Chapter

1 20 79CH04

DETERMINANTS

•+• All Mathematical truths are relative and conditional. — C.P. STEINMETZ •+•

4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we have studied about matrices
and algebra of matrices. We have also learnt that a
system of algebraic equations can be expressed in the
form of matrices. This means, a system of linear
equations like
a, x + b, y = c,
•z x + b › = c v
= rc, d
||
can be represented as . Now, this
L°
system of equations has a unique solution or not, is
determined by the number a, b2 — a 2 b,. (Recall that if

or, a, b2
P.S. Laplace
— a 2 b, 0, then the system of linear
(1749-1827)
equations has a unique solution). The number a, b2 — a 2 b,

which determines uniqueness of solution is associated with the matrix A

= b°z
and is called the determinant of A or det A. Determinants have wide applications in
Engineering, Science, Economics, Social Science, etc.
In this chapter, we shall study determinants up to order three only with real
entries. Also, we will study various properties of determinants, minors, cofactors and
applications of determinants in finding the area of a triangle, adjoint and inverse of a
square matrix, consistency and inconsistency of system of linear equations and
solution of linear equations in two or three variables using inverse of a matrix.
4.2 Determinant
To every square matrix A = [a,] of order n, we can associate a number (real or
complex) called determinant of the square matrix A, where a = (i,y)" element of A.

2019-20
104 MATHEMATICS

This may be thought of as a function which associates each square matrix with a
unique number (real or complex). If M is the set of square matrices, K is the set of
numbers (real or complex) and f : M K is defined byf(A) = k, where A e M and
k o K, thenf(A) is called the determinant of A. It is also denoted by I A I or det A or
A.
a b a b
If A= , then determinant ofA is written as I A I = = det (A)
c d c d
Remarks
(i) For matrix A, I A I is read as determinant of A and not modulus of A.
(ii) Only square matrices have determinants.
4.2.1 Determinant of a matrix of order one
Let A= [a] be the matrix of order 1, then determinant of A is defined to be equal to a
4.2.2 Determinant of a matrix of order two
2
Let A= ' be a matrix of order 2 x 2,
°z1 °z2
then the determinant of A is defined as:
„I a
det (A) = lAl = A = ,z
11‘22 ‘21 12

tf 22

2 4
Example 1 Evaluate p
› 2
2 4
Solution We have _J = 2(2) — 4(—1) = 4 + 4 = 8.
2
x x+1
Example 2 Evaluate
x —1 x
Solution We have
x x+1
2 $)
x —1 x - x (x) — (x + 1) ( — 1) = x2 ( x x
2 x
2+ 1
x

4.2.3 Determinant of a matrix of order 3 x 3

Determinant of a matrix of order three can be determined by expressing it in terms
of second order determinants. This is known as expansion of a determinant
along a row (or a column). There are six ways of expanding a determinant of order
 DETERMINANTS 105

3 corresponding to each of three rows (R„ R2 and R,) and three columns (C„ C2 and
C,) giving the same value as shown below.
Consider the determinant of square matrix A = [a ,] 3

11 12 13
i.e.,

Expansion along first Row (R1)

Step 1 Multiply first element a„ of R, by (—1)(' " [(—1)' u‘°' "" e' °o] and with the
second order determinant obtained by deleting the elements of first row (R,) and
first column (C,) of I A 1 as a„ lies in R, and C„

i.e.,
Step 2 Multiply 2nd element a, 2 of R, by (—1)'’ 2 [(—1)' u"°' "" e’' °U] and the second
order determinant obtained by deleting elements of first row (R,) and 2nd column
(C2) of I A I as a, 2 lies in R, and C2,

i.e.,
Step 3 Multiply third element a,3 of R, by (—1)' + 3 [(—1)' u"“ "" e •] and the
second order determinant obtained by deleting elements of first row (R,) and third
column (C,) of I A I as a,3 lies in R, and C„

Step 4 Now the expansion of determinant ofA, that is, I A I written as sum of all
three terms obtained in steps 1, 2 and 3 above is given by

det A = lAl = °2z °z3 + (—1)+' 2

‘ ' ‘
2
2
(—'’' 2

“ Hz °ss

21 22
+ (—l)"'
Al ’32

or lAl = a
l 1 ( 22 ‘33 ‘32 ‘23) 12 (‘21 ‘33 ‘31 ‘23)
+ O3 — Of
(‘21 ‘32 ‘22)
106 MATHEMATICS

‘11 ‘22 ‘33 11 ‘32 ‘23 ‘12 ‘21 ‘33 + ‘12 ‘31 ‘23 + ‘13 ‘21 ‘32

13 ‘31 ‘22 ... (1)

Note e sha l apply 1 four steps together

Expansion along second row (R2)
a,, a, 2 a„

Expanding along R2, we get

' ‘21 (‘12 ‘33 ‘32 13)+ ‘22 (‘11 ‘33 ‘31 13)

‘23 (‘11 ‘32 ‘31 12)

IA I = —
21 ‘12 ‘33 + ‘21 ‘32 ‘13 + ‘22 ‘11 ‘33 ‘22 ‘31 ‘13 ‘23 ‘11 ‘32

+ ‘23 ‘31 12

‘11 ‘22 ‘33 11 ‘23 ‘32 12 ‘21 ‘33 + ‘12 ‘23 ‘31 + ‘13 ‘21 ‘32
. (2)
13 31 22
Expansion along first Column (CI)

IA I= 21 ‘22 ‘23

By expanding along C„ we get

i + i °zz °zs (_ )z + i °iz °is

I A I = °i , (—1) 32 3 + °zi 2 33

‘11 (‘22 ‘33 ‘23 ‘32) ‘21 (‘12 ‘33 ‘13 ‘32) + ‘31 (‘12 ‘23 ‘13 ‘22)
 DETERMINANTS 107

IA I = a
11 ‘ 22 ‘33 11 ‘23 ‘32 ‘21 12 ‘33 + ‘21 13 ‘32 + ‘31 12 ‘23

‘31 13 ‘22

‘11 ‘22 ‘33 ‘11 ‘23 ‘32 12 ‘21 ‘33 + ‘12 ‘23 ‘31 + ‘13 ‘21 ‘32

13 ‘31 ‘22 (3)

Clearly, values of I A I in (1), (2) and (3) are equal. It is left as an exercise to the
reader to verify that the values of lAl by expanding along R„ C2 and C, are equal to
the value of I A I obtained in (1), (2) or (3).
Hence, expanding a determinant along any row or column gives same value.
Remarks
(i) For easier calculations, we shall expand the determinant along that row or
column which contains maximum number of zeros.
(ii) While expanding, instead of multiplying by (—1)"', we can multiply by +1 or
—1 according as (i +y) is even or odd.
2 2 i 1
(iii) Let A - and B = . Then, it is easy to verify that A = 2B.
4 2 0
Also I A I = 0 — 8 = — 8 and I B I = 0 — 2 = — 2.
Observe that, I A I = 4(— 2) = 22 I B I or I A I = 2" I B 1, where n = 2 is the order of
square matrices A and B.
In general, if A = kB where A and B are square matrices of order n, then I Al = k"
I B 1, where n = 1, 2, 3
1 2 4
Example 3 Evaluate the determinant A m —1 3 0
410

