Revision Notes

Class 12 – Maths
Chapter 4 – Determinants

Recollecting concepts
• When a system of algebraic equations is given to us as:
a1x + b1y = c1
a 2 x + b2 y = c2
• Then we can express them in the form of matrices as:
 a1 b1   x   c1 
a b   y  = c 
 2 2   2
• To get the solution of system of linear equations, we find all the values of the
variables satisfying all the linear equations in the system.

Definition of Determinants
• We can define determinant of a matrix as a scalar value that can be calculated
from the elements of a square matrix.
 a b1 
• The scalar value for a square matrix  1  is given by a1b 2 − a 2 b1 .
 2
a b 2

• It is represented as A or det ( A ) or  .
 a b1  a1 b1
• For a matrix  1  , the determinant is written as .
a 2 b 2  a 2 b2
• Square matrices are those matrices that have same number of rows and
columns. Only such matrices have determinants.

Types of Determinants
1. First order determinant – It is the determinant of a matrix of order one. The
element of the matrix will be the determinant value.
For example,
 2  2  2
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2. Second order determinant - It is the determinant of a matrix of order two.
 a b1  a1 b1
If  1  , then = a1b2 − a 2 b1 .
a 2 b 2  a 2 b2
For example,
1 3 1 3
5 3 
  5 3
 (1  3) − ( 3  5 )  3 − 15  −12

3. Third order determinant - It is the determinant of a matrix of order three.

 a1 b1 c1 
Let us consider a 2 b 2 c 2  . We have six ways to write the determinant, i.e. three
 a 3 b3 c3 
ways to expand along rows and three ways to expand along columns.
Let us consider the expansion along the first row, which is the most common method.
So, first we consider the first element, a11 and delete the row 1 and column 1 . We
end up with a second order matrix and so we apply the determinant for this and
multiply with a11 and also ( −1)  ( −1) , here sum of coefficients
sum of coefficients of a11 1+1

indicates the sum i + j for element a ij .

( −1) .a1.( b 2c3 − b3c 2 )
2

Then we move onto element a12 and delete the row 1 and column 2 . Again, We end
up with a second order matrix and so we apply the determinant for this and multiply
with a12 and also ( −1)  ( −1) .
sum of coefficients of a12 1+ 2

( −1) .b1.( a 2c3 − a 3c 2 )

3

At last, we move onto element a13 and delete the row 1 and column 3 . Again, We
end up with a second order matrix and so we apply the determinant for this and
multiply with a13 and also ( −1)  ( −1) .
sum of coefficients of a13 1+3

( −1) .c1.( a 2 b3 − a 3b 2 )
4

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  a1 b1 c1 
Now, we add them up to get the determinant of matrix a 2 b2 c 2  as

 a 3 b3 c3 
a1 ( b 2c3 − b3c2 ) − b1 ( a 2c3 − a 3c 2 ) + c1 ( a 2 b3 − a 3b 2 ) .
In the same manner, we can expand along other rows and columns. We will get the
same value of determinant irrespective of the kind of expansion we opt for.
A tip to keep in mind while choosing the expansion method would be to go for the
row or column containing maximum number of zeroes. If zeroes are not present,
then one. This will make calculations easier.
Another interesting point to keep in mind is that if we have two square matrices A
and B of order n and A = kB , then A = k n B , where n = 1,2,3,.... .

Properties of Determinants
The below properties are true for determinants of all orders.
1. Property 1 - The value of the determinant remains unchanged if its rows and
columns are interchanged. Let us verify with the help of an example,
1 2 1
The determinant 3 4 1 is 1(12 − 2 ) − 2 ( 9 − 1) + 1( 6 − 4 )  10 − 16 + 2  −4 .
1 2 3
1 3 1
Exchanging rows and columns, we get 2 4 2 . The value of this determinant is
1 1 3
1(12 − 2 ) − 3 ( 6 − 2 ) + 1( 2 − 4 )  10 − 12 − 2  −4 .
Hence verified.
• It follows from above property that if A is a square matrix, then
det ( A ) = det ( A ) . Here, A is transpose of A .
• For interchange of row and columns, say R i = i th row and Ci = i th column, we
represent it symbolically as Ci  R i .

2. Property 2 - If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then
sign of determinant changes. Let us verify with the help of an example,
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 1 2 1
The determinant 3 4 1 is 1(12 − 2 ) − 2 ( 9 − 1) + 1( 6 − 4 )  10 − 16 + 2  −4 .
1 2 3
3 4 1
Interchanging first and second rows, we get 1 2 1 . The value of this determinant
1 2 3
is 3 ( 6 − 2 ) − 4 ( 3 − 1) + 1( 2 − 2 )  12 − 8 + 0  4 .
Hence verified.
• For interchange of two rows/columns, say R i and R j rows or Ci and C j
columns, we represent it symbolically as R i  R j or Ci  C j .

