current initially in-
creases, much as in a conventional tetrode, but reaches a maximum when the kinetic energy of the electrons closely
in front of grid G2 is just sufficient to transfer the energy required to excite the neon atoms through collisions. The
collector current drops off dramatically, as after collision the electrons can no longer overcome the braking voltage
U3.
As the acceleration voltage U2 increases, the electrons attain the energy level required for exciting the neon atoms at
ever greater distances from grid G2. After collision, they are accelerated once more and, when the acceleration volt-
age is sufficient, again absorb so much energy from the electrical field that they can excite a neon atom. The result is
a second maximum, and at greater voltages U2 further maxima of the collector current IA.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Ne Franck-Hertz tube 555 870
1 Holder with socket 555 871
1 Connecting cable for Ne-FH 555 872
1 Franck-Hertz supply unit 555 880

 Clamp the Ne Franck-Hertz tube in the socket on the holder and connect by means of a connection cable to the
socket "Franck-Hertz tube" of the Franck-Hertz supply unit.
 Set the operating-mode switch on the Franck-Hertz supply unit to RESET.
 Connect voltage input A for the Sensor-CASSY to output UA for the voltage proportional to the collector voltage
and the voltage input B of Sensor-CASSY at output U2/10 for the acceleration voltage.

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CASSY Lab 2

Load settings
 Set the driving potential U1 = 1.5 V and the braking voltage U3 = 5 V and record the Franck-Hertz curve in the
"Ramp" operating mode. To do this, start the measurement by pressing and immediately set the operating
mode switch to "Ramp". The measurement is automatically stopped after 40 s, then return the operating mode
switch to RESET.
1) Optimizing U1
A higher driving potential U1 results in a greater electron emission current.
If the Franck-Hertz curve rises too steeply, i.e. the overdrive limit of the current measuring amplifier is reached at
values below U2 = 80 V and the top of the Franck-Hertz curve is cut off (a):
 Reduce U1 until the curve steepness corresponds to (c).
If the Franck-Hertz curve is too flat, i.e. the collector current IA remains below 5 nA in all areas (b):
 Increase U1 until the curve steepness corresponds to (c).
 If necessary, optimize the cathode heating as described in the Instruction Sheet for the Franck-Hertz supply unit.
2) Optimizing U3
A greater braking voltage U3 causes better-defined maxima and minima of the Franck-Hertz curve; at the same time,
however, the total collector current is reduced.
If the maxima and minima of the Franck-Hertz curve are insufficiently defined (c):
 Alternately increase first the braking voltage U3 and then the driving potential U1 until you obtain the curve form
shown in (e).
If the minima of the Franck-Hertz curve are cut off at the bottom (d):
 Alternately reduce first the braking voltage U3 and then the driving potential U1 until you obtain the curve form
shown in (e).
The Ne Franck-Hertz tube in the experimental example was measured using the parameters U1 = 1.5 V and U3 =
7.9 V.
Evaluation
The recorded curve is evaluated by drawing vertical lines (by eye) to find the distance between the subsequent max-
ima. In the experimental example, an average value of U2 = 18.2 V is found. This value is much closer to the excita-
tion energies for the 3p-levels of neon (18.4-19.0 eV) than to the energies of the 3s-levels (16.6–16.9 eV). Thus, the
probability of excitation to the latter due to inelastic electron collision is significantly less.
The substructure in the measured curve shows that the excitation of the 3s-levels cannot be ignored altogether. Note
that for double and multiple collisions, each combination of excitation of a 3s-level and a 3p-level occurs.
In the Ne Franck-Hertz tube, luminous zones can be observed which depend on the acceleration voltage. They di-
rectly correlate with the minima of the Franck-Hertz curve.

340
CASSY Lab 2
Bragg reflection: diffraction of X-rays at a monocrystal
Safety notes
According to a model first described by W.H. and W.L. Bragg in 1913, the regular arrangement of atoms in a crystal
can be interpreted in such a way that they are arranged on parallel lattice planes.
When parallel X-rays strike such a crystal, and assuming that they have wave nature, each lattice-plane component
located in a lattice-plane acts as a scattering centre and emits a spherical wave.
According to Huygens, the spherical waves superimpose to a "reflected" wave front. During this process, the wave-
length λ remains unchanged compared to the "incident" wave front. If two conditions apply, the waves scattered at
the individual atoms will interfere constructively.
These conditions are:
Incident angle β1 = diffracted angle β2 = α
and
n·λ = 2·d·sin β (Bragg's condition)
with d the distance between the lattice planes and order of diffraction n being an integer number. The angle β applies
relative to the lattice planes. It is also called a glancing angle.
Equipment list
1 X-ray apparatus, Mo, complete 554 801
1 CASSY Lab 2 for X-ray apparatus 524 223 (if upgrade necessary)
1 End-window counter for α-, β-, γ- and X-rays 559 01

341
CASSY Lab 2

 If necessary exchange the Mo X-ray tube for the Cu or Ag X-ray tube (see operating instructions for the X-ray ap-
paratus)
 Slide the collimator into the collimator holder
 Attach the goniometer to the guide rods for a distance of approx. 5 cm between the slit diaphragm of the collima-
tor and the target arm.
 Remove the protective cap of the window counting tube, insert the window counting tube into the sensor holder
and connect the counting tube cable to the GM-Tube socket.
 By moving the sensor holder, adjust the distance between the target arm and the slit diaphragm of the sensor
holder to approx. 6 cm.
 Install the target holder with the target table.
 Loosen the knurled screw, place the NaCl crystal flat on the target table. Now carefully lift the target table with the
crystal as far as it will go and tighten the knurled screw carefully.
 Avoid any possible canting by pressing lightly.
Remark
NaCl crystals are hygroscopic and fragile. Store the crystal as dry as possible, avoid mechanical stress on the crystal
as far as possible, only touch the fronts of the crystal.

Load settings
 Connecting the USB socket of the X-ray apparatus to the PC
 If not already done for the crystal, perform a Crystal calibration in the Settings of the X-ray apparatus.
 Select the Coupled operating mode for the 2β-coupling of target and sensor.
 Record the Bragg spectrum after setting one of the following parameter sets with
Tube n U / kV I / mA βmin / ° βmax / ° Δβ / ° Δt / s
Mo 3 35.0 1.00 2.0 25.0 0.1 1
Mo 6 35.0 1.00 2.0 60.0 0.1 10
Cu 3 35.0 1.00 2.0 60.0 0.1 1
Ag 4 35.0 1.00 2.0 30.0 0.1 1
Evaluation
By clicking with the right mouse button in the diagram, open the evaluation options and select Calculate Peak Center.
Use the left mouse button to mark the peaks over their entire width and enter the determined peak center β into the
diagram with Alt+T.
From the glancing angle β using the lattice-plane spacing d = 282.0 pm, calculate the wavelength λ according to
Bragg's reflection law.
Alternatively you can drag and drop the calculated quantity nλ from the list of measured quantities into the diagram
and thus change the x-axis from β to nλ. This will show the wavelengths on the x-axis if the lattice-plane spacing has
been correctly specified in the nλ settings.
Hint: Small peaks can become visible by the logarithmic display of the y-axis (right mouse button), if the measuring
time per angular step has provided sufficient signal-to-noise ratio.

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CASSY Lab 2
Results Mo
n β(Kα) β(Kβ) λ(Kα) λ(Kβ)
1 7.26 ° 6.46 ° 71.25 pm 63.40 pm
2 14.62° 12.94 ° 71.13 pm 63.16 pm
3 22.21° 19.62 ° 71.06 pm 63.11 pm
4 30.21 ° 26.56 ° 70.95 pm 63.05 pm
5 38.99 ° 34.08 ° 70.95 pm 63.18 pm
6 49.03 ° 70.99 pm
Mean values: 71.06 pm 63.18 pm
Literature values: 71.07 pm 63.26 pm
Results Cu
1 15.83 ° 14.27 ° 153.86 pm 139.03 pm
2 33.09 ° 29.53 ° 153.96 pm 139.00 pm
3 54.96 ° 47.70 ° 153.93 pm 139.06 pm
Results Ag
1 5.71 ° 5.06 ° 56.11 pm 49.73 pm
2 11.46 ° 10.11 ° 56.00 pm 49.50 pm
3 17.32 ° 15.30 ° 56.02 pm 49.60 pm
4 23.36 ° 55.91 pm

343
CASSY Lab 2
Duane-Hunt relation and determination of Planck's constant
Safety notes
The Bremsstrahlung continuum in the emission spectrum of an X-ray tube is characterized by the cut-off wavelength
λmin, which becomes smaller as the tube high voltage U increases.
In 1915, the American physicists William Duane and Franklin L. Hunt detected an inverse proportionality between the
cut-off wavelength and the tube high voltage.
λmin ~ 1/U
For the explanation of this Duane-Hunt shift law, simple quantum mechanical considerations of energy conservation
are sufficient:
Since wavelength λ and frequency ν for any electromagnetic radiation are related in the form
λmin = c/ν
c = 2.9979·108 m/s
the minimum wavelength λmin corresponds to a maximum frequency νmax or a maximum energy
Emax = h·νmax
h: Planck's quantum of action
of the emitted X-ray quanta. But maximum energy is given to an X-ray quantum right then when it takes over the
entire kinetic energy
E = e·U

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CASSY Lab 2
e = 1.6022·10-19 As
of an electron decelerated in the anode. Therefore Duane-Hunt's displacement law follows
νmax = e/h·U or λmin = hc/e·1/U
From the proportionality factor A = hc/e, Planck's quantum of action h can be obtained if the quantities c and e are
known.
In the experiment, a goniometer with a crystal and a Geiger-Müller counting tube in Bragg arrangement serves as
spectrometer. Crystal and counting tube are tilted with respect to the incident X-ray beam in 2β-coupling, thus the
Bragg condition applies
λ = 2·d·sin β
Equipment list

Remark

Load settings
 With record one Bragg spectrum for each of the following parameter sets
U / kV I / mA βmin / ° βmax / ° Δβ / ° Δt / s
35.0 1.00 2.5 4.5 0.1 10
32.5 1.00 3.0 5.0 0.1 10
30.0 1.00 3.5 5.5 0.1 10
27.5 1.00 4.0 6.0 0.1 10
25.0 1.00 4.5 6.5 0.1 10
22.5 1.00 5.0 7.0 0.1 10
20.0 1.00 5.5 7.5 0.1 10
17.5 1.00 6.0 8.0 0.1 10
Evaluation
Drag and drop the calculated quantity nλ from the list of measured quantities into the diagram and thus change the x-
axis from β to nλ. This will show the wavelengths on the x-axis if the lattice-plane spacing has been correctly speci-
fied in the nλ settings.
By clicking with the right mouse button in the diagram, open the evaluation options and select Fit Function → Best-fit
Straight Line.
Use the left mouse button to mark the curve area in which a best-fit straight line should be fitted to determine the
cutoff wavelength λmin. This is the approximately linear increase of the spectrum at small angles.

345
CASSY Lab 2
The value of the cutoff wavelength λmin as well as the voltage of each measurement can be entered into the Planck
display. The value for λmin can be easily copied from the status line into the table via drag & drop.
After all cutoff wavelengths have been determined in this way, select in the Planck display again Fit Function →
Best-fit Straight Line and determine the proportionality factor A and thus Planck's quantum of action.
From the straight line fitting we get A = 1243 pm-kV in the example. This corresponds to a Planck quantum of action
h = 6.64·10-34 Js (Literature value: h = 6.626·10-34 Js).

346
CASSY Lab 2
Moseley's law and determination of the Rydberg constant
Safety notes
When handling heavy metals or allergen substances from the target set, observe their operating instructions.
The absorption of X-ray quanta as they pass through matter is essentially due to the ionization of atoms that donate
an electron from an inner electron shell, such as the K shell.
This assumes that the quantum energy
E = h·c/λ
h: Planck's quantum of action
c: Speed of light
is greater than the binding energy EK of the shell. The transmission
T = R/R0
R: Intensity behind the attenuator
R0: Intensity in front of the attenuator
of the material therefore increases abruptly as a function of the wavelength at
λK = h·c/EK.
The abrupt change is called the absorption edge, in this case more precisely the K absorption edge.

347
CASSY Lab 2
In 1913, the English physicist Henry Moseley derived the law named after him from the measurement of K absorption
edges for various elements:
1/λK = R²(Z - σK)²
R: Rydberg constant
Z: Atomic number of the absorbing element
σK: Shielding coefficient of the K shell
This results in the following for the binding energy of the K shell
EK = h·c·R·(Z - σK)²
To confirm Moseley's law, the K absorption edges for atomic numbers Z between 40 and 50 are measured in the
experiment. In this range, the shielding coefficient σ K is largely independent of Z. The Moseley's law therefore corre-
sponds to a straight line equation of the form
y = a·(x - b)
with y = 1/λK0.5 and the atomic number Z as x variable.
From the parameters a and b of the straight line, the Rydberg constant R and the shielding coefficient σK can be
calculated to R = a² and σK = b.
Equipment list
1 Set of absorber foils 554 832

Remark

Load settings
 Select tube high voltage U = 35.0 kV, emission current I = 1.00 mA, start angle βmin = 3.0 °, end angle βmax =
8.0 °, angle step ∆β = 0.1 ° and measuring time per angle step Δt = 5 s.
 With record the reference spectrum without absorber.
 After completion of the scan, mount the Zr foil on the sensor holder of the goniometer and start another meas-
urement.
 Then repeat the scan for the Mo, Ag and In foils.

348
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
Display the transmission spectra from the diffraction spectra by selecting the Transmission display.
Drag and drop the calculated quantity nλ from the list of measured quantities into the diagram and thus change the x-
axis from β to nλ. This will show the wavelengths on the x-axis if the lattice-plane spacing has been correctly speci-
fied in the nλ settings.
By clicking with the right mouse button in the diagram, open the evaluation options and select Draw Mean.
Mark the area of the K edges with the left mouse button in the transmission spectra and enter the mean values and
the atomic number in the Moseley display. The value for λK can be easily copied from the status line into the table via
drag & drop.
After all wavelengths of the K edges have been determined in this way, select in the Moseley display Fit Function →
Best-fit Straight Line and read the Rydberg constant R and the shielding coefficient σK from the status line.
The example results in: R = 1.056·107 /m and σK = 2.7
Literature values [1]: R = 1.097373·107 /m and σK = 3.6 (for medium weight cores)
[1] C. M. Lederer and V. S. Shirley, Table of Isotopes, 7 thEdition, 1978, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, USA.

349
CASSY Lab 2
Moseley's law (K-line X-ray fluorescence)
Safety notes
The X-ray apparatus fulfils all regulations on the design of an X-ray apparatus and fully protected device for instruc-
tional use and is type approved for school use in Germany (BfS 05/07 V/Sch RöV or NW 807 / 97 Rö).
X-ray fluorescence occurs when electrons are knocked out of the inner shells of an atom through x-ray radiation. The
atom ionized in this way then has a vacancy (electron hole) in a lower shell which previously had been full. These
electron holes can be filled with electrons from other, less strongly bound shells of the atom: e.g. the K-shell can be
closed by the transition of an electron from the L-shell. Such a transition is connected with the emission of a photon.
This radiation has only particular discrete photon energies corresponding to the energy difference of the levels in-
volved, and it is characteristic for every chemical element.
The designations of the characteristic X-ray lines are a combination of the symbol for the electron shell (K, L, M etc.)
and a Greek letter (α, β, γ, etc.). The electron shell being referred to is the one which was ionized before the electron

350
CASSY Lab 2
transition. For example, the designation Kα-line describes the transition from the L-shell into the K-shell, Kβ-line refers
to the transition from the M-shell to the K-shell. The Lα- and Lβ-lines refer to the transitions from the M-shell and the
N-shell to the L-shell.
For the energies E of the characteristic lines Moseley discovered in 1913 the following law
with the atomic number Z, the screening constant σ, the constant Ry = mee4/8ε02h2 = 13.6 eV and the main quantum
numbers n1 and n2 for the electron shells involved (n1 < n2).
In the experiment, the energies of the Kα and Kβ-lines for Ti, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Zr, Mo and Ag are determined, Moseley's
law is confirmed and the screening constants σα and σβ are determined.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
1 X-ray apparatus with x-ray tube Mo 554 801 or 554 811
1 Target set for K-line fluorescence 554 844
1 X-ray energy detector 559 938
1 HF cable, 1 m 501 02

 Guide the connection cable for the table-top power supply through the empty channel of the X-ray apparatus and
connect it to the mini-DIN socket of the X-ray energy detector.
 Secure the sensor holder with the mounted X-ray energy detector in the goniometer sensor arm
 Connect the signal output of the x-ray energy detector to the BNC socket SIGNAL IN of the x-ray apparatus by
means of the BNC cable included
 Feed enough connection cable through to make complete movement of the sensor arm possible
 Press the SENSOR button and set the sensor angle with the rotary adjuster ADJUST manually to 90°
 Set the distances between the slit aperture of the collimator and the axis of rotation as well as between the axis of
rotation and the window of the x-ray energy detector both to 5 to 6 cm
 Press the TARGET button and adjust the target angle manually using the rotary button ADJUST to 45°.
 Connect Sensor-CASSY to the computer and connect the MCA box
 Connect the SIGNAL OUT output in the connection panel of the x-ray apparatus to the MCA box by means of the
BNC cable.

Load settings
 Connect the table-top power supply to the mains (after approx. 2 min the LED will glow green and the x-ray ener-
gy detector will be ready for use)
 Place the titanium (Ti) target from the target set for K-lines fluorescence onto the target table
 Set the tube high voltage U = 35 kV, emission current I = 1.00 mA and switch the high voltage on
 Start the spectrum recording with
 Then record the spectra for the other targets (Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Zr, Mo and Ag) in the target set for K-lines fluores-
cence
Energy calibration
The energy calibration of the spectra is made using the Kα-lines of iron (Fe) and molybdenum (Mo).
 Open in the Settings EA (right mouse button) the Energy calibration, select Global for all spectra of this input
and enter on the right-hand side the energies of the Fe Kα-line (6.40 keV) and of the Mo Kα-line (17.48 keV).
 In the context menu of the diagram select Calculate peak center, mark the Fe Kα-line (2nd spectrum) and enter
the result in the left-hand side of the Energy calibration (e.g. with drag & drop from the status line)
 Then determine the center of the Mo Kα-line (7th spectrum) and also enter the result on the left-hand side
 Switch the display to energy (e.g. with Drag & Drop of EA into the diagram)

351
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
As the atomic number Z increases the energy of the characteristic lines also increases and so does the separation
between the α- and the β-component in the K spectral series. For a quantitative analysis, the energies of the individ-
ual lines can be determined:
 Select spectrum in the diagram
 In the context menu choose Set Marker → Vertical line and mark approximately the positions of the Kα and Kβ-
line with two vertical lines.
 In the context menu of the diagram select Fit Function → Gaussians of equal width and mark the area of the de-
sired peak (also mark sufficient background!)
 Read the determined peak positions from the status line and enter them together with the atomic numbers Z of Ti
(Z=22), Fe (Z=26), Ni (Z=28), Cu (Z=29), Zn (Z=30), Zr (Z=40), Mo (Z=42) and Ag (Z=47) into the Energy dia-
gram (click with mouse) (e.g. by drag & drop from the status line)
For each line, the expression √E/Ry is automatically calculated and plotted in the Moseley diagram as a function of
the atomic number Z. The same applies to the screening constants σα and σβ and the Screening diagram.
In the Moseley diagram, by a free fit with the formula (x-1)*sqr(3/4), the theoretical line for the Kα-line can be entered,
which corresponds well to the measured values.
The Screening diagram shows for the Kα-line that the deviation from the theoretically expected σα=1 grows with
increasing atomic number Z. This is explained by the fact that the influence of the external electrons increases as the
number of electrons increases.
The screening constants σβ for the Kβ-lines have a value σβ≈2 which indicates, as expected, a stronger effective
screening of the nucleus charge for the electron transitions from the higher level n 2=3.

352
CASSY Lab 2
Moseley's law (L-line x-ray fluorescence)
Safety notes
X-ray fluorescence occurs when electrons are knocked out of the inner shells of an atom through x-ray radiation. The
atom ionized in this way then has a vacancy (electron hole) in a lower shell which previously had been full. These
electron holes can be filled with electrons from other, less strongly bound shells of the atom: e.g. the K-shell can be
closed by the transition of an electron from the L-shell. Such a transition is connected with the emission of a photon.
This radiation has only particular discrete photon energies corresponding to the energy difference of the levels in-
volved, and it is characteristic for every chemical element.
The designations of the characteristic x-ray lines are a combination of the symbol for the electron shell (K, L, M etc.)
and a Greek letter (α, β, γ, etc.). The electron shell being referred to is the one which was ionized before the electron

353
CASSY Lab 2
transition. For example, the designation Kα-line describes the transition from the L-shell into the K-shell, Kβ-line refers
to the transition from the M-shell to the K-shell. The Lα- and Lβ-lines refer to the transitions from the M-shell and the
N-shell to the L-shell.
For the energies E of the characteristic lines Moseley discovered in 1913 the following law
with the atomic number Z, the screening constant σ, the constant Ry = mee4/8ε02h2 = 13.6 eV and the main quantum
numbers n1 and n2 for the electron shells involved (n1 < n2).
In the experiment the energies of the Lα and Lβ-lines for Ag, In, Sn, W, Au and Pb are determined, Moseley's law is
confirmed and the screening constants σα and σβ are determined. The fine structure of the lines, e.g. Lα1 and Lα2,
cannot be resolved in this experiment. Therefore they appear in the spectrum as a single (Lα) line.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
1 Target set for L-line fluorescence 554 846
1 HF cable, 1 m 501 02

 Guide the connection cable for the table-top power supply through the empty channel of the x-ray apparatus and
connect it to the mini-DIN socket of the x-ray energy detector.
 Secure the sensor holder with the mounted x-ray energy detector in the goniometer sensor arm
BNC cable.

Load settings
 Place the first target (Ag) from the target set for L-lines fluorescence onto the target table
 Then record spectra for the other targets (In, Sn, W, Au and Pb) in the target set for L-lines fluorescence.
Energy calibration
The energy calibration of the spectra is made using the Lα-line of tungsten (W) and the Kα-line of silver (Ag).
and enter on the right-hand side the energies of the W Lα-line (8.40 keV) and of the Ag Kα-line (22.17 keV).
 In the context menu of the diagram select Calculate peak center, mark the W Lα-line (largest peak in the 4th spec-
trum) and enter the result in the left-hand side of the Energy calibration (e.g. with drag & drop from the status line)
 Then determine the center of the Ag Kα line (1st spectrum) and also enter it on the left-hand side

354
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
As the atomic number Z increases, the energy of the characteristic lines also increases and so does the separation
between the α- and the β-components in the L spectral series. For the heavier elements, in addition to the Lα and Lβ-
components, the relatively small Ll and Lγ-components can also be demonstrated with the x-ray energy detector. For
a quantitative analysis, the energies of the individual lines can be determined:
 Select spectrum in the diagram
 In the context menu choose Set Marker → Vertical line and mark approximately the positions of the Lα and Lβ-line
with two vertical lines. Because for the elements silver, indium and tin the Lα-line and Lβ-line are not resolved,
they will be treated in the evaluation as a single line.
 In the context menu of the diagram select Fit Function → Gaussians of equal width and mark the area of the de-
sired peak (also mark sufficient background!)
 Read the determined peak positions from the status line and enter them together with the atomic numbers Z of Ag
(Z=47), In (Z=49), Sn (Z=50), W (Z=74), Au (Z=79) and Pb (Z=82) into the Energy diagram (click with mouse)
(e.g. by drag & drop from the status line)
For each line, the expression √E/Ry is automatically calculated and plotted in the Moseley diagram as a function of
the atomic number Z. The same applies to the screening constants σα and σβ and the Screening diagram.
In the Moseley diagram, by means of a Best-fit straight line for Lα and Lβ, the linear relationship in Moseley's law can
be confirmed.
In the Screening diagram, the very different dependence of the atomic screening constants for the L α-lines and Lβ-
lines of the atomic number Z indicates the differences in structure of the sublevels in the M-shell and the L-shell. It is
remarkable that the atomic screening constant for the Lα-lines has a value of ≈ 7. This means that the screening is
provided by the seven electrons remaining in the L-shell after ionization. This again indicates that the p-orbitals and
s-orbitals (L-shell or K-shell respectively) have such a form that the two electrons in the K-shell are ineffective at
screening the Lα-transition.

355
CASSY Lab 2
Energy dispersive Bragg reflection into different orders of diffraction
Safety notes
According to a model first described by W.H. and W.L. Bragg in 1913, the regular arrangement of atoms in a crystal
can be interpreted in such a way that they are arranged on parallel lattice planes.
When parallel X-rays strike such a crystal, and assuming that they have wave nature, each lattice-plane component
located in a lattice-plane acts as a scattering centre and emits a spherical wave.
According to Huygens, the spherical waves superimpose to a "reflected" wave front. During this process, the wave-
length λ remains unchanged compared to the "incident" wave front. If two conditions apply, the waves scattered at
the individual atoms will interfere constructively.
If two conditions apply, the waves scattered at the individual atoms will interfere constructively.

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CASSY Lab 2
These conditions are:

Incident angle β1 = diffracted angle β2 = α
and
n·λ = 2·d·sin β (Bragg's condition)
with d the distance between the lattice planes and order of diffraction n being an integer number. The angle β applies
relative to the lattice planes. It is also called a glancing angle.
When recording the spectrum by means of an energy resolving detector, not the wavelengths, but the energies are
recorded. For this case, Bragg's condition can be rewritten with E = hν = hc/λ as follows:
En = nhc / 2d sinβ
or
En/n = hc / 2d sinβ ≈ 620 pm·keV / d sinβ
Here En is the energy of the X-ray radiation reflected in the order of diffraction n. It is apparent that with a fixed angle
β the lowest energy E1 occurs in the first order of diffraction. The ratio of the radiation energy in the order of diffrac-
tion n with the radiation energy in the first order E n/E1 corresponds to the order of diffraction. The ratio En/n is con-
stant for every set of lattice planes.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
1 X-ray apparatus with goniometer 554 801 or 554 811
1 X-ray tube Cu 554 862 or 554 85
1 HF cable, 1 m 501 02

 If necessary exchange the Mo X-ray tube for the Cu x-ray tube (see operating instructions for the X-ray appa-
ratus)
 Guide the connection cable for the table-top power supply through the empty channel of the X-ray apparatus and
connect it to the mini-DIN socket of the X-ray energy detector.
 Secure the sensor holder with the mounted X-ray energy detector in the goniometer sensor arm
 Connect the signal output of the X-ray energy detector to the BNC socket SIGNAL IN of the X-ray apparatus by
 Connect the SIGNAL OUT output in the connection panel of the X-ray apparatus to the MCA box by means of the
BNC cable.
rotation and the window of the X-ray energy detector both to 5 to 6 cm
 Lay the NaCl crystal from the scope of delivery of the X-ray apparatus on the target stage and clamp it gently.
 Press the COUPLED pushbutton, and, using the ADJUST knob, adjust a target angle of 4.5° manually.
Remark
For the experiment, the Cu X-ray tube is inserted, because, due to its thinner window, the radiation provided covers a
wider energy range: approx. 5 to 35 keV at the high voltage 35 kV. The crystal angles are selected in such a way that
the bremsstrahlung and not the characteristic lines are reflected by the crystal. Otherwise the much larger intensity in
the characteristic line can considerably falsify the intensity ratio of various orders of diffraction.

Load settings
 Record the calibration spectrum (start the spectrum recording with )
 Set the emission current to I = 0.40 mA
 Record the spectra for the target angles 5°, 10°, 15° and 20°

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CASSY Lab 2
Energy calibration
The X-rays to be measured produce additional fluorescence X-rays in the housing of the Si-PIN photodiode of the X-
ray energy detector, which are also registered. In the primary spectrum therefore, in addition to the peaks of the re-
flected radiation, the gold (Au) and the silver (Ag) lines are also to be expected. With the help of these lines the ener-
gy calibration of the spectra can be carried out.
Through the scatter of the Cu Kα-line of the primary spectrum of the X-ray tube, on the left-hand side a peak occurs
at E=8.1 keV. The subsequent smaller peaks at E=9.7 keV, 11.4 keV and 22.2 keV have been caused by the fluores-
cence of the housing (Au Lα, Lβ and Ag Kα) and the large peak on the right-hand side is the reflected radiation
(Bragg's condition).
 Select spectrum N1 (4.5°)
and enter on the right-hand side the energies of the Au Lα-line (9.71 keV) and of the Ag Kα-line (22.16 keV).
 In the context menu of the diagram select Calculate peak center, mark the Au Lα-line and enter the result in the
left-hand side of the Energy calibration (e.g. with drag & drop from the status line)
 Then determine the center for the Ag Kα-line and also enter it on the left-hand side.
Remark
In order to excite the silver K-lines in the housing material, the energy of the reflected radiation must exceed the K-
edge of silver (25.52 keV). For this reason the energy calibration is carried out on the spectrum for β=4.5°.
Evaluation
For confirmation that the remaining peaks associated with the various orders of diffraction belong to the same set of
lattice planes, the ratios of the peak energies must be analyzed.
For the determination of the peak energies as a function of the scatter angle
 Select energy spectrum (5°, 10°, 15° and 20°).
 In the context menu of the diagram select Calculate peak center and mark the desired peak
 Read the determined peak positions from the status line and enter as En=1, En=2, En=3 or En=4 together with the
angle β into the Energy diagram (click with mouse) (e.g. by drag & drop from the status line)
In the Order diagram a table is formed in which the ratios E n/E1 of the radiation energy in the order of diffraction n
with the first order radiation energy are given. They have approximately integer values which confirms the assump-
tion that they belong to different orders of diffraction from the same set of lattice planes.
In the Lattice plane spacing diagram the lattice plane spacing d was calculated for each crystal angle from the de-
termined values En/n. It becomes apparent that the diffraction for all angles was observed from the same set of lattice
planes with a spacing of d ≈ 280 pm. By comparing with the data given in the literature for NaCl (grid constant
564 pm) it becomes apparent that this is the diffraction from the (200) lattice planes (d = 282 pm).
Additional information
For a Bragg spectrum recorded using a Geiger-Müller counter as the detector, the photons which are reflected in the
various orders of diffraction are counted together. A spectrum recorded in this way is therefore a combination of sev-
eral components which cannot easily be separated. In the 20° spectrum it is particularly clear how incorrect the
statement about the intensity of radiation would be if only the first order of diffraction were taken into account and the
existence of higher orders of diffraction were ignored.

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CASSY Lab 2
Fine structure of the characteristic X-ray radiation of a tungsten anode
Safety notes
The characteristic X-ray radiation makes itself felt on the continuum of deceleration radiation (resulting from the ac-
celeration of the electrons on the anode) as a line spectrum. To understand the appearance of the lines of character-
istic X-rays, look at one atom of the anode material. The atom is surrounded by electrons that occupy discrete energy
levels. An electron accelerated from the tube cathode to the anode can knock out an inner shell electron if the kinetic
energy of the accelerated electron is greater than the binding energy of the shell electron. In X-ray spectroscopy, the
shells are called K-, L-, M-, etc. shells. The subshells are called, for example, L1, L2, L3 shells.
At the "place" of the knocked out electron there then is a hole The state of this atom is analogous to (except for the
sign) a one-electron atom, where the electron would be at the location of the hole. The atom with a hole can therefore
be treated like a one-electron atom. The hole is filled by an electron from the upper shells. During the transition from
a higher level to a lower level, a photon is emitted with an energy equal to the energy difference of the two levels.
There are allowed transitions between the levels. These result from the selection rules of the quantum numbers, e.g.
ΔL=±1, Δj=0,±1.
There is a fine structure of the shells in subshells. The fine structure of the states can be explained by the spin-orbit
coupling of the atom. L2 (2P1/2) and L3 (2P3/2) form such a fine structure. This is analogous to the two yellow lines D1
and D2 known from spectroscopy using a sodium lamp. Due to the fact that the transitions affecting fine structure
splitting are very close to each other, they can only be measured with sufficient resolution of the X-ray apparatus.

359
CASSY Lab 2
Equipment list
1 X-ray apparatus 554 801
1 X-ray tube W 554 864
1 LiF crystal 554 77

 If necessary exchange the Mo X-ray tube for the Cu or Ag X-ray tube (see operating instructions for the X-ray ap-
paratus)
 Loosen the knurled screw, place the LiF crystal flat on the target table. Now carefully lift the target table with the

Load settings
 Select tube high voltage U = 35.0 kV, emission current I = 1.00 mA, start angle βmin = 2.5 °, end angle βmax =
50.0 °, angle step ∆β = 0.1 ° and measuring time per angle step Δt = 2 s.
 Record the Bragg spectrum with
Evaluation
To separate closely spaced transitions from each other, a high spectroscopic resolution is needed.
To do this, drag and drop the calculated quantity E from the list of measured quantities into the diagram and use this
to change the x-axis from β to E. This displays the energies on the x-axis if the lattice-plane spacing and the anode
have been specified correctly in the E settings.
If Show all orders is also activated there, then the Bragg peaks of the first and second order are displayed at the
same energy. The energy change dE/dβ per measuring point is not constant, but the higher the order of the spec-
trum, the finer the energy steps become.
The line width of the individual characteristic lines is determined in the present experiment by the slit widths of the
collimator and in front of the counting tube and is approx. 0.1° at all angles. In the energy display this means that in
higher orders the line width in the energy plot decreases a lot. The second order lines are less than half as wide as
the first order lines and clearly show better the structure of the X-ray transitions.
In the example, the following energies can be determined in the second order using Calculate Peak Center:
Transition Energy Literature value [1]
Lα1 8.40 keV 8.39 keV
Lα2 8.34 keV 8.33 keV
Lβ1 9.68 keV 9.67 keV
Lβ2 9.97 keV 9.95 keV
Lβ3 9.82 keV 9.82 keV
Lβ4 9.53 keV 9.52 keV
The energy levels of the individual shells together with subshells can be determined by the measured transitions. The
fine splitting of the energy levels L2 and L3 can be calculated, for example, from the difference of the transition ener-
gies Lα2 and Lβ1. In the measurement example, this corresponds to 1.34 keV.
[1] R. B. Firestone und V. S. Shirley, Table of Isotopes, 8th Edition Hrsg., New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.

360
CASSY Lab 2
High-resolution fine structure of the characteristic X-ray radiation of a molybdenum

and a gold anode
Safety notes
The characteristic X-ray radiation makes itself felt on the continuum of deceleration radiation (resulting from the ac-
celeration of the electrons on the anode) as a line spectrum. To understand the appearance of the lines of character-
istic X-rays, look at one atom of the anode material. The atom is surrounded by electrons that occupy discrete energy
levels. An electron accelerated from the tube cathode to the anode can knock out an inner shell electron if the kinetic
energy of the accelerated electron is greater than the binding energy of the shell electron. In X-ray spectroscopy, the
shells are called K-, L-, M-, etc. shells. The subshells are called, for example, L1, L2, L3 shells.
At the "place" of the knocked out electron there then is a hole The state of this atom is analogous to (except for the
sign) a one-electron atom, where the electron would be at the location of the hole. The atom with a hole can therefore
be treated like a one-electron atom. The hole is filled by an electron from the upper shells. During the transition from
a higher level to a lower level, a photon is emitted with an energy equal to the energy difference of the two levels.
There are allowed transitions between the levels. These result from the selection rules of the quantum numbers, e.g.
ΔL=±1, Δj=0,±1.
There is a fine structure of the shells in subshells. The fine structure of the states can be explained by the spin-orbit
coupling of the atom. L2 (2P1/2) and L3 (2P3/2) form such a fine structure. This is analogous to the two yellow lines D1
and D2 known from spectroscopy using a sodium lamp. Due to the fact that the transitions affecting fine structure
splitting are very close to each other, they can only be measured with sufficient resolution of the X-ray apparatus.

361
CASSY Lab 2
Equipment list
1 X-ray apparatus 554 801
1 HD Accessory, X-ray 554 835
1 X-ray tube Au 554 866
1 LiF crystal 554 77

 If necessary exchange the Mo X-ray tube for the Au X-ray tube (see operating instructions for the X-ray appa-
ratus)
 Slide the collimator from the HD accessory X-ray into the collimator holder
from the HD accessory X-ray and connect the counting tube cable to the GM-Tube socket.
 Loosen the knurled screw, place the LiF crystal flat on the target table. Now carefully lift the target table with the

Load settings
 Record the Bragg spectrum after setting one of the following parameter sets with
Tube U / kV I / mA βmin / ° βmax / ° Δβ / ° Δt / s Measuring time
Mo 35.0 1.00 2.5 35.0 0.02 5 2:15 h
Au 35.0 1.00 2.5 25.0 0.02 5 1:30 h
Evaluation
To separate closely spaced transitions from each other, a high spectroscopic resolution is needed.
To do this, drag and drop the calculated quantity E from the list of measured quantities into the diagram and use this
to change the x-axis from β to E. This displays the energies on the x-axis if the lattice-plane spacing and the anode
have been specified correctly in the E settings.
In the example, the following energies can be determined for the Mo tube in the second order using Calculate Peak
Center:
Kα1 17.48 keV 17.48 keV
Kα2 17.37 keV 17.37 keV
In the example, the following energies can be determined for the Au tube in the first order using Calculate Peak Cen-
ter:
Lα1 9.72 keV 9.71 keV
Lα2 9.63 keV 9.63 keV
Lβ1 11.45 keV 11.44 keV
Lβ2/3 11.59 keV 11.58/11.61 keV
Lβ4 11.20 keV 11.21 keV
Lβ5 11.92 keV 11.92 keV
Lγ1 13.39 keV 13.38 keV
Lγ2 13.77 keV 13.71 keV
[1] R. B. Firestone und V. S. Shirley, Table of Isotopes, 8th Edition Hrsg., New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.

362
CASSY Lab 2
Compton effect on X-rays
Safety notes
When X-rays pass through matter, part of them is scattered. According to classical physics, the frequency of the radi-
ation should not be changed by the scattering process. However, in 1923 the American physicist A.H. Compton ob-
served that the frequency was reduced in some of the scattered X-rays.
In order to explain this phenomenon, the entire scattering process has to be treated in terms of quantum physics, and
the X-rays have to be considered, for example, according to the particle aspect. Moreover, it is assumed that the
scattering electron are free, which is a good approximation for the outer atomic electron shells at energies in the
range of X-rays. Thus, in a scattering process, a photon with the frequency ν 1, i.e. with the energy E1 = h·ν1, hits a
free electron at rest with the rest mass m0. The photon is scattered by the angle ϑ.

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CASSY Lab 2
Assuming energy and momentum conservation, Compton calculated the energy E 2 of the scattered radiation and
obtained
In the experiment, Compton's investigations are repeated on a scattering body made of acrylic glass. The results are
compared with the above equation. The spectrum is recorded by means of the X-ray energy detector.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
1 Compton accessory X-ray II 554 8371 or 554 837
1 HF cable, 1 m 501 02

 Put the Zr filter (from the scope of delivery of the X-ray apparatus) onto the beam entrance side of the circular
collimator (from the scope of delivery of the Compton accessory X-ray II)
 Mount the circular collimator in the collimator mount of the X-ray apparatus
 Press the SENSOR key and, using the ADJUST knob, adjust a sensor angle of 150° manually. If necessary, push
the goniometer to the right
 Adjust the distance between the X-ray energy detector and the axis of rotation so that the detector housing just
does not cover the X-ray beam at this sensor angle
 Then push the goniometer to the left so that the detector housing just does not touch the circular collimator (ap-
prox. 8 cm distance between the circular collimator and the axis of rotation)
BNC cable.
Experiment preparation
Load settings
For an accurate measurement of the small energy shifts, it has to be taken into account that the calibration of the X-
ray energy detector undergoes a slight shift at high counting rates. Therefore it is sensible to restrict the counting
rates to 200 /s.
Estimating the counting rate in the scattering arrangement:
 Put the acrylic glass scattering body on the target stage, and clamp it
 Press the TARGET pushbutton, and, using the ADJUST knob, adjust the target angle manually to 20°
 Vary the sensor angle slowly between 150° and 30° each time reading the total counting rate above on the right in
the CASSY Lab window
 Reduce the emission current if the total counting rate clearly exceeds 200 /s
Adjusting the counting rate of the primary beam:
 Remove the target holder with the target stage, and take the sensor into the 0° position
 Put the attenuating aperture onto the circular collimator, and align it carefully (the screws should point upwards
and downwards, respectively)
 Reduce the emission current to 0.1 mA, and switch the high voltage on

364
CASSY Lab 2

 In steps of 0.1° look for the sensor angle at which the total counting rate is only slightly greater than the counting
rates measured in the scattering arrangement (if necessary, change the emission current slightly)
If no or only a small counting rate is measured:
 Check the alignment of the attenuating aperture (with the screws pointing upwards and downwards, you may try
to turn the screen by 180°)

The X-rays to be measured produce additional fluorescence X-rays in the housing of the Si-PIN photodiode of the X-
ray energy detector, which are also registered. Therefore the Au L α and the Au Lβ lines are to be expected in the
primary spectrum apart from the Mo Kα- and the Mo Kβ lines. With the help of these lines the energy calibration of the
spectra can be carried out.
Load settings
 Record the primary spectrum (0° position) with
and enter on the right-hand side the energies of the Au Lα-line (9.72 keV) and of the Mo Kα-line (17.48 keV).
 In the context menu of the diagram select Calculate peak center, mark the Au Lα-line (small peak on the left had
side of the Au Lβ line, which is also small) and enter the result in the left-hand side of the Energy calibration (e.g.
with drag & drop from the status line)
 Then determine the peak center of the Mo Kα-line (high peak) and also enter the result on the left-hand side
 Remove the attenuating aperture
 Mount the target holder with the target stage on the goniometer
 Put the acrylic glass scattering body on the target stage, and clamp it
 Adjust the emission current I = 1.00 mA (or the emission current determined previously for estimating the counting
rate), and switch the high voltage on
 Adjust a target angle of 20° and a sensor angle of 30°
 Record a new spectrum (30° position) with
 Then record further spectra at constant target angle for the sensor angles 60°, 90°, 120° and 150°
Evaluation
The energy of the scattered radiation decreases with increasing scattering angle. The intensity of the scattered radia-
tion takes its minimum at ϑ = 90°.
For further evaluation, you can zoom in on the region around the scattered peak and select Calculate Peak Center for
each energy-shifted peak. Starting from a scattering angle of ϑ = 90°, the energy resolution of the detector is suffi-
cient for separating the unshifted peak (elastic scattering from strongly bound electrons) and the shifted peak (inelas-
tic scattering from quasi-free electrons). For the determination of the peak center, only the region of the energy-
shifted peak should be marked.
For each peak center, the energy is entered in the Evaluation display together with the corresponding scattering
angle. The energy can be taken from the status line into the table using the mouse (drag & drop). The angle has to
be entered manually in the table.
For a comparison of the measured energies with the energies calculated from energy and momentum conservation, a
free fit of the equation
17.48/(1+17.48*(1-cos(x))/A)
can be selected in the Evaluation display with the starting value A = 511 (=constant).
The result corresponds to the theoretical curve with the parameters E1 = 17.48 keV and m0·c2 = 511 keV, which is in
good agreement with the measured values.
When X-rays pass through matter, part of them is scattered and experiences an energy shift (Compton effect). The
energy shift can be calculated by describing the scattering process as a collision between an X-ray photon and a free
electron at rest and by postulating the conservation of energy and momentum in this process.
Remark
Alternatively, the comparison between measurement and theory can be carried out as a free fit with the free fit pa-
rameter A (the rest mass of the collision partner of the X-ray photon). As a result a value for the parameter A is ob-
tained, which agrees with the "rest mass" of an electron (m0·c2 = 511 keV) to a good approximation.