Solution Note that in the third column, two entries are zero. So expanding along third
column (C,), we get

—1 3 1 2 1 2
A= 4 —0 +0
4 1 4 1 —1 3
= 4 (—1 — 12) — 0 + 0 = — 52

0 sin ti — cos ti
Example 4 Evaluate A = — sin ti 0 sin §
cos ti — sin § 0
 108 MATHEMATICS

Solution Expanding along R„ we get

0 sin §
— sin ct sin § —sin Ct 0
A= Si ll CS
0 —sin § 0 cos a 0 cos ti —sin §

= 0 — sin Ct (0 — sin § cos ti) — cos ti (sin ti sin § — 0)

= sin ti sin § cos ti — cos ti sin ti sin § = 0
3 x 3 2
Example S Find values of x for which
x 1 41

3 x 3 2
Solution We have
x 1 41
i.e. 3 — x2 = 3 8
i.e. x2 = 8
Hence

EXERCISE 4
Evaluate the determinants in Exercises 1 and 2.
2 4

cos 8 —sin 8
(i) x2 — x + 1 x — 1
2. sin 8 cos 8
x+1 x+1

1 2
3. If A = , then 4show
2 that I 2A I = 4 I A I

1 0 1
4. If A= 0 1 2 , then show that 1 3 A I = 27 1 A I
0 0 4
5. Evaluate the determinants
3 —1 —2
3 —4 5
(i) 0 0 —1
(ii) 1 1 —2
3 —5 0
2 31
 DETERMINANTS 109

0 12 2 —1 —2
(iii) —1 0 —3 (iv) 0 2 —1
—2 3 0 3 —5 0

1 1 —2
6. If A = 2 1 —3 , find I A I
5 4 —9
7. Find values of x, if
2 4 2x 4 2 3 x 3
(i) (ii)
5 1 6 x 4 5 2x 5
x 2 6
8. I 2 then x is equal to
f
18 x 18 6
(A) 6 (B) + 6 (C) — (D) 0
4.3 Properties of 6
Determinants
In the previous section, we have learnt how to expand the determinants. In this
section, we will study some properties of determinants which simplifies its evaluation
by obtaining maximum number of zeros in a row or a column. These properties are
true for determinants of any order. However, we shall restrict ourselves upto
determinants of order 3 only.
Property 1 The value of the determinant remains unchanged if its rows and
columns are interchanged.
a, az a,
Verification Let A m bJ bz b

Expanding along first row, we get

-- a, (bz c, — b cz) *z (b, c, — b c,) + a, (b, cz bz c,)

By interchanging the rows and columns of A, we get the determinant
110 MATHEMATICS

Expanding A, along first column, we get

A, = a, (f›z c, — cz b$) z (b, c, — b c,) + a, (b, cz f›z c,)
Hence A = A,
Remark It follows from above property that if A is a square matrix, then
det (A) = det (A’), where A’ = transpose of A.

Note If R, = ith row and C, = ith column, then for interchange of row and
columns, we will symbolically write C, ‹-+ R
Let us verify the above property by example.
2 —3 5
Example 6 Verify Property 1 for A 6 0 4
1 5 —7
Solution Expanding the determinant along first row, we have
0 4 6 4
2 (—3) 6 0
+5
5 7 1 —7 15
= 2 (0 — 20) + 3 (— 42 — 4) + 5 (30 — 0)
= — 40 — 138 + 150 = — 28
By interchanging rows and columns, we get
2 6 1
@$ —3 0 5 (Expanding along first column)
5 4 —7
0 5 6 1
2 — (—3) 61
+5
4 —7 4 —7 05
= 2 (0 — 20) + 3 (— 42 — 4) + 5 (30 — 0)
= — 40 — 138 + 150 = — 28
Clearly A = A,
Hence, Property 1 is verified.
Property 2 If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then sign
of determinant changes.
a, az a,
Verification Let A by bz b$
c, cz c,
 DETERMINANTS 111

Expanding along first row, we get

A = a, (bz c, — b cz) *z b, c, — b c,) + at (b, cz bz c,)
Interchanging first and third rows, the new determinant obtained is given
by

Expanding along third row, we get

A, = a, (cz b — bz c,) *z (c, b — c, b,) + a, (bz c, — b, cz)
= — [a, (bz c, — by cz) *z (b, c, — b c,) + a, (b, cz bz c,)]
Clearly A, = — A
Similarly, we can verify the result by interchanging any two columns.

Note We can denote the interchange of rows by R ‹-+ R and interchange of

J
columns by C.* +-+ C I .

2 —3 5
Example 7 Verify Property 2 for A m 6 0 4
1 5 —7

2 —3 5
Solution A m 6 0 4 = — 28 (See Example
6)
1 5 —7

Interchanging rows R2 and @ i.e., R2 in R„ we have

2 —3 5
_ 1 5 —7
6 0 4
Expanding the determinant A, along first row, we have
1 —7 1 5
6 4 + 56 0
= 2 (20 — 0) + 3 (4 + 42) + 5 (0 — 30)
= 40 + 138 — 150 = 28
112 MATHEMATICS

Clearly
Hence, Property 2 is verified.
Property 3If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical(all
corresponding elements are same), then value of determinant is zero.
Proof If we interchange the identical rows (or columns) of the determinant A, then A
does not change. However, by Property 2, it follows that A has changed its sign
Therefore A = -- A
or A=0
Let us verify the above property by an example.
3 2 3
Example 8 Evaluate A m 2 2 3
3 2 3

Solution Expanding along first row, we get

A = 3 (6 -- 6) -- 2 (6 -- 9) + 3 (4 -- 6)
= 0 -- 2 (--3) + 3 (--2) = 6 -- 6 = 0
Here R, and R, are identical.
Property 4 If each element of a row (or a column) of a determinant is multiplied by a
constant k, then its value gets multiplied by k.

Verification Let A = °z bz Cz
a b c

and A, be the determinant obtained by multiplying the elements of the first row by k.
Then

kq kb kc
A, °z bz cz
a b c

Expanding along first row, we get

A, = k a, (bz ct -- b cz) k b (*z c, -- cz *s) + k c, (*z b bz *s)
-- k [a, (bz c, -- b cz) b (*z c, -- cz *›) + c, (*z b bz *s)]
-- k k
 DETERMINANTS 113

kq kb kc q b c
Hence

Remarks
(i) By this property, we can take out any common factor from any one row or
any one column of a given determinant.
(ii) If corresponding elements of any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are
proportional (in the same ratio), then its value is zero. For example

W °2 H
_Q by f›z b$ -- 0 (rows R, and R2 a r e pr Oport1OIl a l)
k } k °z k Q

102 18 36
Example 9Evaluate 1 3 4
17 3 6

102 18 36 6(17) 6(3) 6(6) 17 3 6

Solution Note that 1 3 4 = 1 3 4 =61 3 4=0
17 3 6 17 3 6 17 3 6

(Using Properties 3 and 4)

Property S If some or all elements of a row or column of a determinant are
expressed as sum of two (or more) terms, then the determinant can be expressed as
sum of two (or more) determinants.

