Outline

Outline
1 Basics
Introduction
Basic Physics
Introduction to Sonar Underwater sound
INF-GEO4310 2 Sonar Theory
Sonar types
Roy Edgar Hansen Position Estimation
Signal processing
Department of Informatics, University of Oslo 3 Sonar Applications
Fish finding
October 2010 HUGIN AUV
Mapping
Imaging
4 Summary

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 1 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 2 / 76

Sonar Basics Sonar Basics Introduction

Outline History
1 Basics
Introduction
Basic Physics
Underwater sound SOund Navigation And Ranging
2 Sonar Theory If you cause your ship to stop and place
Sonar types the head of a long tube in the water and
Position Estimation place the outer extremity to your ear, you
Signal processing will hear ships at a great distance from
3 Sonar Applications you.
Fish finding Leonardo da Vinci, 1490
HUGIN AUV 1914 Fessenden: first active sonar system
Mapping (detect iceberg 2 miles)
Imaging
4 Summary
Images from wikipedia.org.

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 3 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 4 / 76
 Sonar Basics Introduction Sonar Basics Introduction

The masters in sonar Similar technologies

SONAR = Sound Navigation And Ranging

RADAR = Radio Detection And Ranging
Medical ultrasound, higher frequencies, shorter range and more
complex medium
Seismic exploration, lower frequencies, more complex medium
From wikipedia.org.

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 5 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 6 / 76

Sonar Basics Introduction Sonar Basics Physics

Literature Basic Physics

Course text: sonar_introduction_2010.pdf Sound is waves travelling in pressure perturbations

Course presentation: Or: compressional wave, longitudal wave, mechanical wave
inf-geo4310-2010-sonar-lecture.pdf The acoustic vibrations can be characterized by
Xavier Lurton, An introduction to underwater acoustics I Wave period T [s]
Springer Praxis, First edition 2002, Second edition 2010 I Frequency f = 1/T [Hz]
I Wavelength λ = c/f [m]
www.wikipedia.org I Sound speed c [m/s]
I sonar
I underwater acoustics
I side-scan sonar
I biosonar, animal echolocation
I beamforming
Ocean Acoustics Library http://oalib.hlsresearch.com/

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 7 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 8 / 76
 Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Underwater sound Geometrical spreading loss - one way

The acoustic wave expands as

Acoustics is the only long range information carrier under water a spherical wave
The pressure perturbations are very small The acoustic intensity
Obtainable range is determined by decreases with range in
I free space loss and absorption inverse proportion to the
I the sensitivity to the receiver surface of the sphere
The ocean environment affects sound propagation: The acoustic wave amplitude
I sea surface A decreases with range R
I seafloor
I temperature and salinity The intensity I = A2
I currents and turbulence In homogeneous media
Underwater sound propagation is frequency dependent
1
I∼
R2

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 9 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 10 / 76

Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Geometrical spreading loss - two way Absorption

Seawater is a dissipative medium
through viscosity and chemical
The acoustic wave expands as
processes
a spherical wave to the
reflector Acoustic absorption in seawater is
frequency dependent
The reflected field expands as
a spherical wave back to the Lower frequencies will reach longer
receiver than higher frequencies
In homogeneous media, the
f [kHz] R [km] λ [m]
two way loss becomes
0.1 1000 15
1 1 1 1 100 1.5
I∼ 2 2
= 4 10 10 0.15
R R R
100 1 0.015
1000 0.1 0.0015

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 11 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 12 / 76
 Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Transmission loss The Ocean as Acoustic Medium

Transmission loss is geometrical spread + absorption
Logarithmic (dB) scale: IdB = 10 log10 (I) The sound velocity - environmental dependency
A certain frequency will have a certain maximum range Layering and refraction - waveguides
Frequency is a critical design parameter The sea floor and the sea surface - scattering
Noise sources

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 13 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 14 / 76

Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Reflection and Refraction in Acoustics Refraction and the sound velocity

Recall from first lecture on optical

imaging Medvins formula:
The reflection angle is equal to the c = 1449.2 + 4.6T − 0.055T 2 + 0.00029T 3
incident angle + (1.34 − 0.010T )(S − 35) + 0.016D
The angle of refraction is given by
Snell’s law The sound velocity depends on 3 major parts:
sin θ1 sin θ2 Temperature T in degrees Celsius
= Salinity S in parts per thousand
c1 c2
Depth D in meters
The index of refraction n = c2 /c1
The sound velocity contains information about the ocean environment.
Snells law can be derived from
Example: T = 12.5 ◦ C, S = 35 ppt, D = 100 m gives c = 1500 m/s
Fermats principle or from the
general boundary conditions From Wikipedia