365
CASSY Lab 2
Poisson distribution
The number x of decay events of a radioactive preparation over a time interval Δt is not constant. A large number of
individual measurements can be represented as a frequency distribution H(x) scattered around the mean value μ. By
comparing this frequency distribution with the Poisson distribution, we can confirm that x shows a Poisson distribution
around the mean value μ.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 GM box 524 033

with End-window counter 559 01
or
1 GM counter tube S 524 0331
1 Set of radioactive preparations 559 835

1 Large clip plug 591 21
1 Small clip plug 590 02
2 Connection rods 532 16
Optional sound output with Sensor-CASSY

1 Tweeter 587 07

The end-window counter is connected to the GM box at input A of Sensor-CASSY. Handle the counter tube and the
preparation with care.

Load settings
 If necessary, modify the gate time Δt (Settings RA1).
 Preset the measurement if necessary. Enter the number of measurements as the stop condition of the Measuring
Parameters (Window → Show Measuring Parameters, e.g. n > 1000 for 1000 individual measurements).
 Start the measurement series with , and stop it again with after recording the series.

366
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
In the evaluation, you can compare the measured frequency distribution with a Poisson distribution. For higher mean
values μ the Poisson distribution develops into a Gaussian distribution.

367
CASSY Lab 2
Half-life of radon
From the fact that all radioactive nuclei of an isotope decay with the same probability, it follows that over the time
interval dt, the number N of radioactive nuclei will decrease by
dN = – λ · N · dt
(λ: decay constant). Thus, for the number N, the law of radioactive decay applies:
N(t) = N(t=0) · e-λ·t.
Among other things, this law states that after the half-life
t½ = ln2 / λ
the number of radioactive nuclei will be reduced by half.
To determine the half-life of radon 220 (Rn-220), a plastic bottle with thorium salt is sealed in an ionization chamber,
and the inert gas radon, which is formed in the course of the decay sequence of natural thorium, is pumped into the
chamber by squeezing the bottle. This gas contains the isotope Rn-220, which has a half-life of about 55 s. The half-
lives of other radon isotopes differ greatly from this value, and can thus be ignored in these experiments.
This experiment measures the curve over time of the ionization current proportional to the radioactivity of the gas.
Here, the electrometer box in high-ohm configuration serves as a highly sensitive ammeter.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Electrometer box 524 054
1 Ionization chamber 546 25 (no longer available)
1 Thorium source 546 36 (no longer available)
1 Power supply 450 V DC 522 27
1 STE resistor 10 GΩ 577 03
2 Clamping plugs 590 011
2 Connection rods 532 16

368
CASSY Lab 2

Set up the experiment directly on the electrometer box at Sensor-CASSY input A. Plug in the ionization chamber at
the top right socket of the box using the coupling plug and the connection rod; jumper the two top left sockets with a
bridging plug, and connect the 10 GΩ measuring resistor and the 100 pF smoothing capacitor to the bottom left sock-
ets (use clamping plugs to attach these two components).
The remaining ground socket of the electrometer box is used to ground the experimenter (who holds a grounded
connection rod during the experiment) to minimize external influences on this sensitive measurement.

Load settings
 If necessary, correct the offset of the electrometer box - ground the connection rod of the ionization chamber, se-
lect Correct in Settings UA1, enter the first target value 0 V and click Correct Offset.
 Apply a voltage of 450 V between the ground of the electrometer box and the cylinder of the ionization chamber.
 Squeeze the thorium source several times to charge the ionization chamber with radon 220.
 After a short settling pause, start the measurement with (the measurement stops automatically after 180 s).
Evaluation
You can determine the half-life in one of several ways. You can graphically illustrate and read off the half-life by
marking your diagram with horizontal and vertical lines.
Fitting an exponential function to the I(t) curve gives us the inverse of the decay constant λ as parameter B of this
operation. The half-life is thus t½ = ln2·B = 0.693·B.
Parameter A of a best-fit straight line of the logarithmic display (press the right mouse button over the y-axis to select
logarithmic display) gives us a half-life of t½ = –log2/A = –0.301/A.
This example gives us the literature value t½ = 55.6 s.

369
CASSY Lab 2
α spectroscopy of radioactive samples (Am-241)
Safety note
When handling radioactive preparations, in addition to the radiation protection regulations, state-specific require-
ments and the regulations of the educational authorities are also to be observed, e.g. in the Federal Republic of
Germany at the very least the radiation protection regulations (StrlSchV - Strahlenschutzverordnung) and the direc-
tives on safety during school lessons. This applies even in cases where the preparation used in this experiment in
itself does not require the nomination of a trained radiation officer.
Since the used preparations produce ionizing radiation, the following safety rules must nevertheless be kept to:
 Prevent access to the preparations by unauthorized persons.
 Before using the reparations make sure that they are intact.
 For the purpose of shielding, keep the preparations in their safety container.
 To ensure minimum exposure time and minimum activity, take the preparations out of the safety container
only as long as is necessary for carrying out the experiment.
 To ensure maximum distance, hold the preparations only at the upper end of the metal holder.
The α spectrum of the Am-241 preparation is recorded, and an energy calibration is carried out with known lines.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
1 Am-241 preparation 559 825
1 Alpha spectroscopy chamber 559 565
1 Semiconductor detector 559 921

370
CASSY Lab 2
1 Discriminator preamplifier 559 931

1 HF cable, 1 m 501 02
1 HF cable, 0.25 m 501 01
1 Rotary-vane vacuum pump 378 73
1 T-piece DN 16 KF 378 005
1 Centering ring DN 10/16 KF 378 040
1 Air inlet valve DN 10 KF 378 771
1 Centering ring DN 16 KF 378 045
2 Clamping rings DN 10/16 KF 378 050
1 Small flange DN 16 KF with hose nozzle 378 031
1 Vacuum tubing, 8/18 mm dia. 667 186
additionally recommended:
1 Two-channel oscilloscope 400 575 302

The preparation and the detector are placed in the alpha spectroscopy chamber. The detector is connected to the
discriminator-preamplifier via the short BNC cable. The discriminator-preamplifier is connected to the MCA box. The
pump is connected to the alpha spectroscopy chamber.

Load settings
 Evacuate the alpha spectroscopy chamber.
 Vary the gain of the MCA box until the spectrum covers all available channels. This typically occurs at gains
around -3.
 After every change of the gain the measured spectrum should be deleted with to avoid mixing of different spec-
tra. The measurement goes on then, and the measuring time is restarted.
 When the set measuring time is over, the measurement is stopped.
Evaluation
The isotope Am-241 decays into Np-237 by emitting an α particle. As several excited states of neptunium are availa-
ble, α particles of different energies are emitted in this decay. In 100 decays, 84 α particles with an energy of
5486 keV are emitted and 13 with an energy of 5443 keV. The energy difference between the two decay events is
small but it can be resolved in the measurement if an open preparation without covering (e.g. 559 825) and the dis-
criminator preamplifier (559 931) are used. A covered preparation such as 559 821 blurs the α-energies excessively
when they pass through the covering.
After the measurement the spectrum is not yet calibrated. An energy calibration has to be carried out in order to dis-
play it as an energy spectrum. When using open americium (559 825), a single-point calibration can be carried out
making use of one of the americium spectrum lines. In the case of covered preparations, it is appropriate to use two
lines in the Ra-226 (559 435) spectrum for the calibration. An energy calibration using only a covered americium (559
821) preparation is not sensible.
Remarks
Due to the cover of the preparations (e.g. 559 821), there is a strong offset in energy. The measured spectrum starts
only at an energy of 1-2 MeV. Particles with lower energy are stopped before reaching the detector.
During the measurement, the vacuum pump can run either continuously or the valve of the spectroscopy chamber
can be closed after a few minutes of evacuation and the pump can be switched off. The rubber tubing must be vented
through the inlet valve (378 771) to prevent oil from the vacuum pump creeping back into the vacuum.

371
CASSY Lab 2
Determining the energy loss of α radiation in air (Am-241)
Safety note
The energy loss of the α radiation from the Am-241 sample is measured in the spectroscopy chamber in dependence
on the air pressure. From this the energy loss at normal pressure is calculated as a function of the distance. The
range of the α radiation in air is obtained.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

372
CASSY Lab 2
1 MCA box 524 058

1 HF cable, 1 m 501 02
1 HF cable, 0.25 m 501 01
1 Small flange DN 16 KF 378 031
1 Cross DN 16 KF 378 015
1 Variable leak valve DN 16 KF 378 776
1 Pointer manometer 378 510
3 Centering rings DN 16 KF 378 045
1 Steel tape measure 2 m 311 78

The preparation and the detector are placed in the spectroscopy chamber. The detector is connected to the discrimi-
nator-preamplifier via the short BNC cable. The discriminator-preamplifier is connected to the MCA box. The pump
and the vacuum meter are connected to the spectroscopy chamber.

Load settings
 After inserting the preparation and the detector, cautiously evacuate the spectroscopy chamber.
 When the vacuum is established, record the spectrum with varying the gain until the Am-241 line is approxi-
mately in the middle of the spectrum. This typically occurs at gains around -3.
 Calibrate the energy
 Open the variable leak valve until the pressure in the vacuum chamber is approx. 100 mbar. Record another
spectrum.
 Increase the pressure in the vacuum chamber in steps of about 100 mbar. Record an α spectrum at each pres-
sure.
Evaluation
The energy of the α line is determined from the individual spectra. The air pressure is converted into an effective path
in air at normal pressure. From the representation of the energy as a function of the effective path in air the range of
the α radiation in air is read.
Remarks
The range in air can, of course, also be measured directly without using the spectroscopy chamber. It can be deter-
mined by varying the distance. In this case, however, the setup requires some improvisation with respect to fixing the
preparation. The detector can be attached to the discriminator-preamplifier directly. In this case, it provides stronger
pulses as in the spectroscopy chamber as the load of the capacitance of the BNC cable is missing.
Do not leave a reduced pressure in the rubber tubing for extended periods of time. The oil from the vacuum pump
would creep up inside the tube and possibly contaminate the spectroscopy chamber. Once the correct pressure for
the next measurement is reached, close the valve of the spectroscopy chamber and vent the rubber tubing.

373
CASSY Lab 2
Determining the energy loss of α radiation in air (Ra-226)
Safety note
The energy loss of the α radiation from the Ra-226 sample is measured in the spectroscopy chamber in dependence
on the air pressure. From this the energy loss at normal pressure is calculated as a function of the distance. The
range of the α radiation in air for different energies is obtained.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

374
CASSY Lab 2
1 MCA box 524 058

1 Ra-226 preparation 559 436
1 HF cable, 1 m 501 02
1 HF cable, 0.25 m 501 01
1 Small flange DN 16 KF 378 031
1 Cross DN 16 KF 378 015
1 Variable leak valve DN 16 KF 378 776
1 Pointer manometer 378 510
3 Centering rings DN 16 KF 378 045
1 Steel tape measure 2 m 311 78

nator-preamplifier via the short BNC cable. The discriminator-preamplifier is connected to the MCA box. The pump
and the vacuum meter are connected to the spectroscopy chamber.

Load settings
 After inserting the preparation and the detector, cautiously evacuate the spectroscopy chamber.
 When the vacuum is established, record the spectrum with varying the gain until the Ra-226 lines are approxi-
mately in the middle of the spectrum. This typically occurs at gains around -3.
 Calibrate the energy
 Open the variable leak valve until the pressure in the vacuum chamber is approx. 100 mbar. Record another
spectrum.
 Increase the pressure in the vacuum chamber in steps of about 100 mbar. Record an α spectrum at each pres-
sure.
Evaluation
The energies of the α lines are determined from the individual spectra. The air pressure is converted into an effective
path in air at normal pressure. From the representation of the energies as a function of the effective path in air the
energy-dependent range of the α radiation in air is read.
Remarks
The range in air can, of course, also be measured directly without using the spectroscopy chamber. It can be deter-
mined by varying the distance. In this case, however, the setup requires some improvisation with respect to fixing the
preparation. The detector can be attached to the discriminator-preamplifier directly. In this case, it provides stronger
pulses as in the spectroscopy chamber as the load of the capacitance of the BNC cable is missing.
In measurements with the semiconductor detector, a relatively high background level arises due to the β radiation.
The counting rate in the lower 100 channels is therefore rather high. The line itself is hard to see then because of the
automatic scaling of the spectrum. Here a zoom should be used in the diagram. Because of the internal architecture
of the MCA box working at gains from -2 to -4.6 is recommendable in this case.
Do not leave a reduced pressure in the rubber tubing for extended periods of time. The oil from the vacuum pump
would creep up inside the tube and possibly contaminate the spectroscopy chamber. Once the correct pressure for
the next measurement is reached, close the valve of the spectroscopy chamber and vent the rubber tubing.

375
CASSY Lab 2
Determining the energy loss of α radiation in aluminum and in gold
Safety note
The energy loss of α radiation in an aluminum or gold foil is determined as a function of the α energy.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058

376
CASSY Lab 2
1 Gold and aluminum foil in holder 559 521

1 HF cable, 1 m 501 02
1 HF cable, 0.25 m 501 01
1 T-piece DN 16 KF 378 005

The preparation and the corresponding film on the detector are mounted in the spectroscopy chamber. The detector
is connected to the discriminator-preamplifier via the short BNC cable. The discriminator-preamplifier is connected to
the MCA box. The pump is connected to the spectroscopy chamber.

Load settings
 Mount the Ra-226 preparation in the spectroscopy chamber
 Evacuate the chamber
 Record the spectrum with , and set the gain so that the spectrum is well displayed
 Use the outer lines of the spectrum for the energy calibration. When doing this, take account of the covering (liter-
ature value minus 1100 keV)
 Aerate the chamber, place the gold film (2 μm thick) onto the detector, and carefully evacuate the chamber
 Record the spectrum with the gold film
 Aerate the chamber. Be careful when doing this otherwise the gold foil can be destroyed by the pressure differ-
ence or swirling dust particles.
 Mount the aluminum film (8 μm thick), carefully evacuate the chamber, record spectrum
 Carefully aerate the chamber, mount the Am-241 preparation and repeat the measurement for the gold and the
aluminum film without changing the energy calibration
Evaluation
From each of the spectra the energy of the lines is determined. The energy loss per path length in aluminum and gold
is plotted as a function of the energy and compared with the results from the Bethe-Bloch formula.
Remarks
Due to the cover of the preparations, there is a strong offset in energy when the energy calibration is made with val-
ues taken from the literature. The measured spectrum starts only at an energy of 1-2 MeV. Particles with lower ener-
gy are stopped before reaching the detector.

377
CASSY Lab 2
Determining the age of a Ra-226 sample
Safety note
The relative activity of the nuclides Ra-226 and Pb-210 in a Ra-226 sample is determined and used to determine the
age of the sample.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058

378
CASSY Lab 2

1 HF cable, 1 m 501 02
1 HF cable, 0.25 m 501 01
1 T-piece DN 16 KF 378 005

nator-preamplifier via the short BNC cable. The discriminator-preamplifier is connected to the MCA box. The pump is
connected to the spectroscopy chamber.

Load settings
 Mount the Ra-226 preparation in the spectroscopy chamber
 Evacuate the chamber, and record a spectrum with
 Vary the gain of the MCA box until the spectrum covers all available channels. This typically occurs at gains
around -3.
 Use the outer lines of the spectrum (4785 keV, 7687 keV) for the energy calibration
Evaluation
The age of the preparation is calculated from the counting rates of the observed lines. The evaluation is complicated
by the fact that the α energies of Po-210 and Ra-222 are very close to one another so that the two nuclides contribute
to one common peak (that in the middle of the group of three peaks). The counting rate for Rn-222 is therefore de-
termined by a linear fit from the counting rates for Ra-226, Po-218 and Po-214. From the ratio of the counting rates
for Po-210 and Ra-226 the age of the preparation can be calculated.
Remarks
Due to the cover of the preparations, there is a strong offset in energy when the energy calibration is made with val-
ues taken from the literature. The measured spectrum starts only at an energy of 1-2 MeV. Particles with lower ener-
gy are stopped before reaching the detector.

379
CASSY Lab 2
Detecting γ radiation with a scintillation counter (Cs-137)
Safety note
tives on safety during school lessons. The preparations used in this experiment are type approved according to
StrlSchV (2001). For this reason handling without express permission is possible.
The γ spectrum of the mixed preparation (Cs-137, Am-241, Sr-90) is recorded, and an energy calibration is carried
out with known lines.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
1 Mixed preparation α, β, γ 559 845 or 559 835
1 Scintillation counter 559 901
1 Detector output stage 559 912
1 High-voltage power supply 1.5 kV 521 68

380
CASSY Lab 2
1 Socket for scintillator screening 559 891

additionally recommended:
1 Two-channel oscilloscope 400 575 302
1 HF cable, 1 m 501 02

The output stage of the scintillation counter is connected to the MCA box and to the high-voltage power supply. The
preparation is placed a few centimeters above the scintillation counter with the stand material. In order to prevent the
scintillation counter from toppling over, it is recommended to use the socket (559 891) for the setup. This socket is
provided with a fixture for the stand rod.

Load settings
 Set the high-voltage power supply to zero, and switch it on.
 Without high voltage, no pulses should be counted at the scintillation counter.
 Slowly increase the high voltage until the spectrum covers the available channels at a voltage of 700-900 V.
 Each time when the high voltage is changed the measured spectrum should be deleted with to avoid mixing of
different spectra. The measurement goes on then, and the measuring time is restarted.
 When the set measuring time is over, the measurement is stopped.
Evaluation
The two isotopes Cs-137 and Am-241 in the mixed reparation emit γ radiation, which is registered by the scintillation
counter. Am-241 emits one line at 59.5 keV and Cs-137 one line at 662 keV. The measured spectrum exhibits some
more details between these two lines. They arise because of the Compton effect taking place in the preparation and
in the detector.
After the measurement the spectrum is not yet calibrated. An energy calibration has to be carried out in order to dis-
play it as an energy spectrum. For this the two known lines in spectrum are used (59.5 and 662 keV).
Remark
For the measurement the preparation should not be put directly onto the detector but placed at a distance of a few
centimeters. If the preparation is too close to the detector, the counting rate will be so high that individual pulses add
up. This addition with the rest of the previous pulse shifts the lines towards higher energies.
The NaI(Tl) crystal at the end of the scintillation counter is sensitive to mechanical damage. The NaI(Tl) crystal is also
sensitive to quick changes in temperature, which can occur, e.g., on unpacking after transport. In both cases cracks
in the crystal arise and lead to a reduced sensitivity and, above all, to a worse energy resolution because of scatter-
ing.

381
CASSY Lab 2
Recording and calibrating a γ spectrum
Safety note
StrlSchV (2001) or they are below the exemption limit and do not require approval. For this reason handling without
express permission is possible.
The γ spectra of some standard preparations (Cs-137, Co-60, Na-22) are measured. After an energy calibration of
the scintillation counter, the γ transitions are identified with the help of values quoted in the literature.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
1 Set of 3 radioactive preparations 559 835, alternatively 559 845
1 Co-60 preparation 559 855
1 Na-22 preparation 559 865

382
CASSY Lab 2


preparation to be studied is placed a few centimeters above the scintillation counter with stand material. In order to
prevent the scintillation counter from toppling over, it is recommended to use the socket (559 891) for the setup.

Load settings
 Record the spectra of Co-60, Na-22 and Cs-137 one after another with . It is recommendable to begin with the
Co-60 preparation because the radiation it emits has the highest energy so that the high voltage and the gain can
be adjusted appropriately from the very beginning.
 In order to get an energy spectrum, an energy calibration has to be carried out. For this e.g. the lines of Na-22 at
511 keV and 1275 keV can be used.
Evaluation
The energies of the individual lines are determined. For this the function Fit Gaussian curves can be used. The radi-
ating isotopes are identified by comparison with values from the literature.
Remarks
There are several databases available in the internet where the known energies of all radioactive substances are
listed, e.g. under http://nucleardata.nuclear.lu.se/nucleardata/toi/. These may be used for identifying the radioactive
nuclides.
For the measurement the preparation should not be put directly onto the detector but placed at a distance of a few
centimeters. If the preparation is too close to the detector, the counting rate will be so high that individual pulses add
up. This addition with the rest of the previous pulse shifts the lines towards higher energies.

383
CASSY Lab 2
Absorption of γ radiation
Safety note
The intensity of γ radiation behind an absorber is measured as a function of the thickness of the absorber in order to
confirm Lambert's law of absorption. The linear attenuation coefficient μ and the half-value depth d1/2 are derived.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
1 Set of 3 radioactive preparations 559 835
1 Set of absorbers and targets 559 94

384
CASSY Lab 2


scintillation counter is mounted in the socket and the tip of the scintillation counter covered with the acrylic glass tube.
The preparation is placed a few centimeters above the scintillation counter with the stand material. The absorbers are
laid on the acrylic glass tube.

Load settings
 First clamp the Co-60 preparation, and record the spectrum without absorber with setting the high voltage so
that the spectrum covers the range of measurement.
 Lay the absorbers (aluminum, iron, lead) with different layer thicknesses on the acrylic glass tube one after an-
other, and record a spectrum each time with .
 Repeat the measurements for the Cs-137 and the Am-241 preparation.
Evaluation
The counting rates associated with the lines of the spectra are determined using the function Calculate Integral. The
counting rates are represented for the individual energies and absorbers as functions of the absorber thickness. From
this the linear attenuation coefficient μ and the half-value depth d1/2: are derived:
Typical values for μ are:

E 60 keV 662 keV 1253 keV
Al 0.51 1/cm 0.16 1/cm 0.13 1/cm
Fe 7.4 1/cm 0.43 1/cm 0.36 1/cm
Pb 0.86 1/cm 0.55 1/cm
Remark
The NaI(Tl) crystal at the end of the scintillation counter is sensitive to mechanical damage. Be careful when laying
the absorbers on the detector. Never place the absorber directly onto the scintillation counter, always use the acrylic
glass tube.
Otherwise cracks in the crystal arise and lead to a reduced sensitivity and, above all, to a worse energy resolution
because of scattering.

385
CASSY Lab 2
Identifying and determining the activity of weakly radioactive samples
Safety note
The detection probability of the scintillation counter is determined at several γ energies with calibrating preparations.
The γ spectrum of a weakly radioactive sample is recorded, and its radioactive components are determined.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
2 Marinelli beakers 559 88
1 Calibrating preparation Cs-137, 5 kBq 559 885

386
CASSY Lab 2
4 Potassium chloride, 250 g 672 5210

1 Scintillator screening 559 89

scintillation counter is mounted in the socket from above with the lead screening. The preparation in the Marinelli
beaker is placed above the scintillation counter.

Load settings
 Fill 1 kg of potassium chloride into a Marinelli beaker and place it above the scintillation counter.
 Record the spectrum with varying the high voltage until the full range of measurement is covered.
 Remove the Marinelli beaker and insert the calibrating preparation Cs-137
 Record the spectrum
 Make an energy calibration using the lines at 1460 keV and 662 keV in the two spectra.
 Remove the preparation
 Equally distribute the test substance in a Marinelli beaker, place the beaker above the scintillation counter, and
record the spectrum of the sample.
 Make a background measurement without preparation. The measuring time should be equal to that with the sam-
ple.
Evaluation
The activities of potassium chloride (17 kBq/kg) and the Cs-137 calibrating preparation (approx. 5 kBq, see calibra-
tion certificate, mind the half-life) are known. From the integrated counting rate below the lines of the two spectra the
detection probability of the scintillation counter at 1460 keV and 662 keV can be determined for this particular geome-
try.
The background spectrum is subtracted from the spectrum of the sample. From the resulting spectrum and the previ-
ously determined detection probability the radioactive contamination of the sample can be determined. The observed
energies enable the radiating isotope in the sample to be determined, and with the detection probabilities just deter-
mined, the quantity can be estimated.
Remarks
The NaI(Tl) crystal at the end of the scintillation counter is sensitive to mechanical damage. Be careful when inserting
the Marinelli beakers and when setting up the lead screen.
When making measurements with strongly radiating samples heed the display of the dead time and, if necessary,
dilute the sample.

387
CASSY Lab 2
Recording a β spectrum using a scintillation counter
Safety note
The β spectrum of Sr-90 is recorded with a scintillation counter. The energy loss per path length dE/dx of the β parti-
cles in aluminum is measured.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
1 Set of radioactive preparations 559 835

388
CASSY Lab 2
1 Set of absorbers and targets 559 94


scintillation counter is mounted in the socket from above with the lead screening. The acrylic glass tube is put over
the scintillation counter within the lead screening. The preparation is place a few centimeters above the scintillation
counter with stand material. The absorber plates are laid on the acrylic glass tube so that they are located between
the detector and the preparation.

Load settings
 Mount the Sr-90 preparation, and record the spectrum with . Set the high voltage so that the spectrum is not cut
off on the right side.
 For the energy calibration, mount the Na-22 preparation, and calibrate the energy axis with the 511 keV and the
1275 keV line. The Sr-90 spectrum extends to approx. 2000 keV.
 It is recommendable to determine the background without preparation.
 Mount the Sr-90 preparation once more, and see to it that there is enough space for the absorbers.
 One after another record the spectra without absorber, with a 0.5 mm thick aluminum absorber, 1 mm aluminum,
and so on up to 3 mm aluminum.
Evaluation
The aluminum absorber reduces the maximum energy of the electron reaching the detector. The highest energy of
each Sr-90 spectrum at which electrons are detected is determined. These energies are compiled in a table together
with the corresponding thickness of the absorber. The slope of the regression line gives the energy loss per path
length dE/dx, which, in this case, amounts to about 400 – 450 keV/mm.

389
CASSY Lab 2
Quantitative observation of the Compton effect
Safety note
tives on safety during school lessons. The preparation used in this experiment requires official permission! Before
purchase, the radiation officer has to obtain permission from the authorities.
An energy calibration of the scintillation counter is made. The energy distribution of γ quanta scattered in an alumi-
num scatterer is recorded for several angles between the source and the detector. From this the quantitative confir-
mation of the Compton effect is obtained.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
1 Equipment set Compton 559 800
1 Cs-137 preparation, 3.7 MBq 559 809 (requires permission)

390
CASSY Lab 2

experiment panel from the Equipment set Compton is put down and the lead screening set up correspondingly.

Load settings
 First make an energy calibration of the scintillation counter. For this insert the mixed preparation in the sample
holder from the Equipment set Compton, align it at the 0° mark. Leave the aluminum scatterer aside.
 Record the spectrum with , and make the energy calibration with the lines at 662 keV and 59.5 keV.
 Replace the mixed preparation with the Cs-137 preparation, set up the preparation at 30°, and set up the alumi-
num scatterer. Place the additional screening in the direct line of vision between the preparation and the detector.
 Record the spectrum with , then remove the aluminum scatterer, and record a new spectrum.
 The difference between the two spectra (with and without the aluminum scatterer) is the scattering spectrum.
 Repeat the measurement at various angles of the preparation, each time subtracting a spectrum without the alu-
minum scatterer from a spectrum with the aluminum scatterer. Always shift the additional screening in the setup
so that the direct line of vision between the preparation and the detector is blocked.
Evaluation
From the scattering spectra (difference with and without aluminum scatterer) the energy of the scattered g quanta is
determined. The values are plotted against the associated angles and compared with the theoretical values:
Alternatively a Free fit can be performed.

391
CASSY Lab 2
Recording the complex γ spectrum of Ra-226 and its decay products
Safety note
The complex spectrum of Ra-226 and its decay products is recorded.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058

392
CASSY Lab 2


preparation is placed a few centimeters above the scintillation counter with the stand material.

Load settings
 For the energy calibration mount the mixed preparation above the detector, record the spectrum with , and
make the calibration with the lines at 662 keV and 59.5 keV.
 Remove the mixed preparation, and mount the Ra-226 preparation. Record the spectrum.
Evaluation
The measured lines are assigned to the corresponding isotopes of the radium radioactive series with the help of val-
ues taken from the literature or from the internet (see e.g. http://nucleardata.nuclear. lu.se/nucleardata/toi/).

393
CASSY Lab 2
Coincidence and γ-γ angular correlation in positron decay
Safety note
The spatial coincidence of the two γ quanta in electron-positron pair annihilation is demonstrated. The conservation
of momentum requires emission of the two quanta at an angle of 180°, which is visualized in the experiment. Selec-
tive measurement of a coincidence spectrum leads to the suppression of non-correlated lines.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013

394
CASSY Lab 2
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

2 MCA boxes 524 058
1 Set of 3 radioactive preparations 559 835 or 559 845
2 Scintillation counters 559 901
2 Detector output stages 559 912
2 High-voltage power supplies 1.5 kV 521 68
2 Sockets for scintillator screening 559 891

The output stages of the scintillation counters are connected to the MCA boxes and to the high-voltage power sup-
plies. Both MCA boxes must be plugged in the same CASSY. The preparation is placed near one scintillation counter
with the stand material so that the other detector can be moved around the setup, in order that the angle detector 1 -
preparation - detector 2 can be varied.

Load settings
 Select the display Energy calibration
 Use the two detectors to record the normal Na-22 spectrum each with
 In the Settings NA calibrate input A, and in the Settings NB calibrate the detector at input B
 Select the display 511 keV
 In the Settings NA set the measurement to the Coincidence trigger for the other box and adjust the coinci-
dence window to the 511 keV line (mark with two vertical lines)
 Place the movable detector so that the preparation is located between the detectors. Record the coincidence
spectrum with .
 Place the movable detector so that it is located perpendicularly to the connecting line preparation - other detector.
Record the coincidence spectrum with .
 Select the display 1275 keV
 In the Settings NA set the coincidence window to the 1275 keV line (reset the old window by pressing → 0 ← and
mark the new window by means of two vertical lines)
 Record the coincidence spectrum at 180° and at 90° each with .
 Select the display Cs-137 and Na-22
 Fix the Cs-137 preparation together with the Na-22 preparation between the detectors, place the movable detec-
tor so that the preparations are located between the detectors. Record the coincidence spectrum with .
 Record the normal MCA spectrum of this arrangement.
Evaluation
The normal Na-22 spectrum consists of a line at 1275 keV and the pair annihilation radiation at 511 keV. The two
511 keV quanta are correlated in time and space (emission under 180°). The 1275 keV quanta are correlated with the
511 keV quanta in time as the delay of 3.7 ps cannot be detected with this setup. This emission is not correlated in
space.
In the normal MCA spectrum both lines are visible. At 180° coincidence, the 511 keV line clearly stands out because
the other components of the spectrum (1275 keV line, Compton distribution) are correlated in time only and not in
space so they are weakened by the solid angle of the second detector relative to the 511 keV line, which is correlated
in space. Thereby the absolute counting rate of the 511 keV line drop according to the detection probability of the
second detector.
If the detector is swivelled out of the 180° direction, the 511 keV line disappears, whereas those components that are
not correlated in space remain unchanged.
If the measurement is made in coincidence to the 1275 keV line, there is no correlation in space. Therefore the spec-
tra look the same at different angles. Since there is only one 1275 keV quantum per decay, no 1275 keV line is ob-
served in coincidence.
In order to show the suppression of quanta that are not correlated in time, two preparations are used at the same
time. Cs-137 provides a non-correlated background, which is only visible in the coincidence measurement because of
accidental coincidence, whereas it is clearly visible without coincidence measurement.

395
CASSY Lab 2
Remark

396
CASSY Lab 2
Coincidence and the decay cascade of Co-60
Safety note
tives on safety during school lessons. The preparations used in this experiment are below the exemption limit. For
this reason handling without express permission is possible.
The coincidence of the two successively emitted γ quanta during the decay of Co-60 is demonstrated. The selective
measurement of the coincidence spectrum always shows the other line in the decay cascade.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
2 MCA boxes 524 058

397
CASSY Lab 2

2 Scintillation counters 559 901
2 Detector output stages 559 912
2 High-voltage power supplies 1.5 kV 521 68
2 Sockets for scintillator screening 559 891

The output stages of the scintillation counters are connected to the MCA boxes and to the high-voltage power sup-
plies. Both MCA boxes must be plugged in the same CASSY. The preparation is placed near one scintillation counter
with the stand material so that the other detector can be moved around the setup, in order that the angle detector 1 -
preparation - detector 2 can be varied.

Load settings
 Select the display Energy calibration
 Use the two detectors to record the normal Co-60 spectrum each with
 In the Settings NA calibrate input A, and in the Settings NB calibrate the detector at input B
 Select the display Coincidence
 In the Settings NA set the measurement to the Coincidence trigger for the other box and adjust the coinci-
dence window to the 1332 keV line (mark with two vertical lines)
 Record the coincidence spectrum with .
 Record the coincidence spectrum with .
Evaluation
The normal Co-60 spectrum comprises two lines, one at 1332 keV and one at 1175 keV. When the Co-60 nucleus
decays, this is initially a β-decay. The exited state of the Ni-60 emits first of all a γ quantum with 1175 keV, the follow-
ing intermediate status only has a life span of 0.7 ps, then the emission of the 1332 keV γ-quantum follows and the
nucleus reaches its basic state. Therefore emissions of the two γ-lines visible in the spectrum are in temporal coinci-
dence.
The emission of the two γ-quanta cannot be temporarily resolved by means of an NaI scintillation detector, however
the temporal correlation of the two particles can be convincingly demonstrated.
In the normal MCA spectrum both lines are visible. If one of the two lines is selected as the coincidence trigger then
the resulting spectrum only shows the other line because the first γ-quantum has arrived in the first detector and has
released the trigger. This demonstrates the temporal coincidence of the two γ-quanta and therefore also that they
have to be caused by the same atomic decay process.
The coincidence triggering on the 1175 keV line shows another line at 200 keV. Here a different process is active
which has nothing to do with the cascade of decay. If a 1332 keV γ-quantum is emitted and Compton backscattering
occurs in the coincidence trigger detector, an energy of approx. 1130 keV is transmitted to the electron. This energy
is within the trigger window used at approx. 1175 keV and therefore triggers a measurement. The backscattered γ-
quantum can now be picked up by the second detector and carries a residual energy of approx. 200 keV. Spatial
movement of the detectors will change the intensity and energy of this line.
Remark

398
CASSY Lab 2
Detection of muons
Primary cosmic radiation is a high-energy particle radiation (predominantly protons) that interacts with the Earth's
atmosphere upon impact. This produces a secondary radiation that can be detected on the Earth's surface (predomi-
nantly muons).
Muons (µ−) and antimuons (µ+) are charged particles classified as leptons. They are about 200 times heavier than
electrons and have an average life of only about 2 µs. The fast muons (nearly at the speed of light) nevertheless
make it to the Earth's surface by relativistic time dilation. The muons there still have a flow of about 1 muon per cm 2
per minute.
A counter tube can record muons very reliably (detector efficiency close to 100 %). Their very good material penetra-
tion is also useful to distinguish muons from other counter tube results (e.g. ɑ, β and γ rays). If two counter tubes
react virtually at the same time, then a muon has most likely traveled from above through both tubes. No muons
come from below, because the Earth absorbs them. The drawing shows the solid angle Ω, from which a muon µ must
come, to reach both counter tubes. If the two counter tubes are distant from one another, then the solid angle be-
comes smaller.
This also shows the muons' dependence on the crown angle, which arises from the fact that a muon from above must
penetrate less atmosphere and therefore is absorbed more seldom or decays more seldom on its quickest path.
Therefore the flow of muons is the greatest from above.
This experiment disregards the detection of muon showers (different muons reach different counter tubes virtually at
the same time).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
2 GM boxes with 524 033

2 Pancake GM tubes and 559 012
1 Saddle base or 300 11
2 End-window counters 559 01
or
2 GM counter tubes S 524 0331
Optional sound output

1 Tweeter 587 07

399
CASSY Lab 2

Connect the GM counter tubes to the Sensor-CASSY with two GM boxes.
Position pancake GM tubes face-to-face.
Position small counter tubes side-by-side.

Load settings
 As the case may be, adjust the measurement period and interval in the Measuring Parameters (Window → Show
Measuring Parameters). The measuring interval determines the gating time in this experiment.
 Start the measurement series with . The measurement stops at the end of the given measurement period or
with .
 If desired, align counter tubes with another crown angle and repeast the measurement. For a more precise crown
angle, the two counter tubes should be distant from one another.
Evaluation
Practically every muon that penetrates both counter tubes is recorded.
The pancake GM tube (559 012) has an effective surface of about 15 cm2. If the two counter tubes are close to each
other, almost the entire solid angle is detected (see drawing). This enables a muon pulse rate of about 12 muons per
minute with two coinciding pancake GM tubes.
The farther from each other the counter tubes are, the smaller the solid angle is, from which the muons are detected,
and the lower the pulse rate drops.
The muon pulse rate is also reduced if neither counting tube points up with the same solid angle. If the counting
tubes are positioned one above the other, the hemisphere's range goes over the horizon, from which only few muons
come. If the counting tubes are positioned side-by-side, the hemisphere's range goes over those, from which most
muons come.
A frequency distribution also represents the measured pulse rates.
Remarks
The small counting tube (559 01) has an effective surface of about 5 cm2 (side). Even if the two counting tubes are
tightly placed one on top of the other, the solid angle Ω detected is significantly smaller as with the two pancake GM
tubes, because they are farther apart from each other. Both effects reduce the measured muon pulse rate to about 1
muon per minute.

400
CASSY Lab 2
Electrical conduction in solid bodies
The temperature-dependency of the specific resistance R is a simple test for models of electric conductivity in con-
ductors and semiconductors. In electrical conductors, R rises with the temperature, as the collisions of the quasi-free
electrons from the conduction band with the incomplete atoms of the conductor play an increasing role. In semicon-
ductors, on the other hand, the resistance decreases as the temperature increases since more and more electrons
move from the valence band to the conduction band, thus contributing to the conductivity.
This experiment measures the resistance values of a noble-metal resistor and a semiconductor resistor as a function
of the temperature. For the noble metal resistor, the relationship
R = R0 · (1 + α·ϑ) (R0: resistance at ϑ = 0 °C)
is verified with sufficient accuracy in the temperature range under study. For the semiconductor resistor, the evalua-
tion reveals a dependency with the form
R ∝ eΔE/2kT (k = 1.38·10-23 J/K: Boltzmann constant)
with the energy band interval ΔE.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

or
1 Noble metal resistor 586 80

1 Semiconductor resistor 5 kΩ 586 821
1 Electric oven, 230 V 555 81
1 Safety connecting box 502 061

401
CASSY Lab 2


The temperature box at Sensor-CASSY input A measures the temperature of the sensor in the electric oven. Insert
the measuring tip into the hole on the back of the oven so that the tip is in direct proximity to the resistor element. The
current supply box at input B registers the electrical resistance.

Load settings
 Start the measurement with (a value pair is recorded for every temperature increase of 5 K).
 Switch on the oven.
 Stop the measurement with at the latest when the temperature reaches 470 K (approx. 200 °C).
 Switch off the oven and remove the resistor.
 When the oven has cooled off repeat the measurement with a different resistor.
Evaluation
When a noble metal (platinum) resistor is used, we obtain a linear increase in resistance as the temperature rises.
The temperature coefficient α of the resistor can be determined easily by fitting a straight line. In this example we
observe in increase in resistance of 0.407 Ω/K and a resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C, i.e. α = 0.00407 /K. The agrees
very well with the literature value α = 0.00392 /K for platinum.
The resistance of the semiconductor resistor does not decrease linearly as the temperature rises. By fitting a Free Fit
we can confirm the relationship R ∝ eΔE/2kT. In the example, this gives us ΔE/2k = 4000 K for the semiconductor used
here, i.e. ΔE = 11.0·10-20 J = 0.69 eV (1 eV = 1.602·10-19 J).
Remarks
The measurement will work also during the cooling phase. Then, the error caused by the temperature difference
between the temperature sensor and the resistor is smaller, since the cooling phase lasts much longer than the
warm-up phase.
When using the old semiconductor resistor (586 82), use the Settings (noble metal resistor) for the correct re-
sistance range.

402
CASSY Lab 2
Hysteresis of a transformer core

403
CASSY Lab 2
In a transformer core (ferromagnet) the magnetic field
H = N1/L · I
is proportional to the coil current I and the effective turns density N1/L of the primary coil. However, the generated
magnetic flux density or magnetic induction
B = μr· μ0· H (where μ0 = 4π·10-7 Vs/Am)
is not proportional to H. Rather, it reaches a saturation value B s as the magnetic field H increases. The relative per-
meability μr of the ferromagnet depends on the magnetic field strength H, and also on the previous magnetic treat-
ment of the ferromagnet. In a demagnetized ferromagnet, the magnetic field strength is B = 0 T at H = 0 A/m. Normal-
ly however, a ferromagnet still retains a residual magnetic flux density B not equal to 0 T when H = 0 A/m (rema-
nence).
Thus, it is common to represent the magnetic induction B in the form of a hysteresis curve as a function of the rising
and falling field strength H. The hysteresis curve differs from the magnetization curve, which begins at the origin of
the coordinate system and can only be measured for completely demagnetized material (H = 0 A/m, B = 0 T).
In this example H and B are not measured directly; rather, the quantities proportional to these, i.e. the primary current
I = L/N1·H and magnetic flux Φ = N2·A·B through the secondary coil are used (N2: number of turns of secondary coil;
A: cross-section of ferromagnet). The magnetic flux Φ is calculated as the integral of the voltage U induced in the
secondary coil.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Function generator S12 522 621
1 Socket board section 576 71

Power-CASSY supplies the current for the primary coil of the transformer. The magnetic flux Φ is calculated from the
induction voltage U of the secondary coil, which is measured at Sensor-CASSY input B.
Alternatively, you can perform the experiment without Power-CASSY, using the function generator S12. This appa-
ratus must be set to sawtooth signal, frequency around 0.1 Hz and amplitude about 2 V. Recording of the magnetiza-
tion curve is triggered at I = 0 A. To hit this point exactly, the current is shunted past the transformer by the relay and
flows through a 10 Ω resistor prior to recording of the curve.

Load settings
 Correct the offset if necessary: open Settings UB, select Correct, set the first target value 0 V and click on Cor-
rect Offset.
 Demagnetize the transformer core, e.g. by striking the end face of the yoke against the end faces of the U-core
several times.

404
CASSY Lab 2
 Stop the measurement with after one period of the hysteresis curve or at Φ = 0 Vs (in this case the core does
not have to be demagnetized again).
 If the hysteresis curve lies in the second and fourth quadrants, reverse the connections on one of the two coils.
 If the display instrument UB is overdriven during measurement (display flashes), extend the measuring range in
Settings UB.
Evaluation
As the area of a hysteresis loop B(H)
just corresponds to the energy loss in remagnetization per volume V of the demagnetized material, the enclosed area
in the diagram Φ(I)
gives us precisely the energy loss E of the remagnetization for N1=N2.

In the diagram, you can calculate this energy loss using "peak integration" of a hysteresis loop.

405
CASSY Lab 2
Non-destructive analysis of the chemical composition (x-ray fluorescence)
Safety notes
When a sample is irradiated with high energy x-ray photons it will emit characteristic x-ray lines whose energy de-
pends on the atomic number of the element of the sample material. This dependency is the topic of the experimental
examples of Moseley's law (K-line and L-line x-ray fluorescence)
If a sample consists of a chemical compound or mixture, its fluorescence spectrum will also be complex. Because the
inner electron shells between which the x-ray transitions occur are not involved in the chemical bonds, the character-
istic lines are largely independent of the chemical bonds in the element. This means that the x-ray fluorescence spec-
tra of a chemical compound are, to a first approximation, a superposition of the spectra of its components.
For the qualitative analysis of the chemical composition of a sample, initially all the peaks found in the fluorescence
spectrum are correlated to the elements. This is done by means of the values for the energies of the characteristic

406
CASSY Lab 2
lines found in the table. For the correlation, the "pattern" of each of the spectral series is also considered: for exam-
ple, together with the Kα-line there must also be the K β-line with a lesser (approx. one fifth to one tenth) intensity in
the spectrum. The Lα-line appears accompanied by the L β-line of a similar intensity and the Lγ-line of a lesser intensi-
ty.
Information about the relative concentrations of individual elements in the compound can be gained from the relative
intensities of their fluorescence lines.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
1 Target set of alloys 554 848
1 HF cable, 1 m 501 02

BNC cable.