For example, bJ bz b by bz by + by bz by

Verification L H.S. = b bz by
114 MATHEMATICS

Expanding the determinants along the first row, we get

A = (a, + k,) (f›z c, — cz b ) ( z + ‘z) (b, c, — b c,)
+ (a, + k,) (b, cz bz c,)
-- a, (bz c, — cz b$) *z (b, c, — b c,) + a, (b, cz bz c,)
+ k, (f›z c, — cz b$) ‘z (b, c, — b c,) + k, (b, cz f›z c,)
(by rearranging terms)

by bz b + by bz b = R.H.S.

a
Similarly, we may verify Property b other rows
5 for c or
Example 10 Show that < + 2x b + 2y c + 2z = 0
columns. x y z

a b c abc a b c
Solution We have < +2x b+2 y c+2z a b c + 2x 2y 2z
x y z xyz x y z

(by Property 5)
=0+0=0 (Using Property 3 and Property 4)
Property 6 If, to each element of any row or column of a determinant, the
equimultiples of corresponding elements of other row (or column) are added, then
value of determinant remains the same, i.e., the value of determinant remain same if
we apply the operation R —› R + kR or C C + k C
Verification

‘1 ‘2 ‘3 °i + °i °2 + k ^z °3 + k ^3
Let _q f› f›z f›3 and A, = f› f›z f›3
‘1 ‘2 ‘3 ‘1
°z ‘3
where A, is obtained by the operation R, —› R, + kR, .
Here, we have multiplied the elements of the third row (R,) by a constant k and
added them to the corresponding elements of the first row (R,).
Symbolically, we write this operation as R, —› R, + k R,.
 DETERMINANTS 115

Now, again

1 2 ‘3 ‘1 2 kc3

@ be be b3 + be be b3 (Using Property 5)
‘1 ‘2 ‘3 ‘1 2 ‘3

=A+0 (since R, and R, are proportional)

Hence A = A,
Remarks
(i) If A, is the determinant obtained by applying R, kR, or C, kC, to the
determinant A, then A, = kk.
(ii) If more than one operation like R, —› R, + kR is done in one step, care
should be taken to see that a row that is affected in one operation should not
be used in another operation. A similar remark applies to column operations.

a a+b a+b+c
Example 11 Prove that 2a 3a + 2b 4a + 3b + 2c = a°.
3a 6a + 3b 10a + 6b + 3c

Solution Applying operations R2 —› R2 — 2R, and R, —› R, — 3R, to the given

determinant A, we have

a a+b a+b+c
g_ 0 a 2a + b
0 3a 7a + 3b

Now applying R, —› @ — 3R2 , we get

a a+ a+b+c
_g 0 ba 2a + b
0 0 a

Expanding along C„ we obtain

a 2a + b
A= a +0+0
0 a
116 MATHEM ATI CS

Example 12 Without expanding, prove that

x+y y+y y+x
_g y x y =0
1 1 1
Solution Applying R, —› R, + R2 to A, we get
x+y+z x+y+z x+y+z
$— z x y
1 1 1
Since the elements of R, and R, are proportional, A = 0.
Example 1.3 Evaluate
1 a bc
g — 1 b ca
1 c ab
Solution Applying R2 —› R2 — R, and R, —› R, — R„ we get
1 a bc
g _— 0 b — a c (a — b)
0 c — a b (a — c)
Taking factors (b — a) and (c — a) common from R2 and R„ respectively, we get
1 a bc
@> (b — a)(c — a) 0 1 —c
0 1 —b

-— (b — a) (c — a) [(— b + c)] (Expanding along first column)

= (a — b) (b — c) (c — a)
b+c a a
Example 14 Prove that h C+a h = 4ahC

b+c a a
Solution Let A= b C -1-O b
c c a+b
 DETERMINANTS 117

Applying R, —› R, — R2 — R, to A, we get

0 —2c —2b
$—b c +a b
c c a+b
Expanding along R„ we
obtain b b b b c+a
— (—2 c) + (—2b)
c+a
A=0
a+b c a+b c c
= 2 c (a b + h2 — bc) — 2 b (b c — c2 — ac)
= 2 a b c + 2 ch — 2 bc — 2 b 2c + 2 bc2 + 2 abc
2 2

= 4 abc
x x" 1+ x’
Example 15 If x, y, z are different and A= y y" 1+ y =0, then
z z 1+ y
show that 1 + xyz -— 0
Solution We have
x x’ 1+ x’

x x’ 1 x x’ x’

(Using Property 5)
3

1 x x’ 1 x
x’
(Using C C2 and then C, C2 )
(—1)' 1 y y’ + xyz 1 y y'

1 x x’
1 y y' (1+ xyy)
 118 MATHEM ATI CS

1 x x’
(Using Rs—'
(1+Rxyy)
s—R0andy R,
— x—›y’R,—R
— x’ )
0 z — x z — x’
Taking out common factor ty — x) from R2 and (z — x) from R„ we get

1 x x’
$ — (1+xyy) (y—x) (z—x) 0 1 y+x
0 1 z+x

= (1 + xyz) ty — x) (y — x) (z — y) (on expanding along C,)

Since A = 0 and x, y, z are all different, i.e., x — y 0, y — z 0, z — x 0, we get
1 + xyz -— 0
Example 16 Show that
1+ a 1 1
—— abc+bc+ ca + at
1 1 1+ c
Solution Taking out factors a,b,c common from R„ R2 and R„ we get

1 1 1
+1

L.H.S. = abc
1 1 1
b b +1 b
1 1 1
c c +1

Applying R, —› R, + R2 + R„ we have

a b c a b c a b c
1 1 1
g _— abc — +1

c c c
 DETERMINANTS 119

abc
1 1 1
1 1
1+ + + +1
a b c b b b
1 1
c c c+1
Now applying C2 —› C2 — C„ C, —› C, — C„ we get

1 0 0
1 1 1
g > abc 1+ + —+ — — 1 0
b c b
1
0 1

abc 1+ —+ —+ —
ti(i —o)]
a b c
1 1 1
abc 1+— + — + — = abc + bc + ca + ab -- R.H.S.
a b c

Note Al e ately by apply ng d hen apply

C, —+ C, — a C 3.

