MoPSE Geography Module Volume 1 - FINAL4WEB

Ministry of Primary and
Secondary Education
Geography Module
Level II
Volume 1
Lifelong and
Continuing Education
2020
Introduction
The last thirty years have seen resurgence in Open Distance learning as a pedagogical
approach and this trend is envisaged to continue. The knowledge-based society that
we live in has enabled learning to take place anywhere or everywhere. The concept
of a classroom without walls continues to grow in Zimbabwe. Due to the demand
for open distance learning, the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education has
revamped its non-formal education department to embed distance learning as a tool
for learning in order to address the learning needs of the growing numbers of out
of school learners or school drop outs that cannot access formal education systems.
The module is written in a simple manner with lots of friendly and interactive activities
to make learning interesting and easier for the out of school learners. The module
develops critical thinking skills, problem solving skills among other 21st Century skills.
It is the Ministry’s hope that out of school learners are going to take advantage of
this module and benefit immensely in advancing their learning endeavours.
I
Acknowledgements
The Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (MoPSE) wishes to acknowledge
Primary Secondary and Non-Formal Education (PSNE) department for coordinating
this programme and the Curriculum Development and Technical Services (CDTS)
department. Special mention goes to Chabikwa Blessing – Education Research
Officer (CDTS) the team leader who compiled, edited and proof read the Module.
The writing of this Non- Formal Level 2 Geography Module was made possible by
the contributions from the following dedicated and hardworking Senior Teachers who
authored units of this module:
• Frank Phiri of Inyathi High School in Bubi district, Matabeleland North

• Edith Mushayavanhu of All Souls High School in Mudzi district, Mashonaland East
• Erasmus Chiketa of St Johns Chikwaka High School in Goromonzi district,
Mashonaland East
• Maryline Muchena of Uzumba High School in Uzumba district in Mashonaland
East.
• MoPSE would also want to extend special mention to Mr. Frank Phiri for being
both the author and the artist for the illustrations and designs in the module,
without him, the work was going to be compromised.
• Above all special consideration goes to UNICEF for providing funding for this
Module.
II
How to use this module
This module is meant to be a distance learning tool. It is designed in such a way that
you can study the topics on your own and go and write examinations. An attempt
has been made to simplify the language so that that you understand every concept
clearly. As you read the module, however, you may still find words that are new to you.
We have made a list of key words at the beginning of each unit. The whole module
also has a glossary at the back. Check the new words there. In some cases, the words
may not be in the module glossary or keys words. When this happens, it will be best
to consult your dictionary and other such books that may help you understand what
we are saying to you.
The module is divided into units. Units are what you can call topics. In this module there
are 25 units. Each of these units can be read independent of other units. However, we
strongly recommend that you read related units together. Check for related topics in
the module as they are grouped into themes. The themes and related topics that you
will find in this module are as follows:
Theme Units Description of the theme

1 1 to 4 Weather and climate
2 5 to 8 Landforms
3 9 to 12 Natural resources, Energy and Power
4 13 Geographic Information Systems
5 14 to 16 Mining and Environmental management
6 17 to 18 Agriculture
7 19 to 20 Industry and tourism
8 21 to 24 Population Geography
9 25 Transport and trade
You will also find that the module has in-text activities. These are small task that we
will engage you in so that you fully get the ideas being discussed. You are therefore
encouraged to do all these. Do not hurry to go through the text by omitting these in-
text activities. They will be very useful for understanding the geographical concepts
we have in the module.
Meanwhile, the module also has activities. Activities are exercises that are meant for
you to check your understanding as you read through different topics. The activities
generally come after every main topic within the unit. The activities in the module
have answers. You are expected to check your answers against those provided at the
back of the module. The activities can be done in the module in the spaces provided.
Watch out for tips as you read the module. These are short hints and guides on
some of the issues you will meet in the module. The tips will offer you ways of doing
something, clues to an answer and even point you to the next concept. In the same
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way, the module has ways of emphasising points to you. Important points are italicised
or made bold.
At the end of each unit there is a summary of the whole unit. The summary is in
point form. It lists the main ideas discussed in the module. You are advised to use
the summary to revise the ideas of each unit. After the summary there is a unit test.
The unit test is a set of questions that you must answer in order to test yourself on all
concepts covered in the module. Meanwhile, each theme ends with an end of theme
assessment. This consists of exam type of questions. These questions are multiple-
choice and structured questions for you to test your understanding of the module.
Moreover, in order to help you check how much you have understood from a unit
there is a check list. Use the check list to evaluate how much of the unit you have
understood. The check list will help you evaluate the objectives that are listed at the
beginning of the unit. We also included a recommended list of textbooks that you
can refer to in order to deepen your understanding of the concepts covered in each
unit. It is our hope that you find using this module easy to use and interesting. As you
read it learn and enjoy.
This module has been subdivided into two volumes, that is, Volume 1 Volume 2. You
are advised to study Volume 1 first before going to Volume 2.
Wish you the best!
IV
Table of Contents
Introduction i
Acknowledgements ii
How to use this module iii
UNIT 1: AIR MASSES AND AIR MASSES AFFECTING

ZIMBABWE AND SOUTHERN AFRICA 1
1.1 What is an air mass? 2
1.2 Classification of air masses 3
1.3 Air masses affecting Zimbabwe 5
1.4 The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) 7
1.5 Air masses outside the tropics 9
End of Unit Assessment 12
UNIT 2: FRONTS, TEMPERATE DEPRESSIONS, FRONTAL SYSTEMS AND

TROPICAL CYCLONES 14
2.1 Temperate Depressions 15
2.2 The effect of temperate depressions on the weather of Zimbabwe 20
2.3 Tropical Cyclones 22
2.4 Effects of tropical cyclones 26
2.5 Mitigation against impact of tropical cyclone 26
UNIT 3: CLIMATE TYPES ON A GLOBAL SCALE AND INTERPRETATION OF

CLIMATIC DATA 32
3.1 What is climate? 33
3.2 What are the factors that influence climate? 33
3.3 Types of climate 36
3.4 Climatic data 46
3.5 The importance of the Mean and the Range in Climatic studies 49
UNIT 4: HUMAN INFLUENCE ON CLIMATE 52

4.1 Human Influence on Climate 53
4.2 Climate Change 60
4.3 Nature: Causes and Effects of Climate Change 60
4.4 Adaptation to Climate Change 62
4.5 Mitigation against Climate Change 62
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UNIT 5: PLATE TECTONICS 66
5.1 The Continental drift theory 67
5.2 Plate tectonics 69
5.3 Folding and resultant landforms 77
5.4 Faulting and resultant landforms 82
5.5 Volcanoes and earthquakes 87
UNIT 6: LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM WATER ACTION AND RIVER

PROCESSES 100
6.1 Seasonal nature of rivers in Zimbabwe 101
6.2 Processes operating along a river channel 102
6.3 Factors influencing the rivers energy 106
6.4 Landforms resulting from river processes 107
End of unit assessment 115
UNIT 7: LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM WIND ACTION IN ZIMBABWE AND

AFRICA 118
7.1 Characteristics of arid and semi-arid regions 119
7.2 Distribution of arid regions 120
7.3 Distribution of Semi-arid regions 122
7.4 Wind action processes and resultant landforms 123
End of unit assessment 131
UNIT 8: HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH LANDFORMS DEVELOPMENT AND

DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT 133
8.1 Volcanoes as hazards 134
8.2 What are tsunamis and their effects? 136
8.3 Earthquakes as hazards 137
8.4 Mass wasting 138
8.5 Flooding 141
8.6 Disaster risk management of volcanoes, earthquakes, flooding
and mass wasting. 142
End of unit Assessment 144
VI
UNIT 9: ECOSYSTEMS: WETLANDS AND SOILS IN THE TROPICS 147
9.1 What are the Importance of wetlands? 148
9.2 The benefits of wetlands 150
9.3 What are the soil components? 150
9.4 Soil forming processes 152
9.5 Soil types 158
9.6 Soil profile 159
9.7 Soil properties 161
9.8. Soil mineral content 166
UNIT 10: BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES 168

10.1 What is Nutrient Cycling? 169
10.2 The Nitrogen cycle 171
10.3 What measures can be used to conserve the ecosystem? 173
10.4. Restoration methods 176
10.5 What are the Importance of Ecosystems? 176
End of Theme Assessment 177
UNIT 11: NATURAL RESOURCES – CONSERVATION OF RESOURCES AND

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 179
11.1 What are natural resources? 180
11.2 Conservation methods (Fish and Water) 182
11.3. Types of wildlife management 187
11.4 What is Human and Wild life conflict 191
11.5. What is CAMPFIRE? 196
VII
Unit 1 Air masses and air masses affecting
Zimbabwe and Southern Africa
1.1 What is an air mass?
1.2 Classification of air masses
1.3 Air masses affecting Zimbabwe
1.4 The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
1.5 Air masses outside the tropics
Introduction
You have probably experienced a sudden change in air temperature as you walked
through an area in your locality. What do you think caused the sudden change? It was
air masses. In this unit you are going to learn about air masses. You will learn about
what air masses are. Moreover, you will cover air masses that affect the weather of
Zimbabwe. Once you master the air masses affecting Zimbabwe, you will also learn
about air masses affecting the weather of Southern Africa.
Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• describe an air mass
• classify air masses
• describe types of air masses and their characteristics
• describe weather associated with air masses affecting Zimbabwe and
Southern Africa
• explain weather conditions associated with the Inter-Tropical Convergence
zone
Key Words
Air mass a large body of air that has humidity and temperature
characteristics that are horizontally uniform.
Source Region an area that is physically uniform over which air masses develop.
Humidity amount of water vapour contained by an air mass.
Latitude the angular distance measured north and south from the
equator.
Convergence a low-pressure belt where winds from different and opposing
zone pressure belts meet.
Divergence a high-pressure belt from which winds are blowing away.

zone
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Time
You are expected to take an average of 10 hours to go through this unit.
Study skills
• You have to note that this unit is about air. Can you see air? Of course, not! You
can only see the effects of air as it blows as wind. As a result, you will need a
good sense of imagination to describe the processes we will cover in this unit.
• You are also advised not to move on to the next unit before you fully understand
the content of this unit.
1.1 What is an air mass?