3. Property 3 - If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical (all
corresponding elements are same), then value of determinant is zero. Let us verify
with the help of an example,
1 3 1
The value of the determinant with identical columns 3 4 3 is
1 2 1
1( 4 − 6 ) − 3 ( 3 − 3) + 1( 6 − 4 )  −2 + 0 + 2  0 .

Hence verified.
4. Property 4 - If each element of a row (or a column) of a determinant is multiplied
by a constant k , then its value gets multiplied by k . Let us verify with the help of
an example,
1 2 3
Consider the determinant 1 3 3 . The value of this determinant is
1 2 1
1( 3 − 6 ) − 2 (1 − 3) + 3  −3 + 4 − 3  −2 .

Now, first row of the same determinant is multiplied by a constant 2 to get

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2 4 6
1 3 3 . The value of this determinant is
1 2 1
2 ( 3 − 6 ) − 4 (1 − 3) + 6 ( 2 − 3)  −6 + 8 − 6  −4 , which is 2  −2 .

Hence verified.

5. Property 5 - If some or all elements of a row or column of a determinant are

expressed as sum of two (or more) terms, then the determinant can be expressed as
sum of two (or more) determinants. Let us verify with the help of an example,
1 2 3
Consider the determinant 1 3 3 . The value of this determinant is
1 2 1
1( 3 − 6 ) − 2 (1 − 3) + 3 ( 2 − 3)  −3 + 4 − 3  −2 .

Now, we add terms to the terms in the first row of the same determinant and get
2 +1 2 + 2 1+ 3
1 3 3 . The value of this determinant is
1 2 1
3 ( 3 − 6 ) − 4 (1 − 3) + 4 ( 2 − 3)  −9 + 8 − 4  −5 .

1 2 3 2 2 1
The value of this determinant is 1 3 3 + 1 3 3
1 2 1 1 2 1
1( 3 − 6 ) − 2 (1 − 3) + 3 ( 2 − 3)  +  2 ( 3 − 6 ) − 2 (1 − 3) + 1( 2 − 3 ) 
  −3 + 4 − 3 +  −6 + 4 − 1

  −2 +  −3

 −5

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 2 +1 2 + 2 1+ 3
which is same as determinant value for 1 3 3 .
1 2 1

Hence verified.

6. Property 6 - If, to each element of any row or column of a determinant, the

equimultiples of corresponding elements of other row (or column) are added, then
value of determinant remains the same, i.e., the value of determinant remain same if
we apply the operation R i → R i + kR j or Ci → Ci + kC j . Let us verify with the help
of an example,
1 2 3
Consider the determinant 1 3 3 . The value of this determinant is
1 2 1
1( 3 − 6 ) − 2 (1 − 3) + 3 ( 2 − 3)  −3 + 4 − 3  −2 .

Now, we add term which is a multiple of third row to the terms in the first row of
2 + 2 2 + 4 1+ 2
the same determinant and get 1 3 3 .
1 2 1

1 2 3 2 4 2
By using the property 5, this can be expressed as 1 3 3 + 1 3 3 .
1 2 1 1 2 1

By using the property 3, since we have the first and third row as proportional, the
2 + 2 2 + 4 1+ 2
second determinant would be zero. The value of determinant 1 3 3
1 2 1
1 2 3
would be the same as determinant 1 3 3 .
1 2 1
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Hence verified.

7. Property 7 - If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is zero, then

0 12 −7
its value is zero. For example, 0 8 1 . If we expand this along first column,
0 −5 13
then the value will be zero.

8. Property 8 - In a determinant, if all the elements on one side of the principal

diagonal are zeroes, then the value of the determinant is equal to the product of the
3 −3 2
elements in the principal diagonal. For example the determinant 0 8 1
0 0 1
expanded along first column has value as 3 ( 8 − 0 ) = 24 . The product of the elements
in principal diagonal is 3  8 1 = 24 . Hence, verified.

Area of a triangle
• Consider a triangle with vertices as ( x1 , y1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) and ( x 3 , y3 ) . We know
that the area of the triangle can be found as
1
A=  x1 ( y 2 − y3 ) + x 2 ( y3 − y1 ) + x 3 ( y1 − y 2 )  .
2
x1 y1 1
1
• We can represent the same using determinants as  = x 2 y2 1 .
2
x3 y3 1
• We always take the absolute value of the determinant while computing the
area as it is a positive quantity.
• We use both positive and negative values of the determinant in case the area
is given.
• We know that three collinear points cannot form a triangle and hence we can
say that the area of the triangle formed by three collinear points is zero.