E ERCISE 4 2
Using the property of determinants and without expanding in Exercises 1 to 7, prove
that:
x a x+a c r z
1. y b y+b —— 0
z c z+c

2 7 65
3. 3 8 75 = 0
5 9 86

b+c q+r y+z a p x

s. c+a r+p z+x ——2 b q
y a+b p+q x+y
 a—b b—c c—a
2. b — c c — a a — b ——
0c —a a —b b —c

1 bc a(b + c)
4. 1 ca b(c + a) = 0
1 ab c(a + b)
120 MATHEMATICS

2
0 a —b —0 ab ac
2 2 2 2
6. a 0 —C ——0 7. ba —b bc ——4 a b c
b c 0 ca cb —c 2
By using properties of determinants, in Exercises 8 to 14, show that:
1 a oz
8. (i) 1 b b2 -(a — b)(b — c)(c — a)
1 c c2

1 1 1
(}t) a b c ——(a — b)(b — c)(c — a)(a + b+
a b' c)
c'

x+ 4 2x 2x
10. (i) 2x x+ 4 2x ——(5x + 4)(4 —
x)*
2x 2x x+ 4

y+k y y
(ii) 1 -b k f —— k 2 (3 y+ k)
y y y+k

a—b—c 2a 2a
11. (i) 2b b—C—O 2b =(a + b+ c)’
2c 2c c—a—b

x + y + 2z x y
(ii) z y + z + 2x y =2(x + y + z)'
z x z + x + 2y
 DETERMINANTS 121

1+ a 2 — b2 2af› —2f›
13. 2ab l— a 2 + b2 2a =(1+ a 2 + b2
)' 2b —2a 1— a 2 — f› 2

a2+1 ab ac
14. ab b2 +1 bc ——1+ a 2 + b2 + c2
ca cb c2 +1

Choose the correct answer in Exercises 15 and 16.

15. Let A be a square matrix of order 3 x 3, then I kA I is equal to
(A) k\ A I (B) k2 I A I (C) k’ A I (D) 3k I A I
16. Which of the following is correct
(A) Determinant is a square matrix.
(B) Determinant is a number associated to a matrix.
(C) Determinant is a number associated to a square matrix.
(D) None of these
4.4 Area of a Triangle
In earlier classes, we have studied that the area of a triangle whose vertices are

(x„ y,), (xc › ) and (x , y,), is given by the expression 2 [x ,t z—v›t + xc (›.—›.) +
x (y,—y2)]. Now this expression can be written in the form of a determinant as
x, y, 1
x, y, 1
x, y 1
Remarks
(i) Since area is a positive quantity, we always take the absolute value of the
determinant in (1).
122 MATHEMATICS

(ii) If area is given, use both positive and negative values of the determinant for
calculation.
(iii) The area of the triangle formed by three collinear points is zero.
Example 17 Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (3, 8), (— 4, 2) and (5,
1).
Solution The area of triangle is given by
3 8 1
—4 2 1

t3(2—1) —8(—4— 5)+ 1(—4—10)]

1 61
(3 + 72 —14) =
2 2
Example 18 Find the equation of the line joining A(1, 3) and B (0, 0) using
determinants and find k if D(k, 0) is a point such that area of triangle ABD is 3sq
units.
Solution Let P(x, y) be any point on AB. Then, area of triangle ABP is zero (Why?).
So
0 01
— 1 31= 0
2
x y1
1
This gives 2 (y — 3x or y 3x,

which is the equation of required line AB.

Also, since the area of the triangle ABD is 3 sq. units, we have
1 31
0 01=+3
2
k 01
k
This gives, 2 + 3, i.e., k -- y 2.

EXERCISE 4 3
1. Find area of the triangle with vertices at the point given in each of the
following : (i) (1, 0), (6, 0), (4, 3) (ii) (2, 7), (1, 1), (10, 8)
(iii) (—2, —3), (3, 2), (—1, —8)
 DETERMINANTS 123

2. Show that points

A (a, b + c), B (b, c + a), C (c, a + b) are collinear.
3. Find values of k if area of triangle is 4 sq. units and vertices are
(i) (k, 0), (4, 0), (0, 2) (ii) (—2, 0), (0, 4), (0, k)
4. (i) Find equation of line joining (1, 2) and (3, 6) using determinants.
(ii) Find equation of line joining (3, 1) and (9, 3) using determinants.
5. If area of triangle is 35 sq units with vertices (2, — 6), (5, 4) and (k, 4). Then
k is (A) 12 (B) —2 (C) —12, —2 (D) 12, —2
4.5 Minors and Cofactors
In this section, we will learn to write the expansion of a determinant in compact
form using minors and cofactors.
Definition 1 Minor of an element a, of a determinant is the determinant obtained by
deleting its ith row andyth column in which element a, lies. Minor of an element a,
is denoted by M .
Remark Minor of an element of a determinant of order n(n k 2) is a determinant of
order n — 1.
1 2 3
Example 19 Find the minor of element 6 in the determinant A = 4 5 6
7 8 9

Solution Since 6 lies in the second row and third column, its minor M32 is given by
1 2
M23' = 8 — 14 = — 6 (obtained by deleting Rs a fl d C. lfl °)
7 8
Definition 2 Cofactor of an element a, , denoted by A, is defined by
A, = (—1)' *' M, , where M, is minor of a, .

1 —2
Example 20 Find minors and cofactors of all the elements of the determinant
4 3
Solution Minor of the element a, is M,
Here a„ = 1. So M„ = Minor of a„= 3
M,2 = Minor of the element a, 2 = 4
M2, = Minor of the element a2, = —2
 124 MATHEMATICS

M22 — Minor of the element a22 — 1

Now, cofactor of a is A . So
A„ = (—1)' + ' M„ = (—1)2 (3) = 3
A, 2 = ( 1)' + 2 M, 2= (—1)° (4) = — 4
A ' = ( 1)2 + ' M , = (—1)° (—2) = 2
2 2

A 2z ' ( ' ) + 2 2
M 2z ' ( ) 4 (1) ' 1

Example 21 Find minors and cofactors of the elements a„, a2, in the determinant

Solution By definition of minors and cofactors, we have

22 23
Minor of a„ = MQ ,„ ‘ 22 ‘33 ‘23 ‘32
2
p
Cofactor of a„ = A„ = (—1)'+' M, - ‘ 22 ‘33 ‘23 ‘32
2 3
Minor of • . — M 2 — — ‘12 ‘33 ‘13 ‘32
32 33

2
Cofactor of a , =2 A , = (—1)
2
+' M , = (—1)
2
(a 2 s is sz) ' iz ss+ is sz
Remark Expanding the determinant A, in Example 21, along R„ we have

' All + ‘iz Aiz+ A 3, where A; is cofactor of a;

= sum of product of elements of R, with their corresponding cofactors
Similarly, A can be calculated by other five ways of expansion that is along R2,
R„ C„ Co and C,.
Hence A = sum of the product of elements of any row (or column) with their
corresponding cofactors.