Load settings
 Place the calibration target (galvanized steel plate) from the scope of delivery for the x-ray energy detector onto
the table
 Then record spectra for the four targets in the target set of alloys
Energy calibration
The energy calibration of the spectra is made using the spectrum of the calibration target (Fe+Zn).
and enter on the right-hand side the energies of the Fe Kα-line (6.40 keV) and of the Zn Kα-line (8.64 keV).
 In the context menu of the diagram select Calculate peak center, mark the Fe Kα-line and enter the result in the
 Then determine the center for the Zn Kα-line and also enter it on the left-hand side
 In the context menu of the diagram select Set Marker → X-ray Energies → Fe and Set Marker → X-ray Energies
→ Zn for identification and labeling of the lines.
It becomes apparent that four of the measured peaks have been caused by the fluorescence of the main components
Fe and Zn of the galvanized steel plate.
Evaluation
For the identification of the components of the alloys:
 Select spectrum and mark a suitable section

407
CASSY Lab 2
 In the context menu of the diagram select Set Marker → X-ray Energies and an element symbol and determine a
suitable element by means of the displayed markers for its x-ray energies.
 Place the markers by clicking on the element symbol and determine further components of the alloy.
The results of the qualitative investigation of the alloys by means of their x-ray fluorescence spectra correspond to
the known chemical composition:
 Target 1: Stainless steel X5CrNi18-10 – contains 72 % Fe, 18 % Cr, 10 % Ni.
 Target 2: Brass CuZn36 – contains 64 % Cu, 36 % Zn.
 Target 3: Brass CuZn39Pb3 – contains 58 % Cu, 39 % Zn, 3% Pb.
 Target 4: Praseodymium-samarium-cobalt magnet. These magnets can, in addition to Co, Sm, Pr, also contain
Fe, Cu and Zr. Also the K-lines of bromium can be found, which originate from the fire-retardant in the plastic
support.

408
CASSY Lab 2
Determination of the chemical composition of a brass sample (x-ray fluorescence)
Safety notes
In this experiment, the quantitative analysis of the chemical composition of a brass sample containing lead is carried
out. The components in this alloy were already identified in the experiment Non-destructive analysis of the chemical
composition.
For calculating the mass ratios, the fact is made use of that the height of a peak is proportional to the number n of
radiating atoms. In the reference spectrum this number n0 is determined by the density of the substance ρ, its atomic
weight A, the radiated area S and the effective thickness d of the irradiated layer:
n0 = S·d·ρ/A.

409
CASSY Lab 2
For the number of atoms of each type in the alloy, to first approximation the expression
n = n0·H/H0 = V·ρ/A·H/H0
can be used. In this H and H0 are the peak heights in the spectrum to be analyzed and in the reference spectrum is
V= S·d the irradiated volume. Using this information, the mass ratio Ci of the element number i in the alloy is
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 MCA box 524 058
1 Target set of alloys 554 848
1 Target set for K-line fluorescence 554 844
1 Target set for L-line fluorescence 554 846
1 HF cable, 1 m 501 02

BNC cable.

Load settings
 Place target 3 (brass containing lead) from the target set of alloys onto the target table
 Finally, record the spectra for the targets Cu, Zn and Pb from the target sets for K-lines and L-lines fluorescence
as reference spectra
Energy calibration
The energy calibration is carried out using the spectra of copper and lead (reference spectra).
and enter on the right-hand side the energies of the Cu Kα-line (8.04 keV) and of the Pb Lα-line (10.56 keV).
 In the context menu of the diagram select Calculate peak center, mark the Cu Kα-line and enter the result in the
 Then determine the center for the Pb Lα-line and also enter it on the left-hand side.

410
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
For identifying and labeling the lines in the brass spectrum:
 In the context menu of the diagram select Set Marker → X-ray Energies → Fe
 Then enter the lines of zinc (Zn) and lead (Pb)
It becomes apparent that the second-highest peak in the spectrum consists of two lines which are not resolved: Zn Kα
and Cu Kβ. The Cu Kβ-line is in part superimposed with the Zn Kα-line.
The mass ratios of the alloy components are calculated by comparing the heights of the strongest lines in the fluores-
cence spectrum of brass and the reference spectra. These lines are: the copper Kα, the zinc Kα and the lead Lα.
For the determination of the heights of the Cu Kα and the Zn Kα, the brass fluorescence spectrum must be resolved in
the energy range from 7.5 keV to 9.1 keV. For this the spectrum in this range is fitted with three Gaussian curves of
equal width at the known energies of the Cu Kα-line (E = 8.04 keV), the Cu Kβ-line (8.91 keV) and the Zn Kα-line
(8.64 keV). The best way to do this is using the fit Gaussians of specified Energies. When selecting the area, it must
be observed that all the three required energy lines are contained in the area (do not include the Pb L l-line).
The result is a fitted contour of the fluorescence spectrum. The determined heights H are found in the status line and
are to be entered in the Mass Proportion diagram (e.g. by drag & drop) together with the densities ρ for Cu (ρ =
8.96 g/cm3), Zn (ρ = 7.10 g/cm3) and Pb (ρ = 11.34 g/cm3).
The same applies to the heights H0 for the three reference spectra. When the three densities and the six heights
have been entered, the three mass ratios are automatically calculated.
The determined mass ratios of the alloy components in the brass sample correspond well to the known chemical
composition (CuZn39Pb3).
Element Stated Experimental
Copper 58 % 61.6 %
Zinc 39 % 35.6 %
Lead 3% 2.9 %
Additional information
The example of the copper-zinc alloy (brass) shows how the secondary fluorescence modifies the spectrum shape.
During the irradiation of such a sample with x-ray photons, the K-lines of both copper and zinc are excited. But be-
cause the Kβ-line of zinc (E = 9.57 keV) lies above the K-edge of copper (E = 8.99 keV), it can also "secondarily"
excite the copper L-lines.
Therefore, in the fluorescence radiation emitted, the intensity of the copper lines is higher at the cost of the Zn K β-
line, and the ratio of the Zn Kα and the Kβ-lines does not correspond to the ratio found in pure zinc. For this reason,
the mass ratio of the alloy components determined from the Kα-lines indicates a slightly too high proportion of copper.

411
CASSY Lab 2
Experiment examples chemistry

These experiment examples support you in using CASSY Lab. Where applicable, the corresponding experiment
number is also given. The measurement data or settings for the examples can be loaded directly into CASSY Lab.
Simply click the symbols in the descriptions. New examples are labeled with a red •.
Inorganic Chemistry
• The Bunsen burner
• pH measurement on foodstuffs
• pH measurement on cleaning agents
• C1.7.2.1 Determining the pKa value of acetic acid
• Titration of phosphoric acid
Analytical Chemistry
• Melting and solidification point of palmitic acid
• Supercooling a melt of sodium thiosulphate
• Determining the molar mass by way of freezing-point depression
• Titration of hydrochloric acid with caustic soda solution (pH and conductivity)
• Titration of household vinegar
• Titration of acetic acid with caustic soda solution (pH and conductivity)
• Automatic titration of NH3 with NaH2PO4 (piston burette)
• C1.7.2.2 Automatic titration (drop counter)
• C3.2.1.1 Gas chromatography (separation of alkanes from lighter gas)
• C3.2.1.2 Gas chromatography (separation of alcohols)
• Gas chromatography (separation of air)
Physical Chemistry
• Reaction of marble with hydrochloric acid (determining the carbonate content)
• C6.1.2.1 Splitting of urea by urease (zero-order reaction, enzyme kinetics)
• Hydrolysis of tertiary butyl chloride (determining the reaction order)
• Reaction of marble with hydrochloric acid (determining the reaction order)
• Alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl acetate (determining the reaction order)
• Alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl acetate (determining the activation parameters)
• Differential thermal analysis of copper sulphate
• Preparing a freezing mixture
• Determining the melting enthalpy of ice
• Determining the conductivity of different solutions
• Determining the limiting equivalent conductivity of sodium chloride
• Determining the dissociation constant of acetic acid
Environmental Technology
• Absorption of UV radiation
• C5.3.2.2 Simulation of the ozone hole
• C5.3.1.1 Greenhouse effect of CO2

412
CASSY Lab 2
The Bunsen burner
can also be carried out with Mobile-CASSY 2, Pocket-CASSY, Mobile-CASSY and Micro-
CASSY
Safety note
 Danger of burn. Tie back your hair and take off scarves in order to prevent them from catching fire by mistake.
 Close the gas supply immediately when the flame strikes back because of excess air supply.
 If the gas burner is not used for some time, set it to luminous flame and reduce the gas flow.
 Do not set up the gas burner near the edge of a table.
The gas burner is a device which is particularly often used in chemistry laboratories. In consists of a barrel with ad-
justable air supply. Gas can flow into the barrel through a nozzle. Depending on the design, the air supply is adjusted
by means of a screw disc or another adjustable opening. If the air supply is closed, the flame obtained will luminesce
in a color between yellow and orange and reach temperatures of up to 600 °C. If the air supply is opened, the gas air
mixture will burn with a rustling, bluish, non-luminous flame and produce substantially higher temperatures. The tem-
perature regions of the flame, which depend on the height over the burner tip, can be studied very well by means of a
NiCr-Ni temperature sensor.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Chemistry box or NiCr-Ni adapter S 524 067(3)

or
1 Temperature sensor NiCr-Ni, DIN plug 666 193
1 Gas burner, e.g. 666 714

2 Stand bases, V-shape, 20 cm 300 02
1 Dual scale 340 82
1 Clamping block MF 301 25
2 Support clip, for plugging in 314 04
1 Crossed bosshead 666 543
1 Miniature clamp 666 551

413
CASSY Lab 2
Matches or lighter

Connect the chemistry box (or, alternatively, the temperature box) to input A of the Sensor-CASSY, and plug the
temperature sensor into input T1.
Using the stand material, set up two stands: attach the dual scale to one stand by means of the support block and the
support clips so that the lower edge of the scale is at the same height as the tip of the gas burner. Using the minia-
ture clamp, attach the temperature sensor to the other stand, and align it exactly horizontally.
Set up the two stands around the gas burner so that the height over the burner tip is indicated by the test prod of the
temperature sensor on the centimeter scale. At the same time, the outermost tip of the temperature sensor should be
located immediately over the opening of the burner. When setting up the stands, see to it that you can adjust the
height of the thermocouple without getting burnt.

Load settings
Remark: By means of NiCr-Ni temperature sensors, temperatures of up to 1150 °C (temperature sensor for chemistry
box) or 1100 °C (temperature sensor for temperature box), respectively, can be measured. Do not exceed this meas-
uring range.
 Light the gas burner with luminous flame (air supply closed). Then open the air supply until the flame rustles.
 Fix the temperature sensor at the upper end of the measuring scale. See to it that the tip is exactly in the center of
the flame.
 Wait until the displayed measured value is almost stable (±5 °C). Record the measured value with . Via the dis-
play instrument, which is accessed via the ϑA11 button at the upper edge of the screen, the instantaneous value of
the temperature can be displayed on the full screen so that persons who are sitting at a distance are able to read
the temperature.
 Click the corresponding cell of the table, and enter the height over the burner tip associated with the measured
value via the key board.
 When accessing another color region of the flame (outer cone: weakly bluish, inner cone: light blue), select Dia-
gram → Set Marker → Vertical Line, and mark the position by a vertical line. With Diagram → Set Marker → Text
a text related to the mark can be added.
 Lower the temperature sensor by 1 cm and repeat the measurement.
 When reaching the light blue region of the flame, make the measurements in steps of 0.5 cm.
Evaluation
As expected, the temperature in the central region of the burner flame is higher than at a certain height above the
flame. However, the temperatures generated by the light blue flame just above the outlet opening is much lower than
the temperature generated by the weakly bluish flame a few centimeters above. From this it can be concluded that
the gas used is only completely burnt above the light blue region of the flame.
When chemical experiments are carried out, the different temperatures of the regions of the burner flame can be
taken advantage of. If particularly high temperatures are desired, the region immediately above the light blue flame is
used for heating. If the heating temperature should be lower, a greater distance from the burner tip is chosen.

414
CASSY Lab 2
pH measurement on foodstuffs
CASSY
In this experiment, the pH values of foodstuffs, particularly of drinks, are investigated.
The pH value is a measure for the acidic strength or basic strength, respectively, of a solution. It is defined as the
negative decimal logarithm of the concentration of H3O+ ions in an aqueous solution:
pH = - lg c(H3O+)
The concentration of H3O+ ions depends on the autoprotolysis equilibrium of water:
H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH−
In dilute solutions, the equilibrium is independent of the concentration of water molecules; at 25 °C, the equilibrium
constant is:
K = c(H3O+) · c(OH−) = 10-14 mol2/l2
That means, the concentration of hydronium ions and the concentration of hydroxyl ions in a solution are related via
the protolysis equilibrium of water; their product always equals 10 -14 mol2/l2. Therefore acidic solutions (hydronium
ions predominate) have a pH value between 0 an 7, and basic solutions (hydroxyl ions predominate) have a pH value
between 7 and 14.
Measuring the pH value is one of the most important procedures in chemical analysis. It is employed, e.g., for moni-
toring water quality, determining the concentrations of acidic and basic solutions, monitoring manufacturing process-
es (e.g. foodstuffs, body care products, paint and lacquer) and determining air pollution (acidic rain). In many bio-
chemical processes, e.g. digestion, the pH value plays an important role.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Chemistry box or pH adapter S 524 067(2)
1 pH electrode with BNC plug 667 4172
1 Temperature sensor NiCr-Ni (if needed) 529 676
1 Beaker, 250 ml, squat shape 664 130
1 Laboratory knife 667 018
Required substances
Tap water

415
CASSY Lab 2
Foodstuffs/drinks, e.g.:
mineral water with and without carbonic acid
water from a furred boiler
fizzy drinks/cola
fruit juice
1 lemon
coffee
various kinds of tea
vinegar
cooking oil
milk
Buffer solution pH 4.00 e.g. 250 ml 674 4640

Plug the chemistry box with the connected pH electrode into input A of the Sensor-CASSY.
Alternatively, connect the pH box with the single-rod pH electrode to input A of the Sensor-CASSY.
Prepare hot drinks (coffee, tea) in good time in order that they have sufficiently cooled down when you start the
measurements. If the solutions are still hot and if the chemistry box is used, a temperature sensor can be connected
to input T1 for temperature compensation. In this case, the pH electrode and the temperature sensor are immersed
together in the solution. CASSY Lab then automatically calculates the pH value corresponding to a temperature of
25 °C.
Cut the lemon open with the knife, and form a hollow where the juice can accumulate. The hollow has to be deep
enough for the pH electrode to be immersed up to the diaphragm.
Be sure to read the Instruction Sheet for the pH electrode.
Calibration
In order to obtain accurate measuring results, you have to calibrate the pH electrode when you use it for the first time.
Afterwards the calibration should be repeated from time to time:
Load settings
 Select Correct in Settings pHA1.
 Rinse the pH electrode with distilled water, immerse it in the buffer solution pH 7.00, and agitate it briefly.
 Enter 7.00 as the first target value. When the measured value is stable, press the Correct Offset button.
 Enter 4.00 as the second target value. When the measured value is stable, press the Correct Factor button.
 Mark the Sensor-CASSY, the pH electrode, and the chemistry or pH box in order that they can be used at the
same input later on (otherwise the stored calibration will not be applicable).

Load settings
In the order: tap water, mineral waters, fizzy drinks/coke, fruit juices, lemon, teas, coffee, milk, vinegar, oilkeep to the
following sequence:
 Pour the liquid into the beaker (leave the lemon juice in the hollow for the measurement).
 Immerse the pH electrode so that the diaphragm is just immersed, and wait until a stable value is displayed.
 Add a caption to the measured value in the diagram with Diagram → Set Marker → Text and entering the exam-
ined substance.
 Pour the substance away (do not drink it!), and rinse the beaker thoroughly.
Evaluation
Almost all of the liquids examined in this experiment have a pH value below 8, i.e. they are acidic or neutral. Drinks
such as fruit juices, fruit teas, and fizzy drinks have pH values between 2.5 and 4, which indicates that they are clear-
ly acidic, whereas none of the substances examined exhibits a comparable degree of basic strength. The solution
with a pH value of 8.9, which was the one with the strongest basicity, was obtained by warming water in a heavily
furred water boiler; in this case, small amounts of dissolving calcium carbonate lead to an increase of the pH value by
approx. 2 compared with tap water.
Drinks with a fruit juice content usually exhibit relatively strong acidic properties: This is particularly well seen on
comparing the two kinds of tea examined in this example. The acidic character is caused by acids contained in fruit:

416
CASSY Lab 2
organic acids such as citric acid, manic acid, and tartaric acid. Some of these acids also occur in human and animal
metabolism (citric-acid cycle). Compared with drinks containing fruit juice, carbonic acid (H 2CO3) in mineral water
leads to a significantly weaker acidification. The low pH value of cola is above all caused by the phosphoric acid con-
tained in it.
The predominantly acidic character of the examined foodstuffs stated, the process of neutralization of an acid or a
base can be considered. What would happen in the stomach if strong basic liquids entered it? Maybe it is possible to
examine the neutralizing function of remedies against heartburn (Maaloxan, sodium bicarbonate, salt of hartshorn).
The diagram generated can be printed via the printer symbol in the upper line on the screen.

417
CASSY Lab 2
pH measurement on cleaning agents
CASSY
In this experiment, the pH values of cleaning agents are investigated. Depending on the purpose of the cleaning
agents, they may have any pH value from the entire pH scale.
The pH value is a measure for the acidic strength or basic strength, respectively, of a solution. It is defined as the
negative decimal logarithm of the concentration of H3O+ ions in an aqueous solution:
pH = - lg c(H3O+)
The concentration of H3O+ ions depends on the autoprotolysis equilibrium of water:
H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH−
In dilute solutions, the equilibrium is independent of the concentration of water molecules; at 25 °C, the equilibrium
constant is:
K = c(H3O+) · c(OH−) = 10-14 mol2/l2
That means, the concentration of hydronium ions and the concentration of hydroxyl ions in a solution are related via
the protolysis equilibrium of water; their product always equals 10 -14 mol2/l2. Therefore acidic solutions (hydronium
ions predominate) have a pH value between 0 an 7, and basic solutions (hydroxyl ions predominate) have a pH value
between 7 and 14.
Measuring the pH value is one of the most important procedures in chemical analysis. It is employed, e.g., for moni-
toring water quality, determining the concentrations of acidic and basic solutions, monitoring manufacturing process-
es (e.g. foodstuffs, body care products, paint and lacquer) and determining air pollution (acidic rain). In many bio-
chemical processes, e.g. digestion, the pH value plays an important role.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Beaker, 100 ml, tall shape 664 137
1 Laboratory knife 667 018
Required substances
Tap water
Cleaning agents, e.g.:
washing-up liquid

418
CASSY Lab 2
detergents containing acetic acid

tube cleaner
cleaning agents that are ecologically friendly
For comparison:
vinegar
1 lemon

Plug the chemistry box with the connected pH electrode into input A of the Sensor-CASSY.
Alternatively, connect the pH box with the single-rod pH electrode to input A of the Sensor-CASSY.
Cut the lemon open with the knife, and form a hollow where the juice can accumulate. The hollow has to be deep
enough for the pH electrode to be immersed up to the diaphragm.
Be sure to read the Instruction Sheet for the pH electrode.
Calibration
Load settings

Load settings
For all cleaning agents examined in the experiment keep to the following sequence:
 Keeping to safety notes and dosage instructions (calculate the dosage for the volume of the beaker, which is
100 ml) that may be written on the package, prepare the solution to be examined in the beaker. If a cleaning
agent is to be used undiluted, pour as little as possible (approx. 30 ml) into the beaker.
 Leave the lemon juice in the hollow for the measurement.
 Immerse the pH electrode in the solution so that the diaphragm is just immersed, and wait until a stable value is
displayed.
 Add a caption to the measured value in the diagram with Diagram → Set Marker → Text and entering the exam-
ined substance.
 Pour the substance away, and rinse the beaker thoroughly with tap water.
Evaluation
Depending on the purpose, cleaning agents can have any pH value from strongly acidic to strongly basic.
Particularly agents for removing lime deposits and for cleaning bathrooms have relatively low pH values, which may
even correspond to hydrochloric acid of approx. 0.3 mol/l concentration. This is due to the lime dissolving reaction of
CaCO3 with acids, which is used for removing lime deposits:
As the acidity of these cleaning agents is sometimes quite strong, the instruction saying that protective gloves should
be worn is right in place on the package.
The ecologically friendly agent containing citric acid does not dissolve CaCO 3 through the acidic character of citric
acid, but through formation of a water soluble complex of citric acid and calcium ions. In this way the low pH value of
other cleaning agents can be avoided.
As basic soap solution also damages the skin, nowadays washing-up liquids for dissolving fat and oil mainly contain
neutral surfactants instead of basic soaps. This shows up in the pH value of the examined washing-up liquid, which

419
CASSY Lab 2
indicates approximate neutrality. However, as the surface of human skin is slightly acidic (around pH 5.5), this wash-
ing-up liquid will also mean stress to the skin although to a lesser extent.
Among strongly basic cleaning agents there are, above all, tube cleaners, which have to dissolve fat deposits and
hair at places where mechanical cleaning is impossible. These tube cleaners contain high concentrations of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and often, in addition, hypochlorites, e.g. NaOCl, as oxidizing agents. Tube cleaners that contain
hypochlorites must not get into contact with other cleaning agents as corrosive chlorine gas is generated when acids
are added to NaOCl and common salt, which is also contained in tube cleaners:
If usual pH electrodes are used, the pH value measured on the strongly basic tube cleaner is distorted by the so-
called alkali error. Starting from pH values of approx. 12, glass electrodes display a value below the real one; there-
fore you can assume that the examined tube cleaner is even more basic.
As an alternative, economically friendly tube cleaners are supplied today, which are based on enzymes and are al-
most neutral. The cleaning agent examined in the example is supposed to decompose fat enzymatically. This is
achieved under almost neutral conditions, which means that sewage is much less contaminated.
Further experiment options

The pH values of other substances that occur in everyday life can be examined as well.
 An insertion electrode with a conical diaphragm enables solid pieces of soap and creams to be examined.
 Determining the pH value of human skin by means of an electrode with flat diaphragm before and after washing
the skin with soaps may be interesting with regard to the question of whether these substances are well-tolerated
by the skin.

420
CASSY Lab 2
Determining the pKa value of acetic acid
CASSY
Danger
Acids and bases are caustic. Wear protective goggles and acid-resistant gloves.
A measure for the strength of moderately strong or weak acids called the pK a value is determined from its titration
curve with a strong base. Starting from the dissociation equation for the acid,
HA + H2O H3O+ + A−
we obtain for the point of half equivalence (where half of the acid has reacted with the base):
[A−] = [HA].
From the equilibrium equation
it therefore follows that

pKa = pH.

421
CASSY Lab 2
Thus the pKa value can easily be read after the equivalence point and the point of half equivalence of the titration
have been determined.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Magnetic stirrer 666 8451
1 Stand rod, 450 mm, M10 thread 666 523
1 Graduated pipette, 10 ml 665 997
1 Pipetting ball 666 003
1 Burette, 25 ml 665 845
1 Burette filling funnel 665 816
1 Burette clamp simple 666 559
Chemicals
Acetic acid, c = 0.1 mol/l e.g. 500 ml: 671 9560
Caustic soda solution, c = 0.1 mol/l e.g. 500 ml: 673 8410
Buffer solution pH 4.00 e.g. 250 ml: 674 4640
Distilled water

Plug the pH box with the single rod pH electrode into input A of the Sensor-CASSY, which is connected to the PC.
Set up the titration assembly using the stand material, the magnetic stirrer, the beaker and the burette. Put about
100 ml of distilled water into the beaker and add exactly 10 ml of 0.1 M acetic acid by means of the pipette. Fill 0.1 M
caustic soda solution into the burette through the funnel up to the zero mark.
Attach the pH electrode so that on the one hand the measuring diaphragm is completely immersed and on the other
hand the glass membrane cannot be damaged by the rotating stirrer bar. In order to mark the equivalence point, you
may add some drops of a phenolphthalein solution as an indicator.
Calibration
Load settings
 Mark the Sensor-CASSY, the pH electrode, and the pH box in order that they can be used at the same input later
on (otherwise the stored calibration will not be applicable).

Load settings
 If you want to apply other volume steps than 0.2 ml, the entry can be changed in Settings V in the field Formula,
e.g. by entering "0.5*n-0.5" for steps of 0.5 ml.
 Determine the first measured value with .
 Continuously add drops of caustic soda solution at a slow rate, and record the pH value in steps of 0.2 ml with .
Evaluation
At the equivalence point (V = Veq), the acetic acid has entirely reacted with the caustic soda solution:
HAc + NaOH → Na+ + Ac− + H2O

422
CASSY Lab 2
In order to exactly determine the equivalence point with CASSY Lab, press the right mouse button in the diagram,
select Other Evaluations → Find Equivalence Point. After marking the curve range, you will obtain a graphical display
of the equivalence point and the pKa value as determined via the point of half equivalence (V = Vheq). The associated
values are written below in the status line and can be inserted as text at an arbitrary place in the diagram.

By neutralizing a hydrochloric acid solution of the same pH value as the present acetic acid solution (approx. 10 ml of
0.01 M HCl) and comparing the two titration curves, the concept of a buffer solution can be introduced. The strongly
diluted hydrochloric acid is already neutralized after 1 ml of NaOH has been added, whereas for neutralizing the ace-
tic acid of similar acidity approx. 10 ml of NaOH are required. Determining the pKa value of the hydrochloric acid
would not be meaningful.

423
CASSY Lab 2
Titration of phosphoric acid
CASSY
Danger
Acids and bases are caustic. Wear protective goggles, gloves and clothing.
Polybasic acids exhibit characteristic titration curves, which enable the pK a values of individual stages of protolysis to
be determined following sections of the curve that have similar shapes.
In aqueous solution, phosphoric acid forms the following equilibria:
As the differences between the pKa values amount to approx. 5 in each case, the equilibria can be considered inde-
pendently of each other.
By titration with caustic potash solution, the equivalence points of the first and the second stage of protolysis can be
determined. However, since KOH is not a substantially stronger base than the phosphate ion, the equilibrium 3 does
not sufficiently tend to the right-hand side for the third equivalence point to be determined. In aqueous solution, the
latter is only accessible in the opposite direction by titrating potassium phosphate, e.g., with hydrochloric acid.

424
CASSY Lab 2
In the pH range of the titration considered here (approx. pH 2 to pH 12), the hydrogenphosphates act as ampholytes,
on the right-hand side of an equilibrium they represent the base of the respective acid-base pair, whereas on the left-
hand side they have the function of the base.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Burette, 50 ml 665 847
2 Crossed bossheads 666 543
2 Small universal clamps 666 551
Chemicals
Phosphoric acid, 10 %, 100 ml 674 3440
Caustic potash solution, c = 1 mol/l, 1 l 672 4460
Buffer solution pH 4.00, 250 ml 674 4640
Distilled water

Plug the chemistry box with the pH electrode into input A of the Sensor-CASSY, which is connected to the PC. If the
temperature differs from 25 °C significantly, use of a temperature sensor at input T1 is recommendable. The meas-
ured temperature of the solution is automatically used to compensate the voltage determined at the pH electrode.
Set up the titration assembly using the stand material, the magnetic stirrer, the beaker and the burette.
Put just 100 ml of distilled water into the beaker, and add 10 ml of a 10 % solution of phosphoric acid (c(H3PO4) ap-
prox. 1.1 mol/l) using the pipette. Fill 1 M caustic potash solution into the burette through the funnel up to the zero
mark.
may add some drops of a mixture of methyl red and phenolphthalein to the solution as an indicator.
Calibration
Load settings

Load settings

425
CASSY Lab 2
 Continuously add 40 ml of caustic potash solution drop by drop at a slow rate, and record the pH value in steps of
0.5 ml by pressing .
Evaluation
The curve obtained exhibits several characteristic ranges, which correspond to the three protolysis equilibria. The
equivalence points (V = Veq) are easily determined in CASSY Lab: after pressing the right mouse button in the dia-
gram Standard and selecting Other Evaluations → Find Equivalence Point, you can mark the curve range in
which the equivalence point is to be determined. After the range has been marked, the calculated equivalence point
and the pKa value are displayed automatically; the associated values are written below in the status line and can be
inserted as text at an arbitrary place in the diagram.
Further evaluation
The parallel shape of the buffer ranges can be made clearer. There are several possibilities of doing this:
1. In the representation Straight line evaluation: after clicking the right mouse button in the diagram, select the
menu point Fit Function → Best-fit Straight Line and mark a narrow curve range in one of the buffer regions symmet-
rically around the point of half-equivalence Vheq as determined in the Standard diagram. As a result you obtain a
straight line with the average slope of the marked range. Repeat this procedure in the two remaining buffer regions.
In addition, calculate the third equivalence point from the first and the second one. The three straight lines that you
obtain should be almost parallel according to the general formula for buffer regions
(a slight inaccuracy occurs because of changes in volume due to the addition of KOH and because the limits of the
measuring range of the pH electrode are exceeded).
2. In the representation Straight line evaluation: the menu point Fit Function → Free Fit enables you to define an
own fit function. Enter the general equation for a straight line, "A*x+B", into the appropriate line. After Continue with
marking a range, click a narrow curve range which is symmetrical around the second point of half-equivalence. As a
result you obtain a straight line whose slope A appears in the status line. Now set A constant in the menu point Fit
Function → Free Fit, mark the corresponding ranges around the other two points of half-equivalence.
If the series of measurements is all right, the buffer regions near the points of half-equivalence should have almost
equal slopes and should be well described by the fitted straight lines.
3. In the representation Buffering Curves: in order to plot the pH value against the degree of neutralization N of the
respective protolysis stage in percent, enter the volumes associated with the three equivalence points in Settings
Veq1, Veq2 and Veq3 instead of the entries of the experiment example. The third equivalence point can be calculat-
ed from the first two. The degree of neutralization is defined by
and describes the progress of the neutralization of the respective protolysis stage in percent. The first expression of
each term in the square brackets is the volume ratio for each protolysis stage and the second expression represents
the limits within which this ratio is to be calculated.
In the representation Buffering Curves (pHA1 = f(N)), three sections of the titration curve are plotted one over the
other in a diagram. Here the similarity of the buffering curves are clearly seen. For further evaluation, you can add
straight lines in the diagram as explained above in order to check the slope of the buffer curves.

426
CASSY Lab 2
Melting and solidification point of palmitic acid
CASSY
It is possible to find the melting and solidification point of a substance by recording its temperature curve.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

or
1 Temperature sensor NTC 666 212
2 Beakers, 250 ml, ts 664 113

1 Bunsen burner stand 666 504
1 Stand tube, 13 mm  666 607
2 Double bossheads 301 09
2 Universal clamps, 0...80 mm 666 555
1 Test tube, from 664 043
1 Double ended spatula 666 962
1 Hot plate, e.g. 666 767

427
CASSY Lab 2
Chemicals
1 Palmitic acid, 50 g 674 0500

 Fill a beaker around ¾ full with water and heat it to 80 to 90 °C on the hot plate.
 Fill the test tube with about 3 to 4 cm of palmitic acid and melt it in the water bath.
 Slide the 13 mm tube above the 10 mm tube using the universal bosshead so that the two parts can "telescope".
Clamp the test tube with the palmitic acid and the NTC temperature sensor to the 13 mm tube so that the sensor
is approx. 1 cm above the bottom of the test tube and in the middle (not touching the wall).
 Connect the temperature sensor with input T1 of the temperature box. Connect the box at input A of Sensor-
CASSY.
 Cool the sample to at least 40 °C. Use the second beaker with cold water.

Load settings
Notes on calibration
The connected temperature sensor can be calibrated as necessary. To do this, open the Settings ϑA11 (right mouse
button) and, after correction, enter the two set values 0 °C and 100 °C, and click on Correct Offset (temperature
sensor immersed in ice/water mixture) and Correct Factor (temperature sensor immersed in boiling water).
 Using your telescopic stand, place the test tube with the solidified palmitic acid and the embedded temperature
sensor in the water bath at approx. 80 °C.
 When the temperature starts to climb steadily again above about 60 °C, lift the sample with the sensor out of the
hot water bath using the stand and place in a beaker of cold water to cool it down more quickly (you can also let
the sample cool in air, but this takes longer).
 When the temperature has fallen significantly below the solidification point (approx. 60 °C), stop the measurement
with .
Evaluation
 You can vary areas of the windows for optimum diagram display. To do this, click on the respective axis with the
right mouse button or zoom the graph.
 To determine and mark the melting and solidification point, draw a horizontal line (click on the graph with the right
mouse button and select Set Marker → Horizontal Line) and position this line so that it runs through the constant
solidification range.
 You can insert the value shown in the status line (bottom left) in the diagram as text (click on the graphic with the
right mouse button and select Set Marker → Text). You can also edit this text if desired.

 Recording the temperature curve of other substances, e.g. sodium thiosulfate-5-hydrate
 Comparing the temperature curves of different substances by superimposing
 Comparing the temperature curves for a single substance in differing purities
 Investigating the melting and solidification behavior of mixtures with different compositions, determining the eutec-
tic mixture, preparing a phase diagram

428
CASSY Lab 2
Supercooling a melt of sodium thiosulphate
CASSY
The melting and crystallization curve of sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate exhibits some peculiarities. The substance
melts at approx. 48 °C. However, given a sufficient purity and vibration-free storage, it crystallizes only when it is
strongly supercooled under 30 °C. During solidification, the temperature of sodium thiosulphate increases again
reaching almost the melting point.
The corresponding regions (melting, supercooling, crystallization) are very well seen when the melting and crystalli-
zation curve is recorded.
Supercooling of a melt occurs when, due to the lack of crystal nuclei, the establishment of the equilibrium between
solid and melt is delayed. States, such as a supercooled melt, which are thermodynamically instable, but inhibited
kinematically are called metastable.
The property of sodium thiosulphate which consists in forming a relatively stable supercooled melt which warms up
during solidification is used for the chemical generation of heat. Hand warmers and packages of single servings of
food or drinks (e.g. for travellers) can be warmed this way.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Temperature sensors NiCr-Ni, type K 529 676
2 Beakers, 250 ml, squat shape 664 103
1 Bunsen burner stand 666 504
1 Stand tube, 13 mm  666 607

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CASSY Lab 2
2 Double bossheads 301 09

1 Test tube, e.g. from 664 043
1 Double ended spatula 666 962
1 Hot plate, e.g. 666 767
Chemicals
1 sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate, e.g. 100 g 673 8000

 Plug the chemistry box with the temperature sensor being connected to T1 into input A of the Sensor-CASSY.
 Fill the two beakers to about ¾ of their height with water. Put one beaker on the hot plate and the other beside it.
 Fill the test tube to a height of 2 or 3 cm with sodium thiosulphate.
 Slide the 13 mm tube over the 10 mm rod and fix it with the universal bosshead so that it can be moved in a tele-
scope-like manner.
 Using the small universal clamps, attach the test tube and the temperature sensor to the 13 mm tube so that the
tip of the sensor is positioned some mm over the bottom and in the center of the test tube embedded in the sub-
stance (it must not touch the wall of the test tube).
Calibration
In order to obtain accurate measuring results, calibrate the temperature sensor before carrying out the experiment for
the first time:
Load settings
 Immerse the temperature sensor in a mixture of water and ice, enter the target value "0 °C" in the upper line in
Settings ϑA11 under Correct, and click Correct Offset.
 Then immerse the temperature sensor in boiling water, enter the target value "100 °C" in the upper line in Settings
ϑA11 under Correct, and click Correct Factor. If necessary, take into account the influence of the air pressure on
the boiling point.
 Store the calibrated settings with under a new name.
 Mark the Sensor-CASSY, the chemistry box, and the temperature sensor in order that they can be used again in
the same combination. Otherwise the stored calibration will not be applicable.

 Use or load the calibrated settings.
 Switch the hot plate on.
 Put the test tube with the temperature sensor into the beaker on the hot plate with the aid of the telescope-like
stand.
 When the sodium thiosulphate has completely melted and reached a temperature of approx. 65 °C, take the test
tube out of the hot water bath by means of the stand, and put it into the beaker with cold water in order that it
cools down more quickly (alternatively the sample can be cooled down more slowly in the air).
 In order to reach low supercooling temperatures, see to it that the assembly is not subject to vibrations or shocks.
On the other hand, crystallization can be initiated and enhanced by knocking slightly at the test tube.
 Maximum crystallization temperature is reached if the test tube is taken out of the water bath on the onset of crys-
tallization (ϑA11 rises again) and by continuing knocking at the test tube.
 When the crystallization of the sodium thiosulphate is accomplished, stop the measurement with .
Evaluation
Several regions are discernible in the curve:
a) Warming of the solid substance.
b) Melting range of sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate. As the warming takes place more quickly than the establish-
ment of the thermodynamic equilibrium, only a melting range, but not an exact melting point is seen.
c) Warming of the melt.
d) Cooling of the melt. It is clearly seen that the temperature falls below the melting range without a plateau showing
up, which would be typical of a phase transition.
e) The minimum of the temperature curve marks the onset of the crystallization of sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate,
which, in turn, leads to a rise in temperature up to the crystallization temperature. The latter can be determined by

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CASSY Lab 2
selecting Diagram → Draw Mean and marking the approximately horizontal range in the temperature maximum of the
crystallization region. The average crystallization temperature is displayed in the status line and can be inserted in
the diagram with Diagram → Set Marker → Text.
f) Cooling of the completely solidified substance.
The different regions of the measured curve can be marked by vertical lines for better separation.

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CASSY Lab 2
Determining the molar mass by way of freezing-point depression
A relatively simple method of determining the molar mass of a substance is given by measuring the freezing-point
depression of dilute solutions of this substance in a solvent. Being a colligative property of dilute solutions, the freez-
ing-point depression only depends on the amount of substance of the dissolved particles, but not on the kind of these
particles.
If a substance is dissolved in a solvent, this leads to a shift of the boundaries between the phases solid (s), liquid (l),
and gaseous (g) in the phase diagram (solid lines: pure solvent, dashed lines: solution). This shift leads to an eleva-
tion of the boiling point and a depression of the freezing point (ΔT) of the solution as compared with the pure solvent.
For the freezing-point depression, the equation
can be derived, where R is the general gas constant, T* and M 2 are the freezing point and molar mass of the pure
solvent, and ΔHf is its molar enthalpy of fusion. The term in brackets is defined as the cryoscopic constant K k, which
is characteristic of every solvent. For water Kk is 1853 K*g/mol; in chemical analysis, however, often camphor is pre-

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CASSY Lab 2
ferred as a solvent because of its high constant Kk = 40000 K*g/mol. The second fraction in the above equation is
called the molality (amount of substance n1 / mass m2 of solvent) of the dissolved substance.
From the freezing-point depression the molar mass of the dissolved substance is easily determined:
(m1: mass of the dissolved substance in g, m2: mass of the solvent in g, M1: molar mass of the dissolved substance
in g/mol)
Solving for M1 gives:
This equation does not only apply to dissociating substances. In the case of salts, acids, and bases, the number of
dissolved particles and the degree of dissociation α have to be taken into account.
In the experiment example, an approximately 1.0-M solution of ethylene glycol (HO-CH2-CH2-OH) in water is exam-
ined. Ethylene glycol is found, e.g., in cars as an antifreeze agent for the cooling water and the windscreen wiper
system.
For the purpose of cooling, a freezing mixture of common salt and water in a Dewar flask is used (see Preparing a
freezing mixture).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Dewar flask, 0.5 l 667 320
2 Test tubes, 16x160 mm e.g. from 664 043
1 Pasteur pipette e.g. from 665 950
1 Bulb for the Pasteur pipette e.g. from 665 954
1 Rubber stopper,  14-18 mm 667 253
1 Laboratory balance,resolution ≤ 0.01 g,
Range ≥ 300 g
Required substances
Sodium chloride, e.g. 250 g 673 5700
Ethylene glycol, e.g. 250 ml 671 9800
Ice, approx. 200 g
Distilled water
Calibration
In order to obtain accurate measuring results, calibrate the temperature sensors when using it for the first time. Af-
terwards the calibration should be repeated from time to time.
Load settings
 Immerse the two temperature sensors in ice water (mixture of ice and water), stir with the temperature sensors,
and wait until the displays show measured values that are stable up to ± 0.1 °C.
 For each of the sensors, enter the target value "0" in the first line in Settings ϑA12, ϑA13 and ΔTA1 under Cor-
rect, and press the Correct Offset button. The calibration of the temperature difference is absolutely necessary.
the same combination (otherwise the stored calibration will not be applicable).

 Plug the chemistry box with the temperature sensors being connected to T2 and T3 into input A of the Sensor-
CASSY.
 For preparing the freezing mixture, crush the ice as fine as possible, and put it into the Dewar flask.
 Using the balance, weigh in approx. 40-50 g of NaCl into the beaker.

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CASSY Lab 2
 Step by step add the salt to the ice in the Dewar flask and stir with a temperature sensor. If the ice is difficult to
stir, add some distilled water.
 Stir until a uniform temperature distribution is achieved in the Dewar flask. A temperature of approx. -18 to -20 °C
is to be expected. This can be checked by means of the display instrument associated with the temperature sen-
sor.
 Put two dry test tubes into the beaker on the balance, and set the balance to 0.
 Use the Pasteur pipette to put approx. 0.5-0.7 g of ethylene glycol into one of the test tubes and determine the
exact mass. Set the balance to 0, add 10-12 g of distilled water to the ethylene glycol, and determine the exact
mass. In the Comment, the values can be entered and stored along with the measurement.
 Close the test tube with the rubber stopper, and dissolve the ethylene glycol by shaking.
 Put approx. 9-10 g of distilled water into the second test tube.
 Immerse the clean temperature sensor which is connected to T 2 in the ethylene glycol solution and the other sen-
sor, which should be clean as well, in the distilled water.

 The temperature sensors being immersed, put the two test tubes into the freezing mixture at the same time and to
the same depth. The liquid levels in the test tubes should be below the level of the freezing mixture. See to it that
no salt solution from the freezing mixture comes into the test tubes.
 Permanently stir the content of the test tubes with the two temperature sensors until the liquids are completely
frozen.
 Continue the measurement until ΔTA1 is almost back to 0 and the temperatures are virtually constant.
Evaluation
During the measurement, three curves were recorded at the same time: the two freezing curves (ϑA12 and ϑA13) - one
for the sample and a reference curve of distilled water - and the difference curve (ΔTA1).
The freezing curves exhibit several regions:
a) At the beginning of the measurement, the temperatures ϑA12 and ϑA13 drop sharply as long as the two liquids are
cooled quickly.
b) The steep drop in temperature ends - above all in the case of ϑA12 - in a local minimum, the so-called supercooling
of the liquids.
c) This temperature minimum is followed by the solidification region of the curve, which is the relevant part for deter-
mining the freezing-point depression. In the case of pure solvents, the temperature remains exactly constant during
solidification giving rise to a plateau region in the freezing curve (see the curve ϑA13 in the example).
In the case of solutions, the solidification region has another shape: as here almost pure solvent crystallizes and the
dissolved substance remains in the liquid phase, the concentration of the dissolved substance increases steadily. For
this reason, the freezing point of the solution drops even more (see the curve ϑA12 in the example). That means, the
looked-for freezing point of the original solution lies in the maximum at the beginning of the solidification process.
d) When the solidification process is accomplished, the substances quickly cool down to the ambient temperature
following an exponential course. As the pure ice crystal has no phase boundaries, in contrast to the frozen solution, it
cools down at a much quicker rate.
For evaluating the measuring data, first determine the freezing point of the ethylene glycol solution from the freezing
curve ϑA12. This point shows up as a maximum at the beginning of the solidification region of the curve. The coordi-
nates of this narrow range can be read from the table of measured values (to do this click the maximum with the left
mouse button - thereby the associated value in the table is marked). The temperature difference between the two
freezing curves in this range determines the freezing-point depression ΔT of the solution as compared with pure wa-
ter. As the measurement of the temperature difference ΔTA1 can be performed at a higher resolution with the chemis-
try box, this curve is used for determining the freezing-point depression.
Select Diagram → Zoom and the range of the freezing and difference curve which is relevant for the evaluation with
the left mouse button to obtain a magnified representation of this range. Then select Diagram → Draw Mean, and
mark those measured values on the difference curve ΔTA1 with the mouse which belong to the solidification region of
ϑA12. While setting the marks, you can check the position of the mouse pointer in the status line. The mean value of
ΔTA1 is marked by a horizontal line in the diagram; the associated numerical value is found in the status line and can
be inserted in the diagram via Diagram → Set Marker → Text.

