ZJC History Notes
ZJC History Notes
ZJC History Notes
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
What is History?
History refers to what happened in the past. It is a record of people’s lives, behaviours and
activities; their glories, successes, failures and cruelties. It helps us to understand what is
happening around us and helps us to prepare for the future as today’s society has been
shaped by decisions of the past. These activities are the ones which bring change to the
past. Knowing about the past helps us to avoid mistakes and understand how we are living.
Environment of history
The environment is vital because through that people behave in certain ways. The
environment affects what people eat, wear and the shelter they build. Therefore the way
people try to control the environment determines their course of history.
Factors of Production
Production is an act of producing goods or items. There are three factors of production
which are land, labour and wealth; these are regarded as agents of production. If land and
wealth area shared equally there’s less chance of conflict but if there is unequal distribution
conflict occurs among groups or tribes, this conflict is usually referred to as trouble. People
make their own history through production and struggle.
Stage 2: Slavery
In this stage people had gained control over the poor and weaker people. Slaves Performed
tasks like producing and these were also forced to do what their masters wanted.
Stage 3: Feudalism
In this stage agriculture was the main means of production. Land was owned by a few
people known as landlords and the majority worked for the land lords.
Stage 5: Socialism
According to Karl Marx this was the highest stage of development and in this stage equality
will be restored and wealth will be shared equally and it will also be owned by the
government.
Historical evidence
Oral tradition
These are narrated by elders to the young. Usually they are interviewed and information is
passed from one generation to another through the word of mouth.
Advantages
Easy to get information.
Easy to understand.
You can ask questions.
Every member of the society can have access to the information.
Disadvantages
Information can be easily forgotten.
The narrator can also make deliberate lies.
There might be a lot of exaggeration, bias or dilution of information.
Written records
These are facts written by people of the past. These facts can be found in libraries or
archives. Information can be grouped into primary and secondary evidence.
Primary evidence
These are diaries, letters or just information written by actual duress e.g. Rulers and
Administrators who wrote official letters.
Secondary evidence
This information is found in published books and it is an analysis of primary evidence.
Therefore a person who analyses, studies or writes historical information is called a
historian. A historian searches for facts about past events and these facts are called
evidences.
Advantages
Information can be stored for a long time.
Information could be from actual duress.
Disadvantages
Only the literate can use this source.
One may write wrong information.
You cannot ask questions.
Records may get lost.
Information can be distorted, exaggerated or forcibly implied.
Evolution
Africa is regarded as the cradle of mankind, so it is believed that the first people emerged
on the African continent. Several archaeologists found many discoveries of skeletal remains
in Africa and among them were Dr Louis and Mary Leaky who discovered several skulls at
Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. In 1959 the Leaky’s found a skull with large grinding teeth which
was an example of an Australopithecus Robustus.
Hominids
These were creatures which were more like humans than apes. They lived on earth millions
of years ago. They were not apes or monkeys and neither were they human. These
hominids became extinct. They were believed to live in Eastern and Southern Africa.
Remains of these hominids had been found covered in dried lakes and these historical
remains are also known as fossils.
Romapithecus
It is the ancestor of all apes and human beings, they lived millions of years ago. It was not
an ape, hominid or human being but a different creature all together.
Homo Erectus
The word erect means to walk upright. They used hand axes and cleavers to chop down
trees, branches and for digging. People were able to make tools easily and this period was
referred to as the early Stone Age. The Homo erectus learned to use fire to drive animals
away, protect their shelter at night, to cook and keep them warm.
Homo Sapien
They survived during the middle Stone Age period. They used flex tools for cutting meat,
scrapping skins and making tips of weapons. They used glue to stick a pole on a wooden
handle. A greater use of fire was noticed. They began to build shelter at their camps made
from branches, stones and dry grass.
Early agriculture.
It is a very big helping hand in the process of development. In this stage people began to
domesticate animals and to breed the young ones of the animal. Some of the major crops
which were first grown in Africa e.g. Taff which was first grown in Ethiopia. Tools of
agriculture such as hoes were used. Some got more land than others resulting in slavery
and some of the people gained control over others. In this the first class societies began to
emerge.
In Egypt two great civilised groups existed which were Egyptians and Kushians. The Nile
River in Egypt is the longest river in Africa. It has two great tributaries which are the Blue
Nile and the White Nile. The Nile was the centre of life through trade, transport and
agriculture. The early people of the Nile had to learn to understand the river to control its
flooding. Dam walls were built to stop the water from flooding the villages. Canals were also
built to help water run through the fields. To calculate this Egyptians needed accurate
measurements therefore they developed early forms of mathematics and Geometry which
they called Geometrics. Egyptians came up with three seasons which the called Arket (the
time for planting), Peret (the time for harvesting) and Shemou (the time when the Nile river
flooded). Days were counted by phases of the moon called months. The flood cycle started
after every 365 days and each month had 30 days and that left them with 5 extra days
which they called Heryou Renepet.
Egyptian writing
The most vital steps to civilisation were the invention of Egyptian writing. The Egyptians
adopted a picture way of writing called Hyroglyphics. The most important records of the
Egyptians which have come down to us are on papyrus (paper). At first Egyptians curved
their writing on stones e.g. on the walls of Egyptian tombs and temples. They learnt how to
make paper from papyrus reeds which grew freely on the Nile banks. Ink was made by
mixing soot and vegetable dye. The Egyptian handwriting is called Hieroglyphics which
means picture writing or sacred carvings.
Agriculture
Crops such as wheat, barley and sorghum were grown. Their food was made up of bread
and fish from the Nile. They kept a lot of sheep and goats but few cattle. Their animals were
mainly for paying taxes to the Pharaoh. They also grew flex which helped them to make
cloth.
Pyramids
Pyramids were the mightiest tombs of all built by the Pharaohs for their burials. Together
there were 80 pyramids which were built near the Nile. The first pyramid was built for
Pharaoh Zhoza and it was designed by an Architect/Imhotep. It was made out of a tomb
layered out of different levels and this gave an impression of steps and it was given the
name Heroe. The largest was built for Pharaoh Khufu and it stands at Gizi near the city of
Cairo, it took many years to build and many men were required for the construction.
Pyramids were built during the season of Shemou were no work was done in the fields.
Egyptian beliefs
They believed in life after death and looked forward to the same kind of life which they were
living on earth in the next world.
The book of the dead was listed 2 sins which a man had to avoid which were cheating and
killing.
The Egyptians believed the soul left the body to be judged by Osiris the underworld god.
The heart of the dead was placed on a huge scale and weighed against its sins, guilty souls
were at once devoured by the jackal headed god Anubis but good souls entered the world of
the dead and the company gods.
The soul that had been judged worth of eternal life could eventually enter the body but only
if it was properly preserved and laid in a tomb.
The re-entry of the soul into the body explained why Egyptians preserved the body of the
dead (mummified).
For kings and rich man, the preserving process of the body would last over 2 months, vital
organs were first removed and stored in Alabo Jars whilst the body itself was dried and
treated with spices of essence.
NB: Much of Egyptian culture, writing and was lost and other point changed under the rule
of theGreeks, however, the Greeks learnt more from Egyptian arts, religion, architecture
and science.
Egyptian gods
Horus – The sky god, his eyes were the moon and the sun.
Ptah – He invented the arts, the god of the capital menu.
Hathor – She was the goddess of beauty.
Osiris – He was a god of the underworld.
Rechoralchty (Ra) – He was the sun god.
Egyptian law
Men and women were equal before the law in relation to royal decisions, legal practises and
penalties.
They had equal rights to property as well as justice.
A family was constituted of mother, father and children.
A strict code of ethics was kept.
A historian called Manetho sorted the kings into dynasties. A dynasty is a line of family
rulers. He divided the periods into 3 kingdoms.
The old kingdom (2750-2200 BC)
The middle kingdom (2150-1800 BC)
The new kingdom (1580-1100 BC)
The intermediate was the period between dynasties and no records were kept during this
period between civil wars and foreign invasions (Dark ages).
THE SAN
The San were the first known inhabitants of Central and Southern Africa. They were hunter-
gathers living in highly mobilised groups between 20-50 people either following game
around the country or living in close rhythm with the land and its seasons or maintaining a
more settled life depending on seals, shellfish, crayfish, birds and fruits for food. The Sans
have left a lasting record of their lives through a thousand paintings. These hunter-
gatherers have still survive but in small numbers in the Kalahari desert. Their physical
appearance is small in structure,brown in colour and they have unique click languages. The
San were stone age people so they did not use metals so their weapons were made of
wood, stone and bones. They did not domesticate animals and cultivate crops. No pottery
was made instead they used ostrich egg shells for storing and holding liquids. The San were
nomads as they were always on the move in search of game and plant food so they did not
build permanent shelter, they preferred rock shelter for temporary shelter. A chief
controlled their resources on behalf of the group back in the day before the arrival of
shelter. A number of fish bones were found in caves and this indicates that they were
accomplished fishermen. Slivers of bones and wood sharpened at each end were used to
hook fish which were also caught by means of tidal trap made from walls constructed by
river Sanda.
San beliefs
They paid tribute to the chief.
They believed in God.
The eland was considered the most spiritual animal.
The taught their children through oral tradition.
The other early inhabitants of Central and Southern Africa were the Khoisan herders or Khoi
Khoi. The early Europeans called these people the “Hottentots” meaning stammers. The
exact origin of these people is still being debated by historians. The old theory was the Khoi
Khoi migrated from East Africa with their livestock and settled in Southern Africa but recent
historical evidence has shown it is not true. It is being argued that the Khoi Khoi were
among the original inhabitants of the area. It is also known that some of the San people
adapted to the changes in their environment and began to domesticate animals probably
about 2000 years ago. The Khoi Khoi was originated from pastoral culture and language was
found. The exact place of origin of these people is still debated and some say they
originated from the northern place of Bulawayo and migrated to East Africa with their
livestock in Southern Africa. However, recent evidence argues that they were among the
original inhabitants. It is also known that some of the san adopted change in the
environment and began to domesticate animals.
Economic system
Major economic system was based on lifestyle and production.