ements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any other row (or column), then their sum is zero. For
 DETERMINANTS 125

Example 22 Find minors and cofactors of the elements of the determinant

2 —3 5
6 0 4 and verify that a A›i+ ‘iz All + 3 A 3' 0
1 5 7

0 4
Solution We have M„- —7 = 0 —20 = —20; A„ = (—1)’*' (—20) = —20
6 4
' 1 —7 ' — 42 — 4 = — 46; A„ = (—1)’*2 (— 46) = 46

6 0
' 30 — 0 = 30; A3 ' (—1)’“ (30) = 30
3 1 5

—3 5
2' 5 7 > 21 — 25 = — 4; A2 ' (—1)2*' (— 4) = 4

2 5
2 1 —7 —14 — 5 = —19; A , = (—1)2*2 (—19) = —19
' 2

2 —3
23 1 5 ' 10 + 3 = 13; A32 ' (—1) 2“ (13) = —13

—3 5
—12 — 0 = —12; A, = (—1)"* (—12) = —12
' 0 4'
 126 MATHEMATICS

M,2
2 5 — 8 — 30 = — A, =2( 1)°+2 (—22) = 22
22;
6 4
and M, A3 ' ( 1)"+3 (18) = 18
3 2 —3
—
6 0' 0 + 18 = 18;
Now a„ - 2
*iz 3 3 ' 5; All' —12a Asz 22a A3 ' 18
So a„ All + ‘iz Asz+ A3
= 2 (—12) + (—3) (22) + 5 (18) = —24 — 66 + 90 = 0

EXERCISE 4 4
Write Minors and Cofactors of the elements of following determinants:
2 —4 a c
' 0 3 b d

10 0 10 4
2. (i) 0 1 0 (ii) 3 5 —1
001 012

5 3 8
3. Using Cofactors of elements of second row, evaluate A 2 0 1
12 3
1 x yz
4. Using Cofactors of elements of third column, evaluate A = M

°ll °iz °is

5. If A = ^ ^ ^ and A is Cofactors of a , then value of A is given by

In the previous chapter, we have studied inverse of a matrix. In this section, we shall
discuss the condition for existence of inverse of a matrix.
To find inverse of a matrix A, i.e., A ' we shall first define adjoint of a matrix.
 DETERMINANTS 127

4 6.1 Adjoint of a matrix

Definition 3 The adjoint of a square matrix A = [a, ], „ is defined as the transpose of
the matrix [A, ]„„ where A, is the cofactor of the element a, . Adjoint of the matrix
A is denoted by adj A.

Let
‘11 2 ‘13
A - °zi °zz °zs

A}} Aiz A}@ A}} Azi A@}

Then OdJA=Transposeof Az› Azz Azs - Aiz Azz Asz
A@} Asz A@@ A}@ Azs A@@

2 3
Example 23 Find adj A for A =
1 4
Solution We have A„ = 4, Ai2 Azi 3 Azz 2 Hence
A}} Azi 4 3
adj A = A
iz A zz 2
Remark For a square matrix of order 2, given by

’11 ’12
A=
’21 ’22

The adj A can also be obtained by interchanging a„ and a 22 and by changing

signs
of •. and • . i.e.,
a ii a,, — a„

a 2,a „ a„

We state the following theorem without proof.

Theorem 1 If A be any given square matrix of order n, then

A(ady A) = (adj A) A = AJ I ,
where I is the identity matrix of order n
128 MATHEMATICS

Verification

°ii °iz °is A}} A zi A@}

Let A= °zi °zz °zs , then adj A= Ai2 Azz Asz
°s °sz °ss A}@ Azs A@@
Since sum of product of elements of a row (or a column) with corresponding
cofactors is equal to I A I and otherwise zero, we have

AJ 0 0 1 0 0
A (adj A) = 0 AJ 0 |AJ 0 1 0 |AJ I
0 0 AJ 0 0 1

Similarly, we can show (adj A) A = AJ I

Hence A (adj A) = (adj A) A = AJ I

Definition 4 A square matrix A is said to be singular if AJ = 0.

1 2
For example, the determinant of matrix A 4 g is zero
Hence A is a singular matrix.
Definition 5 A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if AJ z 0

12 12
Let A= . Then > 4 — 6 = — 2 0.
34
Hence A is a nonsingular matrix 3 4
We state the following theorems without proof.
Theorem 2 If A and B are nonsingular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA
are also nonsingular matrices of the same order.
Theorem 3 The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of their
respective determinants, that is, |ABJ = AJ BJ , where A and B are square matrices
of the same order
AJ 0 0
Remark We know that (adj A) A = AJ I = 0 AJ 0 , AJ z 0
0 0 AJ
 DETERMINANTS 129

Writing determinants of matrices on both sides, we have

10 0
i.e. \(adj A)l lAl = AJ 0 1 0 (Why?)
0 0 1
i.e. (adj A)l lAl = I A1° (1)
i.e. (adj A)l = I A 1 2
In general, if A is a square matrix of order n, then I adj(A) = I A1" '.
Theorem 4 A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is nonsingular matrix.
Proof Let A be invertible matrix of order n and I be the identity matrix of order n.
Then, there exists a square matrix B of order n such that AB = BA = I
Now AB = I. So |ABJ = IQ or AJ BJ = 1 (since IQ=1, ABS=JAJ BJ)

This gives AJ z 0. Hence A is

nonsingular. Conversely, let A be nonsingular.

Then AJ z 0

Now A (adj A) = (adj A) A = AJ I (Theorem 1)

1 adJA = 1
or A adJA A = I
IA IA I
I
i
or AB = BA = I, where B = adJA
AI
i
Thus A is invertible and A ' —
adJA
A
1 3 3
Example 24 If A = 1 4 3 , then verify that A adj A = I A I I. Also find A '.
1 3 4

Solution We have AJ = 1 (16 — 9) —3 (4 — 3) + 3 (3 — 4) = 1 z 0

 130 MATHEMATICS

7 —3 —3
Therefore adj A= 1 0
—i o 1

1 3 3 7 —3 —3
Now A(adjA)= 1 4 3 —1 1 0
13 4 —1 0 1

7—3—3 —3+3+0 —3+0+ 3

7 —4 — —3 + 4 + —3 + 0 + 3
3 0
7—3— —3 + 3 + —3 + 0 + 4
4 0

1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 (1) 0 1 0 = AJ . I
0 0 1 0 0 1

7 —3 —3 7 —3 —3
adjA—1 1 0 = -1 1 0
A'=
1
—1 0 1 -1 0 1
1
2 3 and B = 1 —2
Example 25 If A =
1 —4 —1 3 , then verify that (AB) ' = B 'A '.