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CASSY Lab 2
From the freezing-point depression found in this way, the molar mass of the substance under consideration can be
determined according to the equation:
With the values from the experiment example (m1 = 0.63 g; m2 = 11.56 g; ΔT = |ΔTA1| = 1.59 K; Kk = 1853 K*g/mol)
the molar mass of ethylene glycol turns out to be
M1 = 63.51 g/mol.
Compared with the literature value of 62.07 g/mol, this corresponds to an error of 2.3 %.

This experiment setup is well suited to record the freezing curves of many other substances.
Provided the composition is known, the degree of dissociation at a certain concentration can be obtained from the
freezing curves of salts, acids, and bases. For this the freezing-point depression of a certain amount of salt is meas-
ured, from which the total amount of dissolved particles is derived. From the result the degree of dissociation can be
calculated.

435
CASSY Lab 2
Titration of hydrochloric acid with caustic soda solution (pH and conductivity)
Danger
Acids and bases are caustic. Wear protective goggles.
During titration the pH value and the conductivity are measured simultaneously, and the equivalence point and the
pKa value of the titration are determined in the evaluation.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Chemistry box or pH/conductivity adapter S 524 067(2+1)
1 Conductivity sensor 529 670
1 Beaker, 250 ml, ts 664 113
1 Burette, 50 ml 665 847
1 Pipette, 10 ml 665 975

436
CASSY Lab 2

Chemicals
Hydrochloric acid, c = 0.1 mol/l, 500 ml 674 6950
Caustic soda solution, c = 0.1 mol/l, 500 ml 673 8410
Distilled water

The pH and conductivity are measured by Sensor-CASSY via the pH box at input A and the conductivity box at input
B.
Set up the titration assembly using the magnetic stirrer, the beaker, the stand material and the burette. Put approx.
100 ml water in the beaker and add 10 ml hydrochloric acid with the pipette.
Attach the electrodes so that they are immersed to a sufficient depth but cannot be struck by the rotating stirrer bars.
Calibration
Load settings
 The cell constant of the conductivity sensor for the chemistry box has already been set to 0.58 in CASSY Lab. If
another conductivity sensor is used, its cell constant has to be entered as a factor in Settings CA1 under Correct.
Then the Correct Factor button has to be pressed.
 For a more precise determination of the cell constant, calibration solutions can be used: rinse the beaker and the
conductivity sensor first with distilled water and then with approx. 30-40 ml of calibration solution. Immerse the
conductivity sensor in another 50 ml of calibration solution as if it was for a conductivity measurement (pay atten-
tion to the distances from the walls of the beaker), enter the target value in the second line in Settings CA1 under
Correct, and press the Correct Factor button when a stable measured value is reached.
 Mark the Sensor-CASSY, the electrodes, and the chemistry box in order that they can be used at the same input
later on (otherwise the stored calibration will not be applicable).

Load settings
 Record the inital values with .
 Allow the caustic soda solution to drip continuously and register the corresponding pH and conductivity values
every 0.5 ml with .
Evaluation
There are two ways to determine the equivalence point:
pH
Click on the diagram with the right mouse button, select Other Evaluations → Find Equivalence Point and mark the
desired curve range. The value appears in the status line at the bottom left and can be inserted anywhere in the dia-
gram as text. The pKa value is automatically given, but under these conditions (hydrochloric acid with a concentration
of 0.01 mol/l) this is not a sensible value.
Conductivity
Click on the diagram with the right mouse button, select Fit Function → Best-fit Straight Line and mark the left branch
of the conductivity curve. Do the same with the right branch. You can place a vertical line to mark the intersection of
the two lines. It is also possible to display the coordinates.

 Recording of a single measurement quantity (e.g. pH)
Click on the conductivity window with the right mouse button and select Delete. The display window disappears,
along with all other data relating to conductivity. The experiment now only measures pH.

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CASSY Lab 2
 Using a synchronous burette or motor piston burette (automatic titration)

In the Measuring Parameters (Window → Show Measuring Parameters) select Automatic Recording and set
an interval of e.g. 1 s.
In the Settings V for the volume, enter the formula t/20. This assumes that 1 ml is metered every 20 s. You may
need to match this value as well as the maximum volume.
 Registering volume using a balance (automatic titration)
Select Balance in the Settings CASSYs and specify the serial interface for the balance. Match the settings of the
balance (transmission rate, mode) to the balance program (refer to the manual for that balance if necessary).
In the Settings V for the volume, enter the formula m/1.05. This assumes a density of the titrant of 1.05 g/ml. You
may need to match this value as well as the maximum volume.

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CASSY Lab 2
Titration of household vinegar
CASSY
Danger
The concentration of acids (and bases) can be determined via titration with a standard solution. For this purpose, the
equivalence point of a volume V of the acid, which has been measured exactly, is obtained by way of titration. If the
valence n of the acid is known, its concentration c can be determined by means of the equation:
n 1 · c 1 · V 1 = n2 · c 2 · V 2
With household vinegar as an example, the determination can be easily performed using 1 M NaOH as standard
solution.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

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CASSY Lab 2

1 Burette, 25 ml 665 845
Chemicals
Household vinegar
Distilled water
Caustic soda solution, e.g. 500 ml: 673 8420

Set up the titration assembly using the stand material, the magnetic stirrer, the beaker and the burette. Put about
100 ml of distilled water into the beaker, and add exactly 10 ml of household vinegar using the pipette. Fill 1 M caus-
tic soda solution into the burette through the funnel up to the zero mark.
may add some drops of a phenolphthalein solution as an indicator.
Calibration
Load settings

Load settings
 Continuously add drops of caustic soda solution at a slow rate, and record the pH value in steps of 0.2 ml with .
Evaluation
At the equivalence point (V = Veq), the acetic acid has entirely reacted with the caustic soda solution:
HAc + NaOH → Na+ + Ac− + H2O
As the two substances react with one another in a ratio of 1:1, the concentration of the acetic acid is calculated ac-
cording to the formula
cHAc · VHAc = cNaOH · Veq
For the determination of the required volume of NaOH, the equivalence point is determined by CASSY Lab. This is
simply achieved by clicking the diagram with the right mouse button, selecting the item Other Evaluations → Find
Equivalence Point. Just mark the desired curve range. The equivalence point and the pKa value of the curve will im-

440
CASSY Lab 2
mediately be displayed graphically. The associated values below on the left in the status line and can be inserted as
text at an arbitrary place in the diagram.
Further evaluation
More advanced calculations can be performed to discuss the measured concentration in mol/l and the indication on
the label of the vinegar in Vol.-%.
First calculate the mass of pure acetic acid in the vinegar solution by multiplying its concentration by the molar mass
(MHAc = 60.05 g/mol):
Divide the value obtained by the density of pure acetic acid (ρ Hac = 1050 g/l) to obtain the proportion per volume of
pure acetic acid in the titrated household vinegar. The percentage is then calculated by multiplying by a factor of 100:

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CASSY Lab 2
Titration of acetic acid with caustic soda solution (pH and conductivity)
Danger
With the chemistry box several experiments can be carried out simultaneously. This enables several aspects of a
single experiment to be considered at the same time. Therefore it is possible to obtain information on the course of
the reaction from both the pH measurement and the conductivity during the titration of acetic acid with caustic soda
solution.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Burette, 25 ml 665 845

442
CASSY Lab 2

2 Small universal clamps 666 551
Chemicals
Acetic acid, c = 0.1 mol/l e.g. 500 ml: 671 9560
Caustic soda solution, c = 0.1 mol/l e.g. 500 ml: 673 8410
Distilled water

Plug the chemistry box with the conductivity sensor and the pH electrode into input A of the Sensor-CASSY, which is
connected to the PC.
Put about 120 ml of distilled water into the beaker, and add exactly 10 ml of acetic acid using the pipette; fill caustic
soda solution into the burette through the funnel up to the zero mark.
In order to prevent distortion of the conductivity measurement by contamination of reference electrolyte from the pH
electrode, rinse the pH electrode thoroughly with distilled water before using it in the experiment. In addition, the up-
per opening of the electrode should be laid open for the purpose of pressure compensation. When attaching the pH
electrode, see to it that on the one hand the measuring diaphragm is completely immersed and on the other hand the
glass membrane cannot be damaged by the rotating stirrer bar.
Because of its stray field, the conductivity sensor has to be immersed to a depth of at least 2 cm in way that its dis-
tance from the wall of the vessel and from other material in the liquid (pH sensor, stirrer bar) is at least 1 cm.
Calibration
Load settings
 Mark the Sensor-CASSY, the electrodes, and the chemistry box in order that they can be used at the same input
later on (otherwise the stored calibration will not be applicable).

Load settings
 Continuously add 20 ml of caustic soda solution drop by drop at a slow rate, and record the pH value in steps of
0.2 ml with .
 If you are interested in the use of a piston burette and a light barrier for automatic titration, see the corresponding
experiment examples.

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CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
The determination of the equivalence point via the conductivity is done graphically. First click the coordinate system
with the right mouse button, and select Fit Function → Best-fit Straight Line. Then mark one of the two curve sections
to which the straight line is to be fitted. The appropriate sections are those to the right and to the left of the cusp of
the conductivity curve. The intersection of the two fitted straight lines marks the neutralization volume for the titrated
acetic acid on the x axis. It can be marked with Set Marker → Vertical Line.
For determining the equivalence point via the pH measurement, click the diagram with the right mouse button, and
select Other Evaluations → Find Equivalence Point. When you have marked the curve, the equivalence point and the
point of half-equivalence are calculated and displayed automatically. The pH value at the point of half equivalence
also gives you the pKa value of acetic acid. The corresponding numerical values are found in the status line and can
be dragged into the diagram with the left mouse button as labels.
Remarks
At the equivalence point t (V = Veq), almost exclusively sodium and acetate ions are found in the solution:
HAc + Na+ + OH− → Na+ + Ac− + H2O
The concentrations of H3O+ and OH- ions are very low (pH approx. 8). As the ion mobility of hydroxide ions is much
greater than that of acetate ions, the conductivity curve exhibits a clear cusp at the equivalence point: Before the
neutralization, the hydroxide ions react completely with the acetic acid so that the increase in conductivity can only be
attributed to the produced acetate and sodium ions (slight rise of the conductivity curve).
The short drop in conductivity at the beginning of the titration corresponds to the somewhat steeper rise of the pH
value in the same range: due to the buffer equation that applies for weak acids,
the concentration of H3O+ ions is determined by the ratio [HA]/[A-], which decreases at a particularly high rate at the
beginning of the titration because [A-] is almost zero in the initial acetic acid and increases quickly when caustic soda
solution is added. As the ion mobility of H3O+ ions is particularly high, the conductivity drops correspondingly.

444
CASSY Lab 2
Automatic titration of NH3 with NaH2PO4 (piston burette)
If a piston burette is used in conjunction with CASSY, a titration can be performed totally automatically including the
acquisition of measured values.
The titration of a weak base such as ammonia with a weak acid such as sodium dihydrogenphosphate results in a
very weak slope of the pH curve. In this case, measuring the conductivity leads to data that is easier to evaluate. By
recording both curves simultaneously with CASSY, you can compare the two methods directly and assess the accu-
racy of the determination of the equivalence point for each case.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Piston burette 665 825
1 Connecting cable for piston burette 665 8251
2 Volumetric flasks, 100 ml 665 793
1 Bulb pipette, 5 ml 665 974
1 Bunsen burner stand, 450 mm 666 502
1 Spatula 666 962
1 Watch glass dish, e.g. 80 mm 664 154
1 Powder funnel, e.g. 65 mm 604 170
1 Balance (at least up to 100 g,
resolution 0.01 g)
Chemicals
Distilled water
Ammonia solution, dilute e.g. 500 ml: 670 3650

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CASSY Lab 2
NaH2PO4 * 2 H2O e.g. 250 g: 673 6010

Preparing the solutions

Weigh in exactly 1.56 g of sodium dihydrogenphosphate (0.01 mol) on a watch glass dish on the balance, rinse it via
a funnel into a 100 ml volumetric flask with distilled water and fill up to 100 ml. Using the bulb pipette, put 5 ml of
ammonia into the other volumetric flask and fill up to the mark with distilled water. As a result you have a 0.1 M solu-
tion of each of the two substances.

Plug the chemistry box with the conductivity sensor and the pH electrode into input A of the Sensor-CASSY, which is
connected to the PC.
Rinse and fill the piston burette (read the instruction sheet) with the NaH 2PO4 solution just prepared, and put the
beaker with 10 ml of ammonia solution, 100 ml of distilled water, and a stirrer bar on the magnetic stirrer of the piston
burette. In the menu "Dosing" of the burette, set the target volume to 20 ml and the feed rate to 2.0 ml/min.
Plug one end of the connecting cable into the two inputs on the right of the relay R of the Sensor-CASSY and the
other end into the push-button input of the piston burette.
In order to prevent distortion of the conductivity measurement by contamination of reference electrolyte from the pH
electrode, rinse the pH electrode thoroughly with distilled water before using it in the experiment. In addition, the up-
per opening of the electrode should be laid open for the purpose of pressure compensation. When attaching the pH
electrode (to the stand of the piston burette), see to it that on the one hand the measuring diaphragm is completely
immersed and on the other hand the glass membrane cannot be damaged by the rotating stirrer bar.
Because of its stray field, the conductivity sensor has to be immersed to a depth of at least 2 cm in way that its dis-
tance from the wall of the vessel and from other material in the liquid (pH sensor, stirrer bar) is at least 1 cm. There-
fore it is recommendable to attach the conductivity sensor to a separate Bunsen burner stand.
Calibration
Load settings
 Mark the Sensor-CASSY, the pH electrode, and the chemistry box in order that they can be used at the same in-
put later on (otherwise the stored calibration will not be applicable).

Load settings
 If you wish another dosage than the target volume of 20 ml and the feed rate of 2.0 ml/min at the piston burette,
the default values in CASSY Lab have to be changed, namely the quantity n (table index) in the Measuring pa-
rameters and in Settings Relay/Voltage Source and the formula in Settings Volume V.
 Start the titration with . The measured values and the dosage of the titrator from 0 to 20 ml are recorded auto-
matically.
Evaluation
NH3 and NaH2PO4 react according to the following equation:

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CASSY Lab 2
As ammonia is only a weak base, very few OH- ions are in the solution at the beginning of the reaction. For this rea-
son, the initial conductivity is very small and increases in the course of the titration due to the formation of the reac-
tion products. When the equivalence point has been reached, i.e., when the ammonia has entirely reacted, the con-
ductivity only increases by the amount of sodium and dihydrogenphosphate ions, which leads to a marked cusp of
the conductivity curve at the equivalence point.
In order to determine the equivalence point from the conductivity graphically, first click the coordinate system with the
right mouse button, and select Fit Function → Best-fit Straight Line. Then mark one of the two curve sections to
which the straight line is to be fitted. The appropriate sections are those to the right and to the left of the cusp of the
conductivity curve. The intersection of the two fitted straight lines marks the neutralization volume for the titrated ace-
tic acid on the x axis. It can be marked with Set Marker → Vertical Line.
For determining the equivalence point via the pH measurement, click the diagram with the right mouse button, and
select Other Evaluations → Find Equivalence Point. When you have marked the curve, the equivalence point and the
point of half-equivalence are usually calculated and displayed automatically. The corresponding numerical values are
found in the status line and can be dragged into the diagram with the left mouse button as labels.
In this example, however, the slope of the pH curve is so weak that no meaningful results are obtained when the
equivalence point is determined. The determination of the equivalence point via the conductivity turns out to be more
reliable in this case.

447
CASSY Lab 2
Automatic titration (drop counter)
Danger
Acids and bases are caustic. Wear protective goggles, gloves and clothing.
A titration experiment can be simplified significantly by using a light barrier as a drop counter. From the number of
drops CASSY Lab calculates the dosage automatically. As the pH measurement and the plot in the pH (V) diagram
are done automatically as well, you only need to read the exact total volume of the added titrator in order to be able
to evaluate the measuring results.
Here the procedure of employing a drop counter is described with the titration of phosphoric acid with caustic potash
solution as an example.

448
CASSY Lab 2
In aqueous solution, phosphoric acid forms the following equilibria:
As the differences between the pKa values amount to approx. 5, the three equilibria can be considered independently
of each other.
By titration with caustic potash solution, the equivalence points of the first and the second stage of protolysis can be
determined. However, since KOH is not a substantially stronger base than the phosphate ion, the equilibrium 3 does
not sufficiently tend to the right-hand side for the third equivalence point to be determined.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Drop counter 337 4681

or

2 Beakers, 250 ml, squat shape 664 103
1 Burette, 50 ml 665 847
1 Stopcock grease 661 082
Chemicals
Phosphoric acid, 10 %, 100 ml 674 3440
Caustic potash solution, c = 1 mol/l, 1 l 672 4460
Distilled water

Plug the timer box into input B with the light barrier being connected to connector E via the 6-pole cable.
Put just 100 ml of distilled water into the beaker, and add 10 ml of a 10 % solution of phosphoric acid (c(H3PO4) ap-
prox. 1.1 mol/l) using the pipette; fill 1 M caustic potash solution into the burette through the funnel up to the zero
mark.
hand the glass membrane cannot be damaged by the rotating stirrer bar.
With the aid of the enclosed stand rod, mount the combination light barrier below the outlet of the burette so that the
drops escaping from the burette fall through the slit of the light barrier into the beaker and trigger a signal in the sen-
sor of the light barrier. The sensor is located by approx. 1 cm behind the opening of the light barrier. Triggering of a

449
CASSY Lab 2
signal is indicated by the display instrument NB1 and by the red LED at the light barrier. To check the function, allow
some drops to fall through the light barrier into an empty beaker. Then reset the counter to zero in Settings Events
NB1.
Calibration
Load settings
 In Settings pH pHA1 select Correct.

Load settings
 Start the measurement series with .
 Carefully open the cock of the burette, and add drops of caustic potash solution at a slow rate.
 Every five seconds a measured value (volume and pH value) is recorded automatically. See to it that the drops
are added at a constant rate.
 When approx. 40 ml of KOH have been added, close the cock, stop the measurement with , and read the total
number of drops (N0) and the exact volume of added KOH (V0).
Evaluation
At first the average volume of a drop of KOH is calculated. The general formula to be applied reads "NB1 * V0 / N0",
where NB1 is the number of drops, V0 the total volume added, and N0 the total number of drops at the end of the titra-
tion. Enter the read values for N0 and V0 in the field Formula of the Settings Volume V instead of "754" and "40".
The titration curve, which is determined automatically, exhibits several characteristic ranges, which can be assigned
to the three protolysis equilibria of phosphoric acid.
The equivalence points (V = Veq) are easily determined in CASSY Lab: after pressing the right mouse button in the
diagram and selecting Other Evaluations → Find Equivalence Point, you can mark the curve range in which the
equivalence point is to be determined. After the range has been marked, the calculated equivalence point and the
pKa value are displayed automatically; the associated values are written below in the status line and can be inserted
as text at an arbitrary place in the diagram.
For further evaluation options in CASSY Lab see experiment example Titration of phosphoric acid.

450
CASSY Lab 2
Gas chromatography (separation of alkanes from lighter gas)
CASSY
In this experiment, in which alkanes are separated from lighter gas, the voltage from the detector is measured at the
recorder output of the gas chromatograph as a function of time.
For qualitative analysis, the retention times of the individual peaks can be determined and compared with those of the
reference substances.
Be sure to read the Instruction Sheet for your gas chromatograph.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Gas chromatograph LD1 665 580
1 Separation column (dinonylphthalate) 665 583
1 Hydrocarbon sensor (detector) 665 582
1 Air pump 662 2862
1 Bubble counter 664 814
1 Syringe, 1 ml 665 957
1 Disposable needles, 10 pieces 665 960
Chemicals
Lighter gas (sample)
n butane, Minican gas can (reference) 660 989
Fine regulating valve 660 980

451
CASSY Lab 2

 Set up the gas chromatograph (GC) with the separation column (dinonylphthalate) and the hydrocarbon sensor
(detector).
 Connect the input of the GC to the air pump and the output to the bubble counter.
 Switch the air pump on.
 Connect the GC to the plug-in unit. The LED at the GC lights up.

Load settings
 Use the zero point controllers on the GC to set the zero line at approx. UA1=0.05 V.
 Start the test measurement with .
 As soon as a stable zero line is recorded, stop the test measurement, again with .
 Draw approx. 1 ml of gas from the lighter into the syringe without needle. Do this several times. Then put a needle
on the syringe and push the gas out except 0.05 ml. Inject the remaining 0.05 ml of gas into the injection head of
the GC.
 Restart the recording of the voltage with , and continue measuring until all peaks to be expected have ap-
peared; then stop the measurement with . Store the measurement series.
 For identifying individual components, repeat the experiment with a reference substance, e.g. n butane. Store this
measurement series, too.
Evaluation
You can zoom in on the relevant curve section so that it covers the diagram (open the Evaluations menu by clicking
on the diagram with the right mouse button).
To determine the retention times you can insert a vertical line through the maximum value of a peak or calculate the
peak center. You can also insert the retention time in the diagram as text. By comparing the retention time of the
reference peak (n butane) with the retention times of the sample, it turns out that the fourth substance is n butane.
Remark: discrepancies between the retention times can arise because of changes in the room temperature.

As described for the example of n butane, other components of the lighter gas can be identified with the correspond-
ing reference substances (ethane, propane, i butane).
By recording the chromatograms of the gases from different lighters, differences in composition can be detected.

452
CASSY Lab 2
Gas chromatography (separation of alcohols)
CASSY
In this experiment, in which different alcohols are separated, the voltage from the detector at the recorder output of
the gas chromatograph is measured as a function of time.
For qualitative analysis, the retention times of the individual peaks can be determined. A determination of the peak
areas by integration enables quantitative investigation of the sample.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Separation column (Porapak P) 665 584
1 Hydrocarbon sensor (detector) 665 582
1 Air pump 662 2862
1 Syringe, 1 ml 665 957
Chemicals
Methanol, 250 ml 673 2700
Ethanol, abs., 250 ml 671 9700
Propanol-1, 250 ml 674 4310
Propanol-2, 250 ml 674 4400

453
CASSY Lab 2

 Prepare the sample, e.g. a mixture of different alcohols such as: methanol, ethanol and propanol.
 Set up the gas chromatograph with the separation column (Porapak P) and the hydrocarbon sensor (detector).
 Connect the input of the GC to the air pump and the output to the bubble counter.
 Switch the air pump on.

Load settings
 Using the microliter syringe, inject 0.5 μl of the alcohol mixture into the injection head of the gas chromatograph.
peared; then stop the measurement with .
Evaluation
You can zoom in on the relevant curve section so that it covers the diagram (open the Evaluations menu by clicking
on the diagram with the right mouse button).
To determine the retention times you can insert a vertical line through the maximum value of a peak or calculate the
peak center. You can also insert the retention time in the diagram as text.
For quantitative analysis of the mixture, the peak areas are determined by integration. Then the fraction of the peak
area relative to the total area of all peaks is determined. In this example, the total area of all peaks is 950 Vs. The
fractional area of ethanol is thus 206 Vs / 950 Vs = 22 %. The concentration can be determined precisely through
calibration with the individual substances or by using the addition method.

After recording a calibration series with known alcohol concentrations, you can determine the alcohol content of sev-
eral alcoholic drinks.
By heating the column in a water bath, you can also separate alcohols of greater chain length.

454
CASSY Lab 2
Gas chromatography (separation of air)
CASSY
In this experiment, in which the gases present in air are separated, the voltage at the recorder output of the gas
chromatograph, which is supplied by the thermal conductivity detector, is measured as a function of time. The carrier
gas is hydrogen, which is taken from a hydride reservoir.
Determination of the peak areas by integration enables quantitative investigation of the sample. For a qualitative
analysis, the retention times of the individual peaks can be determined and compared with those of the reference
substances.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Separation column with molecular sieve 665 585
1 Thermal conductivity detector 665 581
1 Metal hydride reservoir 661 005
1 Regulating valve 666 4792
1 Syringe, 5 ml 665 955

 Set up the gas chromatograph (GC) with the separation column (molecular sieve) and the thermal conductivity
detector (HCD).
 Connect the input of the GC to the metal hydride reservoir and the regulating valve and the output to the bubble
counter.

455
CASSY Lab 2
 Open the regulating valve to allow hydrogen to flow through the GC.
 In order to get a positive signal, change the polarity of the connecting leads to the CASSY (the thermal conductivi-
ty of the substances to be separated is lower than that of hydrogen).

Load settings
 With the syringe inject 2 ml of air into the injection head of the GC.
peared; then stop the measurement with .
Evaluation
With Diagram → Zoom you can zoom in on the relevant curve section so that it covers the diagram.
For quantitative analysis of the mixture, the peak areas are determined by integration. Then the fraction of the peak
area relative to the total area of all peaks is determined. In the example, the total area of all peaks is 37.85 Vs. The
percentage of the first component (oxygen) is therefore 8.12 Vs / 37.85 Vs = 21 %. The percentage of the second
substance (nitrogen) is 29.73 Vs / 37.85 Vs = 79 %. As the specific heat of the two gases is similar, it is not neces-
sary to perform a calibration with the individual substances or according to the addition method, which is usually re-
quired for an exact determination of the concentrations.
Remark: the rise of the zero line (drift) from the second peak onwards is caused by a change in the room temperature
during the measurement.

As this setup also enables carbon monoxide and methane to be separated, other gas mixtures, such as biogas, can
be examined.

456
CASSY Lab 2
Reaction of marble with hydrochloric acid (determining the carbonate content)
Danger
Hydrochloric acid is corrosive. Wear protective goggles.
Due to the development of CO2 during the reaction of marble with hydrochloric acid, a loss of mass occurs which is
registered using a balance (CASSY interface device not required).
Equipment list
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Electronic balance SAPR612
1 Interface cable SAYCC04-D9
1 Beaker, 250 ml, ss 664 130
1 Watch glass,  = 80 mm 664 154
Chemicals
Marble, chips, 250 g 673 2500
Hydrochloric acid, c = 2 mol/l, 500 ml
(approx. 6-7 %) 674 6920

The program supports the Sartorius, Mettler and Ohaus balances with a serial data output available from
LD DIDACTIC.
Connect the balance to a USB port of the computer via the connecting cable. As the cables of different manufacturers
differ from each other, use the interface cable provided by the respective manufacturer to ensure that the computer
connection works correctly.
Fill the beaker with about 100 ml 6 % hydrochloric acid and place it on the balance. Place the watch glass on the
beaker. Zero the balance by pressing the tare button. Then weigh 5 g marble chips into the watch glass.

Load settings
 Adjust the serial port of the USB cable, baud rate and the mode of the balance in Settings mass m:
Factory settings of Sartorius balances:
Mode: 7O1
Baud rate: 1200
Factory settings of Mettler balances:
Mode: 8N1
Baud rate: 9600
 In one respect the factory settings of the balance have to be changed. Read the instruction sheet of the balance:
Sartorius: data transfer as "Auto print regardless of stability" instead of "Print on request after stability"

457
CASSY Lab 2
Mettler: continuous data transfer ("S.Cont")

 All transferred measured values are displayed (Troubleshooting)
 Enter the mass of the marble chips in the calculation of the mass component. In Settings w change the example
value 4.96 to the currently displayed value.
 Start the reaction immediately by tilting the watch glass to dump the marble chips into the beaker. Leave the
watch glass tilted on the beaker.
 Record and observe the reaction until the marble is completely dissolved.
Evaluation
You can correct the irritating weight fluctuations which occur when "dumping" the marble by clicking on the "fliers" in
the table and setting them to the initial value (in this example 4.96 g).
In the shape of the curve of mass m (in g) respectively mass component w (in %), we can initially observe a high
reaction speed, which decreases progressively (exponentially) as the concentration of the reactants (resp. the num-
ber or reacting molecules and ions) becomes less.
From the final mass values (best seen in the table), we can determine the amount of escaped CO2 in marble (Ca-
CO3).
CaCO3 + 2 HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
In the example measurement series, the experimentally determined CO2 component is
mCaO = 2.85 g/4.96 g = 57.5 % mCO2 = 100 % - 57.5 % = 42.5 %
The theoretical value is
mCO2 = CO2/CaCO3 = 44.0 g/100.0 g = 44.0 %.

458
CASSY Lab 2
Splitting of urea by urease (zero-order reaction, enzyme kinetics)
Enzymatic splitting of urea by urease can be considered from several points of view. At first this reaction can serve as
an example of a zero-order reaction. This reaction order is recognized from the linear increase of the product concen-
tration.
Besides, the kinetics of the catalysis can be considered: first there is an equilibrium between the substrate and the
enzyme on the one hand and an enzyme-substrate complex on the other hand. This equilibrium can already be com-
pared with the diffusion-controlled addition of a substrate to a catalytically active surface. The enzyme-substrate
complex is then quickly converted into the products in a second step.
Moreover, the reaction can be used as an introduction into enzyme kinetics: by carrying out several measurements,
the maximum reaction rate, the Michaelis constant, and the enzyme concentration can be determined.
As in the course of the hydrolysis of urea
ammonium carbonate is produced, which dissociates into several ions, the reaction can be followed by measuring the
conductivity. The concentration of the products and the reaction rate are calculated from the gathered data.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Chemistry box or conductivity adapter S 524 067(1)
2 Weighing scoops 602 763
1 Volumetric flask, 100 ml 665 793

459
CASSY Lab 2

2 Test tubes from 664 043
2 Rubber stoppers,  14...18 mm 667 253
1 Spatula 666 961
1 Balance, resolution 0.01 g
Chemicals
Ammonium carbonate, e.g. 100 g 670 3900
Urea, e.g. 100 g 672 1700
Urease (1 U/mg), e.g. 5 g 675 2810
Copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate, e.g. 100 g 672 9600
Distilled water
Note concerning the chemicals

At room temperature, urease degenerates within a few hours. Therefore urease may only stay outside the refrigera-
tion for a few minutes.
In air, ammonium carbonate slowly reacts to ammonium bicarbonate. As this would distort the conductivity measure-
ment, do not use old stocks.

Weigh in 0.96 g of ammonium carbonate on the watch glass dish, and rinse it via the funnel into the 100 ml volumet-
ric flask. Fill the volumetric flask up to the mark, and dissolve the ammonium carbonate completely.
Weigh in 0.10 g of urease and 0.60 g of urea each in a weighing scoop. Put the substances into the two test tubes,
and rinse residues that may have remained in the weighing scoops into the test tubes with the aid of the pipette, in
each case using exactly 10 ml of distilled water.
Close the test tubes with the rubber stoppers, and dissolve the substances by shaking. As a result you obtain 10 ml
of a 1 M urea solution and 10 ml of a urease solution with an enzyme activity of 10000 U/l - i.e., given the activity of
the urease of 1U/mg, 10 mmol of the substrate can be converted per minute and litre.
Calibration
Load settings
The cell constant of the conductivity sensor for the chemistry box has already been set to 0.58 in CASSY Lab.
If another conductivity sensor is used, its cell constant has to be entered as a factor in Settings Conductivity CA1
under Correct. Then the Correct Factor button has to be pressed.
For a more precise determination of the cell constant, calibration solutions can be used:
 Rinse the 100 ml beaker and the conductivity sensor first with distilled water and then with approx. 30-40 ml of
calibration solution.
 Immerse the conductivity sensor in another 50 ml of calibration solution as if it was for a conductivity measure-
ment (pay attention to the distances from the walls of the beaker), enter the target value in the second line in Set-
tings CA1 under Correct, and press the Correct Factor button when a stable measured value is reached.
Preparing the experiment (see drawing)

Plug the chemistry box with the conductivity sensor into input A of the Sensor-CASSY.
Rinse the 100 ml beaker and the conductivity sensor with approx. 30 ml of ammonium carbonate solution. Dispose of
the rinsing solution, fill the remainder of the ammonium carbonate solution into the beaker, and measure the conduc-
tivity of this solution. See to it that the conductivity sensor is immersed to a depth of at least 2 cm and that its distance
from the walls of the vessel is at least 1 cm (see instruction sheet).
Enter the measured value in Settings κ1 in the field Formula instead of the default value. This value is required for
calculating the concentration of urea since it is assumed that after complete hydrolysis of the urea a 0.1 M solution of
ammonium carbonate is obtained.
Setup an assembly for measuring the conductivity using the magnetic stirrer, the stand material, the conductivity
sensor, and the second beaker. Again see to it that the distance of the conductivity sensor from the walls of the ves-
sel and from the stirrer bar is sufficient.

460
CASSY Lab 2
Fill exactly 80 ml of distilled water into the beaker (use the graduated pipette), add the urea solution, and switch the
magnetic stirrer on. The conductivity indicated in the display instrument CA1 should not exceed 0.02 mS/cm in the
case of pure chemicals.

Load settings
 Pour the urease solution into the beaker with the urea solution.
 After 2 to 3 minutes, add some crystals of copper sulphate to the solution using the spatula. Mark the time of in-
jection by Diagram → Set Marker → Vertical Line.
 Wait until the shape of the conductivity curve becomes linear again. Then stop the measurement with .
Evaluation
For the purpose of evaluation, several diagrams have been prepared:
1. In the diagram Specific Conductivity, the measured values of the conductivity are plotted against the time. It is
clearly seen that the conductivity increases almost linearly before the addition of copper sulphate, whereas the curve
is almost horizontal after the copper sulphate has completely dissolved. This demonstrates the toxic action of the
heavy metal on the enzyme.
2. The diagram Urea Concentration shows the course of the urea concentration as calculated from the specific con-
ductivity. The applied formula reads:
Here κ1 is the conductivity of the ammonium carbonate solution measured before the experiment (conductivity at the
end of the reaction), CA1 the conductivity measured at the time t, κ0 the conductivity of the solution at the beginning of
the reaction, and 100 mmol/l the concentration of urea at the beginning of the reaction. In order to calculate the urea
concentration, the first value of the conductivity has to be entered in Settings κ0 in the field Formula instead of the
default value.
This calculation is correct until copper sulphate is added (range A in the diagram); afterwards C A1 is also influenced
by the copper and sulphate ions present in the solution (ranges B and C). However, after the copper sulphate has
completely dissolved, the relative change of the conductivity only depends on the proceeding hydrolysis of the urea
(C). Therefore the reaction rate after the poisoning of the urease can also be determined.
The slope of the resulting straight line in the plot of the urea concentration against the time gives the value of k 2 ·
[ES]. As [ES] is almost constant in the steady state (see theoretical background), the curve obtained for the reaction
rate r is approximately a straight line. In order to calculate the initial reaction rate, fit a straight line to the curve range
up to t ≈ 60 s. Click the diagram with the right mouse button, select Fit function → Best-fit straight line , and mark the
corresponding curve range. The slope of the straight line is displayed as parameter A below on the left in the status
line, and can be inserted in the diagram with Set Marker → Text. The slope of the second linear curve range after the
addition of copper sulphate is determined in the same way. From a comparison of the two slopes it becomes obvious
that the reaction has almost been stopped.
3. In the diagram Reaction Rate, the derivative of the urea concentration with respect to the time is plotted. It is
clearly seen that the reaction rate is constant before the addition of CuSO4 and approximately 0 afterwards. By insert-
ing a horizontal line at the value for k2· [ES] obtained via the diagram Urea Concentration, this difference can be
emphasized. A comparison with the diagram Reaction Rate of the experiment Reaction of marble with hydrochloric
acid (determining the reaction order) reveals the differences between a first-order reaction and the zero-order reac-
tion observed in this experiment.
Theoretical background
The reaction rate r is defined as the change of the concentration of one of the parent substances or one of the prod-
ucts per unit time, i.e. it always refers to one of the substances that participate in the reaction. The change of the
concentration of the reactants enters the calculation with a negative sign and that of the products with a positive sign.
In the enzymatic splitting of urea, the reaction rate with reference to the urea concentration thus is:
The reaction takes place through catalysis by the enzyme urease. The mechanism can be described as follows (E:
enzyme urease, S: substrate urea, ES: enzyme-substrate complex, P: products):

461
CASSY Lab 2
The reaction rate of the splitting of urea is also given by the rate equation:
That means, with reference to [ES] it is a first-order reaction.

As the enzyme E acts as a catalyst, its total concentration remains constant in the course of the reaction. If the sub-
strate concentration is sufficient, a stationary state arises, where the rates of formation and decomposition of the
enzyme-substrate complex are equal:
For this reason, the concentration [ES] is constant during the reaction, its magnitude being controlled by the magni-
tude of the rate coefficient. Such a case is called a steady state. For the formation of the reaction products P this
results in a constant reaction rate, and therefore the curve of the urea concentration has a linear shape. All together
this leads to a zero-order rate equation for the splitting of urea by urease:
As the reaction rate actually depends on [ES], this dependence being hidden by the constancy of [ES], this case is
also called a pseudo-zero-order reaction.
For determining the rate coefficient of a reaction of this type, you only have to determine the slope of the straight line
in the concentration-time diagram of the urea.
The fact that urease is not stable at room temperature is also obvious from the drop of the reaction rate when the
experiment is continued for a long time. Only in the beginning of the reaction is the curve for the urea concentration
linear.

The enzymatic reaction kinetics can be studied more thoroughly if an experiment series with different initial concen-
trations of urea (e.g. 0.005 mol/l, 0.01 mol/l, 0.025 mol/l, 0.05 mol/l, 0.075 mol/l, 0.1 mol/l, 0.2 mol/l) is carried out.
Plot the reaction rate as a function of the initial concentration in a new diagram.
From the maximum reaction rate rmax obtained in the experiment series, the Michaelis constant K m can be deter-
mined. Km is defined as
(1)
and is related with the reaction rate via
(2)
Given that rmax is reached when the enzyme is saturated with substrate, half the enzyme has to be complexed in the
enzyme-substrate complex at ½ rmax. Then [E] = [ES], and from (1) it follows that
Km = [S] at ½ rmax.
As, in addition, for high concentrations
(3)
the reaction rate of an enzyme-substrate mixture can easily be calculated according to (2) and (3) with the Michaelis
constant and the maximum reaction rate.
The Michaelis constant is to be determined from the substrate concentration at ½ rmax. Km is determined more pre-
cisely if 1/r is plotted against 1/[S] following Lineweaver-Burk. The plot is based on a transformation of (2) and (3):
The slope of the straight line gives just the term Km/rmax, and the cut off from the 1/r axis is 1/rmax.

462
CASSY Lab 2
Hydrolysis of tertiary butyl chloride (determining the reaction order)
Hydrolysis of tertiary butyl chloride (2-chloro-2-methylpropane) results in the formation of tertiary butanol and hydro-
gen chloride (through protolysis of oxonium and chloride ions), which lead to a sharp increase in conductivity:
(CH3)3C – Cl + 2 H2O —→ (CH3)3C – OH + H3O+ + Cl−
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Beaker, 250 ml, ts 664 113
1 Stand tube 666 607
1 Graduated cylinder, 100 ml 665 754
1 Measuring pipette, 1 ml 665 994
Chemicals
0.8 ml solution of tertiary butyl chloride
(c=0.1 mol/l) in acetone
Danger
Acetone is readily flammable. Keep away from ignition sources.

463
CASSY Lab 2

 Set up the magnetic stirrer on the stand.
 In the graduated cylinder, measure off 90 ml distilled water and 10 ml acetone and pour these into the beaker.
 Add a magnetic stirrer bar and place the beaker on the magnetic stirrer. Mount the conductivity measuring cell on
the stand so that it is immersed to a level just below the air opening. Switch on the magnetic stirrer.
 Plug in the conductivity box at input A of Sensor-CASSY and connect the conductivity measuring cell to the con-
ductivity box using the banana plug.

Load settings
Notes on the displayed conductivity value
The initial conductivity value should not exceed 10 μS/cm for this experiment. If this occurs, clean the measuring cell
thoroughly with distilled water.
Alternatively, you can Correct the offset in Settings Conductivity (click on the display with the right mouse button) to
set the initial value to zero.
 Calibrate the measuring cell. To do this, open Settings Conductivity (click on the display with the right mouse but-
ton), select Correct, and enter the factor stamped on the cell and select Correct Factor.
 Measure off 0.8 ml of the tertiary butyl chloride solution (c = 0.1 mol/l) with the measuring pipette.
 Quickly dissolve the measured quantity of tertiary butyl chloride in the beaker. Mark the time of injection by Dia-
gram → Set Marker → Vertical Line.
 After about 8 minutes, terminate the measurement with ; at this point the conductivity should scarcely change. If
necessary, you can increase the measuring range in Settings CA1.
Evaluation
This experiment is provided with four evaluation procedures already prepared:
Display of change in concentration
Click the Concentration tab. You can now follow the change in the concentration c of tertiary butyl chloride. The
calculation of the concentration in mmol/l is performed using the amount of the substance (0.8 ml 0.1 mol solution),
the present conductivity CA1 and the final conductivity (here: 198.9 μS/cm; this value can be changed in accordance
with the conductivity value read from the table).
You can view the conversion formula (1-CA1/198.9)*0.8, and alter it if desired, in the Settings c; the same is true for
the display range.
Test for 1st-order reaction
Select the tab Test for 1st Order. This shows ln(cA/c) as a function of t (cA = initial concentration, c quantity of ter-
tiary butyl chloride used). To determine the velocity constant k of the reaction, apply a best-fit straight line to the be-
ginning linear section of the curve (click the right mouse button to fit the line in the diagram) and determine the slope.
Using Set Marker → Text, you can label the line with the value for the slope (A).
Test for 2nd-order reaction
Select the tab Test for 2nd Order. This shows 1/c - 1/cA as a function of t (cA = initial concentration, c quantity of
tertiary butyl chloride used). This diagram does not show a linear relationship. Thus, no second-order reaction occurs
here.
Method of half-times
In the diagram Half-time: as this is a first-order reaction, the rate constant can also be determined via the method of
half-times. Insert horizontal lines at 0.4 mmol, 0.2 mmol, and 0.1 mmol; mark the points of intersection of these lines
with the concentration curve by vertical lines. The average time difference between all vertical lines is thehalf-time
t1/2, which in this example is 63 s.
Enter the half-time determined in the experiment in Settings k in the formula ln 2/63 as denominator. The result is
displayed in the display instrument k.

 Performance and recording of hydrolysis at different temperatures. The curves are superimposed for comparison
when the measurement is repeated. The effect on the progress and speed of the reaction can be clearly seen.
The activation energy of the reaction can be calculated from the different velocity constants and the correspond-
ing temperatures.

464
CASSY Lab 2
 Use of different solvents to investigate how the solvent affects the order and speed of the reaction.
 Investigation of enzymatic reactions, e.g. breakdown of urea by urease.