They raised long horned cattle and fat tailed sheep and goats; cattle were a symbol of
wealth and prestige. Their way of life was organised around their livestock therefor they
moved from place to place during different seasons in search of pasture and water for the
animals.
Animals were kept for meat, milk and blood.
Husbandry of sheep, goats and cattle provided a stable balanced diet and allowed the
related Khoi Khoi people to live in large groups than the previous inhabitants.
As time went on Khoisan began to grow crops and a variety of other plants.
Like the San both sexes were involved in the economic activities.
Apart from herding animals men sometimes hunted wild animals for meat and skin for
clothing.
Women milked cows and goats, gathered roots and berries and also made pottery.
The Khoi Khoi industry was more developed than that of the San.
Their technology included carvings of shallow dishes, bone ivory and smelting and smiting of
iron.
Religious beliefs
The Khoisan believed in a supreme being.
They believed in spirits of natural forces especially water and rain.
They gave special significance to the moon which they viewed as a physical magnification of
the Supreme Being associated with heaven.
The time of a new and full moon was a special occasion for dancing.
Economic Changes
The new iron users did not completely break away with the past Stone Age and continued to
hunt and gather to supplement their food.
However, they began to mine minerals copper, gold, silver and iron ore were mined. Hoes
and axes were vital for mining as hoes were used to dig for minerals and axes for cutting
trees to use for the furnace. Before Iron Age these minerals were ignored and regarded as
colourful rocks. Gold and copper were processed into jewellery and Iron was used to make
tools. These were used for internal and external trade, externally with Swahili, Chinese and
Oman on the Indian Ocean coast.
Bantu farmers began to pay more attention to farming although agriculture is believed to
have begun in the late Stone Age. A variety of crops were grown e.g. millet, sorghum and
pumpkins. These became the main source of food though hunting and gathering were still
done but on a small scale.
They kept cattle, sheep and goats. Goats and sheep were killed for meat but cattle were
vital as it was considered as a symbol of wealth. They were killed on special occasions e.g.
deaths, rain making ceremonies and births.
This was mainly done by women and pottery was decorated, it was used for storing grain,
water and milk.
They started paying tribute to the ruling class as a sign of respect by the subjects. Tribute
could be in the form of crops, iron tools, minerals, cattle and labour.
They traded internally and externally, they traded with foreigners from Persia and Arabia.
They traded gold and ivory and sometimes copper for cloth, silk and glass beads. Internally
they exchanged surplus goods, surplus grain could be exchanges for iron tools, pots and
livestock.
Social Changes
The early age people abandoned living in caves and began to live in pole and dagga huts.
There was division of labour which indicated specialisation of jobs. Men went for mining as it
was dangerous and women concentrated on household chores.
Specialisation led to exchange of goods amongst neighbours especially in times of crisis e.g.
blacksmith could exchange axes and hoes for cattle, sheep and goats.
Migration – The movement of a group of people from one region to another and they moved
with their livestock (cattle, sheep and goats).
Results
Introduction of new farming methods.
Settlements became more permanent.
New weapons / tools were made leading to better hunting and farming.
Land previously unoccupied became occupied.
Specialization of jobs resulted in farmers, miners, hunters etc.
Political Changes
Permanent settlements were established. There was a lot of food so people abandoned the
idea of moving from place to place in search of food.
Village communities were created. This led to formation of classes i.e. chiefs and subjects,
rich and poor.
Population increase. As the economy improved people got enough food to store for the next
season. People became healthy due to balanced diet thus leading to population increase.
Rivals amongst villages. Villages fought to control resources and weaker villages were
destroyed by stronger ones. This led to creation of armies as a way of securing land, cattle
and grain.
Decisions were made by a small and powerful group after reaching a consensus.
Economic Changes
Mining
It came due to iron technology. Copper, gold, silver and iron ore were mined. Hoes and
axes were vital for mining as hoes were used to dig for minerals and axes for cutting trees
to use for the furnace. Before Iron Age these minerals were ignored and regarded as
colourful rocks. Gold and copper were processed into jewellery and Iron was used to make
tools. These were used for internal and external trade, externally with Swahili, Chinese and
Oman on the Indian Ocean coast.
Pastoralism
They kept cattle, sheep and goats. Goats and sheep were killed for meat but, cattle were vital
as they were considered as a symbol of wealth. They were killed on special occasions e.g.
deaths, rain making ceremonies and births.
Pottery Making
This was mainly done by women and pottery was decorated, it was used for
storing grain, water and milk.
Tribute
It was paid to the ruling class as a sign of respect by the subjects. Tribute could be in the
form of crops, iron tools, minerals, cattle and labour.
Social Changes
The early Iron Age people abandoned living in caves and began to live in pole and dagga
huts.
There was division of labour which indicated specialisation of jobs. Men went for mining as it
was dangerous and women concentrated on household chores.
Specialisation led to exchange of goods amongst neighbours especially in times of crisis e.g.
blacksmith could exchange axes and hoes for cattle, sheep and goats.
Gaps between different classes broadened.
Chiefdoms emerged.
Polygamy was widely practised. It was vital for social status of a person because the more
wives one had the more one was respected. This also meant a lot of labour in the fields and
a good crop yield.
The boy child was valued more compared to the girl child because he perpetuated the family
name.
Lobola was widespread and it was in the form of cattle, hoes, beads and labour.
They believed in life after death therefore they buried the dead with their belongings.
Impact of changes
Food was now in abundance.
Hunting became effective due to new iron tools.
Trade became very important.
More permanent settlements were built therefore people stayed at one place for a long
time.
Exploitation of women and children by men and also exploitation of man by other man
began.
Displacement of earlier San inhabitants.
Formation of chiefdoms/states.
Tribute was introduced whereby subjects would pay or give a token of appreciation to their
rulers.
It is situated south east of Masvingo and is believed to have been built by the Shona people
around A.D. 1200. Our country took its name from the ruins which are complex and
beautiful. 1200 to 1500 AD saw the rise of The Great Zimbabwe. It was established on a hill
and had several outlying areas. Great Zimbabwe was believed to have been built by the
Karanga of the Shona tribe. The word Zimbabwe comes from the Shona word
“Dzimbadzamabwe”. The wall covering The Great Zimbabwe was known as The Great
Enclosure. Other Madzimbabwe are Chisvingo, Nhavayatumbare, Mapungubwe, Naletale,
Msimbira, Manekweni, Tsindi, Khami etc.
Strong Army
Great Zimbabwe had a large population which enabled it to fight and defeat enemies
through its army. Those who were defeated were incorporated into the army.
Political Organisation
The king was the head of the state and supervised trade, commanded the army, received
tribute and judged all cases that were brought before him.
Chiefs were below the king and had to be submissive, these included provincial chiefs and
district chiefs.
King
Council
Provincial
Chiefs
District
Chiefs
Village
Chiefs
Village
heads
Subjects
Economic activities
Cultivation
They practised cultivation - grew crops such as millet, sorghum, pumpkins, barley, wheat
etc. Men cleared land for agriculture and helped when harvesting. Women and children did
most of the work in the fields.
Craft work
This was done by both men and women especially weaving. They produced cloth which was
cheap, but ordinary people still wore animal skin “Nhembe”. Pottery making was vital, pots
were made for storing grain, water, milk and beer.
Tribute
This was paid by the subjects to the ruling class in the form of grain, tools and cattle.
Raiding
Neighbouring states were raided for cattle; grain, and women. Women were incorporated
into the state.
Fishing
Iron fishhooks were used for fishing. Fish supplemented their diet.
Civil wars
People would fight against each other in times of drought so as to get food.
Succession disputes
With time people began to fight for leadership and those leaders that were weaker had their
positions taken by those who were stronger. Some were even forced to move away from
Great Zimbabwe.
Shortage of salt
This is why Nyatsimba Mutota moved away from Great Zimbabwe.
Land exhaustion
With the ever increasing population farming land became exhausted.
Oral tradition has it that sometime in the 15 th century a certain Nyatsimba Mutota son of
Chibatamatosi of Great Zimbabwe was sent by his father to search for salt in the Dande
area. He moved from Great Zimbabwe in search of salt and was accompanied by his son
Matope, daughter Nehanda and Nyakatonje a visitor to the Great Zimbabwe. Mutota the
decided to take over the area and marked the beginning of the Mutapa Empire. The Dande
area was abandoned and had elephants, gold and salt. The availability of fertile land and
rich pasture in the Dande area was important in the rise of the empire. The weakness
fragmented the Tonga and Tavara who failed to join forces and repel the Mutapa and
presented Mutota with an opportunity to conquer with ease. He established the Mutapa
state around 1400AD and later moved his Capital from Great Zimbabwe to Chitako Hill near
Mt Darwin. After the conquest of the entire Dande, Mutota died and was succeeded by his
son Matope who then expanded the state into a large kingdom which some sources
describes as an empire. He expanded the area to Mozambique and took control of foreign
trading coast along the Indian Ocean coast which was a key to trading. The state was said
to have 6 provinces Dande, Barwe, Pura, Guruuswa, Manyika and Uteve.
Availability of minerals
Rich in gold and iron, these could be used for making jewellery and tools respectively and
thus promoting trade.
Strong army
Could raid and conquer other nearby and weaker local people e.g. Tonga and Tavara.
This forced some people to move away and search for better areas since
Great Zimbabwe was overpopulated hence rise of new states e.g. Mutapa.
Council (Dare)
The council advised the king when ruling. The council included Priest of the Mwari cult,
councillors, blacksmiths, army commanders, sons of provincial chiefs, king’s mother,
queen’s mother, queen and king’s brothers and sisters.
Provincial Chiefs
Provincial chiefs ruled provinces such as Guruuswa, Mbire, Manyika,Barwe, Uteve etc. The
position of chiefs was hereditary and the provincial chiefs were either relatives of the king or
friends of the king. They collected the royal fire once a year from Munhumutapa as a sign of
respect. They paid tribute to the king. They gave troops to the king in times of war. They
distributed land to district chiefs.
District chiefs
These were under provincial chiefs. Their position was hereditary. They paid tribute to the
king. They also collected tribute from the subjects in the form of ivory, cattle, grain, gold
and labour. They distributed land to the people. They also tried cases brought before them.