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 15 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 16 / 76
 Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Deep sound velocity variation Sound refraction

The sound will refract towards areas of slower speed

SOUND IS LAZY

The surface layer

The seasonal thermocline
The permanent thermocline
The deep isothermal layer

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 17 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 18 / 76

Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Underwater sound channel Coastal variability

waves are trapped in a guide
The energy spreads in one dimension instead of two I ∼ 1/R
Much longer range
Acoustical Oceanography: Map the effect of the medium on
Factors that affect sound
underwater acoustics
propagation:
The sound velocity profile
The sea surface
Internal waves
Turbulence
Ocean current

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 19 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 20 / 76
 Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Coastal variability Reflection: basic physics

Characteristic impedance Z0 = ρc
I ρ is the density [kg/m3 ] The characteristic impedance is
I c is the sound speed [m/s] a material property
The sound is trapped in a Reflection coefficient (normal Material Impedance
waveguide incidence) Air 415
The boundaries of the Seawater 1.54 × 106
Z − Z0
waveguide changes the R(f ) = Clay 5.3 × 106
Z + Z0 Sand 5.5 × 106
properties of the sound
wave Transmission coefficient (normal Sandstone 7.7 × 106
incidence) Granite 16 × 106
Steel 47 × 106
2Z0
T (f ) =
Z + Z0

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 21 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 22 / 76

Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Reflection: the sea surface Reflection: the sea floor (or bottom)

The sea floor (sea-bottom interface)

Sand: Z = 5.5 × 106
The sea surface (sea-air interface)
Seawater: Z0 = 1.54 × 106
Air: Z = 415
Reflection coefficient
Seawater: Z0 = 1.54 × 106
Reflection coefficient Z − Z0
R= ≈ 0.56
Z + Z0
Z − Z0
R= ≈ −1
Z + Z0 Sandy seafloors partially reflects,
partially transmits
The sea surface is a perfect reflector
Estimated reflection coefficient can
be used in classification of bottom
type

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 23 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 24 / 76
 Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Scattering - smooth surfaces Scattering - rough surfaces

Scattering from rough surfaces Scattering from rough surfaces

The sea surface The sea surface
The seafloor The seafloor
Other scattering sources Other scattering sources
Volume scattering from Volume scattering from
fluctuations fluctuations
Scattering from marine life Scattering from marine life

A smooth surface gives mainly specular reflection A rough surface gives specular reflection and diffuse scattering

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 25 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 26 / 76

Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Ambient Noise Marine Life and Acoustics

The ocean is a noisy environment

Hydrodynamic
I Tides, ocean current, storms, Dolphins and whales use acoustics
wind, surface waves, rain for echolocation and communication.
Seismic Whale songs are in the frequency From wikipedia.org. Courtesy of NASA.
I Movement of the earth between 12 Hz and a few kHz.
(earthquakes)
Dolphins use a series of high
Biological
frequency clicks in the range from
I Produced by marine life
50 to 200 kHz for echolocation.
Man made
I Shipping, industry

From wikipedia.org. Author Zorankovacevic.

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 27 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 28 / 76
 Theory Theory Sonar types

Outline Active sonar

1 Basics
Introduction
Basic Physics
Underwater sound
2 Sonar Theory Transmits a signal
Sonar types
The signal propagates towards the
Position Estimation
object of interest
Signal processing
The signal is reflected by the target
3 Sonar Applications
The signal is recorded by a receiver
Fish finding
HUGIN AUV
Mapping
Imaging
4 Summary

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 29 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 30 / 76

Theory Sonar types Theory Sonar types

Active sonar Passive sonar

Passive sonar only records signals

Transmits a signal
The signal propagates towards the
object of interest
The signal is reflected by the target
The signal is recorded by a receiver

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 30 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 31 / 76
 Theory Positioning Theory Positioning

Range Estimation Range Resolution

Estimation of time delay (or two way travel time) τ The minimum distance two echoes can be seperated
Related to the pulse length Tp for non-coded pulses
Relate time delay to range
cTp
cτ δR =
R= 2
2
Related to bandwidth B for coded pulses
Sound velocity must be known c
δR =
2B