2 3 1 —2 —1 5
Solution We have AB =
1 —4 —1 3 5 —14
Since, | = —11 z 0, (AB) ' exists and is given by

1 —14 —5 1 14 5
adj(AB)=— ii —5 —i s i
Further, AJ = —11 z 0 and BJ = 1 z 0. Therefore, A ' and B ' both exist and are
given by
1 —4 —3
A'— 3 2
11 —1 2
,B”=
1 1
 DETERMINANTS 131

1 3 2 —4 —3 1 —14 —5 1 14 5
Therefore B ’A = —11 1 1 —1 2 11 —5 —1 11 5 1
Hence (AB) ' = B ' A '

2 3
Example 26 Show that the matrix A = i 2 satisfies the equation A2 — 4A + I =
O, where I is 2 x 2 identity matrix and O is 2 x 2 zero matrix. Using this equation,
find A '.

Solution We have A2 =A.A= 2 3 2 3 _ 7 12

1 2 1 2 4 7

Hence A2 —4A +
I= 00
7 12 8 12 1 0 = =O
— +
4 7 4 8 0 1 00
Now A2 — 4A + I = O
Therefore A A — 4A = — I
or A A (A ') — 4 AA ' = — I A ' (Post multiplying by A ' because lAl z
0) or A (A A ') — 4I = — A '
or AI — 4I = — A '
4 0 2 3 2 —3
or A' 4I — A
0 4 1 2 —1 2
2 —3
A*' =
Hence
—1 2

EXERCISE 4 5
Find adjoint of each of the matrices in Exercises 1 and 2.
1 —1 2
1 2
2. 2 3 5
' 3 4
—2 0 1
Verify A (adj A) = (adj A) A = I A I I in Exercises 3 and 4
1—1 2
2 3
3 0 —2
3- —6 4.
10 3
132 MATHEMATICS

Find the inverse of each of the matrices (if it exists) given in Exercises 5 to 11.
12 3
2 —2 —i 5
5.
6.
—3 2 7. 0 2 4
4 3 0 0 5

10 0 213 1—12
g. 3 3 0 q, 4 —10 tq. 0 2 —3
5 2 —1 —7 21 3 —2 4

1 0 0
11. 0 cos ti sin Ct
0 sin Ct — cos ti
3 7 6 8
12. Let A - and B - . Verify that (AB) ' = B ' A '.
2 5 7 9
3 1
13. If A = , show that A2 — 5A + 71 = 0. Hence find A '
—1 2

3 2
14. For the matrix A= , find the numbers a and b such that A2 + aA + bI = 0.

i i 1
15. For the matrix A = 1 2 —3
2 —1 3
Show that A"— 6A2 + 5A + 11 I = 0. Hence, find A '.
2 —1 1
16. If A = —1 2 —1
1 —1 2
Verify that A" — 6A2 + 9A — 4I = O and hence find A '
17. Let A be a nonsingular square matrix of order 3 x 3. Then I adj A I is equal to
(A) I A I (B) I A 1 2 (C) I A 1° (D) 31A I
18. If A is an invertible matrix of order 2, then det (A ') is equal
to i
(A) det (A) (B) ‘) ’ (D) 0
det (A)
 DETERMINANTS 133

4.7 Applications of Determinants and Matrices

In this section, we shall discuss application of determinants and matrices for solving
the system of linear equations in two or three variables and for checking the
consistency of the system of linear equations.
Consistent system A system of equations is said to be consistent if its solution (one
or more) exists.
Inconsistent system A system of equations is said to be inconsistent if its solution
does not exist.

Note In this chapter e restrict o selves to e systeof 1 nee uat ons

having unique solutions only.
4.7.1 Solution of system of linear equations using inverse of a matrix
Let us express the system of linear equations as matrix equations and solve them
using inverse of the coefficient matrix.
Consider the system of equations
a, x + b, y + c, z = d,
•z x + b › + cv - dz
a, x + b y + ct z = d
q b c x d
Let A = °z bz cv , X = y v and B= d
a b c z d
Then, the system of equations can be written as, AX = B, i.e.,
q b c x d

Case I If A is a nonsingular matrix, then its inverse exists. Now

AX = B
or A ' (AX) = A ' B (premultiplying by A ')
or (A 'A) X = A ' B (by associative property)
or IX=A'B
or X=A'B
This matrix equation provides unique solution for the given system of equations
as inverse of a matrix is unique. This method of solving system of equations is
known as Matrix Method.
134 MATHEMATICS

Case II If A is a singular matrix, then I A I = 0.

In this case, we calculate (adj A) B.
If (adj A) B z O, (O being zero matrix), then solution does not exist and the
system of equations is called inconsistent.
If (adj A) B = O, then system may be either consistent or inconsistent according
as the system have either infinitely many solutions or no solution.
Example 27 Solve the system of equations
2x + 5y = 1
3x + 2y = 7
Solution The system of equations can be written in the form AX = B, where
i
A= and B =
3 2 7
y
Now, AJ = —11 z 0, Hence, A is nonsingular matrix and so has a unique solution.
1 2 —5
Note that A'
11 —3 2
1 2 —5 1
Therefore X = A 'B = —
11 —3 2 7
x i —33 3
i.e. =— =
y i i 11 —1
Hence x -- 3, y = — 1
Example 28 Solve the following system of equations by matrix method.
3x — 2y + 3z =
8 2x + y — z = 1
4x — 3y + 2z =
4
Solution The system of equations can be written in the form AX = B, where
3 —2 3 x 8
A= 2 1 —1,X= y and B= 1
4 —3 2 z 4
We see that
AJ = 3 (2 — 3) + 2(4 + 4) + 3 (— 6 — 4) = — 17 0
 DETERMINANTS 135

Hence, A is nonsingular and so its inverse exists.

Now A3 —10
A, ' 1 A iz A 23 1
''
A zi ’' A zz 6
Al ' 1 Asz 9

Therefore —— —8 —6 9
17
—10 1 7

1 —1 —5 —1 8
SO X= A B= —8 —6 9 1
17
—10 1 7 4

x 1 17
i.e. y — =2 34
17 —51 3
z
Hence x -- 1, y = 2 and z = 3.
Example 29 The sum of three numbers is 6. If we multiply third number by 3
and add second number to it, we get 11. By adding first and third numbers, we
get double of the second number. Represent it algebraically and find the numbers
using matrix method.
Solution Let first, second and third numbers be denoted by x, y and z,
respectively.
Then, according to given conditions, we have
x + y + z —— 6
y + 3z = 11
x + z -- 2y or x — 2y + z
-- 0 This system can be written as A X = B, where
111 x 6
A= 0 1 3 , X= andB= 11
121 z 0
Here AJ = 1 (1+ 6) — (0 — 3)+ (o — 1) = 9 z 0. Now we find adj A
A, = 1 (1 + 6)' 7 A iz' 0 3)' 3 A3 ' 1
A zi' 1 + 2)' 3 A zz' 0 A 23 (— 2 — 1) = 3
A, = (3 1)' 2 Asz' (3 0)' 3, A3 ' (1 — 0) = 1
136 MATHEMATICS