You have already come across the definition of the term air mass in the key terms
section. What did we say it means, by the way? If you have forgotten, you have to
refer to the key words section always. We said an air mass is large. This means that
a single air mass covers hundreds of kilometres. We also said it has horizontally
uniform temperatures and humidity. This means that the air temperature is similar in
different areas at the same altitude. Study the diagram below that illustrates the size
of an air mass and the uniform temperature characteristics.
Figure 1.1 The extent of an air mass and the uniform temperature and humidity
Now that you have understood what an air mass is, let us move on to look at how air
masses are classified.
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1.2 Classification of air masses
Air masses are classified according to source regions. Do you remember what a
source region is? We defined a source region as an area that is physically uniform
over which air masses develop. There are different types of source regions. Study the
major types of source regions that are shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Source regions and their examples
Type of Source Region Example

Ocean Indian Ocean
Cold Plain Antarctica and the Arctic area
Deserts Sahara
Plains Canadian Plains
As we have illustrated above, source regions vary in terms of whether they are water
bodies or landmasses. Landmasses are continents or parts of continents. They are
different from the seas or oceans. Notice also that they vary in terms of whether they
are cold or warm. You have to, therefore, notice that an air mass that forms over a
cold surface will become cold. Similarly, the one that settles over a warm area will
become warm. Consider the effect of the following types of source regions:
Activity 1.1 The effect of source regions on air masses

Answer the question below by filling-in the spaces in the table provided
below.
What is the effect of the source regions in the table below on air masses settled
over them?
Source Region Effect on the air mass
e.g. A cold surface Low temperatures
- An ocean source region
- A landmass source region
You can check whether you answered the questions correctly from the separate
answer book that goes with this module.
Now we are going to take you through the geographical terms used in the classification
of air masses. In Geography classification is important as it simplifies the things that
we study. You must also note that classification helps to organise geographical topics
so that they are easy to follow. It also shows differences in the things that we study.
Air masses that form over landmasses are called continental air masses. Meanwhile,
those that form over the ocean are called maritime air masses. Continental air masses
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are dry while maritime air masses are wet. As you might have already figured it
out yourself, dry means the air mass has low humidity while wet means it has high
humidity.
You have to note, however, that the location of the temperature of the air mass is
affected by the source region. These source regions are located according to latitude.
Study Table 1.2 below that shows the location of source regions and the temperature
of the air mass they cause to develop.
Table 1.2 The Location of Source Regions and their Temperature

characteristics
Source Region Latitudinal Location Temperature
Characteristics
Equatorial (Also Between 5°S and 5°N Warm
described as Tropical)
Tropical 5°S to 30°S and 5°N Warm
to 30°N
Temperate 30°S to 66°S and Cold
30°N to 66°N
Polar 66°S to 80°S and Cold
66°N to 80°N
Arctic/ Antarctic 85°S to 90°S and Cold
85°N to 90°N
1.2.1 Naming air masses

By now you should be aware that air masses are classified according to their humidity
and temperature characteristics. We will then move on to the naming of air masses. Air
masses are named according to their source regions and temperature characteristics.
For example, an air mass that develops at 20°S over an ocean will be called the
Tropical maritime air mass. This term can be written in short as Tm.
Do you notice that the term Tropical maritime has been built from the fact that 20°S
is in the Tropical zone? Moreover, the fact that the air mass forms over an ocean gives
it the maritime description. So, when you put the two terms together you get the
term Tropical maritime. Notice too, that we can readily figure out the facts that this
particular air mass is warm and wet. The term tropical tells us that it is warm while
the term maritime tells us that it is wet. Now, try to name and give the characteristics
of the following air masses:
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Activity 1.2 Naming air masses and identifying the
characteristics
Answer in the spaces provided below.
1. (a) What name is given to an air mass originating from a land mass in the tropics?
(b) Describe the temperature and humidity characteristics of the air you named in
(a) above.
2. (a) Name the air mass that originates from an ocean around 70°S.
(b) Describe the temperature and humidity characteristics of the air masses you
named in (a) above.
1.3 Air masses affecting Zimbabwe

Now that you can name and describe air masses, let us move on to focus on the
movement of air masses. It is a fact that air masses move. As they move, they affect
the weather of the areas they come into contact with. For example, a cold air mass will
cause the temperatures of the areas it passes through to drop and be cold. Likewise,
a wet air mass will bring a lot of moisture into the areas it comes into contact with. As
a result of the moisture rainfall would occur.
Did you know that there are four main air masses that affect our weather in Zimbabwe?
Take a look at Figure 1.2 below that shows the air masses affecting Zimbabwean
weather. We are confident you know and often see the effects of these air masses
over Zimbabwe:
Figure 1.2 The Air masses affecting Zimbabwe and their effects on weather
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You have seen that the weather of Zimbabwe is affected by the following air masses:
• Tropical maritime (Tm) from the north east originating from the Indian ocean
• Tropical continental (Tc) from the west and south west originating from the
Kalahari and Namib deserts.
• The Congo Air – Tropical continental (Tc) originating from the Equatorial areas
around the Democratic Republic of the Congo. That is why it is called the Congo
Air.
• Polar maritime from the Indian ocean in the mid latitudes.
Study Table 1.3 shows you the air masses affecting Zimbabwe and the effects they
have on the weather.
Table 1.3 Weather caused by air masses over Zimbabwe

Air masses Effect on the weather of Time of the year
Zimbabwe for dominance
Tropical Brings rain and warm Summer months
maritime temperatures
Congo air Brings high rainfall and high Summer months
temperatures
Tropical Brings dryness and high Early summer
continental temperatures
Polar Brings low temperatures and Winter months
maritime cloudy skies with little rainfall at
times.
1.3.1 Air masses affecting the weather of Southern Africa

We are now going to expand our focus area and look at Southern Africa. We believe
that by now you know the countries that are in Southern Africa. Can you try to list all
the countries in Southern Africa? If, however, you are not sure of them you do not have
to panic. The map shown in Figure 1.3 below has these countries. Remember there
are other countries that are islands like Madagascar, the Seychelles and Mauritius.
These are mostly affected by tropical maritime air masses.
Figure 1.3 The Air masses affecting Southern Africa and their effects on weather
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As you were studying Figure 1.3 you must have realised that the air masses affecting
Southern Africa are from the oceans. The ones from the south (that is, south east and
south west) are cold and wet while the ones from the north (north-east and north-
west) are warm and wet.
You also have to realise that air masses change in characteristics as they move from
their source regions. For example, the Polar Maritime from the south-west moves
across a cold sea and loses its moisture over the cold Atlantic Ocean. By the time it
enters Namibia it is dry. Remember that in Namibia there is the Namib desert. The air
mass is then warmed up by the desert conditions, by the time this air mass gets into
Zimbabwe it would have changed into a tropical continental air mass.
1.4 The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

In the previous topic we looked at the movement of air masses. In this section you will
discover that once the air masses begin to move, they are called global winds. What
are global winds? I hope you got it right. Global winds are the horizontal movement of
air masses over long distances and across countries and continents. Examine Figure
1.4 which shows you the global winds:
Figure 1.4 Global winds and the controlling pressure belts
Take note that the low-pressure belts in Figure 1.4 are convergence zones of air
masses. On the other hand, the high-pressure belts are the divergence zones of the
air masses. Remember that the terms convergence zone and divergence zone were
defined in the key words section.
You are now ready to learn about the ITCZ. You have to understand the individual
words in the term inter-tropical convergence zone. The term inter-tropical means
between the tropics. For you to remember this well, you have to refer to level 1 work
on lines of latitude. In that level you learnt about the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
When you put the terms inter and tropical together, they mean a convergence
zone of winds that lies between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Now refer
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again to Figure 1.4. Which convergence zone lies between the tropics of Cancer and
Capricorn? If you said the Equatorial low pressure belt, you are very right! This is the
general position of the ITCZ. Now identify the winds that converge at this pressure
belt. I am sure you got the winds right as the north-east trade and the south-east
trade winds.
Another point you have to get is that when global winds converge, they bring the
rainfall to the area of convergence. In this case, they cause high temperature because
the winds are tropical. Moreover, they bring rainfall to areas around the convergence
zone.
Now, remember these important concepts we have established about the ITCZ;
- the ITCZ is the equatorial low-pressure belt.
- the north-east trade winds converge at the ITCZ.
- the ITCZ is associated with high temperatures
- the ITCZ is associated with high rainfall.
1.4.1 The changing positions of the ITCZ

Figure 1.5 below shows you the positions of the ITCZ in January (Figure 1.5a) and in
July (Figure 1.5b). You have to understand that the ITCZ moves from time to time.
Around January it is in the southern hemisphere while in July it is in the northern
hemisphere.
Figure 1.5 The Positions of the ITCZ in January and in July with wind and pressure
patterns
Always remember that as the ITCZ moves, it brings high temperatures and high
rainfall to the area it passes through. In so doing it also causes seasons. This results
in the warm, rainy season when it is close but its absence brings a dry cool to cold
season. In Zimbabwe the warm, wet season is the summer while the dry, cool season
is the winter.
So, now you are able to explain why the winter season has little or no rainfall in
Zimbabwe.
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Now that we have covered the nature, movement and weather associated with
the ITCZ, see whether you have understood everything on the ITCZ. Attempt the
questions below.
Activity 1.3 The Inter-tropical Convergence Zone

Answer in the spaces provided below:
1 (a) Name the air masses that converge at the ITCZ.
(b) Describe the weather that is associated with the ITCZ.

2. If you were a meteorologist (a weather scientist) in your locality what advice
would you give to farmers to prevent problems associated with the ITCZ.
1.5 Air masses outside the tropics

We are sure you are aware that we have only discussed about air masses that are in
the tropics. You should, therefore understand that there are other air masses that
occur outside the tropics.
Such air masses are mostly cold air masses. They occur in the temperate and polar
areas where temperatures are low. You have to note that these air masses are polar
maritime, polar continental, Antarctic maritime and Antarctic continental. Let us
exemplify these air masses outside the tropics with air masses affecting Cape Town.
In Cape Town summer months start around September and continue to March. You
will realise that in these months, the air mass that affects the Cape Town area is the
Polar maritime. This air mass is cold and therefore brings little or no rainfall. Note
that even though it is a maritime air mass it brings very little rainfall due to its low
temperatures. Study Figure 1.6 which shows you the Cape Town area and its summer
airmass.
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Figure 1.6 Polar maritime air mass affecting Cape Town area in the summer
months
You will notice, however that in the winter season, there is rainfall. The winter months
start in from May to early August. During these months the air mass affecting the
Cape is the Tropical Maritime. You will find that winds blow from the north-west.
These winds are warm and bring rainfall. This is illustrated for you in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7 Tropical maritime air mass affecting Cape Town area in the winter
months.
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Activity 1.4 Airmasses outside the Tropics
1. Identify the airmasses that affect the Cape town area.