Village chiefs
These were under District chiefs; they distributed land to the people and tried cases brought
before them. They paid tribute to the king and also received tribute from the subjects. Their
position was hereditary.
Council
Provincial
Chiefs
District
Chiefs
Village
Chiefs
Village
heads
Subjects
Economic organisation
Crop cultivation
They grew millet, sorghum and peas. They also grew exotic crops like maize, watermelons,
tobacco, potatoes and citrus fruits. They practised shifting cultivation whereby a piece of
land was left to lie fallow for 2 or more years to gain its fertility before another crop was
grown.
Pastoralism
They kept cattle, sheep and goats. Cattle were a symbol of wealth and those that had many
cattle had many wives. These animals were important for hides, meat and milk.
Hunting and Gathering
Hunting was done by men and was an important source of meat and hides. Gathering was
done by women and they gathered berries, roots and insects.
Mining
They mined gold, silver, iron and copper. Mining was done during the dry season. They
practised shaft mining. Gold, copper and silver were used to make jewellery and iron was
used to make iron tools.
Blacksmiths
They made tools for agriculture like hoes and axes and they also made weapons like spears
and arrows.
Craftwork
Women made a variety of pots which they traded to earn vast amounts of wealth in the
form of grain, goats and sheep. The Mutapa also made baskets and wood carvings.
Fishing
Fish supplemented their diet.
Raiding
Neighbouring states were raided for cattle; grain, and women. Women were incorporated
into the state.
Tribute
The king received annual tribute in the form of cattle, gold, ivory, agricultural tools and
labour.
Social Organisation
The Mutapa state had people of different dialects e.g. Karanga, Ndawu and Zezuru.
There was gender awareness when allocating duties. Men were part of the army and hunted
whilst women were involved in household chores e.g. cooking, taking care of children etc.
People of the same totem were not allowed to marry one another.
They believed in life after death and so they consulted family spirits, clan spirits and
national spirits, this was usually done in times of war, drought and harvest.
Family spirits were believed to help family members achieve their ambitions.
Clan and national spirits also intervened in political disputes, succession disputes and inter-
clan disputes.
They believed in avenging spirits (Ngozi).
They believed in God the creator of mankind whom they worshiped through their ancestors.
They practised polygamy.
During the 15th century Portugal was sending exploration voyages to central Africa. One of
the explorers Vasco Da Gama reached the Cape of Good Hope. Therefore, the Portuguese
were the first Europeans to settle in the Indian Ocean coast. They discovered the sea route
to India and trading activities between Central Africa and east coast. They investigated the
presence of gold at Sofala and Kilwa. The two ports were used to acquire gold and ivory
from Mutapa state and in exchange got Indian spices from India.
Developments
The Portuguese Priests were pushed/encouraged to move into the interior to convert
Mutapa and his people to Christianity. A catholic called Fr Goncalo Da Silvera became a
great friend of the king and his mother and the Muslim traders (VaMwenye) were angered
when the king and his mother agreed to be baptised. In 1561 the VaMwenye plotted and
killed Da Silvera and dumped his body in a pond. Fr Goncalo Da Silveira death gave the
Portuguese a chance to attack Mutapa as they were against their contact with the Moors.
The In 1570 the Portuguese king sent an army to Mutapa to avenge the death of Da Silvera
and because the Portuguese did not know the area so well they were easily defeated even
though they had superior weapons. 1567 Francisco Barretto was sent by the Portuguese to
invade Mutapa so as to avenge the death of Fr Goncalo Da Silveira as well as driving away
Muslims. Unfortunately he died before invading as they reached Mutapa during the rainy
season and were affected by diseases. In 1574- Father Vasco Fernandes Homem was
sent together with 400 men. Before reaching Manyika, he faced resistance from Chiteve.
Chiteve King was defeated, but the Portuguese realised that the area had little gold
deposits. Most soldiers sent by the Portuguese faced opposition from the Tonga and couldn’t
invade Mutapa. For 35 years there was peace in Mutapa.
Military strength
Changamire Dombo defeated the Portuguese in many battles between 1684-1695.
Changamire Dombo was said to have had special powers like changing the colour of cattle,
making rain and making soldiers brave, however, the Portuguese thought he was a wizard
or magician. The may have been because of the clever tricks he used in battle.
He soldiers would often form a half circle around their enemy.
Dombo soldiers used many kinds of weapons like wooden clubs, assegais, spears, bow and
arrows, cow hides as shields and Rozvi officials used guns.
Mambo received guns from the Portuguese as tribute therefore the highest ranking Rozvi
officials had guns.
Political Organisation
Mambo was head of state, his title was hereditary, succession was collateral and
chieftainship was passed from father to son.
The king had the duty to install new chiefs.
Provincial and District chiefs were responsible for maintaining peace and order in their
areas; they also collected tribute on behalf of the king.
Vassal chiefs also paid tribute to the king as a sign of loyalty, failure to pay tribute meant
great punishment by military leader (Tumbare).
Tumbare took over as leader when a king died until a new one was elected.
Economic Organisation
Crop cultivation
They grew millet, sorghum and peas. They also grew exotic crops like maize, watermelons,
tobacco, potatoes and citrus fruits. They practised shifting cultivation and burning farming.
Pastoralism
They reared cattle, goats and sheep. They got meat, milk and hides from those animals.
Trade
They practised internal and external trade. They exchanged cattle for grain in times of
draught. They exported gold, ivory, iron, copper and lead. They exchanged these with
clothes, beads, seashells, guns and candles with the Portuguese.
Mining
Gold was the main mineral, it was mined at Buchwa. They also mined copper, iron and lead.
Iron was used to manufacture tools and weapons. Copper was used to make bangles.
Tribute
All subjects and Portuguese paid tribute. At an installation of new chiefs the chief was
obliged to pay tribute as assign of alligiance therefore the chief paid tribute to the king
annually
Craftwork
They made wood carvings and pottery.
Blacksmithing
Blacksmiths made iron tools.
Fishing
It supplemented their diet.
Raiding
They raided neighbouring states for cattle and women.
The Nguni people lived in fertile land along the east coast which is now South Africa. They
were Bantu people who understood each other’s languages even though they spoke
different dialects. They were Xhosa, Khumalo, Zulu, Tembu, Mthethwa Mpondo, Ndwandwe,
and others.
Social system
Members of one family lived together in a family compound of scattered homesteads built in
a half circle with the cattle kraal built in the sides of hills with the huts facing towards the
east.
The homestead had up to 1 000 huts with the mother of the homestead living in the centre
hut.
Economic system
Nguni people were both cultivators and pasture which means they cultivated as well as
keeping whole herds of cattle and goats. Cattle were herded by small separate groups of
people each herd organised around a royal clan
Among their crops were sorghum, kidney beans, pumpkins, melons, gourds, millet and
other grains. Tobacco and maize were cultivated later.
Cattle provided meat, hides and milk which were important in the Nguni diet.
Cattle were also used to carry goods.
Nguni women made clay pots for cooking and carrying water.
The Nguni people were hunters, the chief wore leopard skins.
Women wore copper and iron beads as jewellery; they also wore earrings, ivory bracelets,
shells feathers and various buttons.
Land was property of the chiefdom and the king had the power to distribute land and
nobody could be deprived of this important means of production and could not be so hard as
there was plenty of it.
Political system
The chief was political, military, judicial and kingdom head to help his people.
He gave final judgement in court cases and carried out religious rituals but was not a
dictator.
His power was a popular assembly and by a system of advisory councils which was made up
all important decisions, this system was centralised but loosely administered.
Rise of Tshaka
Tshaka was born in 1787. His father was Senzangakhona, a Zulu chief and his mother was
Nandi. Senzangakhona and Nandi were never formally married therefor Tshaka grew up
with his mother among the Langani, Gwabe and finally Mthethwa. Tshaka joined the
Mthethwa’s age regiment and proved to be very brave as a regimental leader. He became
Dingiswayo’s military advisor at a tender age. When Senzangakhona died in 1816, Tshaka
seized the Zulu throne; he was supported by Dingiswayo and became the Zulu chief. Zulu
means rain or heaven. Zulu State is said to have originated from a man called Zulu ka
Ntombela who probably was the ancestor of the Zulu clan.
Bare-footed
Soldiers went to war bare-footed so as to increase speed.
Age regiments
Soldiers were organised in regiments according to their ages. Regiments were disciplined
and loyal to Tshaka, they were trained to fight effectively in battles.
Long shields
Long shields were developed and were made of cow hides. The fact that the shields were
the height of a man made it possible to shield soldiers from enemies; The shield was also
used to hook away enemies shields.
Banning of circumcision
Tshaka banned the system of circumcision as it prevented young boys from participating in
war.
Tshaka used guerrilla warfare by attacking at night and at times ambush attacks.
Tshaka used witchdoctors to treat injured soldiers.
Economic organisation
They cultivated near homesteads, they grew maize and millet.
Men took care of cattle, manufactured and repaired weapons and other household tools e.g.
hoes; they also constructed huts as well as repairing them.
Political organisation
The king was an absolute ruler; he was supreme administrator though he had a council of
Indunas which advised him when ruling. Though he got advice his decision was final.
Duties of the king included:
Allocating land.
Distributing cattle.
Commander of the army.
Chief Judge.
Initiated inxwala and inkata ceremonies.
Chiefs were vital as they ruled their chieftaincies.
Chiefs were loyal to the king.
The state was divided into regimental towns and a woman was chosen to override each
town. This was a way of controlling regiments and also gave information to Tshaka on the
Induna responsible of that town; this encouraged the checking on the balance of the
administration.
Each regimental town encircled a huge cattle pen as each town was allocated regimental
cattle.
Outlying tributary states paid tribute to Tshaka as a sign of respect.
Youths were divided into military groups which could provide service to the state e.g.
working for the king; they could also raid and hunt.
The king controlled their work leading to public order.
Social Organisation
The Zulu believed in God whom they called Unkulunkulu.
They believed in worldly spirits “Amadlozi” whom people would communicate with in times
of need.
They believed that every misfortune that people encountered was caused by sorcery
(magical practise).
Settlements/military towns were circular and each settlement encircled a cattle pen.