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 32 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 33 / 76

Theory Positioning Theory Positioning

Pulse forms 1 - active sonar Pulse forms 2 - active sonar

Different pulse forms for different applications Different pulse forms for different applications
Gated Continuous Wave (CW) Hyperbolic Frequency Modulated (HFM) pulses
Simple and good Doppler sensitivity but does not have high BT Long range and high resolution and Doppler resistive
Linear Frequency Modulated (LFM) (or chirp) Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) BPSK Coded CW
Long range and high resolution but cannot handle Doppler High resolution and good Doppler sensitivity but low efficiency

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 34 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 35 / 76
 Theory Positioning Theory Positioning

Directivity Bearing estimation - arbitrary Rx positions

Transducers (or antennas or loudspeakers) are directive
Direction of arrival can be calculated from the time difference of
The beamwidth (or field of view) of a disc of size D is arrival  
−1 cδt
λ θ = sin
β≈ L
D
The beamwidth is frequency dependent. Higher frequency gives
narrower beam.

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 36 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 37 / 76

Theory Positioning Theory Positioning

Bearing estimation - array sensor Bearing estimation - array sensor

By delaying the data from each element in an array, the array can Direction of arrival from several reflectors can be estimated by
be steered (electronically) using several receivers.

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 38 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 39 / 76
 Theory Positioning Theory Positioning

Imaging sonar / beamforming Beamforming defined

Echo location is estimation of range and bearing of an echo (or

target) Beamforming
Imaging sonar is to produce an image by estimating the echo Processing algorithm that focus the array’s signal capturing ability in a
strength (target strength) in every direction and range particular direction

Algorithm Beamforming is spatio-temporal filtering

for all directions Beamforming turns recorded time series into images
for all ranges (from time to space)
estimate echo strenght in each pixel Beamforming can be applied to all types of multi-receiver sonars:
end active, passive, towed array, bistatic, multistatic, synthetic aperture
end

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 40 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 41 / 76

Theory Positioning Theory Positioning

Beamforming algorithm in time domain Imaging sonar resolution

Algorithm Range resolution given by

for all directions pulse length (actually
for all ranges bandwidth)
for all receivers Azimuth resolution given by
Calculate the time delay
array length measured in
Interpolate the received time series
Apply appropriate amplitude factor wavelengths
end Field of view is given by
sum over receivers and store in result(x,y) element length measured
end in wavelengths
end

Array signal processing in imaging is the primary topic in INF 5410

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 42 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 43 / 76
 Theory Positioning Theory Signal processing

Imaging: Performance measures Sonar signal model

Detail resolution
Geometrical resolution - minimum resolvable distance
Contrast resolution
Value resolution, echogenicity, accuracy
Temporal resolution
Number of independent images per unit time
Dynamic range
Resolvability of small targets in the presence of large targets
Sensitivity
Detection ability of low level targets

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 44 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 45 / 76

Theory Signal processing Theory Signal processing

Active sonar processing The sonar equation

The sonar equation is an equation for energy conservation for
evaluation of the sonar system performace.
In its simplest form: Signal − Noise + Gain > Threshold
The basic active sonar processing More detailed (for active sonar):
consists of
Preprocessing SL − 2TL + TS − NL + DI + PG > RT
Pulse compression (range)
SL is source level
Beamforming (azimuth)
TL is transmission loss
Detection
TS is target strenght
Parameter estimation - position
NL is noise level
Classification
DI is directivity index
PG is processing gain
RT is reception threshold
RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 46 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 47 / 76
 Applications Applications Fish finding

Outline Echosounders
1 Basics
Introduction
Basic Physics The echosounder is oriented
Underwater sound vertically
2 Sonar Theory The target strength is estimated in
Sonar types every range (depth)
Position Estimation The ship moves forward to make a
Signal processing 2D map of fish density
3 Sonar Applications The target strength is related to fish
Fish finding size (biomass)
HUGIN AUV Different frequencies can be used
Mapping for species characterisation
Imaging
4 Summary

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 48 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 49 / 76

Applications Fish finding Applications Fish finding

Stock abundance and species characterisation Fish detection range

Modern echosounders
can detect a single fish
at 1000 m range.
Some fish have a
swimbladder (air filled)
which gives extra large
target strength

From www.simrad.com.

Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime

From www.simrad.com. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 50 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 51 / 76
 Applications HUGIN AUV Applications HUGIN AUV

The HUGIN autonomous underwater vehicle The HUGIN autonomous underwater vehicle
Free swimming underwater vehicle
Preprogrammed (semi-autonomous)
Used primarily to map and image the seafloor
Runs up to 60 hours, typically in 4 knots (2 m/s)
Maximum depth: 1000, 3000, 4500 m

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 52 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 53 / 76

Applications HUGIN AUV Applications Mapping

Acoustic sensors on HUGIN Multibeam echosounders

Multibeam echosounders maps the seafloor by estimating the

range in different direction
Multibeam echosounder The map resolution is determined by the 2D beamwidth and the
Imaging sonar range resolution
Altimeter
Anti collision sonar
Doppler velocity logger
Subbottom profiler
Acoustic
communications

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 54 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 55 / 76
 Applications Mapping Applications Mapping

MBE Example 1 MBE Example 2

Data collected by HUGIN AUV Data collected by HUGIN AUV
Maps from the Ormen Lange field
Maps from the Ormen Lange field
The ridge is 900 m long and 50 m high.
The peaks are 50 m high

Courtesy of Geoconsult / Norsk Hydro.

Courtesy of Geoconsult / Norsk Hydro.

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 56 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 57 / 76

Applications Mapping Applications Mapping

MBE Example 3 MBE Example 3

Data collected by HUGIN AUV
Example area with large sand ripples
Hull mounted MBE
70 - 100 kHz
Magic T (Mills cross) layout

From www.simrad.com. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime

Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI.

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 58 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 59 / 76
 Applications Mapping Applications Imaging

MBE Example 4 Sidescan sonar

Hull mounted MBE
70 - 100 kHz
Sidescan sonar: sidelooking sonar to image the seafloor
Colour coded seafloor height
Typical platform: towfish, hull mounted, AUV
An image is created by moving and stacking range lines
Typically frequency 100 kHz - 500 kHz
Typical range 100 - 500 m

From www.simrad.com. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 60 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 61 / 76

Applications Imaging Applications Imaging

Sidescan sonar area coverage Sidescan sonar example

Range resolution is given by the pulse length (or bandwidth)
Along-track resolution is range dependent

Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 62 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 63 / 76
 Applications Imaging Applications Imaging

Synthetic aperture sonar principle Synthetic aperture sonar principle

The length of the synthetic aperture increases with range
Collect succesive pulses in a large synthetic array (aperture) Along-track resolution becomes independent of range
Increase the azimuth (or along-track) resolution Along-track resolution becomes independent of frequency
Requires accurate navigation - within a fraction of a wavelength

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 64 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 65 / 76

Applications Imaging Applications Imaging

Sidelooking Example - very high resolution (SAS) Resolution matters

Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 66 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 67 / 76
 Applications Imaging Applications Imaging

Example: Fishing boat Properties in a sonar image

Geometry: Range
and elevation
Resolution
Random variability -
speckle
Signal to noise
Object highlight and
shadow

Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 68 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 69 / 76

Applications Imaging Applications Imaging

Example large scene with small objects Comparison of sonar image with optical image

Sonar range: 112 m

Optical range: 4.5 m

Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI

Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 70 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 71 / 76
 Applications Imaging Summary

Comparison of sonar image with optical image Outline

1 Basics
Introduction
Basic Physics
Underwater sound
2 Sonar Theory
Sonar types
Sonar range: 73 m Position Estimation
Signal processing
Optical range: 5 m
3 Sonar Applications
Fish finding
HUGIN AUV
Mapping
Imaging

Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI

4 Summary

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 72 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 73 / 76

Summary Summary

Summary På Norsk

Acoustics is the only long ranging information carrier under water

Sound velocity variations cause refraction of acoustic waves Engelsk Norsk
The ocean is lossy: higher frequencies have shorter range beam stråle
SONAR is used for beamwidth strålebredde
I positioning range avstand
I velocity estimation bearing retning
I characterisation echosounder ekkolodd
Applications: sidescan sonar sidesøkende sonar
I Fish finding multibeam echosounder multistråle ekkolodd
I Imaging of the seafloor
I Mapping of the seafloor
I Military

RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 74 / 76 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Oct. 2010 75 / 76