2. Describe and explain the characteristics brought by these airmasses?
3. Analyse the differences between airmasses affecting Zimbabwe and those
affecting the southern tip of Africa.
Well done, you have come to the end of this unit. It is my hope that you have
understood all the concepts in this unit. It is now time to remind you of all that we
covered in this module. Go over the points in the summary below and check if you
have understood the concepts listed there:
Summary
Here is your reminder of the what we covered in this unit.
• The first thing we dealt with was the concept of what an air mass is. We highlighted
that an air mass is a large body of air with uniform temperature and humidity at
every altitude.
• We further took you through the classification of air masses. Remember that we
said air masses are classified according to the source regions and according to
humidity characteristics. We said source regions give the air mass its temperature
identity.
• After that we took you through the naming of air masses. In this section we
highlighted to you that air masses are named by source region first and then
the humidity status. Remember that we gave you the example of the Tropical
maritime.
• You also covered the air masses affecting the weather of Zimbabwe. These air
masses were revealed as the Tropical maritime from the north-east, the tropical
continental from the north-west. The north-westerly air mass is called the Congo
Air. We also mentioned the Tropical continental from the Kalahari and the Namib
deserts. The other air mass we mentioned is the Polar maritime from the south-
east.
• We observed that the air masses from the north bring rainfall while the ones
from the south are drier. You must have also understood that the south-easterly
air mass brings cold temperatures over Zimbabwe. Meanwhile, it must have also
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been clear to you that the Tropical continental from the south-west brings high
temperatures over Zimbabwe.
• After Zimbabwe and its air masses we took you to Southern Africa. We observed
that Southern Africa is affected by Tropical maritime air masses from the north-
east and the north-west. These bring warm temperatures and rainfall into the
region. Figure 1.3 illustrated to you that the air masses entering the region from
the south-east and south-west bring colder temperatures and little rainfall.
• Lastly, we covered the ITCZ and other air masses. You were taken through the
definition of the ITCZ. You also studied the weather associated with the ITCZ.
Moreover, you described the positions of the ITCZ in January and in in July.
• What you learnt in this unit is a foundation for what you will cover in the next
unit.
Now because you have gone through this unit, check how much you understood by
attempting the questions below. Note that question 4 is a research assignment.
End of Unit Assessment
The following questions are meant for you to find out how much you have understood
the concepts of this unit.
1 Study the Table 1.2 below that shows source regions that develop over them.
Source Region Air mass Characteristics
Tropical ocean (a) (b)
Antarctic landmass (c) (d)
(e) Tropical continental Dry and warm
2 Explain how the Congo air is a tropical continental air mass and yet brings high
rainfall to Zimbabwe.
3 Evaluate the effect of the following human activities on air masses

(a) Deforestation
(b) Urbanisation
(c) Global warming
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Progress Check list
Now let us go through the objectives we listed at the beginning of the unit and check
how many of them you have achieved. Tick against those you are sure you have
achieved. Put an X against those you feel you have not yet to achieved. Then for any
that you put an X against, find the section dealing with it in the unit and go over it
again.
Further reading
You may want to deepen your understanding of the concepts covered in this unit.
The following is a list of some of the texts you may look for and read.
Chabikwa, B., Phiri, F., & Mapungwana, M. (2020). Total Geography Book 3. Harare:
Priority Publishers.
Mbizi, N. a. (2019). New Trends in Geography Form 4. Harare: Edu light books.
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Unit 2 Fronts, Temperate depressions, frontal
systems and tropical cyclones
2.1 Temperate Depressions
2.2 The effect of temperate depressions on the weather of Zimbabwe
2.3 Tropical Cyclones
2.4 Effects of tropical cyclones
2.5 Mitigation against impact of tropical cyclone
Introduction
Have you ever noticed that when you pour milk into black tea, that the two never
readily mix? You have probably watched the milk spread through the black tea before
stirring to speed up the process. Well, when two air masses with different properties
meet, they behave more or less like your tea and milk. They take quite some time
to mix. You have to note that such a time may be a couple of days to a week. While
the two air masses negotiate their mixing, fronts form. In this unit you will learn
about frontal systems. You will learn also about how frontal systems affect whether.
Moreover, you will go through tropical cyclones and the weather they cause.
Objectives
• describe factors influencing the development and distribution of temperate

depressions
• describe weather associated with different types of fronts
• discuss the distribution and development of tropical cyclones
• explain weather hazards associated with tropical cyclones
Key Words
Front A front is a zone where two different or similar air masses
meet.
Depression A depression is a low-pressure system where winds
converge. Note that it is also called a cyclone.
Hazard A hazard is a potential danger to human life, property
and the environment.
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Cross-section This is a view of a geographical feature from the side a
long an imaginary line cutting through the feature.
Condensation Condensation is the changing of water vapour into liquid
water in the atmosphere due to temperature loss.
Time
Study Skills
• You should make sure that you have understood the concepts of Unit 1 because
they are the foundation for what you will learn in this unit.
• Moreover, take time to cover this unit with understanding because it is also
important for you to understand the next unit.
2.1 Temperate Depressions

In the last unit you covered air masses, their characteristics and movement. Let us
move on and study what happens as air masses move and come into contact with
each other. We will first look at the meeting of two air masses that have different
temperature characteristics. I mean that one air mass is warm and the other is cold. It
should be clear to you that the warm air mass comes from the tropics while the cold
air mass comes from the polar areas. The zone that these air masses meet over is the
temperate area.
Tips
• Remember that we said that the temperate areas are those that lies around 40° to
70° of latitude in both northern and the southern hemisphere.
• Again, remember what we said in the previous unit about convergence of air
masses. We said that the warm air mass from the sub-tropical high-pressure belt
converges with the cold air from the polar areas.
Thus, you will realise that in southern hemisphere the warm air is from the north and
the cold air is from the south. Figure 2.1 below shows you the area in southern Africa
where the warm and cold air masses meet.
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Figure 2.1 The meeting of warm and cold air forming a front
As you have seen in Figure 2.1, warm air and cold air usually meet around the southern
parts of South Africa. It is important for you to understand that when the two air
masses meet, a bulge results. A bulge is a swelling of the warm air into the cold air
forms as the two air masses rotate as they start the mixing process. Figures 2.2.1 and
2.2.2 shows you the development of the bulge.
Figure 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 showing the development of a temperature depression
16
You now have to learn about some symbols that are used to show fronts on maps.
The symbol means cold front. The symbol means warm
front. The deep bulge, the warm front and the cold front are called the temperate
depression.
In the key words section, we defined the term front for you. Now we are going to
look at the different types of fronts. A cold front is the boundary between cold and
warm air where cold air is moving into the warm air. Meanwhile a warm front is the
boundary between the warm air and the cold air where the warm air is moving into
the cold air.
You are probably wondering how all this ends. Does the air finally mix? Yes, it does.
The air masses finally mix. When they mix the warm air is lifted off the surface. This
leads to the formation of an occluded front forms. The symbol for the occluded front
is
Activity 2.1 Fronts, their formation and effects

1. Describe how fronts form.
2. Describe the temperature, pressure and rainfall changes that occur as a
temperate depression passes through an area.
2.1.1 Weather associated with the fronts

We have to study the fronts and understand them because they affect the weather
of areas that they come into contact with. We will examine the weather associated
with the fronts in the form of a table. Therefore, study Table 2.1 in order to get this
weather.
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Table 2.1 The weather associated with the fronts
Front Pressure Temperature Clouds Rainfall
Cold High Low Cloudy with cumulus Heavy rainfall with
type of clouds including thunder and lightning
the cumulonimbus. Fog
also forms.
Warm Low High Cloudy with stratus Light but continuous
family of clouds including rainfall.
the nimbostratus cloud
Occluded Dropping Lowering Partly cloudy and Little or none

clearing gradually
You have to further understand that the temperate depression moves as the air masses
rotate around the low pressure. All temperate depressions move from west to east.
2.1.2 The formation of rainfall at the cold and warm fronts

As you have seen in table 2.1 above that fronts are associated with rainfall, we are
now going to discuss the formation of rainfall at a cold front or at a warm front. You
have to note the fact that rainfall at both fronts form more or less the same way. When
water is heated on the earth’s surface it evaporates. Evaporating water always rises
as you might have seen when boiling water over a fire or stove. So, likewise the water
that evaporates from the earth’s surface rises in the form of water vapour. The water
vapour reaches high altitudes where it then condenses.
You should remember that condensation is the changing of water vapour into liquid
due to loss of temperature. When water vapour condenses it forms clouds. Once
clouds are formed, then you have rainfall. Now let us take a short pause and check
if you are getting what we have covered in this sub-topic. Attempt the questions in
Activity 2.2 and check your progress.
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Activity 2.2 Weather associated with temperate
depressions
1. Distinguish the weather experienced at a cold front from that of the warm
front. Use the table below to answer this question.
Weather ele- Cold front Warm front
ment
Rainfall
Temperature
Atmospheric
Pressure
2. Describe the hazards that are associated with the cold front.
2.1.3 Temperate depression diagrams

Note that there are two types of diagrams that are used to illustrate temperate
depressions. One is a map view while the other is a cross-section. A map is simply a
view of the temperate depression from above. Do you know what a cross-section is?
We defined this term in the key words section. You may visit that section if you want
to remind yourself what the term means. Figures 2.3 and 2.4 show the temperate
depression map view and the temperate depression cross-sectional view. Please note
that the cross-section is derived from the map view.
Figure 2.3 shows a map of the temperature depression
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Figure 2.4 shows a cross-section of the temperate depression
We are sure that you noticed the difference between the two diagrams. The map
view (Figure 2.3 shows pressure decreasing towards the centre of the temperate
depression. Atmospheric pressure is shown to you through isobars. Isobars are lines
on map that show areas of the same pressure. Meanwhile Figure 2.4 show a view of
the temperate depression from the ground level to the sky.
Now let us look at the examples of places that are nearest to Zimbabwe that lie in the
path of the temperate depressions. You must have heard of Cape Town before. It is a
city in the south-western coast of South Africa. Cape Town has its rainfall in the winter
season due to the passage of cold and warm fronts of the temperate depressions.
Another such place in South Africa is Port Elizabeth.
2.2 The effect of temperate depressions on the weather of

Zimbabwe
You could now be wondering why we bother studying a weather system that at most
seems to affect the southern parts of South Africa. You, however, need to note that
temperate depressions do affect the weather of Zimbabwe. Their effect is summarised
below:
• Some temperate depressions can be large enough to actually have the cold
and warm front reach Zimbabwe. In so doing, you will appreciate that they then
affect the weather over Zimbabwe. In this case the warm front will bring you
warm temperatures and continuous rainfall. The cold front will bring you low
temperatures and short-lived rain that is accompanied by thunder and lightning.
This is, however rare because the fronts are closest to Zimbabwe in winter.
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• Temperate depressions with their frontal system, also affect your weather when
clouds are blown into Zimbabwe. The clouds that form over South Africa can be
blown into Zimbabwe. This process is called cloud advection. Such clouds, you
must understand, bring little rainfall due to the fact that they lose their moisture
as they move across South Africa.
We have been looking at temperate depression which are also known as mid-latitude
depression. This simply means that temperate areas are also known as mid latitudes
and that is where the temperate depression form. We are now changing focus to look
at another low-pressure weather system – the tropical cyclone. Before we move on
let us take yet another pause to check your progress. Answer the following questions
and follow up on anything that you have forgotten in the topics we have covered so
far.
Activity 2.3 Temperate depression diagrams and weather
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2.3 Tropical Cyclones
You have most likely heard of tropical cyclones from the weather reports and indeed
from main news reports. In March 2019, Zimbabwe was hit by one of its worst tropical
cyclones. Do you know what it was called? You are very correct if you said Cyclone
Idai. So, what are tropical cyclones? How do they form? What is their impact on
humans? You will learn on the tropical cyclone next; to answer the questions I have
just asked. We will even answer several other questions that were not listed above.
2.3.1 What is a Tropical cyclone?