465
CASSY Lab 2
Reaction of marble with hydrochloric acid (determining the reaction order)
Safety note
Hydrochloric acid is caustic. Wear protective goggles, gloves and clothing.
If an excess amount of marble (lime, CaCO3) reacts with a defined amount of hydrochloric acid, the reaction order
can be determined from the mass balance. The reaction takes place according to the following equation:
As carbon dioxide escapes, the mass of the reaction mixture decreases continuously. This decrease can be meas-
ured by means of a balance and enables the evolution of the concentration of hydrochloric acid to be determined.
Equipment list
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Electronic balance SAPR612
1 Interface cable SAYCC04-D9
1 Beaker, squat shape, 250 ml 664 130
1 Watch glass,  = 80 mm 664 154
Chemicals
Marble, chips, 250 g 673 2500
Hydrochloric acid, c = 2 mol/l, 500 ml 674 6920

The program supports the Sartorius, Mettler and Ohaus balances with a serial data output available from
LD DIDACTIC.
Connect the balance to a USB port of the computer via the connecting cable. As the cables of different manufacturers
differ from each other, use the interface cable provided by the respective manufacturer to ensure that the computer
connection works correctly.
Use the pipette to put exactly 75 ml of hydrochloric acid into the beaker. Put the watch glass dish on the beaker, set
the balance to 0, and weigh in exactly 30 g of marble chips on the watch glass dish. Reset the balance to 0.

Load settings
 Adjust the serial port of the USB cable, baud rate and the mode of the balance in Settings mass m:
Factory settings of Sartorius balances:
Mode: 7O1

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CASSY Lab 2
Baud rate: 1200

Factory settings of Mettler balances:
Mode: 8N1
Baud rate: 9600
 In one respect the factory settings of the balance have to be changed. Read the instruction sheet of the balance:
Sartorius: data transfer as "Auto print regardless of stability" instead of "Print on request after stability"
Mettler: continuous data transfer ("S.Cont")
 All transferred measured values are displayed (Troubleshooting)
 Initiate the reaction by pouring the marble chips from the watch glass dish into the beaker. Leave the watch glass
dish on the beaker.
 When the reaction has almost come to a standstill (approx. 10 minutes), stop the data logging with .
Evaluation
The fluctuations at the beginning of the measurement, which are caused by moving the watch glass dish, can be
corrected by clicking the respective value with the mouse and entering "0".
1. In the diagram Standard: the measuring data give the mass m of the carbon dioxide that has escaped during the
reaction (see reaction equation). Calculate the amount n(CO2) that has escaped from these data points and from this
the concentration of the remaining acid [H3O+]:
In the second equation, the numerator corresponds to the overall balance with respect to the amount of acid and the
denominator to the overall volume balance.
2. In the diagram 1st order: as a test for a first-order reaction with respect to the hydrochloric acid, the natural loga-
rithm of the concentration of hydrochloric acid is plotted against the time t. In the case of a first order reaction, this
plot leads to a straight line with the slope -k.
In order to determine the rate coefficient k, click the diagram with the right mouse button, select Fit function → Best-fit
straight line, and mark the linear curve range, where a linear fit is reasonable. The slope of the straight line obtained
in the fit is displayed in the status line below on the left and can be dragged into the diagram using the mouse. In the
present experiment example, a rate coefficient of 0.01541/s is obtained.
In the experiment example, the plot for the first-order rate equation does not result in a straight line over the whole
range because, after part of the hydrochloric acid has reacted, the rate is governed by diffusion: when the concentra-
tion of hydrochloric acid decreases, the acid reacts at a faster rate than new H 3O+ ions are transported to the surface
of the marble. Therefore the rate coefficient drops, and a deviation from the rate equation is observed. However, the
reaction is well described by the first-order rate equation until 80 % of the acid are consumed in the reaction.
3. In the diagram 2nd order: as a test for a second-order reaction with respect to the hydrochloric acid, the term
1/[H3O+] is plotted against the time t. If the reaction was of second order, this plot would result in a straight line with
the slope k.
In the experiment example, the H3O+ concentration used for the calculations is averaged over 10 seconds in order to
smooth the jumps that occur after 95 % of the acid have been consumed. These jumps are due to the finite resolution
of the balance.
As there is no clearly linear region in this plot, you can assume that at no time a second-order reaction occurs in the
experiment.
4. The evolution of the reaction rate r following from the reaction order is illustrated in the diagram Reaction rate. As
the resolution of the measured values output by the balance would have to be greater by one order of magnitude -
which would make the demonstration experiment much more difficult- in order to obtain optimum results in this dia-
gram, the reaction rate rm, which is averaged over 10 seconds, is plotted instead of r.
For the reaction

467
CASSY Lab 2
the reaction rate r with respect to the concentration of H3O+ ions thus is:
It is double the reaction rate with respect to the concentration of calcium ions because two H 3O+ ions are required to
create one calcium ion:
In order to find the dependence of the reaction rate on the concentration of the participating substances, the rate
equation that governs the reaction is determined experimentally. The reaction order with respect to a particular sub-
stance is given by the exponent carried by this substance in the rate equation. The overall reaction order is formed
from the sum of the exponents. In the reaction
the reaction order can only be determined easily for the ions in the solution. For a first-order reaction the rate equa-
tion would read:
After integration, the straight-line equation
with the slope -k and the cut off ln[H3O+]0 is obtained. [H3O+]0 is the initial concentration of the acid.
For a second-order reaction with respect to the H3O+ concentration, the rate equation would read:
After integration, the straight-line equation
with the slope k and the cut off 1/[H3O+]0 is obtained.

By plotting these two straight lines, it can be examined to what extent a reaction obeys the rate equations of first
order or second order, respectively.

468
CASSY Lab 2
Alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl acetate (determining the reaction order)
Safety notes
Ethyl acetate is highly flammable. Keep away from ignition sources.
Ethyl acetate irritates the eyes. Wear protective goggles while working with ethyl acetate. When it gets into contact
with your eyes, immediately rinse your eyes with water, and consult a doctor.
The vapour of the ester can cause a dazed feeling; do not breathe in the vapour.
Alkaline hydrolysis of esters proceeds in two steps:
As in the course of the reaction acetate ions go into solution instead of the hydroxide ions, the reaction can be fol-
lowed via measurements of the conductivity. From the time dependence of the hydroxide ion concentration obtained
from these measurements the reaction order and the rate coefficient of the alkaline ester hydrolysis can be deter-
mined. As the rate coefficient depends on the temperature, it is recommendable to carry out the experiment in a
thermostated water bath.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

469
CASSY Lab 2

1 Magnetic stirrer with heating 666 8472
1 Temperature sensor PT 1000 666 8473
1 Stirrer bar, 50 mm 666 854
1 Stand rod, 500 mm,  = 10 mm 301 27
1 Crystallization dish, 900 ml 664 177
1 Syringe, 5 ml 665 965
1 Disposable needle, 40 mm 665 960
Chemicals
Ethyl acetate, e.g. 250 ml 671 9630
Caustic soda solution, c = 0.1 mol/l, e.g. 500 ml 673 8410
If necessary: calibration solution, 1.41 mS/cm 667 4641
Calibration
Load settings
another conductivity sensor is used, its cell constant has to be entered as a factor in Settings Conductivity CA1
conductivity sensor in another 50 ml of calibration solution as if it was for a conductivity measurement (see to it
that the distance from the walls of the beaker is at least 1 cm), enter the target value in the second line in Settings
CA1 under Correct, and press the Correct Factor button when a stable measured value is reached.
 Mark the sensor used, the chemistry box, and the Sensor-CASSY as the calibration is only valid for this combina-
tion.

Fill tap water into the crystallization dish almost up to the brim, and put the dish with the bigger stirrer bar onto the
magnetic stirrer. Attach the beaker with the other stirrer bar to the stand rod with the aid of the universal clamp so
that the beaker hangs in the crystallization dish. The beaker should be immersed as deeply as possible in the center
of the water bath over the stirring magnet. Use the pipette to put exactly 75 ml of caustic soda solution (0.0075 mol)
into the beaker.
Immerse the contact thermometer in the water bath and the conductivity sensor in the beaker, each with one of the
small universal clamps. See to it that the distance between the conductivity sensor and both the glass wall and the
stirrer bar is at least 1 cm. Set the heat controller of the magnetic stirrer to 80 °C at maximum. Set the contact ther-
mometer, which has to be connected to the magnetic stirrer, to approx. 40 to 45 °C. Set the speed of the stirrer so
that vortex formation is just avoided.
Wait until the temperature of the caustic soda solution has reached a constant value. This can be checked at the
display instrument for the temperature ϑA1 (access via the corresponding button in the upper line on the screen) or,
even more comfortable, starting a measurement by pressing .
Put the empty syringe with the needle on the balance, and set the balance to 0. Weigh in exactly 1.32 g of ethyl ace-
tate (0.015 mol) into the syringe.

Load settings
 The conductivity CA1 for 0.1 molar caustic soda solution is at the upper limit of the selected measuring range. If
required, change to the next higher measuring range in the settings CA1.
 Start a new measurement with .

470
CASSY Lab 2
 Firmly inject the ethyl acetate in order to achieve a good distribution. Mark the time of injection by Diagram → Set
Marker → Vertical Line.
 Depending on the reaction temperature, allow the reaction to proceed for approx. 8 to 12 minutes until the value
of the conductivity has become constant.
 Stop the measurement with . Switch the hot plate off.
Evaluation
1. In the diagram Specific Conductivity, the measured values of the specific conductivity and the temperature are
plotted against the reaction time. In order to determine the reaction temperature exactly, click the diagram with the
right mouse button, select Draw Mean, and obtain the average temperature at which the experiment has been carried
out by marking the curve section between the initial and the final temperature. The mean value is drawn in the dia-
gram automatically and can be read in the status line below on the left. The numerical value can be inserted in the
diagram with Set Marker → Text.
2. The diagram Hydroxide Concentration shows the course of the concentration of hydroxide ions as calculated
from the specific conductivity. The [OH-] concentration is calculated according to the formula:
Here CA1 is the measured conductivity, κ0 the conductivity before the ester has been added, κ1 the conductivity at the
end of the reaction, and 0.1 mol/l the concentration of the caustic soda solution at the beginning of the reaction. In
order that the concentration of hydroxide ions is calculated correctly, enter the respective measured values in Set-
tings κ1 and κ0 in the field formula instead of the default values.
3. The diagrams 1st Order and 2nd Order have been prepared for determining the reaction order: for fitting a
straight line to the curve in each case, click the diagram with the right mouse button, select Fit Function Best-fit
Straight Line, and, starting from the beginning of the reaction, mark the curve range where a fit to a straight line is
reasonable. The great deviation from a straight line in the 1st Order diagram and the fair agreement with a straight
line up to a consumption of approx. 90 % of the reactants in the 2nd Order diagram indicate that this is a second-
order reaction. The slope of the straight line in the 2nd Order plot is the rate coefficient k of the reaction. It is found
as parameter A of the straight-line equation A*x+B in the status line and can be dragged from there into the diagram
using the mouse.
4. The diagrams Arrhenius / Eyring 1 and 2 have been prepared for determining the activation parameters. For
details see the experiment Alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl acetate - determining the activation parameters.
For the alkaline ester hydrolysis, the reaction rate with respect to the ester concentration equals that with respect to
the hydroxide concentration as the two substances react with each other in the ratio 1:1:
In order to find the dependence of the reaction rate on the concentration of the participating substances, the rate
equation that governs the reaction is determined experimentally. The reaction order with respect to a particular sub-
stance is given by the exponent carried by this substance in the rate equation. The overall reaction order is formed
from the sum of the exponents.
In the experiment example, the reaction is tested for two reaction orders: if the reaction was of first order with respect
to the hydroxide concentration and independent of the ester concentration, the overall rate equation would be of first
order:
The same rate equation would result if the reaction exhibited a first order dependence on the ester concentration and
independence of the hydroxide concentration because:
In order to check the validity of this rate equation, its integrated form is used:

471
CASSY Lab 2
If ln[OH-] is plotted against the time t, the result is a straight line with slope -k and cut off ln[OH-]0 in the case of a first-
order reaction. [OH-]0 is the initial concentration on hydroxide ions.
In the case of a first-order reaction with respect to both components, the result is a second-order rate equation:
The integrated form of the rate equation reads:
A plot of the expression on the left hand side against t is already arranged in the 2nd Order diagram. The slope of
the function, which is a straight line until approx. 90 % of the reactants have been consumed, is the rate coefficient of
the reaction.
If the initial concentrations of the two substances are equal, the rate equation takes the simpler form:
Its integrated form
leads to a plot of 1/[OH-] against t, which, in the case of a second-order reaction, is a straight line with slope k and cut
off 1/[OH-]0. However, as equimolar use of ester and caustic soda solution leads to a much longer duration of the
reaction, double the amount of ester was used in this experiment example, and the determination of the rate equation
via more complicated expressions was accepted.

472
CASSY Lab 2
Alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl acetate (determining the activation parameters)
Safety notes
Ethyl acetate is highly flammable. Keep away from ignition sources.
Ethyl acetate irritates the eyes. Wear protective goggles while working with ethyl acetate. When it gets into contact
with your eyes, immediately rinse your eyes with water, and consult a doctor.
The vapour of the ester can cause a dazed feeling; Do not breathe in the vapour.
Alkaline hydrolysis of esters proceeds in two steps:
As in the course of the reaction acetate ions go into solution instead of the hydroxide ions, the reaction can be fol-
lowed via measurements of the conductivity. From the time dependence of the hydroxide ion concentration obtained
from these measurements the reaction order and the rate coefficient k of the alkaline ester hydrolysis can be deter-
mined.
The temperature dependence of the rate coefficient can be determined by carrying out the ester hydrolysis several
times at different temperatures in a water bath. From the temperature dependence of k, the activation parameters
can be calculated: the activation energy Ea according to Arrhenius and the free energy of activation ΔG# after Eyring,
respectively, which is a function of the activation enthalpy ΔH # and the activation entropy ΔS#.

473
CASSY Lab 2
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Magnetic stirrer with heating 666 8472
1 Temperature sensor PT 1000 666 8473
1 Stand rod, 500 mm,  = 10 mm 301 27
1 Crystallization dish, 900 ml 664 177
1 Syringe, 5 ml 665 965
1 Disposable needle, 40 mm 665 960
Chemicals
Ethyl acetate, e.g. 250 ml 671 9630
Caustic soda solution, c = 0.1 mol/l, e.g. 500 ml 673 8410
If necessary: calibration solution, 1.41 mS/cm 667 4641
Calibration
Load settings
another conductivity sensor is used, its cell constant has to be entered as a factor in Settings Conductivity CA1
conductivity sensor in another 50 ml of calibration solution as if it was for a conductivity measurement (see to it
that the distance from the walls of the beaker is at least 1 cm), enter the target value in the second line under
 Mark the sensor used, the chemistry box, and the Sensor-CASSY as the calibration is only valid for this combina-
tion.

Fill tap water into the crystallization dish almost up to the brim, and put the dish with the bigger stirrer bar onto the
magnetic stirrer. Attach the beaker with the other stirrer bar to the stand rod with the aid of the universal clamp so
that the beaker hangs in the crystallization dish. The beaker should be immersed as deeply as possible in the center
of the water bath over the stirring magnet.
Immerse the contact thermometer in the water bath and the conductivity sensor in the beaker, each with one of the
small universal clamps. See to it that the distance between the conductivity sensor and both the glass wall and the
stirrer bar is at least 1 cm. Set the heat controller of the magnetic stirrer to 80 °C at maximum. Set the contact ther-
mometer, which has to be connected to the magnetic stirrer, to approx. 35 °C for the first measurement series, to
45 °C for the second, and to approx. 55 °C for the third measurement series. If desired, further measurement series
can be recorded, e.g., at 50 or 60 °C. Set the speed of the stirrer so that vortex formation is just avoided.

Load settings
 Use the pipette to put exactly 75 ml of 0.1 M caustic soda solution (0.0075 mol) into the beaker.
 Wait until the temperature of the caustic soda solution has reached a constant value. This can be checked at the
display instrument for the temperature ϑA1 (access via the corresponding button in the upper line on the screen)
or, even more comfortable, starting a measurement with .
 In the meantime, put the empty syringe with the needle on the balance, and set the balance to 0. Weigh in exactly
1.32 g of ethyl acetate (0,015 mol) into the syringe.

474
CASSY Lab 2
 If you have checked the constancy of the temperature by means of a measurement, stop this measurement series
with and delete it with .
 Start a new measurement with .
 Firmly inject the ethyl acetate in order to achieve a good distribution. Mark the time of injection by Diagram → Set
Marker → Vertical Line.
 Depending on the reaction temperature, allow the reaction to proceed for approx. 7 to 15 minutes until the value
of the conductivity has become constant.
 Stop the measurement with , and store the measured values with , adding a note on the reaction tempera-
ture.
 Having stored the measurement series, delete it with to make way for recording the next measurement series.
 Set the contact thermometer to the new reaction temperature, put the reaction mixture into a container, and rinse
the beaker.
 Repeat the experiment at the next temperature.
 Record and store at least three measurement series.
Evaluation
1. In the diagram Specific Conductivity, the measured values of the specific conductivity CA1 and the temperature
ϑA1 are plotted against the reaction time.
2. From CA1 the concentration of hydroxide ions is calculated according to the formula
In this equation, κ0 is the conductivity before the ester has been added, κ 1 the conductivity at the end of the reaction,
and 0.1 mol/l the concentration of the caustic soda solution at the beginning of the reaction. In order that the concen-
tration of hydroxide ions is calculated correctly, enter the respective measured values in Settings κ1 and κ0 in the
field formula instead of the default values for each measurement series. The evolution of the concentration of hydrox-
ide ions calculated form the above equation is shown in the diagram Hydroxide concentration.
3. Next the measurement series are united into a single file by loading the other recorded measurement series with
in addition to the measurement series which is just open.
4. In order to determine the reaction temperatures exactly, click the diagram Specific Conductivity with the right
mouse button, select Draw Mean, and obtain the average temperature ϑm at which the respective measurement has
been carried out by marking one of the temperature curves between the initial and the final temperature. The mean
value is drawn in the diagram automatically and can be read in the status line below on the left. The numerical value
can be inserted in the diagram with Set Marker → Text.
5. The rate coefficients k associated with the different temperatures are determined in the diagram 2nd Order. Click
the diagram with the right mouse button, select Fit Function → Best-fit Straight Line, and, starting from the beginning
of the reaction, mark for each of the curves the curve range where a fit to a straight line is reasonable. The slope of
the resulting straight line is the rate coefficient k of the reaction at the average temperature ϑm just determined. It is
found as parameter A of the straight-line equation A*x+B in the status line and can be inserted in the diagram with
Set Marker → Text.
6. Now enter the previously obtained rate coefficients and the associated absolute temperatures T in K (T = ϑm +
273.15) into the tableArrhenius / Eyring 1 by clicking the corresponding line of the table with the left mouse button
and typing the values. In the diagram Arrhenius / Eyring 2, the plots according to Arrhenius and Eyring are calculat-
ed automatically.
7. In order to determine the activation energy Ea according to Arrhenius, apply a Best-fit straight line to the data
points of ln k in the diagram Arrhenius / Eyring 2. The resulting slope of this straight line is equal to -Ea/R. The Best-
fit straight line applied to the data points of ln (k/T) has the slope -ΔH#/R and the cut off ln (kb/h) +ΔS#/R (see Theo-
retical background). The slopes of the straight lines can again be read below in the status line as parameters A. The
cut offs are given by the parameters B. These parameters, too, can be transferred into the diagram.
Arrhenius gave an explanation of the exponential relation between the temperature and the reaction rate, which had
already known for some time, by identifying the two parameters a and b in the empirical formula
k = a · e-b/T
as the frequency factor A and the activation energy in units of the general gas constant E a/R, whereby the activation
energy Ea is the energy required by two colliding molecules in order to be able to react; the factor A contains the

475
CASSY Lab 2
number of molecule collisions per second and a steric factor, which takes into account the fact that colliding mole-
cules must have a certain mutual orientation in order to react with each other.
According to Arrhenius, the temperature dependence of the rate coefficient can also be written in the following form:
k = A · e-Ea/RT
A plot of ln k against 1/T leads to a straight line with the slope -Ea/R and the cut off ln A.
A more precise form was given to Arrhenius' equation by the "Theory of the transition state" of Eyring, which gives a
more accurate definition of the parameters A and Ea.
Eyring's starting point was the consideration that for all elementary reactions to occur between two substances A and
B an activated complex has to be reached as a transition state; this state is in chemical equilibrium with the initial
substances:
A+B AB#
Eyring's decisive achievement was to prove that the activated complexes of any elementary chemical reaction are
converted into the products with the same rate coefficient:
Here C is the product of the elementary reaction, k b the Boltzmann constant, h the Planck constant, and T the abso-
lute temperature. The rate of the entire reaction is therefore
with the rate coefficient:
From thermodynamics it is known that any equilibrium constant K can be determined from the differences between
the free enthalpies of the products and the parent substances. Thus:
If these two expressions are inserted in the equation of the rate coefficient, Eyring's equation is obtained:
ΔS# is called the activation entropy and ΔH# the activation enthalpy. From these two parameters conclusions can be
drawn regarding the transition state of a reaction: a negative activation entropy such as in this experiment example
indicates a higher-order transition state with respect to the initial state, i.e., in order that the activated complex can
form, bonds have to form or the particles must have a certain position relative to each other. If ΔS # is negative, the
entry has a retarding effect on the reaction as the temperature rises. A positive activation entropy, on the other hand,
indicates the breakage of bonds in the activated complex or an increase in rotational degrees of freedom around one
or more bonds. This leads to an enhancing effect on the reaction when the temperature rises.
The free energy of activation ΔG# of a reaction, which results from the activation entropy and the activation enthalpy,
is always positive. Its temperature dependent magnitude determines the magnitude of the rate coefficient and is thus
related to the reaction rate. In the experiment example, the averaged values of ΔS # and ΔH# at 298 K (25 °C) lead to
a free energy of activation of
ΔG# = 68200 J / mol + 50 J/(mol · K) · 298 K = 83.1 kJ / mol.

476
CASSY Lab 2
Differential thermal analysis of copper sulphate
Danger
Copper sulphate is dangerous to health and environmentally hazardous. Wear protective goggles and gloves. Do not
allow copper sulphate to get into the environment.
Danger of burn. Before touching the apparatus, allow it to cool down to room temperature.
On the one hand, differential thermal analysis (DTA) enables important quantities of physical chemistry to be meas-
ured, e.g., latent heats or enthalpies of transition. On the other hand, DTA is well suited as an introduction into analyt-
ical chemistry because it is quite easy to grasp.
In DTA, two substances are heated in an adjustable oven: a chemically inert reference substance (e.g. aluminum
oxide, Al2O3) and the sample substance, which is examined for phase transitions and/or chemical reactions in the
entire temperature range. The substances are in symmetric places in the oven, each provided with a temperature
sensor.
If an endothermic (e.g. evaporation) or an exothermic (e.g. combustion reaction) process takes place in the sample, a
temperature difference ΔT arises between the reference substance and the sample. In the case of endothermic reac-
tions, the sample substance warms up at a slower rate than the reference substance, in the case of exothermic reac-
tions at a faster rate. By plotting ΔT against the reference temperature ϑ, a characteristic DTA curve is obtained for
every substance. From this curve the transition temperatures and enthalpies of transition of the occurring processes
can be determined.
In order to make the experiment easier to understand, an open measuring assembly, which gives a good illustration
of the principle of measurement, is used in the present experiment example. However, for an accurate determination
of enthalpies of transition, a closed oven is required.
In this example, the temperatures at which water of crystallization bonded in copper sulphate is split off are deter-
mined up to 150 °C. For this the opportunity of directly measuring the differential temperature provided by the chem-

477
CASSY Lab 2
istry box is taken advantage of as it is more precise than computing the difference between two individual tempera-
tures.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
2 Temperature sensors NiCr-Ni, type K, 529 676
 1.5 mm
1 Heating block with two holes 666 202
1 Set of 20 glass tubes 666 203
1 Electric burner 666 776
1 Stand ring with stem,  100 mm 666 573
1 Wire gauze, 160*160 mm 666 685
1 Laboratory stand 3 666 583
2 Mortars, 75 ml 608 351
2 Pestles 608 360
Chemicals
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3), e.g. 250 g 670 2900
Copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate, e.g. 100 g 672 9600

Connect the chemistry box to input A of the Sensor-CASSY with the temperature sensors being connected to inputs
T2 and T3.
Set up an assembly for heating the heating block using the stand material, the wire gauze, the electric burner, and
the laboratory stand 3. Put the heating block onto the wire gauze exactly over the heating aperture of the electric
burner. At the beginning of the measurement, the distance between the heating aperture of the burner and the wire
gauze should be approx. 5 cm.
Triturate a spatula-tipfull of copper sulphate in one of the mortars, and fill it into one of the glass tubes up to approx.
two-thirds of its height. Do the same with another glass tube and a spatula-tipfull of aluminum oxide.
Turn the temperature sensor connected to T2 as deeply as possible into the aluminum oxide and that connected to T 3
into the copper sulphate.
Fix both temperature sensors together with a miniature clamp below the handle so that the glass tubes rest on the
bottom of the two holes of the heating block. See to it that the entire base of the heating block has contact with the
wire gauze.

Load settings
 Switch the electric burner on.
 Wait about one minute. Then start the measurement with .
 When the temperature curve becomes horizontal, enhance the height of the laboratory stand 3 somewhat to re-
duce the distance between the burner and the wire gauze.
 Stop the measurement with when the temperature is approx. 150°C. Switch the electric burner off.
Evaluation
1. In the diagram Standard, the temperature value and the temperature difference ΔT are plotted against the time.
2. In the diagram dT(T), the temperature difference is plotted against the reference temperature (temperature of the
aluminum oxide).
In order to determine the transition temperature, apply inflectional tangents to the left edges of each peak. To do this,
click the diagram with the right mouse button, select Fit Function → Best-fit Straight Line, and then mark a narrow
curve range around the inflection point of the left edge of the peak. After that the associated base line is determined
for each peak. The base lines are also constructed as Best-fit straight lines, whereby the curve range to be marked is

478
CASSY Lab 2
the range just before the respective peak. In the experiment example, the peaks are very close to each other so that
the first base line can be used for the second peak as well. The base line of the third peak has to be constructed as a
horizontal line through the preceding minimum. However, the resulting errors remain small (± 0.3 °C).
In differential thermal analysis, the point of intersection of the inflectional tangent of every peak and the associated
base line is given as the temperature value for the phase transition or the start of a reaction. As DTA is a dynamic
method of analysis, these temperatures can slightly deviate from the thermodynamic equilibrium temperatures de-
pending on the ambient conditions.
In order to determine the point of intersection, switch the coordinate display on by pressing Alt+K, position the mouse
pointer on the point of intersection, and enter the indicated temperature in the diagram with Alt+T. In addition, you
can mark the transitions by a vertical line and insert an explanatory text.
Up to 150 °C, the DTA of copper sulphate exhibits three peaks. The first one (approx. 96 °C) is associated with the
spitting-off of the first two bonded water molecules, the second corresponds to the evaporation of these water mole-
cules and the third one to the splitting-off and evaporization of two more water molecules:
The last bonded water molecule is only split off at 250 °C; recording this peak was renounced in favour of a shorter
duration of the experiment.

In order to obtain a clearer separation of the peaks, you can slow down the rate of heating or reduce the amount of
substance significantly. Regarding the practicability of the experiment as a demonstration experiment, these possibili-
ties were renounced in the example measurement.
If you weigh the copper sulphate exactly before and after each peak, you can determine the amount of evaporated
crystallization water. To do this, first stop heating at approx. 100 °C, then at approx. 115 °C and at 150 °C. When the
substance has cooled down, you can determine the mass difference relative to the initial mass.
In the described experiment setup, many other determinations can be carried out. It is suitable for, e.g.:
 a consideration of the phase transitions of sulphur (transition between the α and β modification at approx. 100 °C,
melting point at 119 °C, transition between the λ and μ melt starting from 159 °C),
 the determination of the triggering temperature of strongly exothermic reactions (e.g. ignition of black powder),
which is relatively harmless due to the small amount of substance,
 setting up state diagrams of mixtures (e.g. tin and lead).
A more precise adjustment for a continuous rise in temperature is possible by means of a power controller (667 823)
that is suitable for use in conjunction with the burner.

479
CASSY Lab 2
Preparing a freezing mixture
CASSY
If ice is mixed with a salt, part of the ice melts, and the salt dissolves in the water from the melted ice. The energy
required for melting the water and dissolving the salt is taken from the environment so that the entire mixture cools
down. Depending on the kind of salt, temperatures of down to -60 °C are reached. Water soluble liquids (e.g. ethanol)
can also create such effects.
The melting of ice when a salt is added is due to the freezing-point depression of a solution as compared with the
pure solvent. Thereby the water-ice equilibrium is shifted towards the liquid state, and heat is taken from the envi-
ronment until a new equilibrium is established at a lower temperature.
In this experiment, a simple freezing mixture is prepared from common salt and ice in a Dewar flask. Even with this
cheap mixture temperatures of below -20 °C can be reached.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Dewar flask, 0.5 l 667 320
8 Watch glass dishes,  = 8 cm 664 154
1 Laboratory balance
Required substances
Ice, approx. 200 g
Distilled water
Experiment preparation
 Plug the chemistry box with the temperature sensor being connected to T1 into input A of the Sensor-CASSY.
 Weigh in 10 g of sodium chloride on each of the watch glass dishes.

480
CASSY Lab 2
 Crush the ice as fine as possible in order that it can well be mixed with the salt.
Calibration
In order to obtain accurate measuring results, calibrate the temperature sensors when using it for the first time. Af-
terwards the calibration should be repeated from time to time.
Load settings
 Immerse the temperature sensor in ice water (mixture of ice and a small amount of water), stir with the tempera-
ture sensor, and wait until the display instrument shows a measured value that is stable up to ± 0.1 °C.
 Enter the target value "0" in the first line in Settings ϑA11 under Correct, and press the Correct Offset button.
the same combination (otherwise the stored calibration will not be applicable).

 Fill crushed ice into the Dewar flask, and add a small amount of water.
 Immerse the temperature sensor in the ice and stir.
 Record the first measured value with , and enter "0" as the first value in the table column mNaCl, by clicking the
table line with the left mouse button and typing the number.
Keep to the following procedure until all of the salt has been added to the ice:
 Put 10 g of common salt into the Dewar flask.
 Thoroughly stir with the temperature sensor until a uniform temperature is measured everywhere in the freezing
mixture (check with the aid of the display instrument ϑA11).
 Enter the total mass of common salt added up to that moment into the appropriate table cell for mNaCl.
Evaluation
The measuring curve shows the temperature in the freezing mixture as a function of the mass of sodium chloride
added. It is clearly seen that addition of 10 g of NaCl to pure ice leads to a significantly stronger decrease in tempera-
ture than addition to a freezing mixture that already contains a great amount of salt. After 60 g of NaCl has been add-
ed, saturation is reached. Further addition of common salt does not lower the temperature of the mixture as the limit
of the solubility of common salt in water is reached.
The saturation temperature can be marked by a horizontal line through the temperature minimum with Diagram →
Set Marker → Horizontal Line. The temperature value is displayed in the status line and can be inserted in the dia-
gram with Diagram → Set Marker → Text.

481
CASSY Lab 2
Determining the melting enthalpy of ice
CASSY
If a certain amount of ice is put into the warm water contained in a calorimeter, a mixing temperature ϑm can be de-
termined after the ice has melted and completely mixed with the water. The mixing temperature depends on the
masses of the water (m1) and the ice (m2) as well as on the corresponding temperatures ϑ1 and ϑ2. In order to simpli-
fy the evaluation, ice of ϑ2 = 0 °C is used for the measurement.
Quick recording of the measured values with CASSY Lab enables a temperature curve to be determined, which can
be used to calculate the melting enthalpy of ice. With the same setup other calorimetric measurements can be carried
out as well, e.g., mixing experiments or the determination of heat capacities.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

1 Temperature sensor NTC 666 212
or
1 Temperature sensor S 524 044
1 Dewar flask 386 48

1 Safety immersion heater 303 25
1 Balance, measuring range up to
500 g,resolution 0.01 g
1 Absorbent cloth

482
CASSY Lab 2
Required substances
Ice, approx. 100 g
Distilled water

Plug the temperature box with the temperature sensor being connected into input A of the Sensor-CASSY. Alterna-
tively, connect the temperature sensor S to input A.
Heat distilled water in the bigger beaker up to a temperature of about 80 °C. Put the dry Dewar flask on the balance
and set the display of the balance to 0.
Calibration
Calibrate the temperature sensor while the water is heated:
Load settings
 Crush the ice, and put it into the other beaker.
 Add a small amount of water. After a short time, the ice-water equilibrium with a temperature of 0 °C should be
established.
 Immerse the temperature sensor in the ice water mixture and stir.
 Enter the target value "0" in the first line in Settings ϑA11 under Correct, and press the Correct Offset button.

 Pour about 120 g of hot water into the Dewar flask.
 Pour the water from the ice water mixture away, pour the ice on the cloth, and dry it thoroughly.
 Read the mass of the hot water, and take it down.
 Immerse the temperature sensor in the flask.
 Having waited for approx. 30 to 60 seconds, pour the ice from the cloth into the Dewar flask. While doing so, per-
manently stir with the temperature sensor.
 Continue stirring until all of the ice has dissolved.
 After another 30 to 60 seconds, stop the measurement with .
 Remove the temperature sensor from the Dewar flask, and drain it well over the flask. Read the total mass at the
balance, and take it down.
Evaluation
In the diagram, the measured values of the temperature ϑ are plotted against the time t.
1. In order to determine the calorimeter and the mixing temperature, carry out a triangular interpolation. To do this
click in the diagram using the right-hand mouse button, select Other Evaluations → Carry out Triangular Interpolation
and mark the two straight curve sections.
2. The point of intersection of the vertical line of the triangular interpolation with the upper best-fit straight line corre-
sponds to the initial temperature ϑ1 of the calorimeter, whereas the lower point of intersection corresponds to the
mixing temperature ϑm. As the straight lines are almost horizontal, only a small error has to be expected (± 0.1 °C).
3. The points of intersection are displayed in the status line below on the left and can be inserted in the diagram with
Set Marker → Text.
The calculation of the melting enthalpy ΔHf can be derived in the following way:
I) Quantity of heat given off by the calorimeter and the hot water:
ΔQ1 = cw · (m1 + m0) · (ϑ1 - ϑm)
II) Quantity of heat taken up by the ice (ϑ2 = 0 °C) from the calorimeter:
ΔQ2 = m2 · ΔHf + m2 · cw · (ϑm - 0)
Here cw is the heat capacity of water, m1 the mass of the hot water, m2 the mass of the ice and m0 the water equiva-
lent of the calorimeter. As there is almost no heat exchanged with the environment, we have
ΔQ1 = ΔQ2.
Consequently the melting enthalpy ΔHf is calculated according to:

483
CASSY Lab 2
With the water equivalent m0 = 24 g of the Dewar flask used, the measured values of the experiment example lead to
the following calculation:
This result is very close to the value of 334 J/g quoted in the literature.
ΔHf is significantly greater than the heat capacity of 1 g of water:
That means: with the energy required to melt 1 g of ice having a temperature of 0 °C, 1 g of water can be heated from
0 °C to approx. 80 °C.

484
CASSY Lab 2
Determining the conductivity of different solutions
The electric conductivity of aqueous solutions depends on several parameters:
a) concentration of the solution, b) degree of dissociation of the substance, c) mobility of the ions, and d) charge of
the ions.
From a comparison of conductivities measured on different solutions, conclusions can be drawn regarding these
parameters.
The values obtained are displayed by CASSY Lab in easy to read large characters and in clearly arranged diagrams.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
2 Pipetting balls 666 003
1 Spatula 666 962
resolution 0.01 g)

485
CASSY Lab 2
Chemicals
D(+)-glucose, e.g. 100 g 672 1100
Acetic acid, c = 1 mol/l, e.g. 1000 ml 671 9590
Magnesium sulphate 7-hydrate, e.g. 100 g 673 1600
Hydrochloric acid, c = 1 mol/l, 500 ml 674 6900
Distilled water
If necessary:
Calibration solution, 1.41 mS/cm 667 4641

For preparing the solutions, the balance, the pipettes, the volumetric flasks, the spatula, the watch glass dish, and the
funnel are required. From each substance three solutions of different concentrations are prepared. Of course, other
concentrations can be used in addition or some of the measuring values can be omitted.
1) Glucose solutions (1 mol/l, 0.5 mol/l, 0.1 mol/l)
One after another weigh in exactly 19.82 g (1 mol/l), 9.91 g (0.5 mol/l) and 1.98 g (0.1 mol/l) of glucose on the watch
glass dish, which is lying on the balance, and rinse it with distilled water through the funnel into a 100 ml flask. Then
clean the watch glass dish, the spatula and the funnel.
2) Acetic acid solutions (0.5 mol/l, 0.1 mol/l, 0.01 mol/l)
Using the pipette, put 50 ml (0.5 mol/l) and 10 ml (0.1 mol/l) of 1 M acetic acid in a 100 ml volumetric flask each, and
fill the flasks with distilled water up to the calibration mark. Prepare the 0.01 M acetic acid from 10 ml of 0.1 M solu-
tion in a new flask.
3) Magnesium sulphate solutions (0.5 mol/l, 0.1 mol/l, 0.01 mol/l)
One after another weigh in exactly 12.32 g (0.5 mol/l) and 2.46 g (0.1 mol/l) of magnesium sulphate on the watch
glass dish, which is lying on the balance, and rinse it with distilled water through the funnel into a 100 ml flask. Using
the cleaned pipette, prepare the 0.01 M solution from 10 ml of 0.1 M magnesium sulphate solution in a new flask.
Then clean the watch glass dish, the spatula, the funnel and the pipette.
4) NaCl solutions (0.5 mol/l, 0.1 mol/l, 0.01 mol/l)
Weigh in exactly 2.92 g (0.5 mol/l) of sodium chloride on the watch glass dish, which is lying on the balance, and
rinse it with distilled water through the funnel into a 100 ml flask. Using the pipette, prepare the 0.1 M solution from
20 ml of 0.5 M solution in a new volumetric flask and the 0.01 M solution from 10 ml of the 0.1 M solution.
5) Hydrochloric acid solution (0.5 mol/l, 0.1 mol/l, 0.01 mol/l)
Using cleaned pipettes, put 50 ml (0.5 mol/l) and 10 ml (0.1 mol/l) of 1 M hydrochloric acid into a 100 ml volumetric
flask each, and fill the flask with distilled water up to the calibration mark. Prepare the 0.01 M acetic acid from 10 ml
of 0.1 M solution in a new flask.

Plug the chemistry box with the conductivity sensor being connected into input A of the Sensor-CASSY. After thor-
oughly rinsing the conductivity sensor with distilled water, fix it in the clamp, so that its height can be adjusted with the
crossed bosshead according to the requirements.
Calibration
Load settings
The cell constant of the conductivity sensor for the chemistry box has already been set to 0.58 in CASSY Lab. If an-
other conductivity sensor is used, its cell constant has to be entered as a factor in Settings Conductivity CA1 under
Correct. Then the Correct Factor button has to be pressed.
For a more precise determination of the cell constant, calibration solutions can be used: rinse the beaker and the
conductivity sensor first with distilled water and then with approx. 30-40 ml of calibration solution. Immerse the con-
ductivity sensor in another 50 ml of calibration solution as if it was for a conductivity measurement (pay attention to
the distances from the walls of the beaker), enter the target value in the second line in Settings CA1 under Correct,
and press the Correct Factor button when a stable measured value is reached.

Load settings
One after another measure the conductivity of distilled water, the solutions of glucose, acetic acid, magnesium sul-
phate, sodium chloride, and hydrochloric acid, starting with the lowest concentration and keeping to the following
order:
 Rinse the electrode and the beaker thoroughly with 30-40 ml of the solution.

486
CASSY Lab 2
 Fill another 60 ml of the solution into the beaker.

 Adjust the height of the conductivity sensor so that its immersion depth in the liquid is 2 cm and its distance from
every wall at least 1 cm.
 If necessary, change the measuring range in Settings Conductivity CA1. Always select the lowest possible meas-
uring range.
 When the displayed value is stable, record the measured value with .
 Enter the concentration and the substance associated with the measured value in the diagram. To do this, select
Set Marker → Text in the context menu of the diagram (right mouse button), type the substance and the value of
the concentration and position the text at the desired place in the diagram with the mouse.
 In order to simplify the evaluation, select Measurement → Append new Measurement Series before measuring
the conductivity of a new substance.
 Before measuring the conductivity of a new substance, thoroughly rinse the beaker and the conductivity sensor
with distilled water.
Evaluation
When the large representation of the display instrument is selected, the measured values can also be read by per-
sons who are at some distance from the screen. The values are automatically entered in the diagrams as bars so that
the differences between the conductivities are visualized.
This experiment demonstrates clearly that the conductivity depends strongly on the concentration. Moreover it can be
seen from the measuring results that strong electrolytes having a high degree of dissociation conduct much better
than substances that do not or only to a small proportion dissociate. From the higher conductivity of hydrochloric acid
as compared with the common salt solutions it can be concluded that the mobility of hydronium ions is greater than
that of sodium ions.
Despite the higher ion charge, the magnesium sulphate solutions of higher concentration do not exhibit a greater
conductivity than the corresponding NaCl solutions because the ions exert strong electrostatic forces on each other
due to their charges, which are twice the charges of the ions of sodium and chloride ions. However, at lower concen-
trations (great distances between the ions), e.g. 0.01 mol/l, the conductivity is higher as compared with NaCl.
The diagrams generated can be printed via the printer symbol in the upper line on the screen.

487
CASSY Lab 2
Determining the limiting equivalent conductivity of sodium chloride
Measurement of the conductivities of the same electrolyte at different concentrations enables several important char-
acteristic data of the substance to be determined. In this experiment, the measured specific conductivity C A1 of sodi-
um chloride is used to calculate its equivalent conductivity Λ eq, which is defined as the ratio of the specific conductivi-
ty and the equivalent concentration:
Here c0 is the concentration of the solution and n the number of released positive and negative charges. In the case
of NaCl, n is 1 as NaCl dissociates according to the equation:
As dissolved ions are subject to mutual electrostatic interactions, the equivalent conductivity depends on the concen-
tration. Only at infinite dilution are the interactions equal to zero as the distances between the ions become too large.
Therefore the equivalent conductivity at infinite dilution Λ 0 (limiting equivalent conductivity) gives the equivalent con-
ductivity of the completely dissociated substance without interionic interactions. Λ 0 can be determined graphically
according to Kohlrausch's square-root law
The ratio of the equivalent conductivity and the limiting equivalent conductivity Λ eq/Λ0 corresponds to the degree of
dissociation α of sodium chloride. In strong electrolytes such as NaCl, α is almost 1 in solutions of low concentration.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

488
CASSY Lab 2

1 Volumetric flask, 250 ml 665 794
1 Spatula 666 962
resolution 0.01 g)
Chemicals
Distilled water
If necessary:
Calibration solution, 1.41 mS/cm 667 4641

For preparing the solutions, the balance, the pipettes, the volumetric flasks, the spatula, the watch glass dish, and the
funnel are required.
Weigh in exactly 29.22 g of sodium chloride (0.5 mol) on the watch glass dish, which is lying on the balance, and
rinse the salt through the funnel into the 250 ml flask with distilled water. After dissolving the salt completely and fill-
ing the flask up to the calibration mark, use the 2 M NaCl solution for preparing the other solutions. For 100 ml of the
respective solution you need:
for 1 mol/l: 50 ml
for 0.8 mol/l: 40 ml
for 0.1 mol/l: of the solution with c = 1 mol/l: 10 ml
for 0.01 mol/l: of the solution with c = 0.1 mol/l: 10 ml
If you intend to investigate the specific conductivity of NaCl over the total range of concentrations, it is recommenda-
ble to prepare some additional solutions of higher concentration, e.g. 1.5 mol/l, 3 mol/l, 4 mol/l, 5 mol/l, and 6 mol/l.

oughly rinsing the conductivity sensor with distilled water, fix it in the clamp, so that its height can be adjusted with the
crossed bosshead according to the requirements.
Calibration
Load settings
Such a correction with calibration solutions is also necessary for the conductivity sensor used in this experiment if
you intend measurements on highly concentrated NaCl solutions whose specific conductivity exceeds 100 mS/cm.
This is the case for concentrations over 1.5 mol/l.