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Minors
• If we delete the i th row and jth column of a determinant in which the element
a ij lies, then we get the minor of that element.
• Minor is represented as M ij .
• Minor of an element of a determinant of order n ( n  2 ) is a determinant of
order n –1 .
1 −4 0
• If we have to find M 21 of determinant 2 5 3 , then we get it as
−1 2 1
−4 0
M 21 =  M 21 = −4 .
2 1

Cofactors
• We denote the cofactor of an element a ij as A ij .
• Multiplying the minor of an element with a factor ( –1)
i+ j
gives the cofactor.
• It can be defined as Aij = ( –1) M ij , where M ij is minor of a ij .
i+ j

• When the elements of a row/column are multiplied with the cofactors of any
other row/column, then their sum is zero.
1 −4 0
• If we have to find A11 of determinant 2 5 3 , then we get it as
−1 2 1
5 3
A11 = ( −1)  A11 = 1. ( 5 − 6 )  A11 = −1 .
1+1

2 1

Adjoint of a matrix
• The matrix obtained after taking the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of
the given matrix is called the adjoint of that matrix.
a b c 
• For example, if we have the cofactor matrix as d e f  , then the adjoint
g h i 

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 a d g 
would be  b e h  .
 c f i 
• For a square matrix of order two, we can use the following shortcut:

• Theorem 1 - If A be any given square matrix of order n , then

A ( adj A ) = ( adj A ) A = A I , where I is the identity matrix of order n .
a b  e f 
If we have a matrix   and its adjoint as g h  , then we can say that
c d   
the sum of product of elements of a row/column with corresponding cofactors
is equal to A and otherwise zero. So, we can write
A 0 
A ( adj A ) =  = AI
 0 A 
• Singular matrices – If the determinant of a square matrix is zero, then it is
said to be a singular matrix.
• Non-singular matrices – If the determinant of a square matrix is a non-zero
value, then it is said to be a non-singular matrix.
• Theorem 2 - If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same order, then
AB and BA are also non-singular matrices of the same order.
• Theorem 3 - The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of
their respective determinants. It can be written as AB = A B , where A and
B are square matrices of the same order.
This can be verified as shown below:
A 0
From Theorem 1, we have A ( adj A ) =  .
0 A

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Now taking the determinant value of matrices on both sides,
A 0
A ( adj A ) =
0 A
1 0
A ( adj A ) = A
2

0 1

A ( adj A ) = A I
2

( adj A ) = A
1

Hence verified. This leads us to the general conclusion that if A is a square matrix
of order n , then ( adj A ) = A .
n −1

• Theorem 4 - A square matrix is invertible if and only if it is a non-singular

matrix.
So, for a non-singular matrix A , we can write the inverse of the matrix as
1
A −1 = ( adj A ) .
A
Looking into the proof,
Let A be an invertible matrix of order n . Let I be the identity matrix of order n .
Then, there exists a square matrix B of order n such that AB = BA = I .
So, we have AB = I . We can write AB = I . Since I = 1, AB = A B , it can be
written as A B = 1 .
This gives A  0 and hence A is non-singular.
Conversely, if we let A as a non-singular matrix, then A  0 .
From Theorem 1, A ( adj A ) = ( adj A ) A = A I . Rearranging terms,
1   1
A  ( adj A )  = ( adj A )  A = I
A   A

It is same as AB = BA = I .

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 1
So, here B = ( adj A ) , which is the inverse of matrix A .
A

Applications of Determinants and Matrices

• They can be used for solving system of linear equations in two or three
variables. They can also be used for checking the consistency of system of
linear equations.
• Consistent system is a system of equations whose solution (one or more)
exists.
• Inconsistent system is a system of equations whose solution does not exist.
• We can say that the determinant is a number that determines the uniqueness
of the solution of a system of linear equations.
Solution of a system of linear equations using inverse of matrix
Let us consider system of equations with three variables as
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a 2 x + b2 y + c2z = d 2
a 3 x + b 3 y + c3z = d 3
Writing it in matrix form, we have
 a1 b1 c1   x   d1 
a b c   y  = d 
 2 2 2   2
 a 3 b3 c3   z   d 3 
This can be expressed as AX = B .
Now, we look at two cases:

Case 1: If A is a non-singular matrix, then its inverse exists.

From AX = B , we premultiply by A−1 ,
A −1 ( AX ) = A −1B
Using associative property,
( A −1A ) X = A −1B
IX = A−1B
X = A−1B

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The above matrix equation provides unique solution for the system of equations as
we know that the inverse of a matrix is unique. We call this method as Matrix
Method.

Case 2: If A is a singular matrix, then A = 0 .

For this case, first we calculate ( adj A ) B .
If ( adj A ) B is a non-zero matrix, then solution does not exist and the system of
equations is called inconsistent.
If ( adj A ) B is a zero matrix, then system of equations may be either consistent
(with infinitely many solutions) or inconsistent (with no solution).

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