Let us start by defining the term tropical cyclone. A tropical cyclone is a large storm
that develops around low pressure in the tropics. Its size differs but can reach sizes of
500 kilometres in diameter. They are associated with heavy rainfall, thick clouds and
strong winds. How does a tropical cyclone look like? The answer to this question is
what you are going to learn next.
2.3.2 The aerial view of a tropical cyclone

You will appreciate the fact that a tropical cyclone is generally circular in shape. When
viewed from above, it has thick clouds that are spiralling towards the centre. The
centre is actually a hole called the eye. Figure 2.5 shows you the view of the tropical
cyclone from above.
Figure 2.6 An aerial view of the tropical cyclone
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2.3.3 The cross-section of a tropical cyclone
If you were to cut across the tropical cyclone and expose its interior, you would see a
three-part structure. You would see the eye in the middle. After the eye on both sides
you would see the vortex. Then after the vortex there would be the outer part of the
tropical cyclone. Figure 2.6 shows this cross-section of the tropical cyclone. Each of
the three sections of the tropical cyclone are described for you in detail in Table 2.2
below.
Figure 2.7 A cross-section of the tropical cyclone
Table 2.2 The weather of a tropical cyclone

Part of the tropical cyclone
Weather Eye Vortex Outer part
Rainfall Little or Heaviest up to Heavy and decrease as distance
none 250mm/hour from the eye increases
Pressure Lowest Low Increases as distance from the
eye increases
Wind- Calm Strongest up to 200 slower
speed km/h
Cloud Little to Heavily overcast Decrease with distance from the
cover none eye.
Tem- Generally high but is caused to drop by cloud cover.
perature
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2.3.4 Conditions necessary for formation of tropical cyclones
You must understand that for a tropical cyclone to form there are certain conditions
that must be present.
• There must be convergence of two air masses. Because the location is in the
tropics, the air masses that converge are both warm and moist.
• There must be a constant supply of water vapour. So, the ideal surface is an
ocean.
• The temperature of the ocean water must be high at 27°C up to a considerable
depth.
• There must be very little eddying of wind. Eddying is short, circular movement.
It is important for you to understand that without these conditions tropical cyclones
cannot develop. That is why they do not always form. Moreover, that is why you will
find that they form only in the tropics. You also cannot find them forming within 5°
north and 5° south of the equator. They cannot form beyond 25° of latitude in both
hemispheres.
2.3.5 The distribution and movement of tropical cyclones

Take note of the fact that different people call the tropical cyclone by their local
names. When they occur in the Indian Ocean, we call it a cyclone. In the northern
Pacific Ocean, they call it a typhoon. In the Atlantic Ocean, they call it a hurricane.
Meanwhile around Australia in the Southern Pacific Ocean, they call it the willy willies.
Do you remember what we said about the movement of the temperate depression?
We said that a temperate depression moves from west to east. You must remember
that the tropical cyclone moves opposite to that. This means that it moves from east
to west. As a result, the tropical cyclones will affect the eastern coasts of continents.
Note also that tropical cyclones move following a curved pathway. When they turn,
you may find it interesting that they turn towards the poles. They curve as if to
redouble their track.
Now it must therefore be clear to you why Mozambique and Zimbabwe are affected
by tropical cyclones. Figure 2.8 shows you the global distribution of tropical cyclones.
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Figure 2.8 The global distribution of tropical cyclones
Interesting facts
You have probably wondered how tropical cyclone get to have names that sound
human! This is done by the specialists called meteorologists that study weather and
tropical cyclones. They allocate these names in alphabetical order. Each sequence of
the alphabet continuous throughout one year.
When another year begins the names start again at A. You may have also noticed that
cyclones are often given names of women. Yet you might have heard of Cyclone with
names of males as well. The women names are an old tradition started by sailors who
were home sick missing their wives!
Activity 2.3 Temperate depression diagrams and weather

1 State the name by which tropical cyclones are called in each of the following
countries.
(a) Japan
(b) United States of America
2 Explain three conditions necessary for a tropical cyclone to form.
3 What is the danger that can be caused by winds of 250km/h due to tropical
cyclone?
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2.4 Effects of tropical cyclones
Perhaps you are like most people in that you know the effects of tropical cyclones
more than all we have looked at so far. We are sure because of Cyclone Idai in March
2019, you are aware of the effects of tropical cyclones. We are, however going to
classify the effects into social, economic and environmental. Table 2.3 below classifies
for you the effects of tropical cyclones.
Table 2.3 Effects of tropical cyclones

Social Effects Economic Effects Environmental Effects
• Trauma • Destruction • Destruction of trees
• Loss of life of buildings, • Excessive soil erosion
• Destitution roads, bridges, • Creation of gulleys
• Homelessness communication lines • Mud slides, Land
• Famine • Cost of rescue slides
• Spread of • Cost of famine and • Destruction of habitats
diseases like disease alleviation for animals.
cholera • Loss of property • Death of animals
• Cost of repair work • Flooding
Note that Zimbabwe is in the pathway of tropical cyclones. The shortest distance
between Zimbabwe and the Indian Ocean where tropical cyclones form and occur
is only 220 kilometres. You have to appreciate that some tropical cyclones can be as
large as 500 kilometres across! This means that such systems can reach Zimbabwe
with all their strength.
In the past Zimbabwe has been affected by Cyclone Eline in February 2000 and
Cyclone Idai in March 2019. You may also be interested to know that the effects of
these tropical cyclones were felt as far as Binga in the far north-west of Zimbabwe.
Activity 2.4 Effect of tropical cyclones

Consider any recent tropical cyclone that affected Zimbabwe, describe the
economic and social effects.
2.5 Mitigation against impact of tropical cyclone

What do you remember as the response to any effect of a tropical cyclone that has
happened in Zimbabwe? You will probably remember that one of the immediate
actions taken is rescue. Yet, you must understand that the first thing that must be
done is to be done long before the cyclone occurs. The mitigation can be divided
into action taken before, during and after that cyclone.
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(a) Before the cyclone
- Training of rescue teams so that they are ready years, months or days before
any cyclone happens.
- Setting up early warning systems. Early warning systems, you will understand
can be sent through Whatsapp, SMS messages, television and radio messages.
In some communities, loud sirens are sounded. All these are for warning us to
run away on time.
- Building safe shelters. What do you think safe houses are for? Of course,
they are for giving people temporary shelter during or after the cyclone. Safe
houses are built on high ground where people find refuge.
- Education of people on tropical cyclones. You will appreciate that people
respond better to help if they are informed about the tropical cyclones.
Education also includes giving knowledge on disaster resilient structures.
- Building artificial levees. Levees could be built out of sand bags. They block
water from flooding into people’s homes.
- Budget for rescue and famine, water shortages and repairs.
(b) During the tropical cyclone

- Evacuation of those not yet evacuated.
- Remaining in shelters.
- Tracking the cyclone and anticipation of its paths and therefore its impact.
Note that these measures depend on the safety of the area since the tropical
cyclone will still be going on.
(c) After the cyclone

• Rescue efforts. Are you aware that the rescue teams in most of the time
consists of volunteers and the army? Well, those are the major groups of
people who carry out rescue.
• Delivery of water and food to shelters. Taking toll of the damage and deaths.
• Repair of damaged infrastructure. You will appreciate that when people lose
their homes, there is need to mobilise resources and rebuild.
• Counselling of the bereaved and of those who lose their property. Do you
know psycho-social support? It is giving encouragement and emotional and
psychological help to traumatised people. Counselling provides this psycho-
social support.
• Financial and food support to affected people as they try to get their lives
back on track. After cyclone Idai in Chiredzi people were being given US$13
per head per month. This was meant to support the livelihood of the people
until they got back to their feet.
Let us take yet another pause and check our progress. Attempt the task below. Follow
the instructions as they are given.
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Activity 2.5 Mitigation against tropical cyclones
Study the clues below that are meant to help you complete the puzzle below. See
how many of the words you can find within the puzzle. Where you have forgotten
the answer to the clue go back to the topics and look for the answer.
Note that the words run only across and downwards. There are four clues each
and the first one has been done for you. The words occur in the order of the clues.
Enjoy and learn!
Clues across
-A psychological effect of tropical cyclones
-The side of continents that is affected by tropical cyclones.
-The nature of the track followed by a tropical cyclone
-A precaution taken when a tropical cyclone is spotted far away is the early
_________
-A barrier built to keep off flood water caused by a cyclone.
Down clues
-A measure taken soon when it is safe to help those affected.
-An environmental effect of cyclones.
-Meteorologists ________ tropical cyclones in order to see where they are headed.
-One of the social effects of tropical cyclones.
Well done, you have completed this unit. It is my hope that you have understood
the concepts that we covered here. If there is some work that needs to be done visit
those topics and read them again. Otherwise, for now let us check our progress by
reminding you what we covered.
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Summary
• Remember that this unit is on temperate depressions and tropical cyclones.
• In this unit we described the characteristics of a temperate depression.
• We covered frontal systems. That is where we covered warm, cold and occluded
fronts.
• We examined the weather associated with the frontal systems. We stressed the
point that the cold front has short-lived rainfall that is accompanied by thunder
and lightning. Meanwhile we taught you that the warm front brings continuous
and light rainfall.
• We also made the point that temperate depressions occur in the mid latitudes.
We further pointed out that even if Zimbabwe is not in the mid latitudes, it is still
affected by the depressions.
• Our journey took us to tropical cyclones. Here we taught that tropical cyclones
are large low-pressure storms that occur in the tropics.
• We illustrated and described the structure of the tropical cyclone. We further

looked at the movement of the tropical cyclone.
• We also saw that in different oceans of the world tropical cyclones are called by
different names.
• We also saw that Zimbabwe, even though it is land-locked, is in the pathway of

tropical cyclones that land in Mozambique first.
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1. Compare and contrast temperate depression and that of tropical cyclones in terms
of their nature and weather they cause. State one point for each area given.
2. Raise arguments for and against the view that Zimbabwe is deeply affected by
tropical cyclones due to poverty rather than the strength of the cyclones.
3. Explain how technology can be used to reduce the impact of tropical cyclones.
Research Work
From newspapers, magazines and other sources of information you can get, find
out how much damage was done by the last destructive tropical cyclone in Zimba-
bwe.
Focus on these:
(a) Loss of life
(b) Damage to property
(c) Agricultural damage
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Progress Check list
again.
Objectives Check
Box
Are you now able to ….
• describe factors influencing the development and
distribution of temperate depressions.
• describe weather associated with different types of fronts
• discuss the distribution and development of tropical

cyclones
• explain weather hazards associated with tropical cyclones
Further reading
You may want to extend your knowledge even further. If that is the case, the books
listed below are recommended for you.
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Unit 3 Climate types on a global scale and
interpretation of climatic data
3.1 What is climate?
3.2 What are the factors that influence climate?
3.3 Types of climate
3.4 Climatic data
3.5 The importance of the Mean and the Range in Climatic studies
Introduction
Have you ever heard people saying that Gweru is cold and Beitbridge is warm?
Maybe you have used statements such as “this place is cold or this place is very
hot”. Well, such statements are usually based on a few days’ visit to the said places.
Sometimes we conclude about a place being hot or cold because of one day’s
experience. You will see in this unit that climate takes a longer time to describe. In
this unit we are going to cover major global climates. Our focus will also fall on the
data that characterises each climate. We will use this data to draw graphs. We will
further perform calculations to analyse climate data. We are sure the unit will be
interesting to you.
Objectives
• explain the basis for climatic classification on a global scale
• describe characteristics of world’ s climatic regions
• describe the climate of Zimbabwe
• interpret climatic graphs and tables