7 —3 2
Hence adjA= 3 0 —3
—13 1
7 —3 2
Thus i 1
A ' 3 0 —3
' AJ adj (A)
' 9 —13 1
Since X=A'B
7 —3 2 6
1
X= 3 0 —311
9
—13 1 0

x 42—33+0 9 1
1 18+0+0 1 18 2
or
z 9 —6+33+0 9 27 3
Thus x---1, y = 2, z = 3

EXERCISE 4 6
Examine the consistency of the system of equations in Exercises 1 to 6.
1. x + 2y = 2 2. 2x — y = 5 3. x + 3y = 5
2x + 3y = 3 x+y=4 2x + 6y = 8
4. x + y + z = 1 5. 3x—y — 2z = 6. 5x — y + 4z = 5
2
2x + 3y + 2z = 2 2y — z = —1 2x + 3y + 5z = 2
ax + ay + 2az = 4 3x — 5y = 3 5x — 2y + 6z = —
1
Solve system of linear , using matrix method, Exercises 7 to
equations 7. 5x + 2y = 4 in 2x — y = —2 9. 14. 4x — 3y = 3
8.
7x + 3y = 5 3x + 4y = 3 3x — 5y = 7
10. 5x + 2y = 3 11. 2x + y + z = 12. x — y + z = 4
1
3
3x + 2y = 5 x — 2y — 2x + y — 3z = 0
'— 2
3y — 5z = 9 x+y+z=2
2x + 3y +3 z = 5 14. x — y + 2z = 7
x — 2y + z = — 4 3x + 4y — 5z = — 5
3x — y - 2z = 3 2x — y + 3z = 12
 DETERMINANTS 137

—325
15. If A = 3 2 —4 , find A '. Using A ' solve the system of equations
1 1 —2

2x — 3y + 5z = 11
3x + 2y — 4z = — 5
x + y — 2z = — 3
16. The cost of 4 kg onion, 3 kg wheat and 2 kg rice is T 60. The cost of 2 kg
onion, 4 kg wheat and 6 kg rice is T90. The cost of 6 kg onion 2 kg wheat and
3 kg rice is T 70. Find cost of each item per kg by matrix method.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 30 If a, b, c are positive and unequal, show that value of the determinant
a b c
@=b C a is negative.
c a b
Solution Applying C, —› C, + C2 + C, to the given determinant, we get
a+b+c b c 1 b c
@= a+b+c C =(a+ b +c) 1 c a
a+b+c a b 1 a b

1 b c
= (a + b + c) 0 c — b a — C (Applying@—› @—R„and@m@—
R,)
0 a—b b—c
= (a + b + c) [(c — b) (b — c) — (a — c) (a — b)] (Expanding along
C,)
= (a + b + c)(— a 2 — b2 — c2 + ab + bc + ca)
—1
+ b + c) (2a2 + 2f›2 + 2c2 — 2ab — 2f›c — 2ca)
2 (-
—1
+ b + c) [(a — b)2 + (b — c)2 + (c — a)2]
2 (•
which is negative (since a + b + c > 0 and (a — b)2 + (b — c)2 + (c — a)2 > 0)
 138 MATHEMATICS

Example 31 If a, b, c, are in A.P, find value of

2y + 4 5y + 7 8y + a
3y + 5 6y + 8 9 y + b
4y + 6 7y + 9 10y + c

Solution Applying R, —› R, + R, — 2R2 to the given determinant, we obtain

0 0 0
3y + 5 6y + 8 9 + b -- 0 (Since 2b = a + c)
4y + 6 7y + 9 10y + c
Example 32 Show that

Solution Applying R, —› xR„ R2 yR2 , R, —› zR, to A and dividing by xyz, we

get

Taking common factors x, y, z from C, C2 and C„ respectively, we get

Applying C 2 —› C2— C„ C, —› C,— C„ we have

 DETERMINANTS 139

Taking common factor (x + y + z) from C2 and C„ we have

(y + z)* x — (y + z) x — (y + z)

A = (x + y + z)2 1* ( x + Z) X 0
z' 0 (x + y) — z
Applying R, —› R, — (R2 + R,), we have

2 yz —2 z —2 y
A = (x + y + z)2 y' x—y+z 0
z' 0 x+ y — z

Applying C2 (C2 + — C,) and C —› C + C, , we get

y

2 yz 0 0

A = (x + y + z)2 y' x+ z

Finally expanding along R„ we have

A = (x + y + z)2 (2yz) [(x + z) (x + y) — yz] -- (x + y + z)2 (2yz) (x2 + xy + xz)

1 1 2 2 0 1
Example 33 Use product 0 2 3 9 2 3 to solve the system of
equations
3 2 4 6 1 2
x — y + 2z =
1 2y — 3z
=1
3x — 2y + 4z = 2
1 —1 2 —2 0 1
Solution Consider the product 0 2 —3 9 2 —3
3 —2 4 6 1 —2
 140 MATHEM ATI CS

—2— 9+12 0—2+2 1+3—4 1 0 0

0+18—18 0+4—3 0—6+6 0 1 0
—6—18+24 0—4+4 3+6—8 0 0 1

1—1 2 —20 1
Hence 0 2 —3 9 2 —3
3 —2 4 6 1—2
Now, given system of equations can be written, in matrix form, as follows

1 —1 2 x 1
0 2 —3 y 1
3 —2 4 z 2

x 1—1 2*'1 2 0 1 1
or y 0 2—3 1= 9 2 3 1
z 3—2 4 2 61 2 2

—2+0+2 0
_ 9+2—6 = 5
6+1—4 3
Hence x -— 0, y = 5 and z = 3
Example 34 Prove that
a+ bx c + dx p+ qx a c p
$ — ax+ b cv + d px+ q —— (l — x’ ) b d q

Solution Applying R, OR, — x R2 to A, we get

a (l — x’ ) c(l — x’ ) y (1— x')

k -— ax + b cx + d px + q
u v w

> (l — x’) ax+ b cx + d px+ q

 DETERMINANTS 141

Applying R2 R2 -- x R„ we get

A (1 -- x2 ) b d q
u v w

Miscellaneous Exercises on Chapter 4

x sin B cos B
1. Prove that the determinant --sin 8 --x is independent of 8.
cos 8 1 x
a a’ bc 1 a’ a’
2. Without expanding the determinant, prove that b b’ ca 1 b’ b’ .
c c’ ab 1 c’ c’

cos ti cos § cos ti sin § -- sin Ct

3. Evaluate --sin § cos § 0
sin Ct cos § sin Ct sin § cos ti
4. If a, b and c are real numbers, and

b+ c c+ a a+ b
g c+ a a+ b b+ c -- 0,
a+ b b+ c c+ a
Show that either a + b + c = 0 or a = b -- c.
x+ a x x
5. Solve the equation x x+ a x ---- 0, a z 0
x x x+ a
a’ bc ac+ c’
6. Prove that «' + ab b’ OC 4a 2f›2c2
ab b’+ bc c’
3 --1 1 1 2 --2
7. If A ' - --15 6 --5 and B= --1 3 0 , find(AB)
5 --2 2 0 --2 1
142 MATHEM ATI CS

1 2 1
8. Let A = 2 3 1 . Verify that
1 1 5
(i) [adj A] i = adj (A i ) (ii) (A —I) I A

x y x+ y
9. Evaluate y x+ y x
x+ y x y

1 x y
10. Evaluate 1 x+ y y
1 x x+y

Using properties of determinants in Exercises 11 to 15, prove that:

x x 1+ yx’
12. y y 1+ yy = (1 + px yz) (x — y) (y — 3) (z — x), where y is any scalar.

