Lecture 3

Topics of the lecture
Exclusive OR connective
Conditional-disjunction equivalence
Proof using logical equivalences
Predicates
Quantification and Quantifiers
Quiz
About Conditional Statement
In a conditional statement p→q, p is called ”hypothesis” or

”antecedent” and q is called ”conclusion” or ”consequent”.
Exclusive OR
A connective in logic that yields the truth value ”T” if exactly one
of the propositions involved are true, otherwise false. It is also
known as ”XOR”.
Exclusive OR
A connective in logic that yields the truth value ”T” if exactly one
of the propositions involved are true, otherwise false. It is also
known as ”XOR”. The truth table for ”XOR” connective is as
follows:
p q p⊕q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
p→q≡∼p∨q or p→q↔∼p∨q is a tautology

p→q≡∼p∨q or p→q↔∼p∨q is a tautology

p q p→q ∼p ∼p∨q p→q↔∼p∨q
T T T F T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
Use of logical equivalences
Prove that ∼(p→q) and p∧ ∼q are logically equivalent.

Use of logical equivalences
Prove that ∼(p→q) and p∧ ∼q are logically equivalent.
Proof:
∼ (p → q) ≡∼ (∼ p ∨ q) [Using conditional-disjunction equivalence]

≡∼ (∼ p)∧ ∼ q [Using De Morgan’s law]
≡ p∧ ∼ q [Using double negation law].
Predicates
Let us consider the following statement : ”x is greater than 3”. It

has two parts. The first part is the variable x, which is called the
subject of the statement. The second part ”is greater than 3” is
called the predicate.
Predicates
Let us consider the following statement : ”x is greater than 3”. It

has two parts. The first part is the variable x, which is called the
subject of the statement. The second part ”is greater than 3” is
called the predicate.
Predicate is the property that the subject of a subject can have.
Notation
We denote the statement ”x is greater than 3” by P(x), where P

denotes the predicate ”is greater than 3” and x is the variable.The
statement P(x) is also said to be the value of the propositional
function P at x. Once a value has been assigned to the variable x,
the statement P(x) becomes a proposition and has a truth value.
Example
Let P(x) denote the statement ”x > 3”. What are the truth
values of P(4) and P(2)?
Example
Solution:P(4) : 4 > 3. TRUE.

Example
Solution:P(4) : 4 > 3. TRUE. P(2) : 2 > 3. FALSE

Quantification and quantifiers
When the variables in a propositional function are assigned values,

the resulting statement becomes a proposition with a certain truth
value.

value.
The way of creating a proposition from a propositional function is
called a quantification

value.
The way of creating a proposition from a propositional function is
called a quantification
Quantification expresses the extent to which a predicate is true

over a range of elements. The words, some, many , none, and few
are used in quantification. These words are termed as quantifiers.
Predicate calculus
The area of logic that deals with predicates and quantifiers is

called predicate calculus
Types of quantifiers
Universal quantification:Here, predicate is true for every element

under consideration.
Types of quantifiers
Universal quantification:Here, predicate is true for every element

under consideration.
Existential quantification:Here, there is one or more element

under consideration for which the predicate is true.
Quiz 1
What is a procedure that returns a value that signals true or false?
A. List
B. Predicate
C. Quantifier
D. Data
Quiz 1
What is a procedure that returns a value that signals true or false?
A. List
B. Predicate
C. Quantifier
D. Data
Answer: B.
Quiz 2
In a disjunction, even if one of the statements is false, the whole

disjunction is still
A. False
B. Negated
C. True
D. Both True and False
Quiz 2
In a disjunction, even if one of the statements is false, the whole

disjunction is still
A. False
B. Negated
C. True
D. Both True and False
Answer: C.
Quiz 3
The symbolization for a conjunction is
A. p→q
B. p& q
C. p∨q
D. ∼p
Quiz 3
The symbolization for a conjunction is
A. p→q
B. p& q
C. p∨q
D. ∼p
Answer: B.
Quiz 4
A conditional is false only when the antecedent is
A. true and the consequent is false

B. false and the consequent is false
C. true and the consequent is true
D. false and the consequent is true
Quiz 4
A conditional is false only when the antecedent is
A. true and the consequent is false

B. false and the consequent is false
C. true and the consequent is true
D. false and the consequent is true
Answer: A.
Quiz 5
Let P(x) denote ”x is a prime number”. Then, the truth values of

P(4) and P(91) are
A. T and F
B. T and T
C. F and T
D. F and F
Quiz 5
Let P(x) denote ”x is a prime number”. Then, the truth values of

P(4) and P(91) are
A. T and F
B. T and T
C. F and T
D. F and F
Answer: D

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Topics of the lecture

In a conditional statement p→q, p is called ”hypothesis” or

p→q≡∼p∨q or p→q↔∼p∨q is a tautology

p→q≡∼p∨q or p→q↔∼p∨q is a tautology

Prove that ∼(p→q) and p∧ ∼q are logically equivalent.

Prove that ∼(p→q) and p∧ ∼q are logically equivalent.

∼ (p → q) ≡∼ (∼ p ∨ q) [Using conditional-disjunction equivalence]

Let us consider the following statement : ”x is greater than 3”. It

Let us consider the following statement : ”x is greater than 3”. It

We denote the statement ”x is greater than 3” by P(x), where P

Solution:P(4) : 4 > 3. TRUE.

Solution:P(4) : 4 > 3. TRUE. P(2) : 2 > 3. FALSE

When the variables in a propositional function are assigned values,

When the variables in a propositional function are assigned values,

When the variables in a propositional function are assigned values,

Quantification expresses the extent to which a predicate is true

The area of logic that deals with predicates and quantifiers is

Universal quantification:Here, predicate is true for every element

Universal quantification:Here, predicate is true for every element

Existential quantification:Here, there is one or more element

What is a procedure that returns a value that signals true or false?

What is a procedure that returns a value that signals true or false?

In a disjunction, even if one of the statements is false, the whole

In a disjunction, even if one of the statements is false, the whole

The symbolization for a conjunction is

The symbolization for a conjunction is

A conditional is false only when the antecedent is

A. true and the consequent is false

A conditional is false only when the antecedent is

A. true and the consequent is false

Let P(x) denote ”x is a prime number”. Then, the truth values of

Let P(x) denote ”x is a prime number”. Then, the truth values of

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