Key Words
Latitude the angular distance that is used to locate places and is
measured from the equator. The equator is the 0° of latitude.
Ocean current a stream of warm or cold water that flows slowly deep within
an ocean.
Time
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3.1 What is climate?
Earlier on, we asked you whether you have described a place or places as cold or
hot? You might have heard people describing some places as cold or hot. Whenever
you do that you are attempting to describe the climate of a place. Of course, it takes
much more than a few visits to a place to describe its climate accurately. This is so
because climate is the average weather conditions of a place measured after a
long period of time of over 30 to 40 years and usually for extensive area. This
means that for us to conclude that Gweru is cold or Beitbridge is warm we must
compile records of temperature for 30 to 40 years of the respective areas.
In Level 1 you covered weather elements. So, you must be aware that there are
quite a number of weather elements to consider when weather is mentioned. These
elements are also the elements of climate. Yet you will notice that there are two which
we use to describe climate. These two are temperature and rainfall. All the other
elements are implied when mentioning temperature and rainfall. In actual fact, other
weather elements are influenced by temperature and rainfall in most cases.
3.2 What are the factors that influence climate?

You probably are aware of the fact that climate varies from place to place. However,
are you aware of the reasons why climate is different in different places? Can you list
some of the factors that determine climate? If you cannot, do not worry because in
this section we will discuss what causes the differences in climate over the earth’s
surface. We will consider the influence of altitude, latitude, ocean currents and the
location within landmasses or close to oceans. Altitude, latitude and ocean currents
are some of the factors that determine climate. Did you get them correct?
3.2.1 The influence of altitude on climate

We hope you still remember the definition of altitude from what we covered in level 1
of this module. We said altitude is the height above sea level. When we measure the
height of a mountain or of clouds, we are actually measuring altitude. We are sure at
one point you have heard the saying “the higher you go the cooler it becomes”. When
you or another person mentioned this statement, you were actually summarising the
influence of altitude. It is true that as altitude increases, temperature decreases.
This means that higher places have cooler temperatures. As a result of these places
being high, they also tend to have relief rainfall. You will remember that relief rainfall
develops on the windward side of the highland while the leeward side is dry due to
descending dry cool air. The wind ward side is the slope that faces the wind while the
leeward side is the slope that faces away from the wind. Figure 3.1 shows you the
effect of altitude on temperature and rainfall.
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Figure 3.1 Effects of altitude on temperature and rainfall
Let us now look at some Zimbabwean examples. In Zimbabwe, Nyanga is a good

example of a high-altitude place. In Nyanga it is much cooler than most places in
Zimbabwe. It is also wetter than all other places. Meanwhile, when you consider
Beitbridge or Binga they are low altitude areas with very warm temperatures. This
example illustrates the influence of altitude on the climate of Zimbabwe.
3.2.2 The influence of latitude on climate
We hope you will not confuse altitude and latitude. In the key words section, we
define latitude as the angular distance that is used to locate a place. It is measured
from the equator. The highest latitudes are the south and the north poles at 90°S and
90°N respectively. In simpler terms, latitude is the distance from the equator.
Note that the equator is warm. So, places that are around the equator have high
temperatures. Moreover, such places also have high rainfall. In Unit 1 you learnt
about the ITCZ, it is this low-pressure belt that causes high rainfall. The equatorial
areas also receive high amounts of solar energy called radiation. Once the radiation
is high temperatures are also high. High temperatures increase evapotranspiration
which also increases the amount of rainfall received.
You will notice that as latitude increases, the temperatures drop. Thus, around the
poles the temperatures are at their lowest around the globe. Generally, rainfall
decreases towards the poles. The exceptions are the mid latitudes that are influenced
in their rainfall by temperate depressions. Do you remember temperate depressions?
They bring frontal systems associated with rainfall though they are far away from the
equator. Zimbabwe has fair amounts of rainfall. This is because it is in the tropics
which are near the equator. The summers in Zimbabwe are warm and wet. Even our
winter is described as being mild to cool.
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3.2.3 The influence of ocean currents on climate
Most people tend to think that ocean water is static. We hope you are not one of
those people too. You will discover that oceans are far from being stationary. Oceans
are in constant motion mixing the water that is differently heated. It is the different
heating that causes all the oceans you might know to have currents that move within
them.
We are sure you have already seen that there are two types of ocean currents. There
are cold ocean currents and warm ones. You can also easily see that cold ocean
currents flow from the poles towards the equator. Warm ocean currents flow from
the equator towards the poles. As these ocean currents flow, you will appreciate
that, they affect the climate of land areas next to them. As they flow warm ocean
currents bring warm temperatures to landmasses next to them. On the other hand,
cold ocean currents bring cold temperatures to areas next to them.
We draw our examples outside Zimbabwe since we are landlocked. A good example
of the effect of ocean currents is the comparison of Massinga in Mozambique and
Walvis Bay in Namibia. These two places lie along the Tropic of Capricorn. So, in
terms of temperatures and rainfall we expect them to be the same. Yet, as you will
discover, they have differing climates due to ocean currents. Massinga is warmer and
wetter than Walvis Bay.
As you might know, Mozambique is to the east while Namibia is in the west. Next to
Massinga there is the Agulhas ocean current which is warm. This current then brings
warmer temperatures and wetter climate to Massinga. Our neighbour to the west,
Namibia, is brushed by a cold ocean current – the Benguela current. This brings
cooler temperatures. It also causes loss of moisture over the sea as fog. This then
causes Walvis Bay to be drier. Figure 3.2 illustrates this southern Africa example for
you.
Figure 3.2 The location of Walvis Bay and Massinga next to different ocean
currents
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3.2.4 The influence of location in the interior of landmass on
climate
Let us now move to look at the influence of location of a place. We, of course, mean
location in relation to proximity to seas. The places that are close to seas are much
cooler than those located in the middle of landmasses. You will notice that even
those place that are close to warm ocean currents are still cooler than the places that
are further inland. Near oceans there is cool air that blows inland from the surface of
the sea which is much cooler during the day than the land. This cool air is called a sea
breeze. Figure 3.3 illustrates the influence of location on climate.
Figure 3.3 Dakar (Senegal) is closer to the sea and therefore cooler than N’Djamena
(Chad) which is further inland. N’Djemena is in the Sahara Desert.
So far you have gone through the definition of climate and the factors influencing
climate. Let us check how much you understood in the following questions.
1 Define the term climate.

2 Distinguish between latitude and altitude.
3 Explain how ocean currents influence climate.
There are other factors that influence climate that you will come across in your further
reading. These mainly deal with human activities. We are going to deal with human
influences on climate in the coming unit. Now we will look at the main types of
climate that we have on the globe.
3.3 Types of climate

We are going to examine tropical, temperate and polar climates. For each type of
climate, we are going to take you through the following aspects:
(a) Latitudinal location and geographic location

(b) Main climatic characteristics
(c) The rainfall-temperature graph
Make sure you notice the differences in each type of climate.
36
Perhaps you are wondering why we are not including vegetation as is done in some
studies of climate. Our approach from the syllabus is that climate has to do with the
average weather conditions. These average weather conditions themselves influence
quite a number of things on the earth’s surface. Such things, you will notice, are not
for this unit. You will cover vegetation under the Ecosystems unit.
3.3.1 The Tropical continental climate

We will begin our journey through the different climates of the world starting with
home. Zimbabwe generally has a tropical continental type of climate. It must be easy
to follow that we are a landlocked country and we are in the tropics.
(a) Latitudinal location of the tropical continental climate
Our country Zimbabwe lies within the tropics. The type of climate that we have is also
found in other countries. It stretches from 5° to 25° in both hemispheres. This, you
will notice, is why we describe it as tropical. Figure 3.4 shows you the location of this
climate in Africa.
Figure 3.4 The distribution of the Tropical continental climate in Africa
(b) Climatic characteristics

As we mentioned earlier on in the unit, the major factors that indicate the nature of a
type of climate are rainfall and temperature. Therefore, the characteristics of climate
that we will look at here are rainfall and temperature. In the tropical continental
climate, there are wet summers and dry winters.
From your experience of Zimbabwean weather, you will have noticed rainfall occurs
in the summer season. The rainfall is of the tropical continental climate and is highest
in areas that are closer to the equator. As you move away from the equator towards
the 25° boundary the places become drier. As a result, you will notice that rainfall
37
ranges from as low as 400mm to above 1200mm per year. Meanwhile, take note
that the temperatures also range from just below 15°C to just above 20°C in terms
of the average annual temperatures. In short, you can state the tropical continental
characteristics as:
• Summers are warm and wet
• Winters are cool and dry.
(c) The tropical continental temperature-rainfall graph

The illustration shown below, Figure 3.5.1 shows the annual trends in rainfall and
temperature for Harare as a typical wetter area of the tropical continental climate.
You must also take note of the fact that countries that are close to the sea have a
wetter climate that is called the tropical maritime climate. One example of such a
country is our neighbour Mozambique. Note also that the types of climate have the
same names as air masses.
Activity 3.2 The tropical continental climate

1 Where does the tropical climate derive its name from?
2 Describe the characteristics of the tropical continental climate.
3.3.2 The Equatorial Climate

Do you remember your studies on the equatorial low-pressure belt in the previous
Unit? It is good if you still remember. If you have forgotten you may need to visit the
previous unit and refresh your knowledge.
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a) Latitudinal location
As with the equatorial low-pressure belt we referred to above, the equatorial climate
is located between 5°S and 5°N of the equator. You have to realise that this climate is
present in both hemispheres. You may say that it spreads closely around the equator.
Figure 3.6 shows you where this type of climate is found in Africa.
b) Climatic characteristics of the equatorial type of climate.