489
CASSY Lab 2

Load settings
Starting with the solution of the lowest concentration (0.01 mol/l) and following the order up to the 2 M solution, keep
to the following procedure:
 Rinse the electrode and the beaker thoroughly with 30-40 ml of the solution.
 Pour this portion of the solution away.
 Fill the remaining solution (approx. 60 ml) into the beaker.
 Adjust the height of the conductivity sensor so that its immersion depth in the liquid is 2 cm and its distance from
every wall at least 1 cm.
 If necessary, change the measuring range in Settings Conductivity CA1. Always select the lowest possible meas-
uring range.
 Enter the concentration associated with the measured value into the table. To do this, click the corresponding line
of the table with the left mouse button, and type the value of the concentration.
 Pour the solution away.
Evaluation
The values obtained for CA1 give the specific conductivity of the solution. This quantity is not substance specific, but
depends on the concentration and the temperature. The temperature compensation for the sensor programmed in
CASSY Lab determines the data automatically with respect to the standard temperature of 25 °C.
For the evaluation of the data, 4 diagrams have been prepared in CASSY Lab:
1. In the first diagram, the Specific conductivity CA1 is plotted against the concentration c0.
2. The second diagram displays the concentration dependence of the Equivalent conductivity Λeq.
3. According to Kohlrausch's square-root law, the plot of the equivalent conductivity against the square root of the
molar concentration is approximately a straight line in the range of low concentrations, the cut off being the limiting
equivalent conductivity. This behavior can be seen in the diagram Kohlrausch plot. The slope k depends on the
number of ions that result form dissociation (i.e., this slope is smaller in the case of NaCl than, e.g., in the case of
H2SO4).
For fitting a straight line, click the diagram with the right mouse button, select Fit function → Best-fit straight line. After
marking the curve range between 0 and 0.5 mol/l you obtain a straight line whose slope A and cut off B are displayed
in the status line below on the left.These values can be inserted in the diagram with Set Marker → Text. The parame-
ter A corresponds to -k in the Kohlrausch law, and B is the value of the limiting equivalent conductivity Λ0. Enter this
value in Settings Λ0 in the field Formula to calculate α.
4. Finally, the diagram Degree of dissociation shows the calculated data for α. It is clearly seen that even in the
case of strong electrolytes the degree of dissociation is only approximately 1 for very low concentrations. This devia-
tion from the ideal behavior of a strong electrolyte can be explained by the interactions between the ions (ionic asso-
ciation due to Coulomb forces, impediment to the migration of ions in the solution).

490
CASSY Lab 2
Determining the dissociation constant of acetic acid
Danger
Highly concentrated acetic acid is caustic. Wear protective goggles, gloves and clothing. Do not breathe in the vapour
of concentrated acetic acid.
Concentrated acetic acid is flammable. Avoid free flames, and do not smoke.
The specific conductivity of acetic acid in various concentrations is measured. From the data acquired, the equivalent
conductivity Λeq is calculated. The values obtained show that Kohlrausch's square-root law for determining the limit-
ing equivalent conductivity does not apply to weak electrolytes. With the aid of the limiting equivalent conductivity
determined via the individual ionic limiting equivalent conductivities and by applying Ostwald's dilution law, the degree
of dissociation α and the equilibrium constant KDiss of the dissociation equilibrium of acetic acid can be calculated.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Collection container,
approx. 1.5 l capacity

491
CASSY Lab 2
Chemicals
Acetic acid, 99-100 % (approx. 17.5 mol/l), 500 ml 671 9510
Acetic acid, c = 1 mol/l, 1000 ml 671 9590
Distilled water

For preparing the acetic acid solutions, the pipettes and the volumetric flasks are required.
Quantities of pure acetic acid required for 100 ml of solution:
 for HAc 50 % (8.75 mol/l): 50 ml
 for HAc 20 % (3.5 mol/l) and 10 % (1.75 mol/l), respectively: 20 ml and 10 ml, respectively
For preparing other solutions, use 1 M acetic acid:
 for HAc, c = 0.5 mol/l: 50 ml
 for HAc, c = 0.1 mol/l: 10 ml
Fill distilled water into the volumetric flasks containing the above mentioned amounts of acetic acid up to the calibra-
tion mark. Now use the acetic acid solutions just prepared to prepare further solutions. For this purpose put 10 ml of
the HAc solution that has ten times the concentration of the solution to be prepared into a new flask, and add distilled
water up to the calibration mark. In this way you obtain the following concentrations:
c = 0.05 mol/l, c = 0.01 mol/l, c = 0.005 mol/l, c = 0.001 mol/l
Now you have eleven acetic acid solutions available for measuring the conductivity at different concentrations. If you
intend to perform detailed investigations of the total range of the specific conductivity, it is recommendable to prepare
additional solutions of higher concentration (e.g. 30 %, 40 %, 60 %, 70 %, 80 %, 90 %).

oughly rinsing the conductivity sensor with distilled water, fix it in the clamp, so that its height can be adjusted by
loosening and fastening the screw of the crossed bosshead at the stand.
Calibration
Load settings

Load settings
Starting with the solution of the lowest concentration (0.001 mol/l) and following the order up to concentrated acetic
acid, keep to the following procedure:
 Rinse the electrode and the 100 ml beaker thoroughly with 30-40 ml of the solution.
 Pour this portion of the solution into a collection container.
 Fill the remaining solution (approx. 60 ml) into the 100 ml beaker.
 Fix the conductivity sensor at the stand so that its immersion depth in the liquid is 2 cm and its distance from eve-
ry wall at least 1 cm.
 Enter the concentration associated with the measured value into the table by clicking the corresponding place of
the table with the left mouse button and typing the value of the concentration.
 Pour the solution into the collection container.

492
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
The values obtained for CA1 give the specific conductivity of the solution. This quantity is not substance specific, but
depends on the concentration and the temperature. The temperature compensation for the sensor integrated in
CASSY Lab determines the data automatically with respect to the standard temperature of 25 °C.
For the evaluation of the data, several diagrams have been prepared in CASSY Lab:
1+2) In the first two diagrams, the specific conductivity C A1 is plotted against the molar concentration and the per-
centage by volume, respectively, of the acetic acid.
3) The third diagram shows the Equivalent conductivity Λeq as a function of the concentration.
4) If acetic acid was a strong electrolyte, a plot of the equivalent conductivity against the square root of the molar
concentration would yield a straight line (see below: Kohlrausch's square-root law). The strong deviation from this law
is seen in the diagram Kohlrausch.
5) In the diagram Dissociation, the values of the negative decimal logarithm of the dissociation constant pK Diss and
the degree of dissociation α as calculated from the measuring data are plotted. One reason for the decrease of K Diss
towards higher concentrations is the fact that in this region the concentration of water can no longer be considered to
be constant; a further reason is given by the formation of ion agglomerates which occurs when the distances between
ions become small.
6) In the diagram Ostwald, you can check the agreement between the measured values and the values quoted in the
literature. For this purpose, plot the reciprocal of the equivalent conductivity (in mol/(S*cm2)) against the specific con-
ductivity up to concentrations of 1 mol/l. From the cut off and the slope of the resulting straight line, K Diss and Λ0 can
be calculated (see last equation in the section Theoretical background). As small errors in the measured values lead
to big errors in this plot, this calculation has been renounced. Instead, the literature values for K Diss and Λ0 are used
to check the measured values:
Calculate the corresponding straight line with the parameters A for pK Diss and B for Λ0 in the menu item Diagram →
Fit Function → Free Fit. Enter "1/B + x/(B^2 * 10^-A)" in the field intended for the formula; enter the literature values
"4.76" for pKDiss (parameter A) and "390.6" for Λ0 (parameter B) and set the associated switch to constant. After
clicking Continue with Range Marking, select an arbitrary range of the plotted measured values to obtain the calcu-
lated straight line.
The equivalent conductivity Λeq is a substance specific quantity. It is given by the ratio of the specific conductivity C A1
and the equivalent concentration:
where c0 is the molar concentration of the dissolved substance and n the number of positive or negative charges
arising from the dissociation of one molecule. In the case of acetic acid we have n = 1:
HAc + H2O Ac− + H3O+
The equilibrium is described by two characteristic parameters: the degree of dissociation α and the equilibrium con-
stant (acidity constant) KDiss.
α is defined as
with the initial concentration c0 of acetic acid and the concentration of acetate ions [Ac-] in the solution.
KDiss and the acidity constant of acetic acid are identical:
By inserting
[Ac−] = [H3O+] = ɑ · c0
and
[HAc] = (1 - ɑ) · c0

493
CASSY Lab 2
in the equation for KDiss, "Oswald's dilution law" can be derived. For monovalent electrolytes it reads:
For weak electrolytes with a small value of KDiss, it follows that α increases as the concentration c 0 decreases until
α = 1 in the case of infinite dilution. Even weak electrolytes dissociate completely when infinitely dilute because re-
combination does not take place due to the infinite distances between cations and anions.
That means, for the limiting equivalent conductivity, i.e., the equivalent conductivity for infinite dilution Λ 0, we have
α = 1. Αs the equivalent conductivity is proportional to the proportion of dissociated molecules, the degree of disso-
ciation can also be determined via
For strong electrolytes, Kohlrausch's "square-root law" holds:
From this, Λ0 can be determined graphically. For weak electrolytes, Λ0 has to be determined in a roundabout way via
the "law of independent migration of ions", which states that ions of opposite charges move independently from each
other in the case of infinite dilution. For monovalent compounds it reads:
Λ 0 = Λ + + Λ−
λ+ and λ– are the equivalent conductivities of the individual kinds of cations and anions at infinite dilution. However,
as they cannot be measured individually, sums are formed of known limiting equivalent conductivities of strong elec-
trolytes. The equivalent conductivity of acetic acid at infinite dilution is calculated in the following way:
Λ0(HAc) = Λ0(HCl) + Λ0(NaAc) - Λ0(NaCl)
= Λ(H+) + Λ(Cl−) + Λ(Na+) + Λ(Ac−) - Λ(Na+) - Λ(Cl−) = Λ(H+) + Λ(Ac−)
Inserting the literature values, you obtain Λ0(HAc) = 390.6 S*cm2/mol.
This value is used in the experiment example for calculating α, which eventually is needed for determining the disso-
ciation constant KDiss according to "Ostwald's dilution law".
Another possibility of determining the limiting equivalent conductivity is given by inserting
in Ostwald's dilution law. A transformation leads to the equation
If you plot 1/Λeq against Λeq*c0, you obtain a straight line with the cut off 1/Λ0 and the slope 1/(KDiss*Λ0), whereby
Λeq*c0 = CA1 for acetic acid. However, as even very small inaccuracies of the measurement lead to big errors, this
method it only suited for high-precision measurements. Here the equation is used to check the accuracy of the
measurement in the low concentration range.

494
CASSY Lab 2
Absorption of UV radiation
Safety note
Do not look directly into the ray.
The transmission of several materials for UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C radiation is determined and the effect of sunscreens
is tested by measuring the transmitted illuminance.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 UV-A sensor 666 244
and/or
1 UV-B sensor 666 245
and/or
1 UV-C sensor 666 246
1 UV-IR-VIS experiment kit 666 265

Connect the lux box together with the selected UV sensor (A, B, or C) to the Sensor-CASSY. Using a clamp, fix the
UV sensor as close as possible to the appropriate exit aperture of the UV-IR-VIS experiment kit. However, see to it
that the holding rail remains free for material samples to be inserted. Connect the experiment kit via the plug-in power
supply.
Read the instruction sheets of the UV-IR-VIS experiment kit and the sensors carefully.
Calibration
Before using a UV sensor for the first time, you have to calibrate it.
Load settings
 Select the Correct button in Settings Illuminance EA1, enter the factor printed on the sensor, and click Correct
Factor.
 The calibration is only valid for the particular corrected sensor.

495
CASSY Lab 2

Load settings
 Switch the desired UV lamp on, and wait approx. 5 minutes until a stable final value has been reached in the dis-
play window for the Illuminance EA1. You may have to select another measuring range in Settings Illuminance
EA1, if the preset range is exceeded.
 Record the first measured value (without absorber) with .
 One after another insert the following absorbers in the holding rail between the UV lamp and the sensor:
- quartz glass,
- window glass,
- acrylic glass,
- PVC,
- quartz glass with a thin film of sunscreen filter (Parsol),
- optionally: quartz glass with a thin film of cooking oil, spectacle lens
and record a further measured value for each item.
Evaluation
The values are displayed in two diagrams: in the bar chart Illuminance, the absolute measured values are shown.
With Diagram → Set Marker → Text explanatory text can be assigned to the bars.
The second diagram, Transmission, shows the percentage of the examined radiation that has passed through the
respective material.
The specific filtering effect of some materials on UV-B and UV-C radiation and their transmission of UV-A radiation is
of particular interest with regard to danger to humans:
In the case of the quartz glass which has been covered with sunscreen filter, the transmission of UV-A radiation,
which gives rise to the suntan, is significantly higher than the transmission of the dangerous UV-B and UV-C radia-
tion. In the past decades, the UV-B irradiation on the surface of the earth has increased because the ozone layer has
continuously become thinner and thinner. This effect is considered to be the cause of damage of hereditary sub-
stance, skin cancer, and blindness. The agent Parsol protects the skin with its UV-B and UV-C filtering effect and
passes a great proportion of the tanning UV-A radiation.
As UV-C radiation is even more aggressive than UV-B radiation, the UV-C filtering effect of many materials and par-
ticularly of the atmosphere is a prerequisite for life on earth to be possible.

496
CASSY Lab 2
Simulation of the ozone hole
Safety notes
Never look directly into the UV-C ray.
Use only non-hazardous contact high-voltage power supplies with direct currents I < 2 mA.
Keep to the current regulations concerning the handling of chemicals.
Do not breathe in the vapour of dichloromethane.
By means of silent discharge initiated by a high voltage, ozone is produced in a closed cuvette. The absorption of
UV-C radiation by the ozone formed in the cuvette is determined as a function of time via a measurement of the illu-
minance E with a UV-C sensor.
After addition of a small amount of dichloromethane (CH2Cl2, as a surrogate of CFC), a marked increase of the illu-
minance (i.e. decrease of the absorption) is observed, from which it can be concluded that the ozone in the cuvette is
degraded by dichloromethane.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 UV-C sensor 666 246
1 UV-IR-VIS experiment kit 666 265
1 Rubber bulb 667 241
1 Syringe, 1 ml 665 957
1 Spark-gap supply unit 667 818
Chemical
Dichloromethane, e.g. 250 ml 671 6600

Connect the lux box together with the UV-C sensor to the Sensor-CASSY.

497
CASSY Lab 2
Set up the UV-IR-VIS experiment kit so that nobody can be blinded by the UV-C radiation. Mount the round cuvette
from the UV-IR-VIS experiment kit with two holders immediately in front of the exit aperture of the UV-C radiation,
and connect the metal contacts to the spark-gap supply unit via two tapping clamps and the connecting leads. As the
electric field is very strong, see to it that the connecting leads do not lie one on top of the other or too close to the
sensor, the Sensor-CASSY or their cabling. Using a holder, insert the UV sensor immediately in front of the cuvette
window. Connect the UV-IR-VIS experiment kit via the plug-in power supply.
Read the instruction sheets of the UV-IR-VIS experiment kit and of the spark-gap supply unit carefully.
Calibration
Before using the UV sensor, you have to calibrate it.
Load settings
Factor.

Load settings
 Using the rubber bulb, remove residual gas that may be left in the round cuvette, and close the openings of the
cuvette with the two black caps.
 Switch the UV-C lamp on, and wait approx. 5 minutes until a stable final value has been reached in the display
window for the Illuminance EA1.
 You may have to select another measuring range in Settings Illuminance EA1, if the preset range is exceeded.
 Switch the spark-gap supply unit on, and set it to the mode "continuous operation" (red LED shines).
 Immediately start recording the measuring data with .
 During the entire measurement do not move the cuvette and the sensor as this would distort the measurement.
 Switch the spark-gap supply unit off after 5 to 10 minutes and mark this moment in the diagram with Diagram →
Set Marker → Vertical Line.
 Switch the supply unit on again after approx. 3 to 5 minutes, and set another mark with Diagram → Set Marker →
Vertical Line at the corresponding position.
 After another 3 to 5 minutes, shake the closed bottle containing dichloromethane briefly, and, using the syringe,
take 1 ml of the vapour from the gas space over the liquid. Close the bottle. Do not breathe in the vapour.
 Open one of the caps of the round cuvette, inject the content of the syringe, and, having closed the cuvette, set
another mark with Diagram → Set Marker → Vertical Line at the moment of injection.
 Stop the data logging with after another 3 to 5 minutes has elapsed, and switch the high voltage off.
Remarks
The formation and degradation of ozone in the stratosphere (10 to 35 km altitude) is governed by several reactions:
These reactions keep the ozone concentration in a stationary equilibrium.

If UV-C radiation with wavelengths below 240 nm acts on oxygen, this leads to ozone formation (reactions 1 and 2)
because the oxygen radicals formed in this process react with other oxygen molecules to ozone giving off their kinetic
energy to a third inert reactant M (e.g. a nitrogen molecule). As the mercury lamp used in the UV-IR-VIS experiment
kit generates UV-C radiation of 254 nm wavelength, which is not able to split oxygen molecules, the reaction 1 is
initiated by a high voltage of 10 kV in this experiment.
The degradation of ozone, too, takes place with the aid of UV radiation: however, for the splitting (reaction 3), radia-
tion with wavelengths below 310 nm is sufficient. This UV dependence of the ozone formation and degradation leads
to a complete absorption of UV-C radiation (220-280 nm, initiation of the reactions 1 and 3) and to a partial absorp-
tion of UV-B radiation (280-320 nm, initiation of the reaction 3) by the ozone layer in the stratosphere.
The degradation of ozone by CFC is also initiated by UV-C radiation:

498
CASSY Lab 2
The chlorine radical created in reaction 5 by absorption of UV-C radiation is set free again and again in a continuous
repetition of the reactions 6 and 7, whereby the oxygen radical in reaction 7 comes from the natural degeneration of
ozone (reaction 3) or from the natural splitting of oxygen (reaction 1). Therefore a few chlorine radicals suffice to
initiate a ozone degenerating chain reaction.
In contrast to completely halogenated CFC, dichloromethane, which is used in this experiment, is already degenerat-
ed in the troposhere and does not damage the ozone layer.
Evaluation
In order to get a clearer display, you can remove the values corresponding to short-term fluctuations in the illumi-
nance caused by switching on and off the high voltage by double-clicking these values in the table and pressing the
blank key.
To start the evaluation, enter the first value of the measurements series for the illuminance E A1 instead of the default
value of "0.290" in the field Formula of Settings Absorption A. An explanatory text can be inserted with Diagram →
Set Marker → Text to label the sections separated by the vertical lines.
After switching the high voltage on, the reactions 1 and 2 (ozone formation) predominate over the degeneration reac-
tions 3 and 4. This is seen from the decrease in illuminance or from the increasing absorption of UV-C radiation
(range A in the diagrams), respectively. When the high voltage is switched off, the ozone concentration is reduced as
oxygen radicals from reaction 1 are no longer available for ozone formation, and therefore the degeneration reactions
3 and 4 predominate. As a consequence, the illuminance rises quickly and the absorption of UV-C radiation is re-
duced (range B) indicating a drop of the ozone concentration.
In range C, the illuminance decreases again due to another production of ozone by the high voltage. Addition of a
small amount of dichloromethane again results in an increasing illuminance despite the high voltage, which is still
applied (range D in the diagrams).Even a very small amount of CH2Cl2 vapour leads to a strong decrease in ozone
concentration accompanied by a reduction of the UV-C absorption.

499
CASSY Lab 2
Greenhouse effect of CO2
Safety notes
The IR radiator becomes very hot. Do not touch the filament. Do not operate the IR radiator with currents over 6 A.
Keep to the current regulations concerning the handling of gases.
In general, the warming of the atmosphere known as "greenhouse effect" is, among other things, attributed to the
rising concentration of carbon dioxide in the air. The experiment described in this example with the IR-CO2 experi-
ment kit clearly shows the effect of CO2: if the CO2 concentration is enhanced, an absorption of infrared radiation and
an increase in temperature are measured.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 IR-CO2 sensor 666 248
1 IR-CO2 experiment kit 666 2651
1 DC power supply 521 536
1 Silicone tubing, internal diameter 5 mm 604 431
2 Crocodile-clips 501 83
1 Rubber bulb 667 241
Chemicals
Carbon dioxide, compressed gas bottle 661 0082
with pressure reducing valve according to DIN 661 017

500
CASSY Lab 2

Read the instruction sheets of the IR-CO2 experiment kit, the variable extra low voltage transformer and the IR-CO2
sensor carefully.
Connect the lux box with the IR-CO2 sensor to input A and the temperature box with the temperature sensor being
plugged in T1 to input B of the Sensor-CASSY.
Insert the IR radiator in the holding clamp on the tray, clamp the measuring cuvette which is covered with two plastic
foils in the holders on the tray so that its distance from the radiator is at least 5 mm, and insert the temperature sen-
sor in the GL14 thread so that the tip of the sensing element in positioned in the center of the cuvette.
Using the holding clamp, mount the IR-CO2 sensor immediately behind the measuring cuvette, and connect the direct
current output of the variable extra low voltage transformer (0...20 V) to the contacts of the radiator via the connecting
leads.
Close the other inlet with a black plastic cap.
Calibration
Before using the IR-CO2 sensor, you have to calibrate it.
Load settings
Factor.

Load settings
 Adjust a current of at most 6 A so that the filament only glows very weakly. The measured temperature should not
exceed 80 °C.
 When the temperature and the illuminance are virtually constant (observe the display windows in CASSY Lab),
start the measurement with .
 After approx. one minute, remove the black cover cap and allow carbon dioxide to flow through the cuvette for
about one minute. Mark the moment when you switch the carbon dioxide flow on by Diagram → Set Marker →
Vertical Line.
 Set another vertical line with Diagram → Set Marker → Vertical Line when you switch the carbon dioxide current
off, and close the cuvette with the black cap.
 Wait another 3 to 5 minutes until the temperature is constant again. Then stop the measurement with , and
switch the variable extra low voltage transformer off.
Evaluation
In the two diagrams, the relation between the temperature (first diagram) / illuminance (second diagram) and the
absorption by carbon dioxide is illustrated.
For the evaluation, the stationary states before and after the introduction of carbon dioxide are relevant.
1. A comparison of the temperatures and the illuminances before and after the cuvette was filled with carbon dioxide
shows a marked rise in temperature accompanied by a reduction of the illuminance.
For comparing the initial values with the values at the end of the measurement, first enter the mean values in the
diagram. To do this, select Diagram → Draw Mean, and mark the respective stationary curve range at the beginning
and at the end of the measurement series. The mean value calculated by CASSY Lab is displayed by a horizontal
line. The corresponding value can be dragged with the mouse from the status line into the diagram.
Hint: if the scale of the Y axis relevant for the respective measured values is activated via the diagram buttons EA1
and ϑB11, the mean values and labels are displayed in the same color as the corresponding curve.
The exact difference between the two mean values of the temperature and the illuminance is output in the status line
when Diagram → Set Marker → Measure Difference is selected and subsequently the two mean value straight lines
are clicked. This value, too, can be dragged into the diagram with the mouse.
2. For determining the absorption, enter the first mean value E 0 (initial value) in Settings illuminance E0 in the field
formula. For the calculation of the absorption A, the formula
is preset. Mean values and differences are entered in the same way as in the case of the first diagram.

501
CASSY Lab 2
The results make it clear that carbon dioxide absorbs a great proportion of the infrared radiation. The rise of the tem-
perature in the cuvette can be attributed to this absorption.

502
CASSY Lab 2
Experiment examples biology

These experiment examples support you in using CASSY Lab. The measurement data or settings for the examples
can be loaded directly into CASSY Lab. Simply click the symbols in the descriptions. New examples are labeled
with a red •.
• Pulse
• Skin resistance
• Electrocardiogram
• Electromyogram
• Blood pressure
• Reaction time
• Lung volume (spirometry)
• Long-term measurement of climate data

503
CASSY Lab 2
Pulse
Safety note
The values and curves measured in this experiment have no medical significance and are not suitable for monitoring
human health.
Use the pulse box only as described in the Instruction Sheet.
The pulsing flow of blood changes the optical properties of the human body. CASSY determines the pulse frequency
via the pulse box. The software records the change in the pulse frequency (e.g. during physical exertion) or the rest-
ing pulse frequency of athletic and nonathletic test subjects.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Pulse box or Pulse sensor S 524 047(1)

The pulse sensor of the pulse box at Sensor-CASSY input A is placed at a point on the body with a strong flow of
blood, e.g. at the root of the nail on the little finger. Make sure that the sensor is not moved during the measurement,
as this can falsify the results.

Load settings
 Wait until instrument PA1 shows stable pulse values (box adapts to the signal strength).
 If desired, investigate how the pulse curve depends on physical exertion (knee bends).
 You can repeat the measurement with altered factors or different test subjects. Once again, wait for the pulse val-
ues to stabilize before pressing .
Evaluation
You can find the average pulse frequency by finding the mean value from the measuring curve. Simply click the right
mouse button over the diagram, select Draw Mean and mark the desired curve range. The value appears in the sta-
tus line at the bottom left and can be inserted anywhere in the diagram as text.

504
CASSY Lab 2
Skin resistance
Safety note
human health.
Use the skin resistance box only as described in the Instruction Sheet.
The resistance of the skin R changes in response to external factors. This setup can be used e.g. to investigate the
effects of autogenous training or a startling event. The measurement always shows the conductance of the skin
G=1/R (greater values mean lower resistance).
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Skin resistance box or Skin resistance sen- 524 048(1)
sor S

Plug in the skin resistance box at Sensor-CASSY input A and attach the electrodes securely to the tips of the test
subject's index and middle fingers using the Velcro strips. The hand should rest on a support.

Load settings
 Adjust the measuring range in Settings Skin Conductance GA1 or drag the y-axis of the diagram so that the dis-
played skin conductance value GA1 is about in the middle (if necessary, enter the values via the keyboard after
clicking on the y-axis).
 If desired, investigate the effects of autogenous training or a startling event (e.g. a loud hand clap) followed by
conscious relaxation.
 You can repeat the measurement with altered factors or different test subjects. Once again, adjust the y-axis be-
fore pressing to restart the measurement.
Evaluation
The diagram reveals how the skin conductance changes in response to external factors.

505
CASSY Lab 2
You can determine the average skin conductance by finding the mean value from the measuring curve. Simply click
the right mouse button over the diagram, select Draw Mean and mark the desired curve range. The value appears in
the status line at the bottom left and can be inserted anywhere in the diagram as text.

506
CASSY Lab 2
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Safety note
The values and diagrams obtained in this experiment have no medical significance and are not suitable for monitor-
ing human health.
Use the ECG/EMG box only as described in the Instruction Sheet.
Every stimulation of the cardiac muscle is accompanied by electric voltage changes, which propagate from one car-
diac muscle cell to the other. Due to the large number of cells, the generated voltages can be tapped with electrodes
attached to the body and, after amplification, made visible in the form of diagrams. For the electrocardiogram the
Einthoven limb leads are used (I, II, III).
The electrodes measure potential changes (voltage changes) when the different heart chambers contract. At rest the
cardiac muscle cells are polarized, i.e. there is a slight potential difference between the inside of the cell membrane
and the outside. The cardiac muscle cells can depolarize without any influence from outside, i.e. spontaneously. The
group of cells which are the first to depolarize constitute the so-called "pacemaker" (sinoatrial node). This node is
located in the right atrium of the heart. The two atria contract almost at the same time due to the high-speed conduc-
tion of stimulus between the cells.
The ventricles of the heart are electrically insulated from the atria. Only at one place there is a group of cells (atrio-
ventricular node) which transmit the electric signal of the atrium contraction to the ventricles. A slight delay of the
transmission of excitation ensures that the ventricles do not contract simultaneously with the atria so that the blood
has enough time to flow from the atria into the ventricles.
The atrioventricular node transmits the depolarization over special fibres (His bundles) to the ventricles. In the mus-
cular wall of the ventricles there are other fibres (Purkinje fibres) that provide quick conduction of stimulus. So simul-
taneous and complete contraction of the ventricles is ensured.
The depolarization, contraction and subsequent repolarization is a continuously repeated process which make small
currents flow due to the close neighbourhood of polarized a unpolarized cells. The changes of the currents can be
measured from outside, amplified and plotted as a function of time. The ECG is the graphic representation of the
measured electric currents.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013

507
CASSY Lab 2
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

1 ECG/EMG box 524 049
1 Electrode gel 662 112
1 Disinfectant spray 662 1131

The test subject should be relaxed and in a resting posture, as otherwise the ECG signal can be overlaid by the elec-
trical potentials of the skeletal musculature, falsifying the measurement. To reduce the skin resistance, spread elec-
trode gel (662 112) on the electrodes and attach them to the appropriate points in the body using the rubber straps.
Then attach the leads to the electrodes as follows:
red right arm
yellow left arm
green left calf
black right calf
Important
Clean the electrodes after each use with a paper towel or similar to prevent a salt layer from forming when the gel
dries. Then spray the electrodes and the corresponding skin sites with disinfectant (662 113) to ensure maximum
hygiene.

Load settings
 The three leads according to Einthoven are recorded simultaneously.
Evaluation
For the sake of clarity, part of the display should be enlarged with the Zoom function before evaluation
A typical part of an ECG is given by a flat line, the isoelectric line. Deviations from this line are due to the electric
activity of the cardiac muscle.
In a typical ECG, the first deviation from this line is a small upward deflection. The P-wave last approx. 0.05 seconds.
For the evaluation a vertical line can be set at the beginning and the end of the P-wave. The duration can be deter-
mined by a differential measurement between the two lines. The P-wave is based on the depolarization and contrac-
tion of the atria.
Next the ECG returns to the isoelectric line. During this time, the atrioventricular node transmits the excitation via the
His bundle and the Purkinje fibres to the ventricles. The depolarization of the AV node leads to a slight downward
pulse, the Q-wave. Immediately afterwards a quick rise (R-wave) and a subsequent drop below the isoelectric line (S-
wave) occur. Then the ECG returns to the initial value. These three waves are called the QRS complex, which is
brought about by the depolarization and contraction of the ventricles.
After a further break the cell repolarize. The corresponding current causes an upward wave, the T-wave.
The sequence from P over QRS to T is one cycle of the heart. The number of cycles per minute corresponds to the
pulse beat.
Further experiment proposals

 Recording an ECG before and after exertion (e.g. knee-bends)
 Statistics of the duration of the individual sections for all students in the class
 Differences between women and men

508
CASSY Lab 2
Electromyogram (EMG)
Safety note
The values and diagrams obtained in this experiment have no medical significance and are not suitable for monitor-
ing human health.
Use the ECG/EMG box only as described in the Instruction Sheet.
This experiment measures the electrical potentials of activated muscles by attaching surface electrodes in the area of
the muscles.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 ECG/EMG box or ECG/EMG adapter S 524 049(1)
1 Electrode gel 662 112
1 Disinfectant spray 662 1131

To record an EMG curve of the finger musculature, attach the electrodes at the beginning and end of the muscle on
the underside of the forearm and the reference electrode on the opposite side of the muscle group, i.e. on the outside
of the forearm. Connect the electrodes as follows:
red start of muscle on underside of forearm
yellow end of muscle on underside of forearm
green reference electrode on outside of forearm

Load settings
 When recording the EMG curve, the test subject makes a fist and then opens it. This should be repeated several
times.

509
CASSY Lab 2
Blood pressure
Safety note
human health.
Use the blood pressure box only as described in the Instruction Sheet.
The blood pressure box is used to measure the pressure at the cuff as pressure variations in the cuff (oscillometric
blood pressure measurement). These can be used to calculate the diastole and systole.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Blood pressure box or Blood pressure sen- 524 050(1)
sor S

Connect the cuff with valve and pumping bulb to the blood pressure box at Sensor-CASSY input A. The valve on the
pumping bulb should be about halfway open (in the middle between the two stops of the valve screw). The release
rate of the valve should be set to 2-3 mm Hg per pulse beat. Higher release rates make for less accurate evaluations
as fewer significant maxima are recorded. A measurement with the valve all the way open will serve to demonstrate
this error.
Slide the cuff over the test subject's uncovered left upper arm until the lower edge of the cuff is approx. 2-3 cm above
the elbow. Make sure that the cuff hose emerges from the cuff on the inside of the upper arm in the area of the artery
(in the direction of the hand). The metal support must not lie against the artery, as this will falsify the blood pressure
curve. After wrapping the free end of the cuff around the arm, secure the cuff using the Velcro strips. The cuff should
lie snugly on the upper arm, but should not exert any pressure on the artery before it is pumped up. During the
measurement the arm should be relaxed and rest on the table slightly bent.

510
CASSY Lab 2

Load settings
 Correct the zero point of the pressure display if necessary. To do this, open Settings Blood Pressure pA1 and se-
lect → 0 ←.
 Using the bulb, pump up the cuff to about 180 mmHg (depending on the expected systolic pressure). The display
shows how the cuff pressure increases.
 The arm must not move during the experiment. The amplitude of the oscillations increases during the measure-
ment (once the pressure drops below the systolic threshold) and then decreases (once the pressure drops below
the diastolic threshold).
 When the amplitude of the oscillations remains constant several times in a row, stop the measurement with .
 Vent the cuff completely by pressing the red button on the hand valve.
 Wait at least two minutes before repeating measurements on the same test subject.
Evaluation
The pressure varies only slightly at supersystolic cuff pressures, due to pulse beats in the compressed arterial sec-
tion. At the moment in which the cuff pressure falls below the systolic pressure and a brief systolic opening occurs in
the artery, the oscillations increase and reach a maximum at the mean arterial blood pressure (which corresponds to
the arithmetic mean of the pressure). The diastolic blood pressure corresponds to the point at which the oscillations
stop decreasing, i.e. when the blood vessels are open during the entire diastole. The remaining pressure variations
are caused by pulse beats transmitted to the cuff.
To calculate the systole and diastole, press the right mouse button in the diagram, select Other Evaluations → De-
termine Systole and Diastole and mark the entire curve range. The systole and diastole values appear in the status
line at the bottom left and can be inserted anywhere in the diagram as text.

511
CASSY Lab 2
Reaction time
The reaction time is determined using the reaction test box and the pushbutton and/or foot switch. The measured
times can be used to calculate the conduction velocity of nerve pulses.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Reaction test box or Reaction test adapter S 524 046(1)
1 Pushbutton 662 148
and/or
1 Foot switch 662 149

Connect the pushbutton or foot switch to the reaction test box at Sensor-CASSY input A. The test subject should be
relaxed and at rest. To determine the reaction time with the hand, the subject's hand should rest on the table next to
the pushbutton. When determining the reaction time with the foot, the foot should be next to the foot switch on the
floor.

Load settings
 Start the measurement series with .
 After a random interval following pressing of any element of the pushbutton or foot switch, the pointer appears in
the color red, green or yellow (foot switch is always red). The test subject must now react by pressing the same
color button as the pointer as quickly as possible. The measured reaction time appears in the display instrument,
the table and the diagram.
 Record the desired number of reaction times (10 to 20) in the same way.
 Stop the measurement series with .
 You can record additional measurement series with other subjects or reactions (e.g. with hand on foot switch in-
stead of foot to determine the nerve conduction speed) with .
Evaluation
You can find the average reaction time by determining the mean value from the measuring curve. Simply click the
right mouse button over the diagram, select Draw Mean and mark the desired curve range. The value appears in the
status line at the bottom left and can be inserted anywhere in the diagram as text.
To determine the nerve conduction velocity you need to determine the difference in the lengths of the conducting
nerve paths by first measuring the length from the spine at the level of the shoulder joint to the middle of the upper
arm. Then measure from the same point to the middle of the thigh.

512
CASSY Lab 2
The mean nerve conduction velocity v is calculated as the quotient of the length difference (foot – hand) and the time
difference (reaction time foot – reaction time hand) as
v = ( l(foot) – l/(hand) ) / ( t(foot) – t(hand) ).

513
CASSY Lab 2
Lung volume (spirometry)
Safety note
Never use the spirometer without a bacteria filter.
human health.
Use the spirometer box only as described in the Instruction Sheet.
The spirometer is used to determine the respiratory volume. The device operates according to the pneumotacho-
graphic principle and measures the volume flux. CASSY Lab then determines the respiratory volume through integra-
tion.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Spirometer box 524 056
1 Mouthpiece for the spirometer,
30 items 662 3812
1 Bacteria filter for spirometer,
30 items 662 3813

Connect the spirometer box to Sensor-CASSY input A about 10 seconds before the measurement (warm-up phase).
Use a new mouthpiece and a new bacteria filter for every test person, and disinfect the sieves regularly with a disin-
fectant.

Load settings
 Compensate the zero point off the displayed volume flux dVA1. Open the window Settings Volume Flux dVA1, se-
lect → 0 ← and make sure that no air is flowing through the spirometer during this procedure.
 Start the measurement as soon as possible afterwards with (as long as the thermal error in volume flux dV A1 is
still negligible).
 Breathe evenly through the spirometer three or four times. Then inhale and exhale as much air as possible
through the spirometer. Then breathe evenly again.

514
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation
The tidal volume V1 is the difference between the maximum and minimum for normal breathing. You can determine
this e.g. by setting horizontal lines or directly by measuring the difference. You can insert this value at any point in the
diagram as text.
The vital capacity V2 is calculated as the sum of the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume and the tidal volume. It
can be determined from the minimum and maximum at maximum inspiration and expiration analogously to the tidal
volume.

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CASSY Lab 2
Long-term measurement of climate data
Measuring values related to climate, namely the humidity rHA1, the temperature of the air TA11 (integrated in the hu-
midity sensor), the air pressure pA1 (integrated in the climate box) and the illuminance EA1 (light intensity) are meas-
ured over a long time interval with CASSY-Display and Sensor-CASSY (i.e. without computer). The table with meas-
ured values can be read and evaluated during the measurement or at the end of it with a computer and the
CASSY Lab program.
Equipment list
1 CASSY-Display 524 020
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Climate box 524 057
1 Humidity sensor 529 057
1 Lux sensor 666 243

The apparatus is set up at a protected location where there is a power supply. Alternatively, a 12 V accumulator with
a sufficient capacity (> 6 Ah) may be used as a power supply.

 Calibrate the humidity sensor (only required for the first measurement).
For this connect the Sensor-CASSY with the climate box directly to the PC, activate the climate box in CASSY
Lab, select Correct, enter the four imprinted numbers C1 to C4 and confirm with OK.. Then connect the Sensor-
CASSY again to the CASSY-Display.
 Setting and starting the data logger
If the key START/STOP is pressed, "CLR?" (new values can be appended) or "CLR!" (new values cannot be ap-
pended) appears in the upper display and the default "NO" appears in the lower display. By rotating ADJUST you
can change from "NO" to "YES" and vice-versa and confirm by pressing START/STOP. Afterwards you can set
the time interval of data logging with ADJUST and confirm again with START/STOP. Then the data logger starts
running (the LED over START/STOP now shines continuously).
 Looking at the measured values in the data logger
If SHOW is selected, all stored measured values can be looked at in the display with ADJUST. While this is done,
data logger operation is temporarily switched off (the LED over START/STOP blinks). The measurement is con-
tinued by pressing SHOW once more.
 Activating economy operation of the CASSY-Display

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CASSY Lab 2
It is possible to activate economy operation during the measurement by switching off the display of the CASSY-
Display for long measuring times. For this the CASSY with number 0 is selected in both displays with the key
NEXT. The displays go out and the Sensor-CASSY is switched off. For every new measurement the instruments
are switched on for a short time interval.
Evaluation
For the data readout connect the CASSY-Display to a computer with CASSY Lab. The CASSY-Display can be trans-
ported to the computer without power supply (the measured values remain stored). The start of the measurement is
entered in the comment field automatically.
In the example, a measurement series of the climate at Hanover from December 15, 2000 to February 23, 2001 is
shown. The measuring interval was half an hour.
The maximum number of measured values depends on the number of measured quantities. In this example a total of
approx. 5000 lines of measured values is possible. This corresponds to a maximum measuring period of 100 days.
Remark
In order that faultless operation of the CASSY-Display is ensured, the version of its firmware should be 1.08 or high-
er. If necessary, the CASSY-Display can be updated by CASSY Lab. When this is done, all measured data that might
be stored in the CASSY-Display are deleted.

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CASSY Lab 2
Experiment examples technology

These experiment examples support you in using CASSY Lab. If available, the corresponding label is given. The
measurement data or settings for the examples can be loaded directly into CASSY Lab. Simply click the symbols
in the descriptions. New examples are labeled with a red •.
• T 3.2.4 Motor vehicle – ignition systems
• T 3.2.5 Motor vehicle – mixture formation systems
• T 3.2.7.1 Motor vehicle – on-board computer with radio
• T 3.2.7.5 Motor vehicle – comfort system with CAN bus
• T 3.2.7.5 Motor vehicle – investigating CAN data bus signals
• T 7.2.2.1 Pulse code modulation (quantization)
• T 7.4.1 Physical principles of microwave technology (characteristics of the Gunn oscillator)
• T 7.4.2 Two-plate waveguide (TEM and TE modes)
• T 7.4.3 Microwave propagation in waveguides (measurement of the standing wave ratio)
• T 7.6 Antenna technology
• T 12.5.3 Drive engineering

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CASSY Lab 2
Motor vehicle – ignition systems
Safety notes
Ignition systems reach power ranges where in the entire system, i.e. not only at individual units such as the ignition
coil or the ignition distributor, but also at cables, plug-in connectors, connectors of test equipment etc. dangerous
voltages may be present both on the secondary and on the primary side.
 Therefore the ignition has always to be switched off before manual operations on the ignition system!
 When the ignition is switched on, no voltage-carrying parts must be touched!
 Pay particular attention to ground connections between the individual training panels!
In this experiment, the ignition oscillograms and the dwell angle adjustment of mechanical distributors are recorded.
The task of the ignition coil is to generate the ignition voltage of 15000 - 30000 volts required for the flashover. In the
interior of the ignition coil, a soft-iron core is cast together with many turns of thin wire and a few turns of thick wire.
The voltage transformation is determined by the ratio of the numbers of turns.
The primary coil (terminal 15) of the ignition coil is connected to the positive pole of the battery via the ignition lock.
Apart form that, the common connection of the primary and the secondary coil (terminal 1) is connected to the ground
when the switch is closed so that the primary circuit is closed. In the subsequent dwell period the magnetic field is
built up. It breaks down when the switch is opened and induces a high voltage in the secondary coil. This high volt-
age reaches the spark plug from terminal 4 via the high-voltage cable and the high-voltage distributor.
The primary oscillogram shows the evolution of the voltage at the primary winding. It enables the contact open inter-
val and the contact closed interval of the contact breaker to be determined. From typical changes in the normal oscil-
logram, certain faults in ignition systems can be identified.