Cattle were vital as they determined one’s social status; they were used for paying lobola.
Polygamy was widely practised such that a Zulu family was built on a polygamous family.
Zulu became the national language so those incorporated into the state had to speak the
language.
Inxwala ceremony was initiated by the king and every Zulu member had to attend.
Inkata was a national ceremony that promoted Zulu identity.
Death of Nandi
Tshaka felt empty without her as she was his advisor.
Mfecane.
His most trusted Indunas ran away e.g. Mzilikazi with some of the Zulu people and the state
was weakened.
MFECANE
It refers to wars which took place among then Nguni people around the 18 th century, Nguni
people included many groups speaking dialects e.g. Zulu, Mthethwa, Xhosa, Hlubi, Mpondo,
Zizi etc. New states were found due to military power and trading. By 1820s, one state had
emerged to dominate others (Mthethwa of Dingiswayo, Ngwane of Sobhuza) i.e. Zulu state.
Other states were forced to migrate from Nguniland e.g. Ndebele of Mzilikazi and Kololo of
Sebetwane. A lot of destruction resulted as warfare spread to Central Africa as death and
destruction was greatly experienced. This time was called Mfecane by the Zulu meaning
“Great crushing” and Difaqane by the Sotho meaning “Scattering”. It was also referred to as
time of suffering, trouble, movement etc.
Age regiments
As states grew age regiments increased in importance e.g. were Amabutho promoted unity
and provided an army as competition to control land increased, therefore the role of the
army became more important and initiation ceremonies were banned so that young men
would participate in the army.
Drought
Rains came to an end and drought was experienced for about ten years. Crops failed,
pastures withered leading to wide spread famine. This became known as Madlatule famine
meaning Madlatule meaning “let him eat and keep quiet”. Competition for scarce resources
became severe as people raided each other for cattle and stores of grain.
Course of Mfecane
When raided some chiefdoms broke up and migrated disorganised as desperate beggars,
they had no time to pack up food or cattle.
Some migrated as strong men and women under leadership and most likely not to beg.
Whole chiefdoms were terrified of the Zulu and its raids so much that they moved to safer
lands while some remained and paid tribute to the Zulu.
Ngwane of Sobhuza was defeated by Ndwandwe of Zwide and moved to north part of
Pongola River, his soldiers adapted tactics of the Zulu, Mthethwa and Ndwandwe. This made
him conquer other weak groups and incorporated them into his new kingdom (Swaziland).
Soshangane of Gaza-Nguni was in Zwide’s army as one of the chief officers, when Tshaka
defeated the Ndwandwe in 1818 he escaped and absorbed some immigrants (Northwards)
and he was able to conquer Southern Zimbabwe and Mozambique but was not as successful
as Sobhuza as his political influence was weak.
Zwangendaba of the Ngoni also escaped when the Ndwandwe were defeated, he followed
Soshangane but parted when the two clashed and lost the battle in 1831 and the Ngoni
travelled to Northwest Zimbabwe.
Zwangendaba had a series of battles with the Shona under Changamire dynasty, failing to
subdue them completely. He crossed the Zambezi river and finally settled in Tanzania.
Impact of Mfecane
Death of many people due to hunger as they lost their cattle, sheep and goats.
Abandonment of circumcision as it kept young boys away from active duty for a long time
i.e. in the army.
Destruction of chiefdoms which began Mfecane e.g. Ndwandwe, Mthethwa, Ngwane and new
ones emerged e.g. Kololo of Sebetwane and Ndebele of Mzilikazi.
Some large areas were left depopulated e.g. South of Tugela river
Spread of Nguni culture and language through assimilation. However, in some instances
the Nguni language was destroyed.
New war tactics were spread in Southern and Central Africa.
People from stronger chiefdoms benefited from the loot taken from weaker chiefdoms.
Leaders were appointed due to talent and rather than inheriting.
A balance between human population and land available was established leading to stability
in the region.
Ndebele Migration
Ndebele means man of long shields. Mzilikazi’s Khumalo was part of Zwide’s Ndwandwe but
later joined Tshaka’s Zulu State. In 1821 Mzilikazi was sent by Tshaka to raid the Sotho,
Mzilikazi then decide not to hand over the raided cattle. Tshaka sent an army as this was
regarded as rebellion against him; the Zulu army was defeated by the Ndebele. Its leader
was Mzilikazi son of Mashobane of the Khumalo clan. The Zulu army was sent for the second
time and Mzilikazi was defeated at Ntumbane hill but some warriors were left. In 1822 the
Ndebele moved across Drakensburg. Between 1822 1nd 1823 the Ndebele reached Olphant
River and they rested at Ekupemeleni (resting place). They continued to raid neighbouring
states, bringing forth cattle, men and women who integrated into the state. Ekupemeleni
was not a very good area as it was close to Zululand and the Pedi were a threat to the
Ndebele, the area also lacked good grazing lands especially after the 18323/24 draught,
since it was resting place the Ndebele head to move. They moved to Pretoria and their new
settlement was called Nhlahlandela, at Nhlahlandela they attracted the Sotho through their
raids in Botswana, Lesotho and Zimbabwe. The area was still close to Zululand which was
now under Din’ani and in 1830 Dingani sent an army to attack the Ndebele. The Ndebele
also felt insecure as they experienced threats from Kora and Khoisan.
After the attack by the Zulu the Ndebele were also attacked by the Griguas, Tswana and
Kora continuously attacked the Ndebele especially for hunting grounds, the Ndebele then
sent an army and defeated the groups but lost men , women and cattle.
The Ndebele moved further to Marico and their new settlement was at Masega.
The Ndebele left Masega due to frequent attacks and in 1837 they moved further north.
At this point they divided themselves into two groups since the group was too large to
control and feed.
One group was under Chief Induna Gundwane Ndiweni also called Kalipi. It had old people,
women, children, sheep, goats and Mzilikazi’s children; Nkulumani and Lobengula. This
group moved to Mzingwane valley hill where they reached
the once Rozvi state, they named the place Gibixhegu (Nhavayatumbare).
The second followed a longer route. Mzilikazi was the leader and was helped by Indunas
including Magqekeni, they moved westwards towards Lake Ngami leading to the Kalahari
Desert. They moved eastwards towards Zambezi but the area was tsetse infested.
When Mzilikazi heard that Nkulumani had been installed as king, he rushed to Gibixhegu
and killed Ndiweni and some of the chiefs who had installed Nkulumani as king.
Nkulumani ran away and Lobengula was hidden and released when Mzilikazi had calmed
down.
Mzilikazi then established his capital at Inyathi and in 1840 in Matabeleland. It is believed
the Ndebele arrived in present day Zimbabwe in 1841 and found Rozvi state seriously
weakened and established their state in the now modern city of Bulawayo.
Strong army
The Ndebele had a very strong army because Mzilikazi had learnt a lot of fighting methods
from Tshaka. The army raided a lot of people for cattle and grain as they travelled and were
able to feed the Ndebele. The army was also able to defend the people from enemies
leading to the creation of the Ndebele state.
Strong economy
Food was in abundance as they supplemented raiding with agriculture though agriculture
was on a small scale; this led to growth of the state.
Political organisation
The Ndebele state was more centralised and covered a limited area.
All Ndebele cattle were located within 80km of the kings’ village
Outlying areas of the Rozvi Empire were kept in touch through ambassadors and tribute to
the royal court and shrine of Mwari.
The king occupied central and almost powerful position in the Ndebele state.
The king was the commander of the army and chief judge.
He was also chief administrator and religious leader.
He made major decisions and power of life and death over the subjects.
He was helped to administer the state by a few wise men in the advisory council.
The Mpakati was made up of selected chiefs and members of the royal family; they made all
decisions affecting the state.
A bigger advisory council called the Izikulu included all chiefs, elders known for wisdom,
traditional customs and history; these groups discussed all national issues in accordance to
local tradition before referring them to Mpakati and the king.
Mzilikazi organised his state in regimental towns.
Each town was a settlement of soldier and supporting civilian’s commanded by an Induna.
The Induna was an administrator of the town as well as military commander.
These regional governors kept the king regularly briefed on the activities and the state
affairs of the province.
The regimental towns were grouped into 4 provinces headed by an appointed chief.
Provinces were divided into regimental towns and an Induna was in charge of each
regiment, however, their position was not hereditary, some of the king’s wives controlled
the provinces therefore these wives had power over Indunas, this encouraged total control
of the state as the wives reported any developments and problems to the king.
Economic organisation
Cultivation
They practised crop cultivation but on a small scale because the area could hardly
Receive enough rainfall. They grew crops such as maize, millet, sorghum, pumpkins,
melons, potatoes, beans etc. Both men and women cultivated crops.
Pastoralism
They were also pastoralists who kept sheep, cattle and goats. Cattle were of greater value
compared to sheep and goats. There were Zebutho (National herds) and Inkomo
Zamatonga (Private herds and king’s herds). The rich loaned cattle to those who had none
and this promoted peace among the Ndebele. Cattle were used for lobola payment, as food
at funerals, weddings, inxala ceremony and in times of draught.
Trade
Ndebele practised both internal and external trade. Externally they traded with the
Portuguese and Arabs for firearms, beads, cloth and ceramics, foreigners were interested in
gold and ivory. Internally they traded cattle for grain and iron tools e.g. hoes, spears and
knifes.
Raiding
Was vital amongst the Ndebele, they obtained food young men and women. Youngman
were needed to build a strong army to defend the state; this also meant a powerful nation.
Herds also increased through raiding.
Tribute
It was paid by subjects as a sign of respect; it could be in the form of cattle, grain,
firewood, iron tools, leopard’s skin and labour.
Blacksmithing
This was mainly done by and made hoes, spears and knives.
Religion
Nguni groups worshipped a high God (Mlimo), Mlimo and Unkulunkulu were the same, the
Ndebele adapted Mlimo from the Tswana and when they reached Zimbabwe they adopted
the Shona high God (Mwari), Mwari was believed to be powerful so when rain failed they
consulted Mwari.
The Ndebele sent annual gifts and offerings to the Mwari shrine.