In what ways do you think the equatorial climate differs from the tropical continental?
In this section we will answer this question in detail and show you the major differences.
In the equatorial climate temperatures are high through throughout the year. They
are always around 26°C. The variations are experienced in March and September
when the ITCZ passes through the equatorial areas. You must note that the equatorial
climate has no seasons.
Meanwhile, you will find that the rainfall is also high throughout the year in the
equatorial. The annual rainfall fluctuates around 2000mm. Similar to the temperature,
rainfall is higher during March and September. The reason for this is the same reasons
that we gave for the temperature variations. The ITCZ brings greater rainfall in those
months. To remember the main climatic characteristics of the of the equatorial region,
remember the following:
• High rainfall throughout the year
• High temperatures throughout the year
Another way of summarising the characteristics is through a graph.
c) The Equatorial climate graph

Study the graph below, Figure 3.7 shows you the annual rainfall and temperature for
a typical equatorial climate.
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3.3.3 The Mediterranean climate
Let us now turn our focus to the Mediterranean climate. This type of climate is named
from the Mediterranean Sea that lies between Africa and Europe and it is mainly
found in the areas around that sea. You can look up the Mediterranean Sea in an
Atlas if you are not sure where it is located.
a) Latitudinal location of the Mediterranean climate
If you look at the Mediterranean Sea, you will notice that it occurs beyond the tropics.
That is where this type of climate is found. It is found between 30° and 40° north and
south of the equator. Figure 3.8 shows you the location of the Mediterranean climate
in Africa.
You must have noticed that Figure 3.8 shows that the Cape Town area in South Africa
also has the Mediterranean climate. Note that the name Mediterranean climate is
derived from a type of climate that is typical of areas around the Mediterranean
Sea. However, this type of climate can also be found in areas with similar conditions
even though they are far from the Mediterranean climate. Other places include the
northern parts of Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Algeria.
b) The climatic characteristics of the Mediterranean climate

Take note that the Mediterranean climate is characterised by generally high rainfall
and cold to mild temperatures. The average annual temperatures are around 15°C.
Meanwhile, the rainfall is high. It reaches 1500mm per year. The average rainfall is
around 500mm. The rainfall is mainly in winter. The temperate depression we covered
in the previous unit are the major cause of this high rainfall. The summers are dry. The
characteristics for the Mediterranean climate can be summarised as follows:
• Summers are dry
• Winters are wet
Let us now move on and look at the graph for the Mediterranean climate.
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c) The Mediterranean climate graph
You have to be careful with these graphs. It is sometimes confused with the tropical
continental graph. The tip here is for you to pay particular attention to low temperatures
accompanied with rainfall. Figures 3.9.1 and 3.9.2 show you the two graphs for the
southern and the northern hemispheres.
Activity 3.3 The Equatorial and Mediterranean climates

1 Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow
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(a) Name the type of climate labelled Y in the diagram above.
(b) Describe the climatic characteristics of the climate labelled Y in the diagram
above.
(c) Using the characteristics you described in (b) above suggest human activities
that are suitable for the Mediterranean climate.
3.3.4 The Desert climate

Our journey through the different climates of the world now takes us to the desert.
We are sure you know what a desert is. Can you define a desert in your own words?
A desert is a dry and very hot part of the earth’s surface that experiences less than
250mm of rainfall per year.
a) The latitudinal location of the desert climate.

Mention any two deserts that you know by name? Perhaps you mentioned the
Kalahari, the Namib or the Sahara deserts. They are deserts found in Africa. Identify
the names of the countries where the mentioned deserts are found. These deserts lie
in the tropics and just outside the tropics. You have already dealt with the area that
lies just outside the tropics. In the previous unit we studied the sub-tropical pressure
belt. Deserts form around this subtropical belt. So, based on your coverage of the
pressure belts, you will notice that deserts form around 30° of latitude.
Take note of the fact that there are several factors that cause the formation of deserts.
Among these factors is sinking air in the sub-tropical areas, location in the middle of
a large landmass, location in the rain shadow of a large mountain and the influence
of cold ocean currents. Note that a rain shadow is the area on the leeward side of a
large mountain that receives very little or no rainfall at all due to sinking of cool dry
air from the mountain.
Figure 3.10 The Rain shadow effect
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You must understand that deserts also form due to sinking air in the sub-tropical
areas. You must understand that this sinking is different from that discussed above.
The sinking air is from the atmospheric circulation of air. Note that the air rises in the
equatorial areas and sinks at the sub-tropical areas. At ground level this sinking air
moves away from the area. You must understand that because this moves away from
the area it causes the area to become dry. The dryness means little or no rainfall that
occurs.
Moreover, you will find that the location of places like N’Djamena in the interior of a
large landmass leads to the formation of deserts.
Again, for you to understand the location of deserts like the Namib, you have to
recall the effects of cold ocean currents like the Benguela current. Such currents
cause deserts to be located in the western coast of continents. Most of these
currents flow in the western sides of continents. Figure 3.10 shows you the location
of the deserts in Africa.
Figure 3.11 The location of the Desert type of climate in Africa
a) The climatic characteristics of deserts

You have heard people say a desert is very hot. This is a correct description of a
desert. They are characterised by very high temperatures in the day throughout the
year. These temperatures can be as high as 45°C. The nights are cold due to lack
of cloud cover which helps to trap heat when present. The temperatures go down a
little during the winter months in the different hemispheres.
By now, you must be aware that a desert has very little or no rainfall. This causes the
extreme drying of the area. Such drying is called aridity. The annual rainfall is below
250mm. The remarkable thing you might have noticed is that 250mm can fall in one
month in the equatorial areas. That confirms the point that deserts are very dry.
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b) The graph for the desert climate
When you compare the desert climate graph, it looks like it is an incomplete graph
due to the absence of rainfall. Figure 3.12 illustrates for you the desert climate graph.
Activity 3.4 The Desert type of climate

1 Describe problems that people settled in deserts experience due to the
climatic characteristics you have studied.
2 Suggest solutions to the problems you mentioned in 1 above.
3.3.5 The Tundra type of climate.

All along we have been going around the tropics and sub-tropics. Now let us take
our journey to the polar areas. We will explore one type of climate there. We will look
at the tundra climate. Note that the tundra climate is a cold climate that is found on
high latitude areas – around 80° south and north.
a) Latitudinal location of the tundra climate

This type of climate is located far away from all the types we have looked at so far. It
is located within the Antarctic circle and around the arctic circle. This means that it is
located at around 80° south and north. In the northern hemisphere this zone is frozen
ocean but in the southern hemisphere there is the continent of Antarctica. Thus, you
will notice that the countries like Norway, Sweden, Finland and Canada also have the
tundra climate.
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b) Climatic characteristics of the tundra climate
You must note that the tundra climate is a very cold place? There are few people who
live in places with this type of climate. This is because the temperatures are very low
in this type of climate. They fluctuate around 0°C. This occurs throughout the year.
There is very little variation in the temperatures. The summer temperature ranges
between 0°C and 10°C. The winter is very cold and the temperatures range between
-30°C and 0°C.
You would find that there is snow instead of rainfall. This is because of the low
temperatures. The precipitation (the fall of solid or liquid water from the sky), is
also in small amounts. The area is near the polar high-pressure belt. The pressure
is therefore, high in that area. The precipitation also fluctuates around 250mm. An
interesting fact is that some of the areas in the tundra can stay in the dark for over
four months! If that happens in the northern hemisphere, we will be having up to four
months of continuous day time. You may summarise the tundra climate as:
• Summers are cold with continuous daytime and precipitation.
• Winters are very cold, dark with little precipitation
How do you think the conditions described above affect human activities? If you said
it is too cold for people to do their work, you are correct. Moreover, the ground is
frozen all the time. So, crop cultivation is impossible. You must also notice that the
crops would freeze. Note, again, that the long dark season would mean that there is
very little work that is done. Energy requirements would be too high and expensive.
This is because these areas require a lot of heating and lighting.
c) The tundra climatic graph

You are probably going to see the resemblance between the tundra type of climate
graph and the desert climate graph. The areas with the tundra climate are also
known as cold deserts. Why? As you have guessed, because they have very little
rainfall. Study Figure 3.13 that shows the climatic characteristics of the tundra
climate in graph form.
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Activity 3.4 The Desert and Tundra climates
1 Name two countries where the tundra climate is found.
2 To what extent does tundra climates support human activities?
3.4 Climatic data

Now that we have covered the main climatic types of the world. Let us look at the how
climatic data is analysed. How can you define climatic data? It is the facts and figures
about climate. If you were a climatologist – that is a person who studies climate –
you would mainly calculate rainfall totals, temperature means (that is averages), and
ranges.
3.4.1 The mean temperature

Let us now look at how the means are calculated. The mean temperature is the
average of a set of temperature values. It helps in showing you whether a type of
climate has generally high temperatures or not. It is calculated by the formula:
The simplest example of the temperature mean for you is the daily mean temperature.
The daily temperature is calculated by adding the maximum and the minimum
temperature of the day and divide it by two. The formula you would use to calculate
this is:
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Examples
Let us calculate daily mean temperature from the figures shown in table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Temperature and rainfall figures for Makonde

Day Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun
Minimum 19 16 11 14 13 11 14
Temperature
(°C)
Maximum 28 27 25 27 25 28 28
Tempera-
ture (°C)
Let us calculate the mean daily temperature for Sunday.
(Remember the formula)
(Substitute the minimum and maximum with figures from the given table)
(Simplify the figures)
(Express your answer in °C)

You may need to find the mean for a year’s temperatures. This is done as follows.
Table 3.2 provides you with annual temperatures for a given place.
Table 3.2
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temperature (°C) 28 27 25 27 13 8 6 12 21 27 30 28
Rainfall (mm) 191 164 101 54 13 2 0 0 2 13 78 96
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Let us calculate the mean monthly temperature
(That is the formula)
(You then add the monthly temperatures and divide by 12)
3.4.2 The Temperature range

You would also calculate the temperature range. The range is the difference between
the highest and the lowest readings. Again, you find the simplest example of the
range is the daily temperature range. It is calculated by the formula:
Let us also calculate the daily range (also known as the diurnal temperature range).
We will use the figures in Table 3.1 above.
Let us also calculate the annual temperature range using figures in Table 3.2.
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3.5 The importance of the Mean and the Range in Climatic
studies
You could be wondering why we need to calculate the mean and the range in climatic
studies. The answer is that these statistics help as follows:
• The mean helps you to get the general average conditions of a climate.
It will exclude the extreme temperatures for you so that it becomes easy
to describe a particular climate.
• The mean simplifies the data and makes descriptions possible. It also
summarises the figures.
• The range helps you notice the differences in the temperatures and even
rainfall. It shows you how much a type of climate changes within a given
space of time.
The range highlights the highest temperature as well as the lowest and therefore
gives a picture of how bad or good the climate and weather can be in a particular
place.
1 Study the table below and answer the questions that follow.
Table 3.3 Climatic data for Station X

Month
May
Aug
Nov
Dec
Mar
Feb
Sep
Oct
Apr
Jun
Jan
Jul
Te m p e r a t u r e
(°C)
24
25
29
27
11
10
19
25
28
28
2
5
Rainfall (mm)
186
167
95
54
13
78
96
1
(a) Calculate the annual temperature