519
CASSY Lab 2
The secondary oscillogram of an ignition system shows the evolution of the voltage at the ignition plug(s). For fault
detection the ignition voltage with the ignition pin as well as the firing voltage are of particular importance. From typi-
cal changes in the normal oscillogram, certain faults in ignition systems can be identified.
In the dwell angle measurement, the angle at which the breaker contact is closed is measured electronically and
displayed in %. The displayed values can be converted into angular degrees. The dwell angle change of a breaker-
triggered ignition must not change by more than 2-3 % in an increase of the speed up to approx. 4500 1/min. In
breakerless electronic ignition systems, the dwell angle cannot be adjusted and may depend strongly on the speed.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Car box i 524 076
1 Car box Z 524 077
1 Inductive-type pulse pick-up 738 986
1 Capacitive-type pick-up 738 987
and one of the following equipments:
T 3.2.4.2 Contact-controlled coil ignition system
T 3.2.4.3 Breakerless-controlled coil ignition system
T 3.2.4.4 Electronic spark advance (characteristic)
T 3.2.4.5 Distributorless ignition system (DIS)

You may use any of the above-mentioned ignition systems, including an original ignition system from a motor vehicle.
Please refer to the corresponding experiment literature for further experiments!
In the case of a breaker-triggered ignition system, the capacitive clamp enables all four secondary pulses to be rec-
orded via the feed line for the ignition distributor. In a DIS, only one secondary signal can be recorded.
The primary side is connected to the terminal 1 and to the ground. See to it that the ground is connected as close as
possible to the terminal 1!
Remark
If the signals are to be assigned to the corresponding signals in distributor-triggered ignition systems, you need the
trigger clamp connected to the CASSY car box i (524 076). Connect this clamp to the ignition cable of the first cylin-
der. If you use this signal (E) as trigger signal, the recording always starts with cylinder 1.

a) Recording the primary oscillogram
Load settings
 Change to the Angular Representation to be able to relate the oscillogram to the crankshaft angle.
b) Recording the secondary oscillogram
Load settings
 Change to the Angular Representation to be able to relate the oscillogram to the crankshaft angle.
Please keep in mind that the ignition voltages of ignition plugs that ignite in the unpressurized state are always lower
than in an engine at approx. 10 bar! In air, the breakdown voltage of standard ignition plugs is only approx. 3.5 kV.
For this reason, the height of the ignition pin can vary from cycle to cycle.
c) Recording the contact closed interval
Load settings
 Increase the speed form 800 to 5000 1/min
Evaluation
In the example files, the measurements have been evaluated by way of example. Load the example files, and change
to the Evaluation display. The contact closed interval was measured for a distributor with centrifugal advance. Up to

520
CASSY Lab 2
approx. 4500 1/min, the contact closed interval does not change. Only at higher values of the speed does it de-
crease.
Remark

521
CASSY Lab 2
Motor vehicle – mixture formation systems
Safety notes
Ignition systems reach power ranges where in the entire system, i.e. not only at individual units such as the ignition
coil or the ignition distributor, but also at cables, plug-in connectors, connectors of test equipment etc. dangerous
voltages may be present both on the secondary and on the primary side.
 Therefore the ignition has always to be switched off before manual operations on the ignition system!
 When the ignition is switched on, no voltage-carrying parts must be touched!
 Pay particular attention to ground connections between the individual training panels!
In this example, the basic possibilities of signal acquisition of relevant quantities in mixture formation systems are
demonstrated. These include the speed, the moment of ignition, the injection duration and the frequency and on/off
ratio of rectangular signals.
Equipment list
2 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Auto-Box i 524 076
1 Inductive-type pulse pick-up 738 986
1 Stand. workshop TDC generator 738 989
optionally for adjusting the vacuum:

522
CASSY Lab 2
1 Pressure sensor S, ±2000 hPa 524 064

1 Vacuum pump 738 996
and one of the following equipments:
T 3.2.5.6 LU-Jetronic
T 3.2.5.7 Motronic
T 3.2.5.10 LH-Motronic M 1.5.4 or 1.5.2
T 3.2.5.11 MONO-Motronic

You can use one of the above-mentioned systems or a mixture formation system in a motor vehicle.
The ignition signal of cylinder 1 is detected by means of the trigger clamp. The TDC generator detects the upper
dead center of the cylinder. Apart from the speed, the moment of ignition is determined from these signals.
At the two 4 mm sockets, an arbitrary rectangular signal can be applied. The quantities that can be evaluated are the
frequency, the on/off ratio and the operating time or shut-off time. If the signal of an injection valve is applied, the
injection duration ti is displayed in ms.
For the measurement of the ignition angle, the crankshaft mark of the TDC and the ignition signal of cylinder 1 are
recorded. The time between the ignition pulse and the TDC generator pulse is related to the time required by the
flywheel for one revolution. The result is displayed as advance angle in degrees crankshaft angle. The mark for the
TDC generator is not located in the upper dead center of cylinder 1, but 20 degrees crankshaft angle later! This angle
is taken into account automatically.

a) Centrifugal advance
The centrifugal advance mechanism of a rotating distribution adjusts the moment of ignition depending on the speed
of the engine. With increasing speed, the cam is moved in the direction of rotation of the ignition-distributor shaft,
whereby the breaker contact is opened earlier. This leads to an earlier ignition. The centrifugal advance can only be
determined, if the vacuum tubings are removed!
Load settings
 Pass through the speed range from 600 to 6000 1/min
The centrifugal advance causes an adjustment of the ignition angle towards earlier ignition, which increases linearly
up to approx. 3000 1/min. At higher speeds, there is no further advance as the centrifugal advance is limited mechan-
ically. If vacuum advance is to be investigated subsequently, the corresponding centrifugal components can be de-
termined from the diagram, which have to be subtracted from the vacuum advance.
b) Vacuum advance, advance unit
The vacuum advance mechanism adjusts the moment of ignition depending on the load of the engine. The vacuum
unit is connected to the intake manifold above the throttle valve and adjusts the moment of ignition in the part-load
range by turning the breaker contact in the direction opposite to the rotation of the ignition distributor shaft. This
leads to an earlier ignition. This type of vacuum unit is called "advance unit".
The contribution of the vacuum advance to the total advance can be determined by first determining the pure centrif-
ugal component and then subtracting it from the value measured in the vacuum experiment!
Load settings
 Generate a vacuum of 0 to –600 hPa (-600 mbar) at 1000 1/min
 Repeat the measurement for 2000 and 4000 1/min
Regardless of the speed, the adjustment of the advance unit causes an advance of approx. 13 degrees crankshaft
angle. For 1000 and 2000 1/min, the advance ranges are equal after subtraction of the centrifugal component!
c) Vacuum retard, retard unit
The vacuum unit for ignition retard is connected to the intake manifold below the throttle valve because in this posi-
tion there is a high vacuum during idle and overrun. The retard unit adjusts the moment of ignition by turning the
breaker contact in the direction of rotation of the ignition distributor shaft. This leads to a later ignition. This type of
vacuum unit is called "retard unit".
The ignition retard is subordinate to ignition advance.
The contribution of the vacuum retard to the total advance can be determined by first determining the pure centrifugal
component and then subtracting it from the value measured in the vacuum experiment!

523
CASSY Lab 2
Load settings
 Generate a vacuum of 0 to –600 hPa (-600 mbar) at 1000 1/min
 Repeat the measurement for 2000 and 4000 1/min
Regardless of the speed, the adjustment of the retard unit causes an ignition retard of approx. –8 degrees crankshaft
angle in the pressure range from –200 to –400 hPa. For 1000 and 2000 1/min, the advance ranges are equal after
subtraction of the centrifugal component!
d) Injection valve
The function of the injection valves is to supply all cylinders (single-point injection) or individual cylinders (multipoint
injection) with gasoline depending on the signal from the control unit. Usually they are triggered with 12 V via the
ground cable. The injected fuel quantity depends solely on the injection duration as the opening cross-section and the
pressure difference between the fuel-injection tubing and the intake manifold are kept constant. A typical effect of DC
solenoid valves (injection valves) is the high induction voltage in the opposite direction when the voltage is switched
off.
Load settings
 Increase the speed of the engine at operating temperature and 50 % load from idle to approx. 5000 1/min
 Repeat the measurement for several load conditions (17 %, 33 %, 67 %, 83 %)
As the speed of the engine increases at constant air throughput, the absolute pressure behind the throttle valve de-
creases, and the cylinders can induce less mixture per lift. Therefore less fuel is required, which is achieved by a
shorter injection duration. If the engine power increases at constant speed, the cylinder charge is greater. This leads
to a greater fuel quantity and thus to longer injection times.
e) Lambda closed-loop control
If the exhaust-gas oxygen content is 3 % (lean mixture), the difference relative to the oxygen content of the ambient
air leads to a voltage of 0.1 V. If the exhaust-gas oxygen content is less than 3% (rich mixture), the voltage of the
lambda sensor increases relative to the increased difference to 0.9 V. Hence there is a control loop for each cylinder
bank, which enables the mixture composition to be controlled. Depending on the sensor voltage, the injection dura-
tion is changed
Load settings
 Activate the periodic change of the lambda voltage
 Start the measurement with at 2000 1/min with the engine at operating temperature
 Repeat the measurement for a very cold engine and for full load, respectively
The lambda closed-loop control works such that the injection duration rises in the case of a lean mixture, which leads
to a richer mixture. In the case of a rich mixture, the injection duration drops, which leads to a leaner mixture. The
control does not work if the engine is cold because the fuel-air mixture has to be enriched to compensate for conden-
sation losses at cold components. The mixture cannot be operated with λ = 1.
At full load, the control is also shut off as the engine has to be operated with a rich mixture to achieve maximum en-
gine power.
f) Rotary idle actuator
During the fuel injection, the function of the rotary idle actuator is to open a bypass air channel around the throttle
valve more or less thus controlling the idle operation. The percentage of the time within an interval of 100 ms, during
which the electric motor receives a current pulse for opening, is called on/off ratio. It is, e.g., 50 % if the motor re-
ceives 12 V for 50 ms and then 0 V for another 50 ms. In this case, the inertia of the armature should lead to the
bypass channel being opened for about 50 % of the time.
Load settings
Reduce the speed of the engine at operating temperature from 850 to 400 1/min
Repeat the measurement for a cold engine and with the air conditioner being switched on
When the speed is decreased, the on/off ratio increases, as the engine tries to increase the speed. If the engine is
cold, the on/off ratio is increased as well, as the higher engine friction has to be overcome. If the air conditioner is
switched on, the engine also tries to increase the air throughput of the rotary idle actuator by increasing the on/off
ratio in order to compensate for the drop in speed caused by the increased load.
g) Knocking sensor
"Knocking", an uncontrolled form of combustion, can lead to damage in the engine. However, as knock limits depend
on many variable quantities such as fuel quality, engine condition and ambient conditions, a sufficient distance from

524
CASSY Lab 2
the knock limit has to be kept in ignition systems with electronic adjustment, which leads to a deterioration of the fuel
consumption. The distance of the program map from the knock limit, which has been indispensable up to now, may
be cancelled if a knock during operation, e.g. caused by poor fuel quality, is detected and if the ignition angle is re-
duced accordingly. The knock control enables the engine to be operated in the limit range without damage.
Load settings
 With the engine at operating temperature and running at a speed of 2500 1/min almost at full load, slightly hit the
knock sensor against a metal block
In the case of combustion knock, the control circuit delays the moment of ignition of the knocking cylinder. Subse-
quently the moment of ignition is taken back to its original value slowly according to a particular scheme.
Remark

525
CASSY Lab 2
Motor vehicle – on-board computer with radio
The present system is the multi-info display (MID) from the Opel Omega B, model year >1994. The info display is a
central information system comprising the following individual systems:
 Clock
 On-board computer
 Check control
 Radio display part
 Date display part
The info display is integrated in the instrument assembly. It has a four-line display. Depending on the set operating
mode, the above mentioned information is displayed. In this experiment, the communication between the radio and
the display will be investigated. These two components communicate via the so-called "I2C" bus, whose bus signal
will be recorded.
For further information on this subject see: http://www.standardics.nxp.com/literature/i2c/.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Battery connection unit 738 03
1 Battery 738 04
or alternatively
Power supply 738 026
1 Ignition switch 738 10
1 MID 739 705
1 Car radio 739 711
1 Short telescoping antenna 739 742
1 Broad band loudspeaker 739 731
Accessories required
1 Set of 51 safety connection leads 738 9821
5 Sets of 10 safety bridging plugs black 500 59
1 Set of 10 safety bridging plugs with tap 500 592

526
CASSY Lab 2

Set up the experiment as shown in the drawing. Some devices are optional and are not required for carrying out the
experiment! Connect the Sensor-CASSY to a serial RS232 port or a USB port of the computer. Connect the meas-
urement inputs to the experiment setup as shown in the drawing.

Load settings
 Switch the system on, first using the battery connection unit and then the ignition switch.
 Switch the radio on by pressing the volume key.
 Now switch over a station key of the radio to create a data flow.
Evaluation of the experiment

The following findings can be obtained from the diagrams:
 The address of the display is: 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
 A write access from the display to the radio takes place (RW bit)
Further variations of the experiment and their evaluation are found in the associated experiment literature.

527
CASSY Lab 2
Motor vehicle – comfort system with CAN bus
The new comfort system was first used in the VW Passat in the model year 1997 and has been available in the
VW Golf since the model year 1998. The individual functionalities that belong to the comfort system such as the cen-
tral locking system, the mirror adjusting system and the theft-deterrent system have not changed essentially. What is
new, however, is the structure and the organisation of the comfort system. In contrast to conventional systems, it has
a decentralized structure. That means tasks are shared by several control units.
The control units of the comfort system are connected to one another via two lines, the CAN data bus. A permanent
data exchange between the control units takes place via these lines.
For this a control unit has to:
 provide data of its own,
 send these data to other control units,
 receive data from other control units,
 check these data and, if required, accept them.
The system consists of a central control unit and two door control units. The central control unit has no higher-level
function. There is no hierarchy among the control units. Apart from its functionalities within the comfort system, the
central control unit establishes the connection between the remaining vehicle electrical system and the diagnosis
cables.
Functionalities of the central control unit:
 Mirror adjustment,
 Interior light control,
 Remote release of the luggage compartment lid,
 Radio remote control,
 Theft-deterrent system.
The door control units monitor and control the functionalities of the comfort system carried out in the doors.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013

528
CASSY Lab 2
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220

1 Battery connection unit 738 03
1 Battery 738 04
or alternatively
Power supply 738 026
1 Ignition switch 738 10
1 Comfort system 739 58
Accessories required
1 Set of 51 safety connection leads 738 9821
5 Sets of 10 safety bridging plugs black 500 92
1 Set of 10 safety bridging plugs with tap 500 592

Set up the experiment as shown in the drawing. Connect the Sensor-CASSY to a serial RS232 port or a USB port of
the computer. Connect the measurement inputs to the experiment setup as shown in the drawing.

Load settings
 First switch the system on using the battery connection unit.
 Now open one of the two doors by turning the corresponding key switch in the "OPEN" direction.
 Switch the ignition on using the ignition switch.
Evaluation of the experiment

The following findings can be obtained from the diagrams:
 The signals on the lines CANH and CANL are mutually inverted.
 The messages are set in three frames with a repeat time of 20 ms.
 Two messages have equal lengths (approx. 1.34 ms) and one message in shorter (approx. 1 ms). The latter obvi-
ously concerns the door control unit of the co-driver side.
In addition to CANH and CANL, the Difference display also shows their difference ΔCAN=CANH-CANL, which is
defined as a formula.
Further variations of the experiment and their evaluation are found in the associated experiment literature 566 1481.

529
CASSY Lab 2
Motor vehicle – investigating CAN data bus signals
In this example, a CAN message is recorded and evaluated graphically. This recording can be used to determine
individual components of the protocol. These include:
 Start bit
 Identifier (incl. RTR)
 Length code (DLC)
 Data blocks
 Checksum (CRC)
 Acknowledgement field (ACK)
 End of file (EOF)
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 CAN bus box 524 078
In addition, one of the following equipments is required:
T 3.2.3.7: Automotive lighting with CAN bus
T 3.2.7.5: Comfort system with CAN bus
T 3.2.12.3: Networked vehicle systems 1 (lighting) and
T 3.2.12.5: Networked vehicle systems 3 (infotainment)
Alternatively it is, of course, possible to use the CAN bus signals of a low-speed bus in an original vehicle.

Connect the CAN bus box to a low-speed CAN bus in any position. Take care to establish a correct ground connec-
tion.
To gain workshop practice you may also connect the CAN bus of an available vehicle as long as it is a low-speed
bus. Follow the manufacturer's circuit diagrams to get access to the two bus cables, and additionally connect the
ground socket to the ground of the vehicle's body.

530
CASSY Lab 2
Hint: in modern vehicles, the CAN bus signals may be available at the 16-pole OBD socket!

Load settings
 The measurement is stopped automatically after the first received message has been recorded.
 The measurement can be repeated for other data to be transmitted. To do this, first select the corresponding iden-
tifier in the ID filter in the Settings CANA1 (right mouse button on CANA1) and restart with .
Evaluation
In the display all recorded messages are first shown as hexadecimal numbers. If there are more than two messages
in the system which are repeated cyclically, the display shows these messages one after another. From the left to the
right the following components are displayed:
 Identifier
 Data length code
 Data blocks
 Checksum
 Status of the acknowledgement
The displays are separated from one another by a blank character. In Settings CANA1 two different binary modes
can also be selected:
 Raw data, i.e. all stuff bits are contained
 Binary data, i.e. all stuff bits are filtered out

531
CASSY Lab 2
Pulse code modulation (quantization)
The conversion of an analog signal into a digital signal requires 3 steps:
 Scanning
 Quantization
 Coding
Quantization will now be investigated experimentally. Switching on/off individual bits enables the resolution of the
quantization to be reduced and the process to be represented graphically in an impressive manner. In addition, the
expander and compressor characteristics are recorded during companding.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 PCM modulator 736 101
1 PCM demodulator 736 111
1 DC power supply ±15 V, 3 A 726 86
2 Pairs of cables, red and blue, 100 cm 501 46

Prepare the experiment setup and the cabling as indicated above and switch the power supply on. Please pay partic-
ular attention to the following points:
 Switch bits off coming from the LSB (key buttons SELECT and ON / OFF, see below).
 Turn the potentiometer a only slowly.
 In the range of small input voltages (< –10 V), overdriving the A/D converter can lead to a signal jump 0 V → –
9.5 V. That is not critical, you may start the measurement at approx. –9.5 V.
 Theoretical and experimental aspects relating to this subject are discussed comprehensively in the manual (see
T7.2.2.1 Pulse code modulation 564 001, page 52).

Load settings
 Turn the potentiometer all the way round to the left.

532
CASSY Lab 2
 Turn the potentiometer a to the right. Now there is a voltage at the input of the PCM modulator (736 101), which
increases slowly from –10 V up to +10 V. This input voltage is displayed as the voltage UA1. The output voltage
(after quantization) at the PCM demodulator (736 111) is displayed as the voltage UB1.
 After recording the quantization characteristic, stop the measurement with .
Variations
 Reduction of the resolution from 8 to 5 bits.
Deactivate the 3 least significant bits (LSB) of the PCM modulator by pressing SELECT and ON/OFF. The posi-
tion of the desired bit is reached by pressing SELECT repeatedly. ON/OFF changes between active/inactive. Turn
the potentiometer a back to the left (minimum input voltage: approx. –10 V) and record the quantization character-
istic again. The 32 steps of equal height resulting from the 5 bits are clearly seen.
 Non-linear quantization
Press the MODE key buttons of the PCM modulator and of the PCM demodulator once each. Now both devices
work in the non-linear quantization mode (in each case each indicated by an LED in the 13 segment characteris-
tics). Then record the characteristic again.
 Compressor/expander characteristic
For recording the compressor/expander characteristic, only one of the two devices is operated in the non-linear
mode, whereas the other one works in the linear mode.

533
CASSY Lab 2
Physical principles of microwave technology (characteristics of the Gunn oscillator)
Gunn oscillators consist of a cavity resonator (= closed metallic cavity) and a Gunn element. The current-voltage
characteristic IG=f(UG) of the Gunn element exhibits a region with a negative slope. Only in this region of the charac-
teristic does the Gunn element reduce damping and can balance the losses in the resonator so that a lasting oscilla-
tion and thus usable microwave power is generated. In this experiment, the Gunn current IG and the microwave pow-
er PM are displayed as functions of the DC voltage UG of the Gunn element.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Gunn oscillator 737 01
1 Gunn power supply with SWR meter 737 021
1 PIN modulator 737 05
1 Isolator 737 06
1 Support for waveguide components 737 15
1 Large horn antenna 737 21
1 E-field probe 737 35
3 HF cables, 1 m 501 02
3 Screened cables BNC/4 mm 575 24
1 Book: Physical Principles of Microwave Tech- 568 722
nology

534
CASSY Lab 2

Prepare the experiment setup and the cabling as indicated above and switch the Gunn power supply on. Please pay
particular attention to the following points:
 Connections between the power supply and the Gunn oscillator and between the PIN modulator and the E-field
probe with BNC cables male/male.
 Connections between the power supply (AMP OUT and RECORDER X,Y, respectively) and the Sensor-CASSY
with screened cables BNC/4 mm.
 Power supply, MODULATION: select PIN INT.
 Select a suitable gain at the SWR meter (v/dB and ZERO).
pages 11ff).
Remark
The illustration shows an experiment setup with a cascade arrangement of 2 Sensor-CASSYs. With this arrangement
the characteristics IG=f(UG) and PM=f(UG) are recorded simultaneously. The second characteristic represents the
microwave power of the Gunn oscillator as a function of the DC voltage UG of the Gunn element.
If only one Sensor-CASSY is available, the experiment is carried out in two steps.
Carrying out the experiment with 2 Sensor-CASSYs

Load settings
 Turn the potentiometer UG all the way round to the left (UG = 0 V).
 Turn the potentiometer UG to the right. The Gunn voltage, the Gunn current and the microwave power are dis-
played on dedicated display instruments.
 After recording the two characteristics IG=f(UG) and PM=f(UG), stop the measurement with .
Carrying out the experiment with 1 Sensor-CASSY

Load settings
 Turn the potentiometer UG all the way round to the left (UG = 0 V).
 Turn the potentiometer UG to the right. The Gunn voltage and the Gunn current are displayed on dedicated dis-
play instruments.
 After recording the characteristic IG=f(UG), stop the measurement with .
The second characteristic PM=f(UG) is recorded subsequently with the same Sensor-CASSY and the same settings.
Therefore the relative microwave power is displayed in the Gunn current display instrument. For this:
 Disconnect the Sensor-CASSY from the Gunn power supply (RECORDER Y) and change to AMP OUT.
 Select a suitable gain at the SWR meter (v/dB and ZERO).
 Record the characteristic again.
Remarks
Characteristics of active elements in microwave experiments exhibit wide scattering. Therefore the characteristics
shown in the examples should only be considered as examples. The important thing is the connection between the
falling region of the current-voltage characteristic and the generation of microwave power. The absolute values or the
shape of the curves can vary considerably, depending on the Gunn element used.
The measurement of the microwave power P M is made with an uncalibrated detector. Therefore its numerical value is
arbitrary.

535
CASSY Lab 2
Two-plate waveguide (TEM and TE modes)

536
CASSY Lab 2
TEM or TE waves can be excited on the parallel plate line by rotating the direction of polarization of the exciting mi-
crowave field (pay attention to this in the experiment!). TE waves exhibit a cut-off phenomenon, i.e. for a given fre-
quency of the exciting field, TE waves can only propagate if the plate distance exceeds a certain minimum value. In
the case of an excitation with a variable frequency and a fixed plate distance, TE waves cannot propagate if the fre-
quency is below the so-called cut-off frequency. As microwave experiments in free space are only permitted at cer-
tain, fixed frequencies, this experiment is carried out with a variable plate distance.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Isolator 737 06
1 Two-plate waveguide 737 07
1 Measuring carriage for parallel plate line 737 071
1 Support for waveguide components 737 15
1 E-field probe 737 35
2 HF cables, 1 m 501 02
2 HF cables, 2 m 501 022
1 Book: Parallel Plate Line 568 661
Experiment setup TEM or TE (see drawing TEM or TE)

 Connections form the power supply to the Gunn oscillator, to the PIN modulator and to the measuring carriage for
parallel plate line (input IN 8-24 V) with BNC cables male/male.
 Connections from the power supply (AMP OUT) and from the measuring carriage for parallel plate line (output X)
to the Sensor-CASSY with screened cables BNC/4 mm.
 Set the Gunn voltage to UG = 10 V at the power supply.
 Place the measuring carriage for parallel plate line on the props of the parallel plate line such that the E-field
probe just reaches into the parallel part of the two-plate waveguide when it is at the left stop.
 The E-field probe should always be in mechanical contact with the edge of the plate when it is moved because
this helps to avoid variations in position.
 One after another terminate the two-plate waveguides with the termination profiles 13 mm and 22 mm.
 For additional notes see the instruction sheets 737 07 and 737 071.
page 27).

Load settings
 Slide the calliper gauge of the measuring carriage (737 071) to the right (x = 75 mm).
 Use the mouse to take the numerical value of the displayed voltage UB1 into the display instrument voltage U75
(drag & drop, right calibration point for position measurement).
 Slide the calliper gauge of the measuring carriage (737 071) to the left (x = 25 mm).
(drag & drop, left calibration point for position measurement).
 Slide the calliper gauge to the left (x = 0 mm).
 Slowly move the calliper gauge to the right.
 You may readjust the gain v/dB and / or ZERO until the desired measuring signal arises. Keep the settings for the
subsequent experiments!
 After recording the field as a function of the displacement, stop the measurement with .

537
CASSY Lab 2
Evaluation wavelength
Using the Free Fit and the formula describing the dependence of the electric field E on x,
A*sqr(cos(360/B*x+D)^2+1/C^2*sin(360/B*x+D)^2)
or, in technical notation,
with
A: amplitude of the electric field strength
λg: waveguide wavelength
SWR: standing wave ratio
φ: phase shift
the wavelength λg=B on the parallel plate line and the standing wave ratio SWR=C can be calculated directly from the
measuring results (see also experiment Measurement of the standing wave ratio).
The initial values, in particular for the wavelength λg=B and the standing wave ratio SWR=C, have to be chosen sen-
sibly because otherwise the free fit will not find any result or it will not find the best result. A fitted curve can be dis-
carded by a double click on the curve. Then the fit can be repeated with other initial values.
The initial values entered should be λg=B=32 mm (free-space wavelength) for TEM modes, λg=B=45 mm (waveguide
wavelength) for TE modes, and SWR=C=10 for the standing wave ratio.
Evaluation cut-off
If the plate distance is too small in the TE arrangement with 13 mm, TE modes can not be excited any more (cut-off).
The exponential shape of the field can be approximated with a free fit and the formula:
A*exp(-x/B)+C
Enter approximately 10 mm as initial value for B.
Remark
The measured voltage UA1 is proportional to the microwave power. Under the assumption that the characteristic of
the coax detector is quadratic, this voltage can be converted into the electric field strength E ∝ sqr UA1. As the detec-
tor characteristic is not calibrated, the numerical value of E is arbitrary.

538
CASSY Lab 2
Microwave propagation in waveguides (measurement of the standing wave ratio)
The standing wave ratio (SWR) is a scalar measure of the match. In experiments with microwaves, it determines the
power transfer from the source to the load and the magnitude of the field strength in the components of the circuit.
Therefore an SWR of approximately 1 is desired in most cases. In this experiment, the standing wave ratios of vari-
ous waveguide terminations are compared. A variable attenuator (alters the magnitude of reflections) and an adjust-
able movable short (alters the phase of reflections) in series connection are used as a complex microwave load. For
the case of an average standing wave ratio (SWR approximately 3), the match is improved by means of a slide screw
transformer.
Equipment list
1 Sensor-CASSY 524 010 or 524 013
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 Coax detector 737 03
1 Transition waveguide / coax 737 035
1 Isolator 737 06
1 Variable attenuator 737 09
1 Movable short 737 10
1 Slotted measuring line 737 111
1 Slide screw transformer 737 13
1 Waveguide terminaton 737 14
1 Cross coupler 737 18

539
CASSY Lab 2
2 Supports for waveguide components 737 15

4 HF cable, 1 m 501 02
1 Book: Microwave Propagation in Wave- 568 731
guides

 Connections from the power supply to the Gunn oscillator, the PIN modulator and the slotted measuring line (IN-
PUT) with BNC cables male/male.
 Connections from the power supply (AMP OUT) and the slotted measuring line (output X) to the Sensor-CASSY
with screened cables BNC/4 mm.
 Set the Gunn voltage to UG = 10 V at the power supply.
 Connect INPUT at the slotted measuring line to RECORDER X at the power supply.
 Mount the cross coupler with two cross-shaped holes. Port 1 to slotted measuring line. Port 2 to slide screw trans-
former. Port 3 to transition waveguide / coax. Port 4 to waveguide termination.
 Turn the screw of the slide screw transformer far out of the waveguide. Position of the movable short arbitrary.
page 27ff).

Load settings
 Slide the calliper gauge of the slotted measuring line (737 111) to the right (x = 75 mm).
(drag & drop, right calibration point for position measurement).
 Slide the calliper gauge of the slotted measuring line (737 111) to the left (x = 25 mm).
(drag & drop, left calibration point for position measurement).
 Slide the calliper gauge to the left (x = 0 mm).
 Set the attenuator to 0 dB.
 Slowly move the calliper gauge to the right.
 You may readjust the gain v/dB and / or ZERO until the desired measuring signal arises. Keep the settings for the
subsequent experiments!
 After recording the field as a function of the displacement, stop the measurement with .
Evaluation
Using the Free Fit and the formula describing the dependence of the electric field E on x,
A*sqr(cos(360/B*x+D)^2+1/C^2*sin(360/B*x+D)^2)
or, in technical notation,
with
A: amplitude of the electric field strength
λg: waveguide wavelength
SWR: standing wave ratio
φ: phase shift
the wavelength λg=B in the waveguide and the standing wave ratio SWR=C can be calculated directly from the
measuring results.
The initial values, in particular for the wavelength λg=B and the standing wave ratio SWR=C, have to be chosen sen-
sibly (in this case B=45 mm and C=10) because otherwise the free fit will not find any result or it will not find the best

540
CASSY Lab 2
result. A fitted curve can be discarded by a double click on the curve. Then the fit can be repeated with other initial
values.
Variations
 Recording the standing wave ratio for reduced reflection. The SWR is decreased by adjusting the attenuator (a >
0 dB).
 Improving the match with the aid of the slide screw transformer.
 Set a=3 dB at the attenuator. Now only 25 % of the incoming microwave power is reflected. The reflection coeffi-
cient is r=0.5 and the SWR is 3.
 Make a new measurement to verify what has changed.
 Screw the coax detector on the transition waveguide / coax. Now only the reflected signal is measured.
 Change the penetration depth and the position of the adjusting screw of the slide screw transformer, and reduce
the reflected signal to its minimum.
 Screw the coax detector on the slotted measuring line again, and measure the SWR curve anew.
Remark
The measured voltage UA1 is proportional to the microwave power. Under the assumption that the characteristic of
the coax detector is quadratic, this voltage can be converted into the electric field strength E ∝ sqr UA1. As the detec-
tor characteristic is not calibrated, the numerical value of E is arbitrary.

541
CASSY Lab 2
Antenna technology
Safety notes
Due to the low power of the Gunn oscillator (approx. 10 mW), there can be no danger to experimenters during anten-
na measurements. However, if stronger HF sources are used, the following rules should be kept to:
 Under no circumstances "look" directly "into" the transmitting antenna while it is radiating. This also applies to free
ends of hollow conductors and horn antennas.
 When components of waveguides are exchanged during changes to the experimental setup, the supply voltage of
the Gunn oscillator has to be switched off.
Antennas serve to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves. For this they have to convert the conducted wave of
the supply line into a free-space wave. Antennas therefore are transition structures, which connect the lines and free
space to one another. The radiation characteristics of an antenna are of particular interest. They can vary considera-
bly, depending on their use in broadcasting, microwave transmission or radar. A widespread type of antennas is giv-
en e.g. by antennas with a strong directivity.
Here the use of the antenna measuring station T 7.6.1 in conjunction with the rotating antenna platform (737 405) is
explained. A λ/2 dipole antenna serves as an example of how to record a directional diagram. Readers who are inter-
ested in measurements with other test antennas (sets T 7.6.2 to T 7.6.5) are referred to the experiment manual T 7.6
Antenna Technology (568 701). Additional remarks are obtained from the instruction sheet 737 405.
Equipment list
1 Rotating antenna platform 737 405
1 Isolator (recommendable) 737 06
1 PIN modulator (recommendable) 737 05
1 Set of absorbers 737 390
1 Dipole antenna kit 737 411

542
CASSY Lab 2

Set up the experiment as shown in the drawing. Use the 345 mm stand rods supplied with the rotating antenna plat-
form for setting up the transmitter (microwave components). For further remarks see instruction sheet 737 405. As a
rule, the distance r0 between the transmitting and the test antenna should fulfil the far-field condition. For dipole an-
tennas this is fulfilled for r0 > 100 cm in most cases. The Far-field computer to be found in the Settings A determines
the minimum distance r0 for the transition to the far field after DT has been entered.
Insert the test antenna (λ/2 dipole) in the central mounting for plug-in axles in the rotating antenna platform so that
the axis is aligned with the reference lines on the rotary plate. Connect the BNC output socket of the test antenna to
the BNC socket TEST ANTENNA IN in the rotary plate via a coaxial cable. Align the antenna so that its main-beam
direction is in the 0° position. Switch the rotating antenna platform on by connecting the plug-in unit. The rotary plate
moves to the starting position -180°.

Load settings
 In the Settings Angle A enter the interface at which the rotating antenna platform is connected to the computer.
 If necessary, change the settings of the rotating antenna platform in Settings A. If the dipole antenna is used, the
bias current has to be switched on. If no PIN modulator is available, you have to switch over to Gunn modulation.
 Start the measurement with . After a short break, the rotary plate starts to run in the forward direction, whereby
the actual measurement of the directional diagram takes place. Immediately after reaching the set final angle, the
rotary plate begins to return to its starting position.
 Normalize A(ϑ) with Normalize Level in Settings A so that it is 1 in the maximum.
Evaluation
The measurement example shows the horizontal directional diagram of a λ/2 dipole. In Settings A the maximum of
the measured curve was rotated to 0°. The black curve represents the measured curve whereas the theoretical direc-
tional diagram is given by the red curve. The theoretical curve was obtained by means of a Free fit (see below).
Notes
 The axis of symmetry of the test antenna and the center of the rotary plate have to be in line. If the antenna has
been inserted in the central mounting of the rotary plate, this is in general fulfilled. However, there are test anten-
nas which are mounted by means of stand material. In this case, the antenna has to be aligned carefully over the
center of the rotary plate in order that during rotation no eccentric motion occurs (which would lead to asymme-
tries in the directional diagrams).
 If the main lobe of the test antenna is to be located at 0° in the directional diagram, the test antenna has to be
aligned so that its main-beam direction points into the 0° direction. Furthermore it has to be aligned with the
transmitting antenna. That means its "back" "looks over" to the exiting source antenna. The reason for this lies in
the nature of the process: the main-beam direction is thus measured in one run instead of being divided into two
halves. Environmental influences on the system thus have less effect on the important region of the main lobe.
 Depending on the test antenna, the measurement can be made at various degrees of angular resolution. In prin-
ciple complicated antennas with many or narrow lobes have to be measured at high resolution.
 The measurement process can be observed simultaneously on the measuring instruments (e. g for the angle,
voltage and level), which can be inserted/hidden, and in the graphical display. In the graphical display, the direc-
tional diagram is constructed step by step (Cartesian co-ordinates or polar diagram with freely selectable axes).
Scaling can be shifted with the left mouse button and it can be changed with the right mouse button.
 The actual antenna signal A from the detector cannot be measured directly. Only the voltage drop U generated by
detector current at the measuring amplifier is measurable. In general, U is not proportional to A but
The exponent m describes the detector characteristic. If the antenna signal A(ϑ) is normalized with Normalize
Level in Settings A so that it is 1 in the maximum, we have:
where Umax is the maximum voltage U measured.

The exponent m depends on the power of the incoming microwaves. In the low-power range it is m=2, i.e.
Experience has shown that the assumed quadratic behavior only applies at very low microwave powers or re-
ceived voltages U < 5 mV. However, the antenna measurement system makes it possible to enter other detector

543
CASSY Lab 2
characteristics. Strictly speaking, the selected characteristic has to be checked. For this a variable attenuator
(737 09) is required which enables the antenna signal in front of the detector to be attenuated in a well-defined
way.
Formulas in directional diagrams

Measuring results can be compared with theoretical directional diagrams if a suitable formula is available or can be
derived. Formulas can be used in various ways:
 The formula can be defined as a new quantity. Then all parameters of the Formula have to be entered explicitly.
 The formula can be entered for carrying out a Free fit. In this case, up to 4 parameters of the formula are varied
automatically so that the best agreement between the measuring results and the formula is obtained. The method
is very elegant in the case of antenna measurements and shall be explained briefly in the following paragraphs.
Free fit for directional diagrams

After the measurement with the rotating antenna platform has been carried out, the following steps are required for
performing a Free fit:
 Select Free fit (click Fit Function → Free Fit in the diagram with the right mouse button)
 Enter the formula in the input field, select it from the list, or copy it via the clipboard (via copy and paste, e.g. the
examples below) having marked just the formula.
 Having estimated sensible starting values for A, B, C and D (see examples below), enter them.
 Select Mark range, and mark the entire measuring curve with the left mouse button. Then the fit is performed,
and the best approximation of the formula found during the fitting procedure is displayed.
 Note: It is easier to mark ranges in the cartesian diagram. The coordinate system can be changed in Settings
Display.
Examples
Remark: the formulas given in the following examples can simply be marked with the cursor and copied into the input
field.
1 Technical dipoles
The formula describes the dependence of the directional diagram on the polar angle in the case of a dipole antenna
for which a sinusoidal distribution of the currents on the antenna conductors has been assumed. Distortions due to
current displacement, which is down to a low reduction factor (finite thickness of the antenna conductors), are not
taken into account.
ϑ: polar angle
ϑ0: angular misalignment
lel: electric length of the dipole (shortening not taken into account)
λ0: wavelength in free space
Formula to copy
A*abs((cos(180*B/32*sin(x+D))-cos(180*B/32))/cos(x+D))
x: polar angle ϑ
32: wavelength in free space in mm (λ0 = 32 mm for 9.40 GHz).
From the measured values, the program obtains optimum values for:
A: amplitude fit
B: electric length lel
D: angular misalignment ϑ0 (deviation of the antenna from the direction of reference)
Starting values for the parameters A, B and D

Antenna A B/mm D/deg
λ/2 dipole 1 16 0
λ dipole 1 32 0

544
CASSY Lab 2
3λ/2 dipole 1 48 0
2λ dipole 1 64 0
4λ dipole 1 128 0
2 Yagi antennas
2.1 Yagis with one parasitic element

 Yagi-R: dipole and 1 reflector
 Yagi-D: dipole and 1 director
Both cases are approximately described by the directional diagram of a conducting sheet (reflector):
A: amplitude fit
a: distance between the dipole and the reflector
ϑ: polar angle
Formula to copy
A*abs(cos(x+B))*abs(cos(C+D*cos(x+B)))
x: polar angle ϑ
The factor A*cos(x+B) corresponds to the directional diagram of a Hertz dipole. This ideal transmitting antenna is so
short as compared with the wavelength that the current distribution on it can be assumed to be constant. The factor
abs(cos(C+D*cos(x+B))) describes the effect of the parasitic element (reflector or director).
Starting values
A=1 amplitude fit
B=0 angular misalignment ϑ0, deviation of the antenna from the direction of reference
C=90 phase
D=60 factor depending on the construction, takes into account the ratio a/λ0
2.2 Yagis with several parasitic elements

These cases are approximately described by the directional diagram of a single dipole and so-called array factors
(here: horizontal array factor):
A: amplitude fit
n: number of Yagi elements, including the dipole
a: average distance between the parasitic elements (directors, reflector)
β0: phase angle
ϑ: polar angle
Formula to copy
A*abs(cos(x))*abs(cos(B*(C+D*cos(x)))/cos(C+D*cos(x)))
x: polar angle
Starting values
A=0.4 amplitude fit
B=3 (6) number n of transmitting elements, including dipole (select constant)
C=-60 (-20) phase angle β0
D=50 (36) factor depending on the construction, takes into account the ratio a/λ 0

545
CASSY Lab 2
3 Slot antenna
The horizontal directional diagram of a slot antenna contains the factors D*H*R:
D: directional diagram of the individual transmitting element
H: horizontal array factor
R: reflector factor
A: amplitude fit
n: number of transmitting slots
b: distance between slots (half waveguide wavelength λG/2)
ϑ: polar angle
ϑ0: angular misalignment
Formula to copy
A*abs(sin(x+B))*abs((sin(D*180*C/32*cos(x+B))/sin(180*C/32*cos(x+B)))*cos(45*(-1+sin(x+B))))
x: polar angle ϑ
Starting values
A=1 amplitude fit
B=0 angle fit ϑ0
C=23 distance b between slots
D=7 number n of slots (select constant)

546
CASSY Lab 2
Drive engineering
Safety notes
Be sure to get familiar with the devices and the respective instruction sheets before putting the devices into opera-
tion!
Mind the connection between the position switches of the linear unit and the control unit sine commutation!
Servo drives are frequently used for positioning purposes. In this experiment a AC servo with sine commutation
drives a linear unit which moves the workpiece to be positioned. In the process of position control with "direct posi-
tioning", the VideoCom camera, which uses a single-line CCD (Charge-Coupled Device), registers the controlled
variable "position". The software logs the controlled variable and calculates the manipulated variable "voltage" for the
AC servo based on the reference input variable specified in the PC.
For recording the movement, a strip of retroreflecting film is attached to the simulated workpiece. VideoCom detects
the light pulses of the flash LEDs reflected by the film and pinpoints the actual positions of the body. By repeating this
position detection in regular intervals, a high-resolution, contact-free record of the movement is obtained.
Equipment list
1 Profi-CASSY 524 016
1 CASSY Lab 2 524 220
1 VideoCom 337 47
1 Universal converter 3x230 V 735 297
1 Control unit sine commutation 735 293
1 AC servo 0.3 731 994
1 Resolver 731 094
1 Linear unit 0.1/0.3 731 085
2 Coupling guards 731 081
1 Shaft end guard 731 071
2 Couplings 0.1/0.3 731 06
1 Camera tripod, e.g. 300 59
various safety connecting leads
For connecting the universal converter to the mains, a single-phase supply unit (e.g. 726 71) is recommendable.

547
CASSY Lab 2
Experiment setup
Set up the experiment according to the drawing. Connect the Profi-CASSY to a USB port and the VideoCom to a
serial RS232 port of the PC. Do NOT yet couple the linear unit to the drive line! Couple the AC servo and the resolver
as described in the instruction sheet, and put the system into operation. Turn the slide of the linear unit approximately
into the center. Attach the camera to a stand at a height of approximately 1 m over the center of the linear unit.
Switch the control unit sine commutation into the mode "Closed-loop Speed Control".

Load settings
 In the settings Position s enter the interface at which the VideoCom is connected to the computer.
 If no value is displayed in the window for the controlled variable path s, adjust the camera so that the position is
displayed.
 Set the reference input variable w to a value of 0.5 m.
 Start the measurement with . The motor starts up. Turn the positioning unit manually until the motor stops.
 Now couple the positioning unit and the drive line together. By changing the reference input variable w you can
specify positions, which then are approached.
 Now you can change the control parameters Kp and Tn and observe the effect of these changes on the control. in
the same way you can set the limits for the speed and the current at the control unit sine commutation (see in-
struction sheet).