The Karanga and Rozvi worshipped “Mhondoro” a lion spirit, powers of God and ancestors
could be only reached through Mhondoro or king.
They held an annual gathering, inxala ceremony were they thanked ancestors for good
harvests, prosperity and success especially in military campaigns.
Ndebele-Shona relations
For a long time it was commonly believed that the coming of the Ndebele caused the
breakdown and disappearance of all aspects of Shona life.
Lobengula also believed that Mashonaland was under his control; it was so because he did
not know to what extent of the area inhabited by the Shona speaking people.
However, the Ndebele took time to establish control of the Shona groups and even when
they did the impact was not always as disastrous and as brutal.
It is assumed that despite the raid of the Shona, the Ndebele were more interested in peace
by exchanging grain and iron tools for cattle and they also adopted some Shona religions.
The impact of the Ndebele dominance was greater to those who lived near than those who
lived further away.
The interdependence that existed between the Shona and the Ndebele is witnessed by their
willingness in fighting together during the first Chimurenga against European imperialism /
occupation.
Mzilikazi died in 1868 and was succeeded by Lobengula in 1870, between 1868 and 1870
there were succession disputes between Gwabalanda and a chief Induna who supported
Lobengula and Zwangendaba’s regiments which supported Nkulumani, Zwangendaba urged
that Nkulumani was still alive in South Africa.
Lobengula experienced threats from Transvaal, Portugal and Britain, they were interested
acquiring colonies for prosperity, and therefore they were defeated by BSAC in 1893.
Origins of underdevelopment
Wealth of a society is no longer used for its own development and this is called
underdevelopment. Wealth is exported and the people are robbed of their potential by their
own labour and resources. Africa was developing at her own pace meeting her own
technological needs, however, in the mid of the 15 th century changes took place that
allowed the natural course of her history and development. European traders came to Africa
not to look for traditional items for trade such as gold, ivory and cloth but to purchase
people. It was the beginning of the processed of underdevelopment. The progressive
development of Africa was disturbed and never restored.
Supply of slaves
The demand for slaves led to the capture or buying of many millions of Africans.
However, millions of people died during the process of raiding, capture and transport.
One study says the population of Europe and Asia increased by 4 times between 1650-1900,
while that of Africa remained stable.
The slave buyers preferred their victims between the age of 15-35 thus it had a terrible
effect on the African labour force.
Most of the people sold into slavery in the Americas and the Atlantic islands came from West
Africa.
The Portuguese were the first to obtain slaves in 1518. There after the supply of slaves from
West Africa was more as countries such as Britain, France, Netherlands and Spain were
involved.
The main supplying regions were the Sene-Gambia, Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast of
Benin.
During the latter part of the 18 th century, the supply of the slaves from West Africa
decreased because of the growing anti-slavery movements in some parts of Europe. This
forced the slave traders to concentrate on the East African region.
Feudalism
It is a way of producing goods. Agriculture was the main means of production and very few
people known as Landlords were masters. Serfs or tenants worked for the Landlords and got
food as payment. Landlords enjoyed most of the benefits and passed on the land to their
children meaning a landlord would always remain a landlord and a serf a serf for the rest of
their lives.
Capitalism
It is a way of producing goods by machines. The means of production was formed by
Capitalists or Bourgeoisie and workers or proletariats did work for the capitalists for very
low wages. During the 16th century there were improvements in trade as ships had been
invented so a group known as commercial middle class emerged. Trade became very
successful during this period as gold, ivory, spices and beads were on demand by European
capitalists. This marked the first stage from feudalism to capitalism.
The 2nd stage of development was in the 17th century were by great growth of factories was
experienced. This led to a class struggle as people were fighting to control the few
resources. The growth of industries led to the demand of raw materials.
The 3rd stage was around the 1870s. It was imperialism. Many countries e.g. Germany,
Italy, France, U.S.A. and Japan etc. began to compete for the control of the raw materials.
The Renaissance
There was a rebirth of science, arts and ideas in general, before this period all knowledge
was based on Catholic beliefs such as writing of art followed by Ancient Rome and Greek
beliefs. The period before renaissance was called Medieval meaning middle age. In the
Renaissance period people were more interested in Geography, Geometric navigation,
biology (working of the human body).
Painting
In the medieval period painting about religion dominated as church was powerful. When
church powers had been weakened, painters’ painting throughout Gietto painted portraits,
animals and sins of dirty life and was the 1 st Renaissance Italian men Rafael, Leonardo Da
Vinci, Michael Angelo and Dante painted to show beauty and they marked the period of
Renaissance.
Architecture
This in concerned with building structures such as libraries and theatres were put up.
Peruzzi, Rafael and Michael Angelo made plans of this using mathematics.
Literature
Dante an Italian writer became the first in the Renaissance period to use the local language.
It was passed on from Italy to several countries like Spain, France and England was William
Shakespeare and Spencer in England became popular.
The Reformation
It means making something better by eliminating faults.
It started in Germany and aimed at renaming traditional beliefs including those of the
church.
As reformation ideas fled through Europe protestants/protestant churches emerged and
these felt that the Catholics had gone away from the original teachings.
Popes were now corrupt to the extent of asking sinners to pay money for their sins to be
forgiven.
The church was now being accused of immorality and failing to do its duties.
The printers made bibles readily available such that it made the people realise much of what
they heard in the church had little support in the bible.
Those who criticised the church during this period were the kikes of Dr Martin Luther King
Junior and John Calvin.
The new mode class freed itself from the Catholic Church resulting in many religious groups
such as Methodists, Anglicans and Protestants.
Conclusion
The Renaissance bridged the gap between feudal and modern times.
The feudal societies had been dominated by the Catholic Church.
The Renaissance with its humanist emphasis of truth and ethical evidence destroyed the
ethical feudal order where the church’s beliefs and ideas dominated.
The church had been at the centre of scientific understanding, political thoughts and
education.
During the Renaissance there was now a re-examination of all religion beliefs including
those of the Catholic Church.
A great religious movement and the teachings and structure of those of the Catholic Church
had started in the 16th century in Germany and spread throughout the world.
These predestines failed that the Catholics had gone away from the original teachings and
disciplines of Christianity.
For many centuries the Catholic Church claimed great wealth from its subjects all over
Europe and it strengthened its power from feudal rulers.
Capitalism replaced feudalism in Britain when wealth was created by new farming methods.
Firstly banks were established and people borrowed money to build factories and machines.
Peasants were forced to work in factories and supplied labour for capitalists for low wages.
In a capitalist system the main source of social struggle was between the working and the
capitalist class. The capitalists used workers to make profits. Capitalists are therefore
parasitic because they can’t live without exploiting the workers. Britain is the father of
capitalism in Europe and in the world in general. It was made the workshop of the world
because of its industries.
Crop rotation
Crops were grown in rotation instead of leaving the land to fallow.
Lord Townsend introduced crop rotation. John Sinclair and Jethro Tull were big land owners
and demonstrated how agricultural capitalism worked.
Industrial revolution is the change in industrial methods from hand work to work done by
machines driven by power. People had to change from working in homes to factories.
Production was now on a large scale. Britain was determined to produce cheap and
abundant goods in order to supply markets worldwide rather than country wide.
Comparison
Before After
Manufacturing done at home. Manufacturing done in Factories.
Goods produced were used by few Goods were used for several purposes and
neighbouring families. sold to different countries.
Society depended largely on land. Society depended largely on machines.
¾ of population lived in rural areas and ¼ in ½ population lived in towns and ½ in rural
towns. areas.
Weaving – the process of intertwining the yarn lengthwise and crosswise to form cloth.
Results
Shift of population
Factories shifted from riversides to coal mining centres, big towns began to develop and a
larger number of people began to be employed in towns, people migrated from rural to
urban areas to seek employment.
Emancipation of women
This was a long term result of the industrial revolution. Women who went to towns were
later employed in textile factories. These women received same rate of wages as men
where they were employed in the same kind of work.
It took place between 1870 and 1914. As Britain began to develop in industries, she began
to invest in India and other countries as she continued to get a lot of profits so she decided
to colonise Africa so as to continue profiting. Around 1880s the world economy recovered
France and Germany began investing by colonising Africa. Britain and Portugal responded
by declaring ownership of many colonies hence the idea of scrambling and fighting for
resources.
Causes
Political factors
Nationalism
European countries competed to colonise Africa for supremacy. A European state which had
many colonies was of importance and was of value. The Franco-Prussian war between 1870-
71 between Germany and France was an example. This greatly caused the expansion of
other European states in colonisation of most of Africa as many European states wanted to
be valued.
Strategic purposes
Other parts of Africa e.g. Egypt, Morocco, Mozambique, Angola and the Cape were obtained
to control trade in times of reservoir (peace and war). Britain’s interest in Egypt was the
Suez Canal as it was a faster route to India.
Balance of power
After the Berlin congress was held and the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 there was a
realisation by European countries that there was no power in Europe which was more
powerful than the others. This meant that no country in Europe could expand its territory
without risking a major war hence they turned to Africa where there was no resistance.
Source of troops
European nations also obtained colonies in Africa so as to provide a source and
base for troops e.g. France obtained Senegal and Britain obtained South Africa and used
Africans from these territories to fight for their respective sides during the First World War.
Social factors
To civilise Africa
The fact that Europe was technologically advanced made Europeans feel superior to Africans
therefore Europeans felt they had the duty to civilise Africa and bring it out of darkness
characterised by cannibalism and barbarism. They considered Africans to be like children
who needed instructions on everything and they were to be dragged from their beliefs to
the civilised ones of Europe.
Economic factors
Need for raw materials
The 19th century marked the importance of raw materials. Industries began to produce
goods in abundance and at faster rate. Therefore, raw materials could not meet the demand
for the production of goods. This led to competition for raw materials gold, cotton, rubber
and vegetable oil. When gold was discovered at Kimberly and Witwatersrand, new hopes
were raised for Southern Africa especially South Africa and Zimbabwe which were believed
to have second rand gold.
Markets
The home population in Britain was largely made up of lowly paid workers and ordinary
people who could hardly buy goods. Britain imposed high tariffs on imported goods and this
made it difficult to sell goods to industrialised countries. As a result, most countries had to
seek markets in Africa.