(b) What is the annual range of the data show in the table above?
(c) What is the importance of the temperature mean in weather studies?
49
Activity 3.5 Climatic data
Well done you have completed another unit. Please go over the points below and
check whether you have understood everything in this unit.
• In this unit we covered the Climate types on a global scale and interpretation of
climatic data.
• We started by looking at the definition of the term climate. We defined it as the
average weather conditions of a place observed over 30 to 40 years.
• We then covered factors influencing climate. These are altitude, latitude, ocean
currents and location in relation to land masses and oceans.
• You must have also covered five types of climate. The types of climate we covered
in the unit are the tropical continental, the equatorial, the Mediterranean, the
desert and the tundra climates.
• For each of these climates we covered their location, the climatic characteristics,
the climatic graphs. You must have also noticed that the characteristics were
summarised with by two statements for each climate type.
• After the climatic types we covered climatic data. The temperature mean and
the temperature range were also covered.
• We also showed you examples on how to calculate each of the two statistics for
climatic data.
1 Study the table below that shows types of climate, their location and rainfall and
temperature characteristics. Some facts are missing. Fill-in the missing facts.
Climate type Rainfall characteristics Latitudinal location

and temperature
characteristics
Very cold winter with
temperatures ranging
(a) between -30 and 0 (b)
Desert (c) Around the tropics and sub-topics
(d) (e) Between 5° south and 5° north
2 (a) What is an ocean current?
3 Explain the effects of desert climate to people and their economic activities.
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Research Work
1 Visit the nearest weather stations to you and ask for rainfall and temperature
records for the past 30 years.
3 Based on the information you collect from your visit to the weather station,
describe the nature of rainfall and temperature 30 years ago.
Progress Check
again.
Objectives Check
Box
Are you now able to ….
• explain the basis for climatic classification on a global scale

• describe characteristics of world’s climatic regions
• describe the climate of Zimbabwe
• interpret climatic graphs and tables
Chabikwa, B., Mapungwana, M., & Phiri, F. (2020). Total Geography Book 3. Harare:
51
Unit 4 Human influence on climate
4.1 Human Influence on Climate
4.2 Climate Change
4.3 Nature, Causes and effects of Climate Change
4.4 Adaptation to climate change
4.5 Mitigation against Climate Change
Introduction
It is our hope that you still remember weather elements and cyclones in the previous
units. If not, you should revise units on weather and climate so that you can easily
understand this unit. Those concepts are important in this unit. Now, get ready for
this unit where we will look at human influence on climate. In the course of the unit
we will look at causes, effects of human activities on climate. We will also look at
causes, adaptation and mitigation against climate change.
Objectives
• identify human activities influencing climate
• define the terms urban heat island, climate change and mitigation
• describe nature, causes and effects of climate change in Zimbabwe and

the World
• identify ways of adaptation and mitigation against climate change
Key Words
Climate change Is the shift in average weather conditions of an area? The changes
can take place over a shorter or longer period of time.
Urban Heat Is the situation that occurs when a town or city is generally
Island warmer than the surrounding rural areas. It occurs as a result of
human activities that trap and absorb heat in the urban areas.
Mitigation The activities done by human beings to reduce the bad effects
of natural hazards. Mitigation looks at reduction of the causes of
climate change.
Adaptation Measures that can be taken to reduce the bad effects of climate
change. The changes can be implemented step by step.
Adaptation looks at how to reduce effects of climate change.
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Greenhouse gas Is a layer of gas found at the lower levels of the atmosphere and
traps heat as it is reflected back into the atmosphere. Examples
of greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane,
chlorofluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons.
Time
Study skills
Now that you have an understanding of key words like climate change, mitigation
and adaptation, you are supposed to identify the different human activities and their
influence on climate. It is important for you to think of what you as an individual have
done to influence climate. You may brainstorm your own activities and write them
down and then look closely at how each of your activities could have influenced
climate.
4.1. Human Influence on Climate

You could have noticed from what you have listed that some of your activities affect
climate. There are many such human activities that influence elements of climate
such as rainfall, temperature and wind. Let us discuss some of these activities and see
how they influence climate. You are supposed to attempt the activity below to make
it easy for you. Study Figure 4.1 answer question on Activity 4.1.
From the human activities listed above you can see that one of them is deforestation.
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4.1.1 Deforestation
You have seen people cutting down trees for a variety of reasons. As you can see
from the pictures above people cut down trees in urban areas to increase the land
for expansion. This has a negative impact on the environment. You can see that many
areas have been left bare and the various tree species have been affected. Wind
speed has increased as windbreaks are destroyed. There is also reduction in water
holding capacity of an area as trees are removed leading to lower rainfall totals.
The climate changes from being moist to dry. So, this is one way in which human
activity can have a negative influence on the environment. Let us move on and look
at another human activity that has a great impact on weather which is afforestation.
Can you think of any effects of planting trees? Go through the activity below.
4.1.2 Afforestation
From what you have learnt in level one, you have realized that when people plant trees
water moves down slowly and this reduces rates of runoff. The process of planting
trees in areas that are bare is called afforestation.
Activity 4.2 Afforestation

What do you think are the benefits of planting trees?
As you have correctly noted above afforestation increases the amount of moisture
in the atmosphere. It is the planting of trees in areas that were bare. As vegetation
holds more water which results in more evapo-transpiration, this results in more
rainfall in an area. The area changes from being dry to moist. The planting of trees
therefore leads to the creation of a green world where there are lower temperatures
and less pollution. This is a positive contribution to climate. Related to afforestation
is reforestation.
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4.1.3 Reforestation
The term reforestation refers to a process of planting trees in areas that were once
covered by vegetation. Trees can be planted on the bare ground or in areas with
stumps. When trees are planted in an area rate of transpiration increase leading to
higher chances of rainfall in a given area.
Activity 4.3 Reforestation

1. What do you think is meant by reforestation?
2. How does it affect climate change?
As you have noted above, it is the planting of trees in areas once covered by forests.
Reforestation has an effect of reducing temperatures as trees absorb carbon dioxide.
Reforestation also reduces wind speed and increase the amount of moisture in the
atmosphere. This human activity has a positive influence on the climate.
4.1.4 Stream bank Cultivation

In the rural areas, people grow crops in different places. When crops are grown along
or close to river valleys, we call it stream bank cultivation. Crops like maize beans and
rice can be grown along these areas.
Activity 4.4 Streambank cultivation

Study figure 4.2 and attempt questions that follow.
Figure 4.2 Stream bank Cultivation
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1. Describe the scene in the photograph?
2. What are the effects of such an activity on the environment?
3. What do we mean by stream bank cultivation?
It is the cultivation of areas along river valleys and floodplains which are less than 30
metres away from river channels. Streambank cultivation causes water bodies to get
filled up with soil. It also reduces the amount of water that can evaporate from dams
and rivers thereby affecting total rainfall in an area. So this human activity contributes
negatively to climate change The next human activity is urbanisation.
4.1.6 Urbanisation
Figure 4.3 Effect of Urbanisation to climate change

As you can see on the above diagram human beings have contributed to climate
change, as there has been an increase in the number of people living in cities and
towns. Can you list down some of the effects of urbanisation? Yes, the activities
have the following results. The tarred surfaces and buildings that you can visualize
in a city store a lot of heat and this often leads to higher temperatures than in the
surrounding areas. This is called urban heat island. These cities and towns also make
the environment and air around them dirty. Urbanisation has negative impacts on
climate change. Let us move on to look at cloud seeding and its effects on climate
change.
4.1.7 Cloud seeding

Cloud seeding is the artificial application of condensation nuclei into the atmosphere
to help during rainfall formation.
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Activity 4.5 Cloud Seeding
Study Figure 4.4 and attempt the tasks that follow.
1. List features you can see on the diagram.

2. From the illustrations define cloud seeding.
3. Name the materials we need for cloud seeding.
4. Describe the conditions suitable for cloud seeding.
You can see that cloud seeding is the artificial application of condensation nuclei
into the atmosphere to help in the formation of rainfall. The condensation nuclei
include chemicals like silver iodide and frozen carbon dioxide (dry ice). Cloud seeding
increases the amount of rainfall in an area as the condensation nuclei necessitates
rainfall formation. The increase in the amount of rainfall results in more rainfall in an
area. This activity results in positive impact on climate change. So, you now have
knowledge on cloud seeding.
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4.1.6. Dam construction
You have seen or heard of a number of dams that have been constructed recently
for example the Tokwe-Mukosi dam. Can you name any dams in your local area?
Increase in the number of dams in an area have a lot of impacts. The area where dams
have been built results in more rates of evaporation as dams store water. This is likely
to lead to more rainfall in an area thereby changing the climate of a given area. This
human activity influences positively to climate change. Another human activity which
you should have identified is veld fires.
4.1.7 Veld fires

In our everyday life, people can start fires for variety of reasons. People can use fire
when hunting or when clearing a new piece of land. These fires can get out of hand
and lead to veld fires.
Figure 4.5 Veld fires
Attempt Activity 4.6 on veld fires.
Activity 4.6 Veld fires

1.Describe the scene in Figure 4.5.
2.What do you think are the effects of such an activity on the environment?
The picture above shows a veld fire. Let us look at how it affects climate change.
These veld fires increase temperatures in an area thereby reducing the amount of
water vapor. Veld fires lead to an increase in dryness in an area. So, this human activity
influences the environment negatively. Can you add any other effects? Related to the
issue of veld fires is desertification.
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4.1.8. Desertification
Desertification can be referred to as the spread of dry conditions into once viable
agricultural areas. This can be a result of a number of activities, which include
overgrazing, veld fire, overpopulation and stream bank cultivation.
Activity 4.7 Desertification
The picture in figure 4.6 illustrates the changes that can take place due to
desertification. On the above activity you were supposed to identify issues like
wilting of plants, destruction of vegetation. Any other issues that you can think of?
Desertification is the process of turning a once viable agricultural land into a desert
it is a result of a number of activities. Overgrazing in rural areas leads to the loosening
of the soil, thus the area becomes liable to soil erosion. In areas surrounding the
urban areas people depend on wood fuel for energy this has accelerated rates of
desertification. The above activities have an important bearing on climate. So,
desertification has a negative impact on climate change
So, the activities above show human beings influence climate as a way of checking
your understanding attempt the activity below in table 4.1
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Activity 4.8 Effects of human activities on climate change
Table 4. 1 Human activities
Positive influence Negative influence
E.g. afforestation Stream bank cultivation
4.2. Climate Change

From the activities that you have done above you should have realized that under
positive influence we have afforestation, reforestation cloud seeding. Negative
influences include stream bank cultivation, deforestation and veld fires. The activities
above cause long and short term changes in climate. These short- and long-term
changes in average weather conditions can also be referred to as Climate Change.
Areas that used to receive high rainfall may start to experience low rainfall whilst areas
that used to experience mild winters can begin to experience long severe winters.
Activity 4.9 Climate change

From what you have learnt above now list down the causes of climate change.
4.3. Nature: Causes and Effects of Climate Change

Climate change is a result of different inter-related natural and human activities. You
should know that climate change is a natural process, especially issues related to
global warming. However, human activities have accelerated climate change. Let us
look at what are the actual causes of climate change.
4.3.1. What causes climate change?