548
CASSY Lab 2
Appendix
Scintillation counter
With a scintillation counter (559 901) the energy of γ radiation can be determined. By interaction with the scintillation
crystal the radiation gives rise to light flashes, which are converted into a voltage pulse by a photomultiplier. The
number of emitted photons, and therefore the pulse height is proportional to the γ energy. The pulse-height analysis
in made with a multichannel analyzer (MCA), e.g. with the MCA box in conjunction with the Sensor-CASSY.
The energy of α radiation can be determined with a semiconductor detector.
NaI(Tl) scintillators
A common material for the construction of scintillation counters is NaI(Tl). Doping with thallium (Tl) generates lumi-
nescent centers. The iodine content (Z=53) leads to a very high detection probability for γ radiation. Detection of γ
quanta emitted from a source takes place via energy transfer to electrons of NaI, which are slowed down in the scin-
tillation crystal. Thereby pairs of populated states in the conduction band and unpopulated states in the valence band
are released. The number of these electron-hole pairs is proportional to the absorbed energy as the energy required
to produce an electron-hole pair is always the same. The thallium atoms bonded in the crystal are ionized by interac-
tion with the holes which arise while the primary electron is slowed down. After subsequent recombination with an
electron, they emit photons with an energy between 2.9 and 3.1 eV. The number of photons is thus proportional to
the absorbed energy.
The NaI crystal is transparent for the emitted photons. The absorption of these photons by other thallium atoms is
very unlikely because of the low thallium concentration. As the scintillation crystal is a crystal, there is no scattering
from grain boundaries in the crystal. Moreover, the crystal has a light-tight encapsulation and is coated with a highly
reflecting material. So a great part of the emitted photons reaches the attached photocathode of the photomultiplier.
In the photocathode the emitted photons knock out electrons. Next the electron current is avalanche-like amplified
through generation of secondary electrons in a series of dynodes that follow one another. The gain for one dynode
stage depends, among other things, on the potential difference between the dynodes and on the dynode material.
The dynode potentials are tapped at a voltage divider where a thermally and long-term stable high voltage is applied.
A charge that is proportional to the number of photons reaches the anode and causes a current, which leads to a
voltage signal at a load resistor. This signal is proportional to the charge if the decay time of the output pulse is con-
siderably larger than the time constant for the emission of light by the excited thallium atoms (t = 0.23 μs). Altogether
the pulse amplitude is thus proportional to the energy of the absorbed radiation.
This voltage pulse is then evaluated, e.g. with a system consisting of the MCA box, the Sensor-CASSY and the
CASSY Lab software on a PC.
The energy of the radiation entering the detector is not always completely converted in the scintillation crystal, but
part of it can escape, e.g. via the Compton effect.
Caution
 The NaI(Tl) crystal at the end of the scintillation counter is sensitive to mechanical damage.
 The NaI(Tl) crystal is also sensitive to quick changes in temperature, which can occur, e.g., on unpacking after
transport.
In both cases cracks in the crystal arise and lead to a reduced sensitivity and, above all, to a worse energy resolution
because of scattering.

549
CASSY Lab 2
Semiconductor counter
For the detection of α radiation, semiconductor barrier layer detectors are preferred. Ionizing α radiation generates a
charge in the barrier layer of a semiconductor diode (559 921). This charge, which is proportional to the α energy, is
measured electronically and can be made available at the output of a suitable preamplifier (559 931). The pulse can
be further processed with a multichannel analyzer, e.g. with the MCA box in conjunction with the Sensor-CASSY.
The preparations used in this experiment emit α particles with an energy around 6 MeV. In silicon these particles
have a penetration depth of approx. 50 μm. The width of the barrier layer of the semiconductor diode depends on the
applied reverse voltage and is of the order of 70 μm at a reverse voltage of 10 V.
Multichannel pulse-height analysis

The detector signals are further processed in a multichannel analyzer whose central components are a peak detector
and an analog-to-digital converter. The peak detector stores the maximum value of the input pulse U, and the analog-
to-digital converter converts the measured value into a proportional digital value k. More precisely, k corresponds to
an interval of pulse heights, whose width depends on the resolution of the analog-to-digital converter. The computer
assigns a storage location to each digital value and counts the events in each storage location. The result is a histo-
gram which represents the frequency distribution of the pulse heights. For a quantitative evaluation an energy calibra-
tion is required as the proportionality factors between the energy and the pulse height are unknown at first.
For the energy calibration a spectrum of a known source is recorded. Then the channel numbers can be assigned to
the corresponding energies. This calibration is then valid for other spectra recorded under the same conditions.
The MCA box (524 058) is such a multichannel analyzer.
Interaction of γ radiation with matter

In the γ energy range between 50 and 2000 keV, two interaction processes of γ radiation with the scintillation crystal
play the major role.
In the photoelectric effect, the γ quantum transfers its total energy Eγ to an atom in the crystal and releases a bound
electron. Apart from the amount of the binding energy, the γ energy is converted into kinetic energy of the electron.
This kinetic energy is transferred to the crystal through inelastic scattering.The ionized atom emits X-ray quanta or
Auger electrons, whose energy is completely absorbed in the detector in most cases. Then the total amount of ab-
sorbed energy corresponds to the energy of the γ quantum. The γ radiation is registered in the peak of total absorp-
tion of the pulse-height distribution in this case.
In the Compton effect, part of the γ energy is converted into kinetic energy of a quasi-free electron in an elastic colli-
sion. The rest of the original γ energy is left with the scattered γ quantum, which escapes from the scintillation crystal
with a certain probability certain probability. The energy of the electron absorbed in the detector then lies between 0
keV (forward scattering of the γ quantum) and a maximum value EC (backward scattering of the γ quantum). This
leads to a Compton distribution with a Compton edge at the energy EC.

550
CASSY Lab 2
Internal conversion
After a radioactive decay (α or β decay), the daughter nucleus may be in an excited state.In the transition to the en-
ergetically more favourable ground state energy is released, which can be given off in different ways.
Apart from giving off the energy by direct emission of a γ quantum, the nucleus may as well transfer the energy to an
electron of its atomic shell. The probability of finding shell electrons in the nucleus is not zero. The energy is prefera-
bly transferred to electrons of the inner shells. These carry the energy of the excited state away as kinetic energy and
leave behind a singly ionized atom. The hole left in the inner atomic shell is replenished by electrons from higher
shells. The energy that is released in this process can be transferred to outer electrons of the same nucleus (Auger
process) or emitted in the form of characteristic X radiation.
As the de-excitation of the nucleus via internal conversion competes with γ emission, γ emitting isotopes are favoura-
ble candidates for the observation of Kα emissions.
Characteristic X radiation
In several processes such as internal conversion and the photoelectric effect under irradiation, an atom can be ion-
ized. In nuclear physics, an electron of the innermost shell is removed in most cases because of the high energies.
The hole left in the inner atomic shell is replenished by electrons from higher shells. The energy that is released in
this process can be transferred to outer electrons of the same nucleus (Auger process) or emitted in the form of
characteristic X radiation.
If a hole in the K shell is replenished from the L shell, K α radiation is emitted. If it is replenished from the M shell, Kβ
radiation is emitted which has a higher energy.
According to Moseley, the energy of the Kα line can be estimated for different atoms of atomic charge Z by:
with the Rydberg constant R= 13.605 691 72(53) eV.

More precise analyses show an energy splitting of all shells higher than the K shell. The L shell consists of three
subshells. From two of these subshells transitions to the K shell are allowed. The lines are called K α1 and Kα2. They
cannot be resolved with a scintillation counter. The corresponding topics will for this reason be investigated by means
of an x-ray apparatus.
The exact values of the binding energies of the individual shells are found in the literature, e.g. C. M. Lederer and V.
S. Shirley, Table Of Isotopes, 7th Edition, (Wiley-Interscience, 1978), or in the Internet:
http://nucleardata.nuclear.lu.se/NuclearData/toi/.
By means of Diagram → Set Marker → X-Ray Energies the x-ray energies of a selected element can be entered in
an energy-calibrated spectrum.

551
CASSY Lab 2
Compton effect (principles)

History
Electromagnetic radiation is scattered when it passes through matter. In 1921 A.H. Compton made the following ob-
servation: X rays scattered from matter do not only contain the unshifted spectral components but also a component
that is shifted against the spectrum dependent on the scattering angle. Compton interpreted this effect in terms of the
particle aspect of radiation as a collision between the X-ray quantum and an electron of the scattering matter taking
account of energy and momentum conservation.
The observed change in wavelength depends only on the scattering angle and not on the material of the scatterer.
Materials with small atomic charges, e.g. aluminum, are particularly suited for studying the Compton effect because
of the reduced absorption in the scatterer.
Derivation of the Compton shift

The Compton effect can be treated as an elastic collision between a photon and an electron. The calculation has to
be semi-relativistic because the energies are higher than the rest mass of the electron.
From energy conservation
with
and the conservation of momentum in the direction of the co-ordinates
we obtain
and with
it follows that

552
CASSY Lab 2
Compton effect (spectrum)

The Compton effect generally occurs when electromagnetic radiation passes through matter. It can also prevent radi-
ation emitted by the preparation from being completely converted in the scintillation crystal. In the experiment the
Compton effect is observed in both the preparation and the detector. However, the effects on the spectrum are differ-
ent in both cases.
As an example, let us assume a preparation that emits only one monoenergetic γ line with the energy E γ. The num-
bers are calculated here for the 662 keV line of the Cs-137 source (a in the spectrum). Line d is another emission line
from the Cs-137 decay which in of no interest here.
A Compton collision outside the detector leads to an energy loss of the γ quantum before it reaches the detector. A
continuum of scattered photons arises with energies from E γ (662 keV) down to the energy after 180° backscattering
(184 keV, point c in the spectrum). Because of the angular dependence of the scattering coefficient (Klein-Nishina
formula), the probability of 180° backscattering is enhanced. This leads to the backscatter peak c in the spectrum.
In the detector the γ quantum with the energy Eγ can be completely absorbed (photopeak), but a Compton effect can
occur as well so that the γ quantum escapes from the detector and only the energy of the electron is detected. The
energy of this electron lies between zero and the maximum value, which corresponds to 180° backscattering, leading
to a continuum from zero up to the Compton edge (478 keV, point b).
Another possibility of incomplete energy absorption in the detector is given by the K α escape process. The incoming γ
quantum transfers its energy or part of it to an electron of an inner shell. A hole is left in the atomic shell from which
the electron has been knocked out. The hole is replenished whereby characteristic X radiation is emitted, which can
escape from the scintillation crystal. For instance the energy of a K α quantum may be missing. Therefore a line shift-
ed by 28.6 keV (iodine Kα) can be seen in the NaI scintillator under certain circumstances.

553
CASSY Lab 2
Covered preparations
The radioactive substances in the preparations for α-radiation are normally rolled metal foils. This means that the
radioactive substance is fixed, safe to handle and therefore suitable for type approval.
However, the α-radiation has to pass through the upper metal foil when it leaves the preparation. As is shown in the
experiment on the determination of the energy loss of α-radiation in aluminum and gold, α-particles lose considerable
energy during this process.
In order to avoid this energy loss, weak preparations below the exemption limit may be designed as open prepara-
tions where the radioactive substance is deposited onto the surface of a metal plate, and therefore is no longer cov-
ered. The α-radiation can radiate without any loss of energy. On account of the depositing process, the radioactive
substance adheres firmly to the substrate and can therefore not simply be wiped off.
If one compares the emissions from covered and non-covered preparations, one will find the following spectra:
All spectra were recorded using the same settings. The upper spectrum comes from the non-covered americium
(559 825) and was used for the energy calibration. The spectrum below comes from the covered americium
(559 821) and the spectrum below that from the covered radium (559 430). For the covered preparations the meas-
ured value is approx. 1100 keV below that given by the literature, thus indicating the energy loss in the covering. The
comparison of the two americium spectra shows clearly that not only is energy lost but also the line is considerably
widened, as the energy loss is not the same for every emitted particle.
Energy calibration
In the case of covered preparations, the energy loss can be compensated for during the energy calibration by allocat-
ing to the lines the energy values found in the literature. However, some experiments look at the energy loss of the α-
particles outside of the preparation in air, aluminum or gold. In these experiments the actual energies of the radiation
are to be used, the estimated energy loss in the covering of the preparation should therefore be subtracted from the
value given in the literature.

554
CASSY Lab 2
Radioactive sources
arranged in the order of increasing energies:
γ radiators:
Energy Preparation Source
32.19 keV Cs-137 Ba-137 Kα line after internal conversion
53.23 keV Ra-226 Bi-214 γ emission from excited state
59.54 keV Am-241 Np-237 γ emission from excited state
74.96 keV Lead screening, Kα line after ionization in the lead
74.96 keV Th-232 Pb-208 Kα line after internal conversion
77.10 keV Th-232 Bi-212 Kα line after internal conversion
77.10 keV Ra-226 Bi-214 Kα line after internal conversion
79.30 keV Ra-226 Po-214 Kα line after internal conversion
93.33 keV Th-232 Th-228 Kα line after internal conversion
186.10 keV Ra-226 Rn-222 γ emission from excited state
238.63 keV Th-232 Bi-212 γ emission from excited state
338.32 keV Th-232 Th-228 γ emission from excited state
511.00 keV Na-22 β+ positron annihilation in matter
583.19 keV Th-232 Pb-208 γ emission from excited state
609.31 keV Ra-226 Po-214 γ emission from excited state
661.66 keV Cs-137 Ba-137 γ emission from excited state
1173.23 keV Co-60 Ni-60 γ emission from excited state
1274.5.3 keV Na-22 Ne-22 γ emission from excited state
1332.50 keV Co-60 Ni-60 γ emission from excited state
1460.81 keV K-40 Ar-40 γ emission from excited state
α radiators:
As the sample has to be covered, the energy of the α particles escaping from the preparation is reduced by an ener-
gy-dependent amount. For the Am-241 lines this loss is approx. 1 - 2 MeV.
4784.34 keV Ra-226 Ra-226
5304.38 keV Ra-226 Po-210
5489.52 keV Ra-226 Rn-222
6002.35 keV Ra-226 Po-218
7686.82 keV Ra-226 Po-214
5388.23 keV Am-241 Am-241 fine structure of Np-237, intensity 1.6%
5442.80 keV Am-241 Am-241 fine structure of Np-237, intensity 13%
5485.56 keV Am-241 Am-241 fine structure of Np-237, intensity 84%
β radiators, end-point energy:

317.88 keV Co-60 Co-60 is absorbed in the wall
513.97 keV Cs-137 Cs-137 β- decay
546.00 keV Sr-90 Sr-90 is absorbed in the wall
546.00 keV Na-22 Na-22 β+ decay
625.67 keV Cs-137 Ba-137 monoenergetic conversion electrons
1175.60 keV Cs-137 Cs-137 β- decay
1820.20 keV Na-22 Na-22 β+ decay
2280.10 keV Sr-90 Y-90 β- decay

555
CASSY Lab 2
The data are taken from:

The Lund/LBNL Nuclear Data Search
Version 2.0, February 1999
S.Y.F. Chu 1, L.P. Ekstroem 1,2 and R.B. Firestone 1
1 LBNL, Berkeley, USA
2 Department of Physics, Lund University, Sweden
and are also available under http://nucleardata.nuclear.lu.se/nucleardata/toi/index.asp.
The following preparations are currently available from LD DIDACTIC:

Cat. No. Designation Status according to StrlSchV (Germany)
686 666 K-40 in potassium chloride below exemption limit
559 436 Ra-226 preparation, 5 kBq below exemption limit
559 596 Ra-226 preparation, 5 kBq below exemption limit
559 821 Am-241 preparation, 74 kBq type approved: BfS 01/10
559 825 Am-241 preparation, 3.7 kBq non- below exemption limit, non-encapsulated preparation
encapsulated
559 809 Cs-137 preparation, 3.7 MBq handling authorization required according to StrlSchV in germany
559 885 Cs-137 preparation, 5 kBq, for below exemption limit
Marinelli beaker
559 835 set of radioactive preparations type approved: BfS 01/10

Am-241 preparation 74 kBq
Sr-90 preparation 45 kBq
Cs-137 preparation 74 kBq
559 845 mixed preparation α, β, γ, contain- type approved: BfS 01/10

ing
Cs-137, 74 kBq
Am-241, 4.4 kBq
Sr-90, 4.4 kBq
559 855 Co-60 preparation, 74 kBq below exemption limit

559 865 Na-22 preparation, 74 kBq below exemption limit
To Table of experiments

556
CASSY Lab 2
Caesium-137
Caesium-137 is a man-made radioactive isotope with a half-life of 32 years. It decays via β decay into barium-137. Of
these decays 94.6 % lead to a metastable excited state of barium, Ba-137m, which passes into the ground state with
a half-life of 156 s, whereby a γ quantum of 661.6 keV is emitted. The remaining 5.4 % lead directly to the ground
state of barium. The maximum energies of the emitted electrons are 513.97 keV and 1175.6 keV.
Emission of a 661.6 keV γ quantum is not the only way metastable barium gives off its energy. In other cases it can
transfer its energy to an electron of the 1s shell of its atomic shell ("internal conversion"). The electrons than have an
energy of 625.67 keV, that is the difference between the excitation energy of barium and the electron's binding ener-
gy. In contrast to beta decay, there is no continuum of the electron energy because no third particle is involved. The
hole in the 1s shell is replenished from higher shells. This process gives rise to emission of the characteristic X radia-
tion of barium, particularly of the Kα line at 32.19 keV.
Because of the monoenergetic γ line at 661.6 keV, this isotope is well suited for studying the Compton effect and for
energy calibration.
Depending on the cover of the preparation, the Kα conversion line at 32.19 keV is also visible and can be used for
energy calibration, too. The Cs/Ba-137 isotope generator (559 815) contains Cs-137 as a salt from which Ba-137m
can be washed out. Because of the low mass of the covering plastic housing, this source exhibits a distinct line at
32.19 keV and a very weak backscatter peak even without washing the barium out. By contrast, the mixed prepara-
tion (559 84) exhibits a distinct backscatter peak because of the aluminum holder but no K α conversion line. In addi-
tion Am-241 is contained, whose 59.54 keV line can also be used for calibration.
γ spectrum of Cs-137, preparation with little backscattering and with Kα line

Back to table

557
CASSY Lab 2
Sodium-22
Sodium-22 is a man-made isotope with a half-life of 2.6 years. It decays emitting a positron (β+ decay) into stable
neon-22. A very small part (0.06 %) of the decays leads directly to the ground state of neon. The rest leads to an
excited state of neon, partly via electron capture (9.5 %) from the inner atomic shell, but mainly via positron emission.
The excited neon state passes into the ground state whereby a 1275 keV γ quantum is emitted. The lifetime of this
excited neon is only 3.7 ps.
The emitted positrons react with the electrons of the surrounding matter and lead to a characteristic annihilation radi-
ation at 511 keV. Because of momentum conservation two γ quanta are produced in the pair annihilation of a positron
and an electron. These photons are emitted in opposite directions.
As the time delay between the 1275 keV line and the annihilation radiation is unresolvably small, there appears also
a line at 1275 + 511 = 1786 keV as a result of simultaneous absorption of both γ quanta.
γ-spectrum of Na-22
Back to table

558
CASSY Lab 2
Cobalt-60
Cobalt-60 is a man-made isotope with a half-life of 5.27 years. It decays emitting an electron with a maximum energy
of 318 keV (β decay) into an excited state of the stable nickel-60. From this state a transition into another excited
state takes place with emission of a 1173 keV γ quantum, then the ground state is reached whereby a γ quantum of
1333 keV is emitted.
The jacket of the preparation used in the experiments absorbs the β particles. Therefore only γ quanta can be ob-
served.
When doing γ spectroscopy with a scintillation counter, keep in mind that the Compton edge of the line with the high-
er energy 1333 keV is at 1119 keV, i.e. it is located in the low-energy edge of the second line at 1173 keV and dis-
torts its shape.
γ spectrum of Co-60
Back to table
Strontium-90
Strontium-90 is a man-made isotope with a half-life of 28.5 years. It decays emitting an electron with a maximum
energy of 546 keV (β decay) into yttrium-90. The latter decays through β decay with a maximum energy of 2274 keV
into zirconium-90 with a half-life of 64.1 hours.
β spectrum of Sr-90 recorded with the scintillation counter.

Back to table

559
CASSY Lab 2
Americium-241
Americium-241 is a man-made isotope with a half-life of 433 years. It decays emitting an α particle with an energy of
approximately 5500 keV into excited states of neptunium-237. The individual lines at 5388, 5443, 5486, 5511 and
5545 keV that correspond to decays into different excited states cannot be observed separately in the framework of
this experiment. Two of these lines dominate the measured spectrum, the line at 5486 keV, which is emitted in 84 %
of all decays and thus has the strongest intensity, and the line at 5443 keV, which is emitted in 13 % of all decays.
The remaining 3 % are distributed over the other three lines.
Due to the necessary cover of the preparation, the α particles already loose energy before reaching the detector. A
hypothetical α particle of approx. 1.5 MeV would just reach the detector and trigger a minimal electric pulse. There-
fore an energy offset is observed in the spectrum when the measured lines are calibrated with values taken from the
literature. The measured spectrum starts only at approx. 1.5 MeV.
One of the excited states of neptunium-237 decays emitting a γ quantum of 59.54 keV into the ground state.
α spectrum of Am-241
γ spectrum of Am-241, upper curve: emission from the side of the preparation with the wall of the preparation as a
filter, lower curve: emission from the preparation through the borehole
In the gamma spectrum other lines are seen near the Np-237 emission line at 59.54 keV. These might be the L line of
neptunium (17 keV) and the iodine Kα escape line (26.3 keV).
Back to table

560
CASSY Lab 2
Potassium-40
Natural potassium contains 0.012 % of the radioactive isotope K-40, which has a half-life of 1.27 billion years. 90 %
of K-40 undergo a β transition into the ground state of Ca-40, whereas the remaining 10 % decay into an excited
state of Ar-40, either by β+ emission or by electron capture. In the transition to its ground state, Ar-40 emits a gamma
quantum of 1460.81 keV.
γ spectrum of K-40
The activity of natural potassium is 32 Becquerel per gram of metallic potassium, 17 Becquerel for a gram of KCl or 9
Becquerel per gram of potassium sulphate KSO4.
Back to table
Radium-226
Radium is found in nature. Its half-life is 1600 years, and it is indirectly produced in the radioactive series of uranium-
238, the so-called the 4n+2 series.
Radium is chemically related to barium and calcium and therefore accumulates, e.g., in Brazil nuts so that it is con-
tained in Brazil nut ash. The content, which fluctuates depending on the area of cultivation, is of the order of magni-
tude of 10 picograms per gram of ash.
Pure radium-226 is an α radiator, and the subsequent decay products are mainly α radiators, too, but there are also β
and γ radiators among them. For details of the decay see below.
For producing the preparation pure radium in used. In the course of time, the isotopes of the radioactive series accu-
mulate until an equilibrium is reached. The first elements of the radioactive series have very short half-lives so that
this equilibrium is reached after a short time. However, the isotope lead-210 has a half-life of 22.3 years. Correspond-
ingly, it takes a long time until the equilibrium is reached so that the activity of the subsequent decays (e.g. polonium-
210) can be used for dating of the source.
In this experiment the α spectrum exhibits five lines in the energy region around 6 MeV. Unfortunately the lines of
Po-210 and Rn-222 cannot be separated clearly because of the unsharpness of the energy which is due to the cover
of the preparation.
Energy Source
4784 keV Ra-226
5304 keV Po-210
5489 keV Rn-222
6002 keV Po-218
7687 keV Po-214
Due to the necessary cover of the preparation, the α particles already loose energy before reaching the detector. A
hypothetical α particle of approx. 2 MeV would just reach the detector and trigger a minimal electric pulse. Therefore

561
CASSY Lab 2
an energy offset is observed in the spectrum when the measured lines are calibrated with values taken from the liter-
ature. The measured spectrum starts only at approx. 2 MeV.
The γ spectrum of a radium source exhibits many lines, which come from the different isotopes of the radioactive
series. The line at 186 keV is the only one which comes immediately from the radium-226 decay, namely from an
excited state of radon-222. The excited states of Bi-214 render four lines at 352 keV, 295 keV, 242 keV and 53 keV.
The excited state of Po-214 leads to the line at 609 keV. The strong line at approx. 80 keV is a superposition of
Kα conversion lines and presumably of Bi-214 (77.1 keV) and Po-214 (79.3 keV). If a thorough evaluation is made, a
weak line shows up at approx. 90 keV. It can be explained as the associated K β line, but it may also be the Kα line of
radium after ionization by α radiation.
Back to table

562
CASSY Lab 2
The radioactive series of radium-226

Back
88-Ra-226
Radium-226
Half-life: 1600 years
Mode of decay: alpha into Rn-222
Decay energy: 4.871 MeV
Subsequently γ radiation of Rn-222 at 186 keV possible
86-Rn-222
Radon-222, noble gas
Half-life: 3.8235 days
Mode of decay: alpha into Po-218

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CASSY Lab 2
84-Po-218
Polonium-218
(Historically Po-218 is also called radium A)
Half-life: 3.10 minutes
Mode of decay: alpha into Pb-214
Probability: 99.98 %
Mode of decay: beta into At-218
Probability: 0.02 %
85-At-218
Astatine-218
Half-life: 1.5 seconds
Mode of decay: alpha into Bi-214
Mode of decay: beta into Rn-218
Probability: 0.1 %
86-Rn-218
Radon-218
Half-life: 35 milliseconds
82-Pb-214
Lead-214
(Historically Pb-214 is also called radium B)
Mode of decay: beta into Bi-214
Subsequently γ radiation of Bi-214 at 352 keV, 295 keV, 242 keV, 53 keV possible
83-Bi-214
Bismuth-214
(Historically Bi-214 is also called radium C)
Mode of decay: beta into Po-214
Subsequently γ radiation of Po-214 at 609 keV possible
Mode of decay: alpha into Tl-210
Probability: 0.02 %
84-Po-214
Polonium-214
(Historically Po-214 is also called radium C')
Half-life: 164.3 μs

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CASSY Lab 2
81-Tl-210
Thallium-210
(Historically Tl-210 is also called radium C")
Half-life: 1.3 Minutes
Mode of decay: beta into Pb-210
82-Pb-210
Lead-210
(Historically Pb-210 is also called radium D)
Half-life: 22.3 years
Mode of decay: alpha into Hg-206
Probability: 1.9-6 %
83-Bi-210
Bismuth-210
(Historically Bi-210 is also called radium E)
Mode of decay: beta into Po-210
Mode of decay: alpha into Tl-206
84-Po-210
Polonium-210
(Historically Po-210 is also called radium F)
82-Pb-206
Lead-206
(Historically Pb-206 is also called Radium G)
Pb-206 is the final product of the U-238 radioactive series. It is stable.
The entries are taken from the NUDAT database, see:
R.R.Kinsey, et al., The NUDAT/PCNUDAT Program for Nuclear Data, paper submitted to the 9 th International Sym-
posium of Capture-Gamma_ray Spectroscopy and Related Topics, Budapest, Hungary, Octover 1996. Data extract-
ed from NUDAT database (Dec.18, 1997).
Back

565
CASSY Lab 2
Thorium-22
Thorium is found in nature. It occurs mainly in the ore monazite, a complex phosphate of thorium, uranium, cerium
and lanthanoids. Its half-life is 14 billion years, and it is the parent isotope of the 4n+0 radioactive series. For details
of the decay see below.
Thorium is still present in some incandescent gas hoods used in camping gas lamps. Incandescent gas hoods that
are not burnt in are well suited for recording the complex γ spectrum of thorium and its decay products. Incandescent
gas hoods that have already been used in a lamp are brittle and quickly decay into radioactive powder so that han-
dling is made very difficult. Depending on the way of production, the thorium isotopes Th-232 and Th-228 are present
in newly manufactured incandescent gas hoods, the other elements of the radioactive series being produced only in
the course of time. Because of the presence of two isotopes, the daughter nuclei are not produced according to a
simple exponential law. A complicated course of the intensities is observed, which corresponds to the half-lives of
thorium-228 (approx. 2 years) and radium-228 (almost 6 years).
Thorium oxide provides a particularly high light yield because it is no black body, but emits little thermal infrared radi-
ation and more visible light (selective radiator). The radioactivity of thorium is not relevant for the light yield. Because
of the problems of radioactivity incandescent gas hoods are made from yttrium oxide in recent time, which is not radi-
oactive, but shines less brightly.
γ spectrum of a 15 year old thorium source

In the γ spectrum of thorium the lines of several isotopes of the radioactive series are found. The following lines,
which all come from excited states of a nucleus after β decay, are clearly visible.
Th-228*: 338.32 keV, 911.204 keV
Bi-212*: 238.632 keV
Pb-208*: 583.191 keV, 860.564 keV
Moreover, there is the superposition of Kα lines in the range 80-90 keV. In contrast to radium, here a superposition of
at least two lines can be discerned because a component occurs at 90 keV near the line at 80 keV. As internal con-
version competes with γ emission in the de-excitation of nuclei, γ emitting isotopes are also good candidates for K α
emission. The energies are at 74.96 keV (Pb-208), 77.1 keV (Bi-212) and 93.3 keV (Th-228).
Back to table

566
CASSY Lab 2
The radioactive series of thorium-232

Back

567
CASSY Lab 2
The energies of electrons emitted after β decays are not listed here.
90-Th-232
Thorium-22
Half-life: 14 billion years
Mode of decay: alpha into Ra-228
Eα (keV) Iα (%)
3947.2 21.7
4012.3 78.2
88-Ra-228
Radium-228
Historically also called Mesothorium 1
Mode of decay: beta into Ac-228
89-Ac-228
Actinium-228
Half-life: 6.15 hours
Historically also called Mesothorium 2
Mode of decay: beta into Th-228
Eγ (keV) Iγ (%)
338.320 11.27
911.204 25.8
90-Th-228
Thorium-228
Historically also called Radiothorium
Mode of decay: alpha into Ra-224
Eα (keV) Iα (%)
5340.36 27.2
5423.15 72.2
88-Ra-224
Radium-224
Half-life: 3.7 days
Historically also called Thorium X
Mode of decay: alpha into Rn-220
Eα (keV) Iα (%)
5448.6 5.06
5685.37 94.92
86-Rn-220
Radon-220, noble gas
Half-life: 55.6 seconds
Historically also called Thoron
Eα (keV) Iα (%)
6288.08 99.886
84-Po-216
Polonium-216
Half-life: 0.145 s
Historically also called Thorium A
Eα (keV) Iα (%)
6778.3 99.9981

568
CASSY Lab 2
82-Pb-212
Lead-212
Half-life: 10.64 hours
Historically also called Thorium B
Eγ (keV) Iγ (%)
238.632 43.3
83-Bi-212
Bismuth-212
Historically also called Thorium C
Mode of decay:64 % beta into Po-212
36 % alpha into Tl-208
Eα (keV) Iα (%)
6050.78 70
6089.88 27
84-Po-212
Polonium-212
Half-life: 0.299 μs
Historically also called Thorium C'
Eα (keV) Iα (%)
8784.37 100
81-Tl-208
Thallium-208
Historically also called Thorium C''
Mode of decay: beta into Pb-208
Eγ (keV) Iγ (%)
510.77 22.6
583.191 84.5
2614.533 99
82-Pb-208
Lead-208
Stable

569
CASSY Lab 2
Radioactive series
The decay of natural radioactive elements mainly occurs through α and β decay. Excited nuclear states that arise
occasionally also emit γ radiation. In α decay, the masses of nuclei change by four nucleon masses, whereas the
mass change in β and γ decay is negligible. Thus a nucleus can change its mass only by multiples of 4 nucleon
masses in these modes of decay. Therefore all natural radioactive nuclei can be assigned to one of four radioactive
series according to their mass number. These series contain the nuclei with the mass numbers 4n, 4n+1, 4n+2 or
4n+3 respectively. Each of the series has a long-lived starting isotope. When the parent nucleus undergoes its first
decay, the subsequent decays follow at a relative quick rate until the stable final nucleus is reached.
Mass Examples
4n+0 Th-232, Ra-228, Ra-224, Pb-208
4n+1 Np-237, U-233, Bi-209
4n+2 U-238, Ra-226, Pb-206
4n+3 U-235, Ra-223, Pb-207
The 4n+1 series is very rare in nature because the isotope Np-237 has a half-life of only 2 million years. Since the
earth came into being, it has almost entirely decayed. The parent isotopes of the other three series have half-lives of
the order of magnitude of billion years.
There are other ways for atomic nuclei than α and β decay to decay, e.g. by evaporating neutrons or spontaneous
fission so that a transition between the 4n+x groups is possible. However, in natural nuclei these decay channels are
rather seldom. For instance, in uranium-235 one nucleus out of 14 billion decays in a spontaneous fission, all others
through α decay.

570
CASSY Lab 2
Index
Characteristic 307, 308, 310, 312
A Characteristic X radiation 551
Charging 283, 285, 287
Absorption 384, 495 Chemistry 412
Acetic acid 421, 442, 491 Clarke transformation 36
Acoustics 229, 247, 249 Cleaning agents 418
Activation code 11 Climate 516
Activation parameters 473 Clipboard 15, 20
Activity determination 386 CO2 500
Age determination 378 Cobalt 559
Air 221, 233, 235, 237, 372, 374 Coincidence 394, 397
Akima 17 Collision 169, 172, 174, 176, 184
Aluminum 376 Column assignment 15, 37
Americium 560 Compton effect 363, 390, 552, 553
Ampere definition 267 Concentration 439
Amplitude 200 Conduction 401
Analog input 26 Conductivity 442, 445, 459, 463, 469, 473, 485,
Analog output 33 491
Angular correlation 394 Control 314, 316, 318
Angular momentum 184 Conversion 551
Antenna technology 542 Coordinates 17
Append 14, 23 Copy 15, 20
ASCII 116 Correcting 27
Automatic recording 22 Correlation 35
Automatic titration 445, 448 Coulomb's law 259
Axes 17 Coupled oscillators 293
Axis assignment 16, 37 Coupled pendulums 224, 226
Cryoscopy 432
B Crystal 67
Balance 116, 457, 466 D

Band pass 299
Bars 17 Damped oscillator circuit 289, 291
Beats 229 Data logger 84
Best-fit straight line 18 Degree of dissociation 491
Biology 503 Delete 15, 20, 23
Blood pressure 510 Derivation 35
Bluetooth 75 Detector 549
Bragg reflection 341, 356, 359, 361 Diastole 20
Brightness 316 Difference 18
Buffer 424 Differential equations 35
Bunsen burner 413 Differential thermal analysis 477
Diffraction at a single slit 320
C Diffraction at multiple slits 323
Digital input 33
Cable capacitances 287 Digital output 33
Caesium 557 Digital spectrophotometer 117
Calibration 27, 30 Diode 308, 550
Calorimetry 482 Discharging 283, 285, 287
CAN bus 20, 528, 530 Display 37
Capacitor 283, 285, 287 Dissociation constant 491
CASSY 73 Distance 18, 153
CASSY Lab 2 11 Drive engineering 547
CASSY-Display 84, 516 Drop counter 448
Catalysis 459
Caustic soda solution 436, 442 E
Centrifugal force 186, 188
CFC 497 ECG 507

571
CASSY Lab 2
Electrocardiogram 507 H
Electromyogram 509
Elementary charge 332 Half-life 368
EMG 509 Harmonic analysis 243, 245
Energy 30, 169, 184 Heat 141, 144, 147, 149, 151, 250, 253
Energy loss 372, 374, 376 High-pass 299, 304
Energy, electrical 253 Histogram 35
Energy, mechanical 250 Horizontal Line 17
Energy, thermal 250, 253 Hot air engine 256
Enthalpy 477 Household vinegar 439
Envelope 18 Hydrochloric acid 436, 457, 466
Enzyme 459 Hydrolysis 463, 469, 473
Equivalence point 19 Hyperbola fit 18
Equivalent conductivity 488 Hysteresis 403
Escape 553
Ethyl acetate 469, 473 I
Evaluations 16
Exponential fit 18 I2C 526
Ignition 519
F Incandescent lamp 307
Induction 270, 273
Faraday 270, 274 Input 27
FFT 224, 226, 243, 245 Installation 8
Filter 299, 301, 304 Integral 18, 35
Fine structure 359, 361 Interaction 550
Fit function 18 Interpolation 17
Font size 15 IR 500
Foodstuffs 415 IRPD 116
Force 259, 262, 265, 267
Form factor 19 J
Formula 23, 35, 69, 72
Fourier transform 35, 243, 245 Joule and wattmeter 97, 98
Franck-Hertz 335, 338
Free fall 178, 180 K
Free fit 18
Freezing mixture 480 Kinetics 459, 463, 466, 469, 473
Freezing-point depression 432, 480 Kohlrausch 488, 491
Frequency analysis 243, 245
Friction 214, 217, 219, 221 L
Frictional force 250
Frictional work 250 LabVIEW 10
Function generator 32 Law of distance (inverse square law) 326
Licence code 11
G Light 326
Light barrier 158, 160
Gas 238 Limiting equivalent conductivity 488, 491
Gas chromatography 451, 453, 455 LIN bus 20
Gaussian distribution 19 Line width 17
Gaussians 18 Lines 17, 555
g-ladder 178, 180 Liquid 219, 221
Gold 376 Low-pass 299, 301
g-pendulum 204 Lubricant 217
Greek symbols 34 Lung volume 514
Greenhouse 500
Grid 17 M
Gunn oscillator 534
Gyroscope 190, 192 Mach 204
Machine 39
Machine Test CASSY 108, 109
Magnetic field 262, 265, 273

572
CASSY Lab 2
Mains AC voltage 281 Other devices 116, 117, 118

Manual recording 23 Ozone 497
Marble 457, 466
Marker 17 P
Maschine parameters 41
Mass 457 Parabola fit 18
MATLAB 10 Parallel connection of resistors 135
Matter 550 Parameter 34
Maximum 19 PCM 532
MCA 550 Peak center 18
MCA box 29 Peak integral 18
Mean value 18, 35 Pendulum 194, 196, 198, 200, 202, 204, 207, 209,
Measurement series 14, 23 211, 214, 217, 219, 221, 224, 226
Measuring condition 23 Period of oscillation 209
Measuring quantities 26 pH 415, 418, 439, 442, 445
Measuring range 26 Phase shift 28
Measuring time 22 Phosphoric acid 424
Melt 429 Photometer 117
Melting curve 427, 429 Physics 155
Melting enthalpy 482 PI controller 314, 316, 318
Melting point 427 Piston burette 445
Mercury 335 pKa value 421
MFA 2001 116 Planck's quantum of action 344
Micro-CASSY 94, 95, 96 Pocket-CASSY 85, 86
Microwave propagation 539 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 87, 88
Microwave technology 534 Poisson distribution 18, 366
Millikan 332 Polar 37
Minimum 19 Potassium 561
Mixture formation 522 Potentiometer 137, 139
Mobile-CASSY 90, 91 Power 279, 281, 312
Mobile-CASSY 2 92, 93 Power Analyser CASSY 105, 107
Modeling 35, 180, 198, 211, 214, 217, 219, 221, Power factor 28
228, 285, 291, 297, 301, 304 Power-CASSY 26, 28, 32, 80, 81
Modulation 532 Precession 190
Molar mass determination 432 Profi-CASSY 26, 28, 32, 33, 82, 83
Momentum 169, 172, 174, 176 Pulse 504
Moseley's law 347, 350, 353 pV diagramm 256
Motion 121, 123, 125, 127, 129, 158, 160, 162,
164, 165, 167, 182 Q
Motion equation 167, 182
Motor vehicle 519, 522, 526, 528, 530 Quantization 532
Muons 399
R
N
Radio 526
NaH2PO4 445 Radioactive serie 567, 570
Neon 338 Radium 561
Newton 167, 182 Radium decay 563
Newton definition 165 Radon 368
NH3 445 Reaction order 459, 463, 466, 469
Nutation 192 Reaction time 512
Rechargeable Battery for Pocket-CASSY 89
O Relay 31
Resistance 401
Ohm's law 131, 133, 135 Resonance 295, 297
On-board computer 526 Reversible pendulum 202
Oscillation 194, 196, 198, 200, 202, 204, 207, 211, Ripple 19
214, 217, 219, 221, 224, 226, 289, 291, 293, 295, Rotating antenna platform 118
297 Rulers 17
Ostwald 491

573
CASSY Lab 2
S Text 17
Thermometer 117
Scintillation counter 380, 388, 549 Thorium 566, 567
SDK 10 Three-body problem 228
Semiconductor counter 550 Time interval 22
Sensor boxes 26, 111 Titration 436, 439, 442, 445, 448
Sensor-CASSY 26, 28, 31, 76, 77 Transformer 277, 279
Sensor-CASSY 2 26, 28, 31, 78, 79 Transformer core 403
Sensors 26, 111 Transistor 310
Separation of air 455 Triangular interpolation 20
Separation of alcohols 453 Trigger 22
Separation of alkanes from lighter gas 451 Two-plate waveguide 536
Series 570 Two-position contoller 314
Series connection of resistors 133
Servo technology 547 U
Settings 22, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37, 65, 67,
73, 75 Ultrasound 162, 164, 176
sinc 17 Universal measuring instrument biology 103, 104
Skin resistance 505 Universal measuring instrument chemistry 101,
Sodium 558 102
Sodium chloride 488 Universal measuring instrument physics 99, 100
Software 10 UV 495, 497
Solar cell 312
Solid body 214, 241, 401
Solidification point 427, 429
V
Sonic synthesis 249 Values 17
Sound analysis 247 Velocity of light 328, 330
Sources 555 Velocity of sound 233, 235, 237, 238, 241
Spirometry 514 Vertical Line 17
Splitting of urea 459 VideoCom 116
Standing wave ratio 539 Voltage 318
STM 120 Voltage divider 137, 139
Stop condition 23 Voltage impulse 270
String vibrations 231 Voltage source 31
Strong acid 436
Strong base 436, 442
Strontium 559
W
Sun protection 495 Water of cristallization 477
Supercooling 429 Wave optics 320, 323
Syntax 69 Waveguide 539
Systole 20 Weak acid 442, 445
Weak base 445
T Wheatstone's bridge 139
Table 15
Table row 15
X
Tangent 18 X radiation 357, 363, 551
TE modes 536 X-ray apparatus 65, 110
Technical data 77, 79, 81, 83, 85, 87, 89, 90, 93, X-ray energies 18
95, 98, 100, 102, 104, 107, 109 X-ray fluorescence 350, 353, 406, 409, 551
Technology 518
TEM modes 538
Temperature 314, 413, 427
Z
Tensile force 231 Zoom 17

574

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CASSY Lab 2

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

Home licence (524 220H)

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

Sensors and sensor boxes 111

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

Acoustic beats 229

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

α spectroscopy of radioactive samples (Am-241) 370

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

Long-term measurement of climate data 516

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

Important information after installing CASSY Lab 2

Using the software with other measuring instruments

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

New features in CASSY Lab 2

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

There are only a few idiosyncrasies to be observed:

User programs for CASSY

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

File → Open (F3)

File → Save (F2)

File → Page Setup

File → Print Preview

Text export and import

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

Measurement → Start/Stop Measurement (F9)

Measurement → Continue Measurement

Measurement → Append new Measurement Series

Measurement → Select Measurement Series

Measurement → Delete Current Measurement Series

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

Editing measured values

Table → Change Column Header

Table → Select Font Size

Table → Delete last Row in Table (Alt+L)

Table → Copy Table

Table → Copy Window

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

Selecting a measured value

Marking a curve section

Drag & drop functionality

Diagram → Change Axis Assignment

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com

Diagramm → Display Coordinates (Alt+C)

Diagram → Select Line Width

Diagram → Select Value Display

Diagram → Select Rulers

Diagram → Show Grid

Diagram → Zoom (Alt+Z)

Diagram → Zoom Off (Alt+O)

Diagram → Set Marker

Diagram → Set Marker → Text (Alt+T)

Diagram → Set Marker → Vertical Line (Alt+V)

Diagram → Set Marker → Horizontal Line (Alt+H)

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstrasse 1 · D-50354 Huerth · www.ld-didactic.com