Population increase
Population of industrialised countries increased and it became difficult to provide enough
food for them. Therefore, open spaces were a necessity so as to cater for all population.
Above all, European governments feared that extra and poor population could rise against
those in power as a way of expressing their needs so they wanted to avoid this.
Local factors
The colonisation of Africa would not have been possible if there were no conditions in Africa
that led to the defeat of Africans by settlers.
There were men who were already working as agents for European countries and for
charted companies i.e. Mulatoes.
Many African states had been weakened by devastating effects of slave trade.
Minerals that were found in Africa attracted European settlers.
Some chiefs had invited the Europeans to their states and this showed lack of unity among
Africans.
Berlin Conference
To avoid fighting over claim to territories in Africa, the European countries called a meeting
in Berlin, Germany in 1884-85 to discuss and decide on how to divide Africa among
themselves. No African country was invited to the conference; it showed clearly that Africa
had lost power to Europe. The future political affairs of Africa were to be decided in the
offices of Europe and not Africa.
Territorial terms
Portugal which had claimed the territory at the mouth of the Congo River and got a piece of
land to the mouth of Congo.
French claims along the Northern bank of the Congo were recognised, this became French
Congo.
Germany claims on Tanganyika were recognised.
Results
Africans lost power and independence to Europeans.
Africa became a source of raw materials needed by European capitalists.
Africa was under developed as profits were sent back to Europe.
Africans lost their land and were forced to produce labour in farms.
Slavery and slave trade began to be experienced in Africa.
Africans lost their culture in most areas due to introduction of Christianity.
Technological changes were noticed e.g. bigger ships were made to carry weapons and
larger cargo, better weapons were also made.
Shift of population as most people moved from rural to urban areas due to construction of
industries and markets.
Africans gained skills in carpenting, metal work, building etc.
Development of transport system e.g. railway lines, roads and telegraph lines.
Establishment of social services e.g. schools and hospitals.
Improvement of agriculture due to the Agrarian revolution whereby new crops and farming
methods were introduced.
British – Thought second rand gold was present across Limpopo and into Zimbabwe. They
also wanted to stop Boers from expanding into Central Africa.
Portugal – wanted to occupy Zimbabwe so as to link her colonies to South East Africa.
Portugal was familiar with trade with the Mutapa and minerals in the territories.
Germans and Boers – They dreamt of expanding their territories and therefore had to
occupy and colonise African states e.g. Cecil John Rhodes who
colonised Zimbabwe.
Rhodes imperialism
He felt that the British were a superior race in the world due to their civilisation
Therefore, he felt it was their duty to civilise Africa. He intended to seize Southern Rhodesia
due to his dream to occupy Cape to Cairo.
Illiterate leaders
Most African leaders were illiterate. Therefore, they were cheated in signing treaties with
Europeans.
Terms
Enforced peace between Matebeleland and South Africa Republic (Transvaal).
Lobengula was regarded as a Paramount chief and an ally.
Lobengula had to assist the Boers with troops if asked to help.
Anyone with a pass from the Transvaal President had the right to hunt and trade in
Matebeleland.
All criminals who could have escaped from South Africa were to be sent back to South Africa
by Lobengula.
South Africa Republic to appoint a council which would reside in Matebeleland and
administrate justice to those who might violate Lobengula’s laws.
Later Lobengula renounced the Gobbler treaty arguing that there were no independent
witnesses when the treaty was signed. Also Boers were the only ones who could read
considering the people who had signed. The Transvaal government insisted that the treaty
was still valid. Rhodes was forced to act quickly so he sent John Moffat to negotiate a treaty
with Lobengula; he wanted Matebeleland to be a British sphere of influence.
Terms
Peace to prevail between the British and the Ndebele.
Lobengula not to deal with any other power without permission from the British high
commissioner in South Africa.
Terms
Lobengula was promised:
£100 per month for an unspecified period.
1000 loading riffles.
100 000 rounds of ammunition.
A gun-boat to be placed on the Zambezi River.
Non-verbal terms
Only ten whites were allowed to mine. They were not allowed to mine near towns, they had
to surrender their fire arms to the king.
Obey Ndebele rules.
Dig one hole at a time.
NB: After receiving the Rudd concession, Rhodes rushed to Britain to apply for a Charter (a
written document) to enable him to form a company for the occupation of Zimbabwe.
The Charter
Objectives
Construction of a railway line and telegraph
Encouragement of migration and colonisation
Development of mining
Promote trade and commerce
Cecil john Rhodes formed the BSAC for the occupation of Zimbabwe and a Board of
Directors was formed to lead the BSAC. Adverts were made of Engineers, Miners and
Doctors etc. Many applied, but only 200 were accepted. Every member was promised 3000
acres of land and 15 gold claims. A police force was also formed to protect the members.
Army members and their wagons were referred to as the ‘Pioneer Column.’
The Ndebele Kingdom was doomed from the moment Rhodes decided to colonise Zimbabwe.
Causes
Conflicts over control of the Shona
The British and the Ndebele wanted the Shona, but for different purposes. The Ndebele
needed them for raids and the British as a source of labour. The British prevented the
Shona from the continuous Ndebele raids therefore the two clashed.
Boundary issue
After reaching Mashonaland, Jameson marked a boundary to separate Mashonaland and
Matebeleland on the Inyathi and Shashi rivers. This angered Lobengula as he continuously
asked who Jameson was, to demark such a boundary. Therefore, Lobengula refused to
accept the boundary.
Railway link
The British felt that the Ndebele blocked the route of communication between Salisbury and
Mafeking (South Africa) as they intended to construct a railway line to link Salisbury and
Mafeking through Matebeleland. Such a route minimised costs to South Africa. This seemed
to be impossible as they feared Lobengula and above all they had not invaded Matebeleland,
but Mashonaland.
Farms and mines were attacked and a lot of cattle were taken even the ones belonging to
the whites.
Shona stopped providing labour in European farms and mines in Masvingo.
The Ndebele demanded the handover of the Shona who had taken refuge in white farms
and towns.
Lendy refused to comply and a meeting was held between Umgandani/Manyawo and
Jameson/ Lendy and this was called the Victoria Agreement.
They agreed that the Ndebele had to withdraw from the Victoria district within 2 hours and
accept the boundary proposed.
Jameson felt that the Ndebele army had not gone as far as expected so he attacked them
killing 30 people including Umgandani. Lobengula became angry and sought revenge.
War became unavoidable between the British and the Ndebele.
After the Victoria incident, Lobengula refused monthly payments as per the Rudd
concession, Rhodes began to buy horses from South Africa and looked for volunteers to
occupy Matebeleland.
Each volunteer was promised a farm (3 000 acres), 15 gold claims and half the cattle
captured in Matebeleland to be shared amongst volunteers.
The first column left Harare leading to Bulawayo, the second left Victoria and met the
Harare column near Kwekwe and the last column left Botswana and went directly to
Matebeleland.
Results
The Ndebele were defeated.
Matebeleland became company territory.
Causes
Loss of land
Land belonged to community and not the chief even everything in it i.e. animals, firewood,
fruit trees etc. The British pegged farms in best areas in the country owned by Shona and
Ndebele. The Ndebele and Shona were driven away from their farms and had to work as
labourers for Europeans and farms which once belonged to them. Therefore, they felt
offended and degraded when their land was taken away from them. They had to fight to
regain their lost land.
Introduction of reserves
Gwaai and Shangani reserves were created for the Ndebele after their defeat. Reserves
could not accommodate all the Ndebele and were very hot, dry and tsetse infested. Some
Ndebele refused to occupy the areas, but to no avail.
Loss of cattle
Cattle was a symbol of wealth, they distinguished chiefs from subjects; rich from poor.
Police boys helped in the administration of the country, but abused their powers as they
began to demand cattle, goats and sheep from Africans and thus became unpopular. The
settlers themselves lacked capital to invest in Rhodesia so they stole cattle from Africans,
raided them and subjected them to taxes especially chiefs who failed to supply the labour
required. They were either punished or forced to pay a fine in the form of cattle.
Taxation
The company introduced hut tax in 1894. Every adult was made to pay a dollar for every
hut he had. The motive behind this was to force Africans to leave their homes and be
employed and accommodated by the settlers on farms. Both the Shona and the Ndebele
resisted, the company seized goats, crops and cattle from people who failed to pay tax.
Animals were driven to the hills and hid.
Ndebele confidence
In the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893, some regiments did not participate. Therefore, they felt
that as a combined force they would definitely win the war. They were so determined to re-
establish their supremacy in Matebeleland therefore they were very confident.
Natural/Physical disasters.
Favourable rain was received in both Matebeleland and Mashonaland, but thereafter the
area was struck by a drought. Huge swarms of locust devoured the few crops left and this
worsened the situation and famine was being experienced. Rinder-pests wiped huge herds
of cattle and this was associated to the Shona high Priest at Matopos Mlimo/Murenga, the
spirit believed that the white had to be driven away from Matebeleland and Mashonaland for
all these problems to be solved.
Loss of independence
The Ndebele were forbidden from choosing another king after the death of Lobengula; they
had to fight the whites to regain their independence as well as an opportunity to choose a
new king. The Shona also felt that the settlers did not sign any treaties with them, but they
had also lost their independence.
Uprising in Matebeleland
March 1896, white attacks began with the killing of Thomas Murdock a miner.
March 1896, about 30 whites were killed as the Ndebele attacked farm houses, missions
and collaborators.
Ndebele were organised by high priest Umlugulu with help of regimental Indunas e.g.
Nyanda and others.
Officials of Mwari/Mlimo such as Mkwati and Siginyamatshe helped Umlugulu.
Mkwati’s shrine was at Ntabazikamambo and it became the centre of the war.
Around June 1896, the whites got reinforcements from Salisbury, South Africa, Botswana
and Britain; there were about 2 050 troops altogether.
The Ndebele were defeated at Umguza in June 1896 and this implies they retreated mostly
into the Matopos hills.
The Ndebele were defeated as they faced food shortages, most of their crops were
destroyed as well as their grain stores.
Ntabazikamambo was stormed and forces gathered around Mkwati were war broke up.