3a — a+ b — a+ c
J 3. —b+ a 3b — b+ c _— 3(a + b + c) (at + bc + ca)
— c+ a — c+ b 3c

1 1+ 1+ +Q sin ct cos ct cos (ct + 6)

14, 2 3+2y 4+3y+2 =1 15, sin § cos § cos(§ + 6) = 0
Q
3 6 + 3 y 10 + 6 y + sin y cos y cos(y+ 6)
3Q

lit. Solve the system of equations

2 3 10
=4
 DETERMINANTS 143

4 6

6 9 20
+—— =2

Choose the correct answer in Exercise 17 to 19.

17. If a, b, c, are in A.P, then the determinant

x + 2 x + 3 x+ 2a
x+ 3 x+ 4 x+ 2b
lS
x + 4 x + 5 x + 2c

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) x (D) 2x

x 0 0
16. If x, y, z are nonzero real numbers, then the inverse of matrix A = 0 y 0 is
0 0 z

x°' 0 0 x°' 0 0
(A) 0 y' 0 (B) xyz 0 y' 0
0 0 z*' 0 0 z*'

x 0 0 1 0 0
1 1
(C) 0 y 0 (D) 0 1 0
xy x
z 0 0 z

y'
1 sin B 1
19. Let A = —sin B 1 sin B , where 0 B ñ 2z. Then
—1 —sin B 1

(A) Det (A) = 0 (B) Det (A) e (2, )

(C) Det (A) e (2, 4) (D) Det (A) e [2, 4]
144 MATHEMATICS

Summary
Determinant of a matrix A = [a„]„, is given by I a„l = a„

2
Determinant of a matrix A = is given by
‘21 ‘22

‘22 ‘12 ‘21

°zi °zz ' ‘ A1

a, b, e,
Determinant of a matrix A = a2 b2 c2 is given by (expanding along R,)

bz c z C2
2
°z bz
+ C1
— b, ‘ 3 b3

For any square matrix A, the lAl satisfy following properties.

I A’l = I A1, where A’ = transpose of A.
If we interchange any two rows (or columns), then sign of determinant
changes.
If any two rows or any two columns are identical or proportional, then
value of determinant is zero.
If we multiply each element of a row or a column of a determinant by
constant
k, then value of determinant is multiplied by k.
Multiplying a determinant by k means multiply elements of only one
row (or one column) by k.
If A = [ai,] 3. 3. then k.A Q =k 3 AJ
If elements of a row or a column in a determinant can be expressed as
sum of two or more elements, then the given determinant can be
expressed as sum of two or more determinants.
If to each element of a row or a column of a determinant the
equimultiples of corresponding elements of other rows or columns are
added, then value of determinant remains same.
 DETERMINANTS 145

Area of a triangle with vertices (x„ y,), (x 2, y2) and (x3, y3) is given by

2
3 J3 '
Minor of an element a, of the determinant of matrix A is the
determinant obtained by deleting i* row and J column and denoted by
M.
Cofactor of a, of given by A = (— I)'*I M
Value of determinant of a matrix A is obtained by sum of product of
elements of a row (or a column) with corresponding cofactors. For
example,
AJ = a„ A„ + a,2 A, 2 + a„ A„.
If elements of one row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of
elements of any other row (or column), then their sum is zero. For
example, a„ @, + a,2 @ 2 + a', @, = 0
11 ‘12 ‘13 A}} A zi A3
If A = O21 • 2 ‘23 then adj A = A› All A32 , where A is
‘31 ‘32 ‘33 A3 A 23 A33
cofactor of a;
A (adj A) = (adj A) A = I A I I, where A is square matrix of order n.
A square matrix A is said to be singular or non-singular according as
I A I = 0 or I A1 4 0.
If AB = BA = I, where B is square matrix, then B is called inverse of
A. Also A = B or B = A and hence (A ’) = A.
A square matrix A has inverse if and only ifA is non-singular.

A*' adj A)
' AJ(
If a, x + b, y + c, z = d,
+ f›z I + cz ' dz
a 3 x + f›3 y + c3 z = d3,
then these equations can be written as A X = B,
where a, b, c, x d,
A' °z bz *z 9 X- Rd B= dz
b3 3 d3
146 MATHEMATICS

G Unique solution of equation AX = B is given by X = A B, where |A| z 0.

G A system of equation is consistent or inconsistent according as its solution
exists or not.
G For a square matrix A in matrix equation AX = B
(i) I A I z 0, there exists unique solution
(ii) I A I = 0 and (adj A) B z 0, then there exists no solution
(iii) I A I = 0 and (adj A) B = 0, then system may or may not be consistent.

Historical Note
The Chinese method of representing the coefficients of the unknowns
of several linear equations by using rods on a calculating board naturally
led to the discovery of simple method of elimination. The arrangement of rods
was precisely that of the numbers in a determinant. The Chinese, therefore,
early developed the idea of subtracting columns and rows as in
simplification of a determinant Mikami, China, pp 30, 93.
Seki Kowa, the greatest of the Japanese Mathematicians of seventeenth
century in his work ’Kai Fukudai no Ho’ in 1683 showed that he had the
idea of determinants and of their expansion. But he used this device only in
eliminating a quantity from two equations and not directly in the solution of a
set of simultaneous linear equations. T. Hayashi, “The Fakudoi and
Determinants in Japanese Mathematics,” in the proc. of the Tokyo Math.
Soc., V.
Vendermonde was the first to recognise determinants as independent
functions. He may be called the formal founder. Laplace (1772), gave
general method of expanding a determinant in terms of its complementary
minors. In 1773 Lagrange treated determinants of the second and third
orders and used them for purpose other than the solution of equations. In
1801, Gauss used determinants in his theory of numbers.
The next great contributor was Jacques - Philippe - Marie Binet, (1812)
who stated the theorem relating to the product of two matrices of m-
columns and n- rows, which for the special case of m = n reduces to the
multiplication theorem.
Also on the same day, Cauchy (1812) presented one on the same
subject. He used the word ‘determinant’ in its present sense. He gave the proof
of multiplication theorem more satisfactory than Binet’s.
The greatest contributor to the theory was Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi,
after this the word determinant received its final acceptance.