Rhodes became afraid of the war because:
It was becoming expensive as the Ndebele were taking too long to defeat.
Mines had closed down so the company was running a loss.
The British parliament was about to withdraw the B.S.A.C. charter to rule Rhodesia.
Mashonaland Uprising.
Suprised the settlers as they felt that they protected the Shona from Ndebele raids.
Signs of war had begun at Chief Makoni’s court in Manicaland.
June 1896, fire was seen at hilltops around Hartley (Chegutu area), it spread to Mazoe,
Murehwa, Mtoko Headlands and Makoni; it was their sign to begin the war.
Mwari religious leaders united paramount chiefs, these included Mkwati with his
headquarters at Ntabazikamambo.
In western Mashonaland, Mashayamombe’s kraal was the centre of rebellion.
Settlers were killed including traders; Beatrice mine was attacked as well as areas 70km
away.
Kaguvi and Nehanda coordinated people, Kaguvi worked with Chinamora, Chikwaka,
Nyandoro, Zvimba, Mangwende, Mashayamombe, Rusike etc.
Nehanda worked with Chiweshe, Hwata, Nyamweda, Negomo, Nyachuru etc.
Fighting was organised at local levels by traditional, political, and military leaders.
Shona used guerrilla warfare, they would attack and after attacking they would hide and
pretend to be ordinary people, therefore many settlers were killed.
Whites were outnumbered and about to be defeated so settlers asked for reinforcements
from Britain, Whites burnt down Shona villages and seized their cattle.
A force of horse troops attacked Mashayamombe; the settlers used dynamites on Shona
caves.
Mashayamombe together with 230 people were killed whilst escaping. As a result
paramount chiefs were defeated one by one and these included Makoni, Mangwende etc.
Spirit mediums were hunted down. Kaguvi was captured in October 1897 and Nehanda in
December and they were both hung on 27 April 1898.
Chief Mapondera who was also active died in prison.
1903 Chimurenga in Mashonaland ended.
Between 1890 and 1897, the BSAC failed to make progress in Southern Rhodesia
economically and politically. This was due to the Anglo-Ndebele war, Chimurenga, rinder-
pests which destroyed cattle and locusts which destroyed crops. Therefore, the company
used a lot of capital on war as well as finding means for survival.
Developments in Agriculture
European type African type
They began to grow tobacco, maize, cotton, New methods of farming such as crop
groundnuts etc. Southern Rhodesia became rotation and construction of contour ridges
one of the major maize growers and were introduced.
exported to Britain for the first time in 1909.
Markets were established for exporting Domboshava and Tsholotsho schools were
tobacco. set up by the government to train
agricultural demonstrators. They were issued
badges or master farmer certificates
In 1912 the land bank was established for Those who were able could buy plots of
exporting tobacco. This helped Europeans to about 200-300 acres.
establish themselves on land as they were
able to get loans.
The Department of Agriculture was set up in They could also sell their produce but not on
1908 to implement agricultural policy to the same markets as Europeans.
white farmers.
Research station e.g. Gwede 1909, Rhodes
Nyanga and Matopos Estates were
established.
A pricing policy which discriminated against
Africans was implemented; the levies which
were paid were for one to be able to sell
goods produced were too high that Africans
could not pay.
Africans were further subjected to forced
labour and most of them lost their land.
Industrial developments
Development of a railway line from Bulawayo to Harare in 1897 and then Harare to Mutare
in 1898. This was vital for transportation of equipment in the industrial sector as well as the
exportation of goods.
Industries were built near towns e.g. Gwelo, Que Que and Gatoma. Most people moved
from rural areas to urban areas to seek employment.
Asbestos replaced gold as the most valuable mineral in Southern Rhodesia.
Establishment of electricity supply commission in 1937. This prorated the use of power
lines.
Resident commissioner
The resident commissioner was elected by Britain to check if African were being treated
fairly by the BSAC. The commander General controlled the company’s army therefore no
police force was to be used without knowledge of the commander General.
Administrative issues
The company had given off around 16 million and the settlers demanded to know who was
responsible for paying money back after the termination of the company. Settlers
demanded that the company was responsible so they clashed with the company.
The issue was passed on to a judicial committee in Britain which finally ruled out that land
belonged to the British government. Britain offered to pay 3.5 million as compensation for
administration deficits. The company was offended as it needed land.
South Africa offered a larger amount than Britain only if Joined South Africa as a fifth
province.
Charles Coughlan leader of the legislative council was against the joining of South Africa and
Southern Rhodesia; he argued that Rhodesia had a small population and could be swallowed
by South Africa. This also diluted British influence as she would be flooded by the Boers.
In 1919, Charles Coughlan formed the Responsible Government Association (R.G.A.), to
fight for a responsible government in Rhodesia.
A referendum was held on 22 October 1922 in which Coughlan won against unionists (those
who voted for the union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia) and those prevented
Southern Rhodesia from being incorporated into South Africa, R.G.A. got 8 774 votes and
Unionists 5 589 votes.
1 October 1923 Southern Rhodesia won the self-responsible government with Charles
Coughlan as the first Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia.
The country was divided into 15 districts and each district had to send 2 members to
represent them in the parliament.
Elections were to be held after every 5 years, but Africans were still excluded from voting.
Federation – It is when individual countries keep their territorial government but sends
representatives to the federal assembly.
Amalgamation – It is when several countries are joined to come up with one country.
In this case Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland
(Malawi) had to be joined as one country.
The idea of amalgamation was rejected as Northern Rhodesia was not producing much; they
also feared that a few whites in Northern Rhodesia would not resist nationalism.
Therefore Gore Brown a settler from Northern Rhodesia continued to suggest the idea of a
federation. He felt that Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland should form a
federation but interest of Europeans in Southern Rhodesia had to be respected whereas
African treatments in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland had to be respected.
Roy Welensky of Northern Rhodesia and Godfrey Huggins of Southern Rhodesia began to
campaign for federation arguing that there would be partnership between Africans and
whites and yet it was partnership of a “rider and horse”. The Africans equated the
partnership to that of a ladder which the Europeans wanted to use to climb on. Africans also
saw this as an instrument designed to perpetuate white and racist supremacy while others
saw it as a ploy to delay their independence. This meant exploitation of Africans. Africans
therefore protested against federation. Proponents of federation argued that a Federal State
would attract massive foreign investment thus, stimulate economic growth in the region. A
Federal state would also mobilise resources as one unit, therefore enable the development
of infrastructure such as power generation, roads, railway and industries. In 1953 the
British Government approved federation. The white settler population of Southern Rhodesia
greatly outnumbered the settler population of both Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. This
population growth greatly shaped the way towards a Federation and the future
developments.
Federation meant;
Southern Rhodesia was benefitting more than Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia as the
Kariba Dam was to be built in Southern Rhodesia, this meant promotion of tourism and
electricity.
University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was to be built in Southern Rhodesia (University of
Zimbabwe).
Construction of a railway line from Northern Rhodesia to Lourenzo Marques (Maputo).
Roads and bridges were constructed.
Agriculture and industries were to be created.
However, development was skewed in favour of Southern Rhodesia as the Capital of the
Federal government was in Salisbury. Many of the developments were thus undertaken in
Southern Rhodesia. Southern Rhodesia also received 60% of the Federal revenue, thus
relations became sour leading to the collapse of the Central African Federation. Other
factors which contributed to the collapse of the Federation were:
In 1950 Africans in both Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia campaigned to end federation.
Racial attitude of Southern Rhodesia.
Changing attitudes towards colonialism.
Granting of independence / self rule of Nyasaland in 1962.
The British government terminated the Central African Federation in 1963.
Rhodesian Law
In Rhodesia the law was used as an instrument for oppression and underdevelopment.
In the early years of settler rule laws were passed to force Africans to work for Europeans
by confiscating their land.
Later laws introduced prevented Africans from competing against white in employment,
selling produce and residential areas.
There were also laws of governing African movement from one part of the province to
another.
However, these laws did not stop Africans from fighting to achieve independence.
Laws Passed
LAW YEAR PURPOSE
Land Apportionment Act. 1930 Creation of reserves e.g. Gwaai and Shangani.
Cheap labour
Native Land Husbandry Act. 1951 Deprive Africans of their land.
Cheap labour.
Land Tenure Act. 1969 Deprive Africans of their land.
Force them to sell their labour cheaply.
Industrial Conciliation Act. 1934 To govern labour relations.
The law stopped Africans from forming trade
unions.
Nationalism is a feeling of oneness and love for one’s country. Modern nationalism grew in
opposition to colonial and other settler occupation of the country. The ill-treatment of
Africans and other social and economic problems which held back African development led
to increasing protests as blacks struggled to end oppression and inequality that the settlers
created and tried to kill. Instead of seeing the protest movements as a sign that conditions
need to improve the legislations were tightened. Despite the brutality and abuse of colonial
governments the Africans did not stop to organise and redress themselves.
Revolutionary Nationalism
On 11 November 1965, Ian Smith declared U.D.I. against African nationalism.
It became clear that the settlers would not listen to black demands.
ZANU and ZAPU then sent more of their leaders out of the country to prepare for an armed
struggle.
ZANU was allowed to setup camp0s in Zambia, Ghana, Tanzania and China whilst ZAPU
organised joint training camps with A.N.C. (S.A.) in Zambia, and the Solvent Union
(Russia).
Herbert Chitepo was leader of ZANU and its Military leader was ZANLA and James
Chikerema was leader of ZAPU’s military wing ZIPRA.
The armed struggle began on the 28th of April 1966.
Financial support
Both ZAPU and ZANU received political and financial support from people outside Zimbabwe.
Countries such as Tanzania, Mozambique, Angola, Zambia, Ethiopia, Algeria, Yugoslavia,
China, Romania, North Korea, Soviet Union (Russia) and other socialist countries supported
armed struggle.
Many countries in the world including frontline states (Angola, Botswana, Mozambique,
Tanzania and Zambia) supported the first struggles of the African people and opposed the
illegal state of Rhodesia.
The increasing guerrilla struggle led to the loss of discipline and confidence among white
settlers.
Pearce commission
Edward Heath, the leader of a Conservative party negotiated for a settlement with Ian smith
disregarding the fact that Ian Smith was not interested, Goodman was therefore sent to
negotiate.
However, he felt that the British Government had to negotiate
The settlement he came up with meant continuous exploitation of Africans, some African
protested by carrying demonstrations in the streets.
In 1973, Ian Smith desired to have talks with Bishop Abel Muzorewa (UANG) but failed to
reach any consensus.
He tried Dr Joshua Nkomo of ZAPU but failed again.
Ian Smith began to fear armed struggle from Africans so he decided to negotiate with less
militant African leaders.
Internal Agreement
Besides attempts by South Africa and Zambia to end the war, attempts were also made by
the U.S.A.
A meeting took place and Ian Smith announced acceptance of majority rule on 24
December 1974, however, Police army and vital agencies had to remain in white hands.
As the cost of the war became burdensome, it led Ian Smith to adopt the idea of negotiating
with internal leaders as a way of ending the war.
African leaders who supported the settlement include Muzorewa, Sithole, Chikerema and
Chirau.
On March 3 1978, the internal settlement was signed and the leaders agreed to form a
government of national unity.
Under this arrangement Muzorewa became Prime Minister of the brief Zimbabwe Rhodesia
in1979 but even during this period the settlers continued to hold politic and economic
power.
The settlement had been a desperate attempt to stop the armed struggle, unfortunately this
did not happen as Muzorewa and others did not have any control over guerrillas so the
struggle continued.
Members present
British Delegation – Lord Carrington – 3 representatives.
ZANU – Robert Mugabe – 57 representatives.
ZAPU – Joshua Nkomo – 20 representatives.
Zimbabwe Rhodesia Delegation – Bishop Abel Muzorewa –20 representatives.
The Patriotic Front was threatening to fight the colonial government and therefore a
Conference was called for , the Question of land became critical at Lancaster
ZANU wanted land which was owned by the whites to be redistributed to the rightful owner
i.e. the Africans.
Whites refused to hand over the land arguing that they had to be paid for the land to be
released.
ZANU argued that if any payment had to be made the international community was
responsible.
The British government later agreed to pay the whites so that they hand over the land they
owned for redistribution.
Elections were held and ZANU won the majority box.
I8 April 1980 independence was granted to Zimbabwe.
Cde Canaan Banana the late became the first President of Zimbabwe and Cde Robert
Mugabe was Prime Minister.
Post-independence Zimbabwe
The new government of Zimbabwe was faced with serious problems of receiving economy
and sociality had been destroyed in the armed struggle.
From the onset government started to address the political and economic problems faced by
the country.
Socialist ideology
During the armed struggle Zimbabwean government material support from socialist states.
ZANU was assisted by China whilst ZAPU got help from Russia.
It is therefore not surprising that the 1980 government chose to follow socialist ideology
which was to support equality in the distribution of wealth.
However, socialism was difficult to implement as it did not get whole hearted support from
everyone as some quickly assumed personal wealth.
Such behaviour destroyed socialism as it showed double standard in practise.
With the collapse of socialism in the Soviet Union (Russia) in 1989 Zimbabwe back tracked
and openly they accepted capitalism.
Although there was no voters roll in 1980, true democracy was achieved.
People voted freely and the outcome of the elections was welcomed by the majority of the
people who wanted the war to end.
During the armed struggle there were many armed groups in the country and it was now
necessary to maintain peace and security.
As a result General Solomon Tapfumanei Mujuru was given that task.
A multi-racial Cabinet was appointed.
However, because of misunderstanding among the political groups a bloody civil war broke
out in Matebeleland in 1982.
This ended with the unity agreement of December 1987 and Mugabe became President.
Education
The colonial government aims in education were:
To spread Christianity through work of various missionary societies.
To train people who would be useful for capitalists’ extraction of wealth from the colony.
For education to be used as instruments to separate Africans from their culture.
Only European history was learnt e.g. Hitler, Napoleon, Mussolini etc.
Missionary societies were the first to start formal; schools for African in Southern Africa.
The first mission station was established at Inyathi by The London Missionary Society
(L.M.S.) in 1859.
In 1870 a 2nd mission station opened at Hope Foundation.
The Jesuits followed the L.M.S in 1879 and the Dutch Reformed Church established one
school near Masvingo in 1891.
In 1899 the Government passed its 1st education for white children and not Africans.
The ordinance also stated that individual training was to be included in the curriculum for
African children.
In 1903 ordinance was passed, it aided on teaching African Children enough English to be
able to understand. Therefore this education assumed at making Africans better labourers.
In 1946, the 1st government school Goromonzi was established and it courted for skilled
labourer power in both private and public sectors.
The African demanded that the government had to run with the education sector as they did
European education.
The partnership between Missionaries and government had continued in the education
sector.
Post-Independence period
Before independence the education system had favoured the white minority whilst they
were bottlenecks for African children who forced them out of schools.
This system produced Africans who were only able to read and write that they could be
accepted in the mines, farms and industries.
In 1981, the government set out to provide better educational opportunities for Africans.
There was to be no discrimination in education on grounds, voice class and gender.
An expansion in education led the government to introduce a fast track teacher in schools.
Other universities were opened/ established to relieve the University of Zimbabwe to
accommodate those finishing their A level studies.
To promote the girl child, in 1996 the government came up with the affirmative action
policy, this encouraged female enrolment at higher institutes.
Since independence the education system has received outstanding achievements.
On the other hand the quality of education has been limited by lack of funds and brain
drain.
Equality has also been difficult to achieve as some schools have excellent facilities whilst
others have to do with bare minimum.
Partition of Africa after 1884 led to the occupation of the continent by European colonial
power except for 2 countries; Ethiopia which had been independent throughout its history
and Liberia.
The exploitation of African people and their resources followed a similar pattern but in some
countries there was strong resistance to colonisation.
The liberation of the liberation of the African continent has been a long struggle.
Egypt became the first country to gain independence in 1922.
The first black African country to become independent was Ghana in 1957; this encouraged
other African nationalists in other parts of the continent.
Liberation of Ghana
The gold coast as it is known during the colonial times became independent on the 6 th of
March 1957. At the beginning of the 18 th century the British company of merchants sent an
official to make a treaty with regional chief. In 1821 the British government took over the
company and in 1874 the Fante and Ga Coastal areas became a British colony and 2 years
later the Asante area was occupied because of its gold.
Protest movements
Despite a few Africans having being members of the Accra Legislative council 1877.
The colonial government kept Africans out of the senior posts in the civil service.
In 1897, members of Ghana’s 2 elite groups the educated and chiefs formed the gold coast
Aborigines Rights Protection Society (A.R.P.S.).
They had been united by their opposition to laws which did not allow Africans legal
ownership of their land.
In response to growing discontent, The United Gold Cross Convention (U.G.C.C.) was
formed in 1947.
The U.G.C.C. invited Kwame Nkrumah a graduate in the United States to come back and
become the party’s secretary general, he was a good speaker and organiser.
In 1948 he and others were detained and a state of emergency was declared following
demonstrations and riots after he had called for a boycott of European firms until firms were
forced to lower prices.
The constitution of 1950 gave Africans more representations.
In February 1951, C.P.P. won the legislative elections and became leader of government
businesses and the Prime Minister the following year.
In 1954 he led his party to victory in the new elections, the regional and capitalist’s forces
were mobilised against the C.P.P. and the British demanded a new set of elections.
In these elections the C.P.P. won again.
It was a loose association of 30 African countries. The O.A.U. was an attempt to establish an
Inter African organisation of independent states. Then O.A.U. organised to fight against
colonialism in Africa.
Pan-Africanism
This was a feeling of African inside and outside Africa to free themselves from white people.
The origins of Pan-Africanism are traced to North America were people from African descent
desired to establish links of Brotherhood with Africans in Africa.
Its aim was to bring together all the black people of the world in a common struggle for
freedom, equality and self-determination throughout the world.
Pan-Africanists believed that Africa is a single unit that should unite; there was a deep
cultural unity among all Africans.
Europe and America developed because of slave labour and raw materials from Africa.
Because of these beliefs some of the African in America organised Africans to come back to
Africa and a number actually came and stayed in Liberia and Sierra Leone.
The movement of African unity and solidarity was known as Pan-Africanism.
With prominent figures such as Henry Sylvester Williams, Marcus Garvey and Dr William
E.B. Du Boise.
The early Pan-Africanists were Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and
Julius Nyerere of Tanzania.
Henry Sylvester Williams came from Trinidad in the West Indies; he was the first person to
champion Pan-Africanist ideas in 1900. Williams advised African chiefs to fight against
colonialism in order to be independent.
Marcus Garvey came from Jamaica, he called for black people to return to Africa and his
movement was called “Back to Africa movement”. To help the black Americans go back to
Africa, Garvey formed a shipping company and told black Americans stop to rely and
depend on white employers.
Dr William E.B. Du Boise. Was regarded as father of pan Africanism, Du Boise ideas were
shared by most afro Americans. He regarded America as his native land. Du Boise pan
Africanism aimed at encouraging and uniting Africans against oppression and exploitation
wherever they were.
ASSEMBLY
ASSEMBLY OF
OF
HEADS OF STATES
AND
AGOVERNMENT
AGOVERNMENT
Makes Adopts
decisions resolutions
Council of Ministers
It is made up of foreign ministers of member states and met twice a year.
It prepared conferences and agendas and approved the O.A.U. budgets for the assembly.
Commission
Economic for
and Social co- Mediation,
operation Councilation
& Arbitration
Defence
The
General
Secretariat
Informatio
Organises n and
meetings. Public
relations.
Prepares
programs and
budgets
annually.
Executive Financial
council. institutions
Economic,
Pan-African Social and
parliament. Cultural
African council.
Union.
Specilised
Court of
technical
Justice.
committees
The Permanent
representative
commission committe..
Pan-African Parliament
This is made up of representatives of all member states.
The purpose is to ensure full participation of all African people in the development of their
constituency.
The parliament also reports to the Executive Council on emerging challenges and the
progress made on development projects.
The Commission
It works as the secretariat of the African council.
It consists of a Chairperson and a group of commissioners,
The commissioners report to the assembly which alternates its structure, functions and
regulations.