From the activity that you have done above you were expected to realize that climate
change is mainly a result of human activities. Climate change is caused by the emission
of gases like carbon dioxide which comes from the burning of fossils, methane from
cows and sheep when they digest, nitrous oxide from fertilisers and fluorinated gases
like chlorofluorocarbons. These gases trap heat and lead to global warming.
60
Continuous destruction of trees can also lead to global warming. Deforestation
through burning has also meant an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the
lower levels of the atmosphere. The increase of gases leads to global warming.
High levels of industrialization can also play a part in causing global warming. Increase
in number of activities in towns and cities has led to a rise in temperatures. Urban
areas produce smoke from moving vehicles and burning of wastes.
Increase in agricultural activities, especially the use of fertilisers is another cause. The
growing of wheat and rice results in the production of methane gas. Production of
these gases harm the atmosphere as they remain at the lower levels trapping heat.
You can now add more causes of climate change.
4.3.2. Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture

In the previous work, we have identified the causes of climate change, we now want
to discuss about the effects of climate change.
Activity 4.10 Effects of climate change on agriculture

Study the figure 4.7 and try to identify the effects of climate change.
Figure 4.7 Crops wilting due to high temperatures and shortage of rainfall
From study of the picture above you should have identified some of the following
effects;
• Lowered agricultural production as there is likely to be a marked decrease in
rainfall totals. The high temperatures are also likely to destroy a lot of pastures
leading to the death of livestock.
• Climate change can also result in the increased frequency of floods
• Droughts and heat waves also increase as summer temperatures are expected
to rise
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• Global sea levels will also rise
• Drying up of rivers
• Stress on agricultural production
• Melting of glaciers
• Shifting seasons
4.4 Adaptation to Climate Change

Imagine you wake up early in the morning and you find out that it is very cold, what
will you do?
We expected you to come out with responses like wearing of warm cloth. The changes
in weather patterns can call for you to adapt. If you have forgotten the meaning of
the word adapt go back to the key words Yes, you can see that to adapt means to
change in order to reduce the bad effects of climate change. Human beings have
adapted to climate change through the following ways:
• Wise/efficient use of scarce water sources
• Building flood barriers
• Water recycling
• Education campaigns
• Evacuation from disaster prone areas
• Improvement in irrigation methods
4.5 Mitigation against Climate Change

You now have an idea on climate change in this section. We now want to look at
mitigatory measures against climate change Can you list some of the measures.
Mitigation looks at reducing the causes of climate change. These measures include
the following:
• Construction of dams
• Practicing irrigation
• Growing drought resistant crops
• Water harvesting
• Reforestation
• Environmental education
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Activity 4.11 Mitigation on climate change
1. Define the terms climate change and heat island effect. (4)
2. Suggest measures that can be taken in your local area to reduce the negative
effects of climate change. (5)
Summary
• Remember that this unit is on human influence on climate change and we described
the causes of climate change. We covered human causes such as afforestation,
deforestation streambank cultivation, cloud seeding and desertification.
• We also looked at effects of climate change on agriculture that include lowered
agricultural production, increased frequency of floods, drought heat waves,
drying up of rivers and melting of glaciers.
• We also discussed about adaptation measures to climate change. The measures
include water harvesting, building flooding barriers, education campaigns and
improvements in irrigation methods
• We ended the unit by looking at mitigation measures that include the construction
of dams, practicing irrigation farming and growing of drought resistant crops.
• You need to do extra reading from your internet or library in order to keep pace
with what is happening to the climate
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1. Tropical continental air mass is
A. Cold and dry. B. Cold and wet
C. Hot and dry D. Hot and wet
2. The Congo air comes from
A. South-westerly B. North-westerly
C. South-easterly D. North-easterly.
3. Frontolysis occurs when
A. Two different air masses meet B. Front breaks down
C. Front is formed D. When rain stops falling.
4. What immediate action can a government take to help flood victims for
example those affected by Cyclone Idai?
A. Early warning system B. Education
C. Evacuation D. Rebuilding
5. Which of the following is not a sign of climate change?
A. Desertification B. Rise in sea level
C. Droughts D. Increased plant life
Structured Questions
1. Suggest measures which can be taken to reduce the effects of climate change
in Africa (5)
2. What problems would you face in implementing these measures? (4)
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Progress Check list
Do you remember the objectives of this unit? Do not worry if you need reminding.
I have listed them here below. Go through them and check how many of them you
have achieved. Tick against those you are sure you have achieved. Put an X against
those you feel you have not yet achieved. For any that you feel you have not yet
achieved, find the section dealing with it in the unit and go over it again. Right mark
yourself!
Objectives: Check
Can you now: box
• identify human activities influencing climate
• define the terms urban heat island, climate change and
mitigation
• describe nature, causes and effects of climate change in
Zimbabwe and the World
• identify ways of adaptation and mitigation against climate
change
Further reading
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Unit 5 Plate Tectonics
4.1 The continental drift theory
4.2 Plate tectonics
4.3 Folding and resultant landforms
4.4 Faulting and resultant landforms
4.5 Volcanoes and Earthquakes
Introduction
In Level 2 you learnt about the different layers that make the internal structure of
the earth. You might also have noted that the outer layer; the crust, is the one that
carries continents and oceans. The crust is lighter and it floats on top of the mantle
layer beneath and therefore, unstable. In this unit, you are going to learn about the
movements and processes that occur within the crust and the landforms that result
from these movements and processes. These movements are referred to as plate
tectonics.
Objectives
• outline the continental drift theory
• describe tectonic movements
• explain implications of plate tectonics on climate
• describe processes of folding and faulting
• describe resultant landforms
• outline the distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes
• explain the causes of volcanoes and earthquakes
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Key Words
Plate the movement of plates and processes that take place within
tectonics the crust of the earth and the landforms that result from these
processes.
Folding the bending of rock layers due to forces of compression.
Remember compression forces are those forces acting
horizontally towards each other.
Faulting the fracturing or breaking of rock layers in the crust due to
internal forces of tension and compression which cause
displacement of rocks.
Volcano the process by which magma moves into the crust or erupts
onto the surface as lava to form landforms. The term can also
refer to the landforms that result from volcanic activity.
Earthquakes the sudden shaking or vibrating of the earth’s crust resulting
from crustal instability
Time
• The study of plate tectonics needs a high level of imagination as most tectonic
processes cannot be observed with a naked eye.
• Revisit your previous Level1unit on the Earth’s Structure, to have a better
understanding of the new concepts to be learnt in this unit
• You can take down your own notes on important points
• For you to understand the concepts in this unit better, I advise you to use diagrams
effectively to illustrate processes.
5.1 The Continental drift theory

In this topic, we will introduce you to the theory of continental drift. Can you try to
identify some continents that you are familiar with? Have you ever imagined how
the massive continents came to existence? There are many explanations to how
continents came to existence; some are religious and others are scientific. While we
do not argue with the religious explanations, in this unit we will focus on the scientific
theory of the continental drift theory.
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The theory of continental drift was put forward by an Austrian climatologist, Alfred
Wegener. Remember that this theory, only tries to explain the formation of continents
and how they moved apart from their original positions to where they are today.
The theory proposed that the continents were once joined together as a single
supercontinent. This supercontinent was named Pangea. Pangea later on broke up
into two large continents. The one to the north was named Laurasia and the other
one to the south was named Gondwanaland.
It is important for you to note that the two larger continents further broke up into
fragments which became the continents as they are today. Six major continents were
formed (North America, South America, Africa, Australia, Asia and Europe) whereas
the smaller fragments became the islands. These continents started to move away
from each other to the positions where they are today. Do you now realise that the
drifting of continents away from each other bears the name, “continental drift”?
Now attempt to name the continents shown on Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1 World map showing the different continents as proposed by Wegener
We understand that you might have some questions and doubts about Wegener’s
explanation. However, the following pieces of evidence which were collected by
Wegener and other scientists help to support the theory. We hope that after going
through the explanations you will have a different view of the theory and begin to
appreciate the value of his theory.
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5.1.1 What evidence is available to support the continental drift
theory?
1. Some continents’ coastlines can fit together like a jigsaw suggesting that they
were once a single continent. For example, if you take the Western coast of Africa
and the Eastern coast of South America, they fit well.
2. Similarities in flora (plants) and fauna (animals) show that the continents were once
joined together.
3. Matching mountain belts and rock types. The study of mountain belts and rock
types on the coastline of West Africa and South America as well as North America
and Greenland shows that the rocks were formed during the same period when
the continents were still joined together.
Activity 5.1 Continental drift theory

Now you can attempt the following questions to check your understanding.
1. The theory of continental drift suggests that the _____________ were once
joined together. Some millions of years ago, they broke up to form six major con-
tinents namely _______, _______, _____,_____,____ and _______.
2. Outline any two pieces of evidence that support the idea that continents were
once assembled together
5.2 Plate tectonics

You now have an idea of the origin of continents. We are sure you can appreciate
that continents are unstable. With this knowledge about continents, you may be
wondering what are plates! Tectonic plates are plastic like massive rafts which are
suspended on the mantle. These plates carry continents and oceans. We will now
introduce you to plate tectonics and the various movements that occur within the
crust due to some internal forces caused by convectional currents in the interior of
the earth.
5.2.1 What is plate tectonics?

Plate tectonics refers to the movements of plates and processes that take place within
the crust of the earth and the landforms that result from these processes. The crust
consists of eight major plates that are floating on the semi-liquid mantle beneath.
You now know that some of the plates carry oceans and others carry continents. The
ones that carry oceans are called oceanic plates and those that carry continents are
called continental plates. Study Table 5.1 which shows types of plates.
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Table 5.1 Types of plates
Continental plates Oceanic plates
African Nazca
South American Pacific
North American Philippines
Eurasian
Indo-Australian plate
Now study the map on Figure 5.2 which shows the different plates and plate
boundaries. Try to identify some of these plates and plate boundaries from the map.
Figure 5.2 World map showing plate boundaries. Arrows show direction of
plate movement.
Oceanic plates are denser because they are made up of basaltic rocks of magnesium
silicate minerals. We hope you have realised that the word sima is an amalgam
(combination) of the first two letters of magnesium and silica. You can therefore use
the acronym sima; “si” for silica and “ma” for magnesium. Oceanic plates are lighter
because they are made up of granitic rocks which are made up of silica and aluminium
based minerals. Again, you have realised that the word sial itself is an amalgam of the
first two letters of silica (si) and aluminium (al). The sial and the sima layers form the
crust. The sima lies below the sial and forms the ocean floor while the sial forms the
continents. This crust ranges from 6 to 50 km in thickness.
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Do you remember these layers from your Level 1? Try to complete the diagram on
Figure 5.2 for a recap of your previous tutorials in Level 1.
Figure 5.3 Internal structure of the earth
We are sure you managed to label the sial, sima, the mantle, the outer core as well
as the inner core of the earth’s internal structure.
Remember in Level 1 we learnt that the mantle is denser than the crust. As a result,
both oceanic and continental plates float on the mantle. In the mantle, temperatures
are very high and this causes the material in the mantle to be semi-liquid and generate
convectional currents. These convectional currents make the oceanic and continental
plates on top unstable. They are in constant motion drifting away and against each
other. They are either colliding with or diverging from each other. Try and place
two floating objects in a bowel of boiling water, you will see that the objects will be
diverging and colliding. What could be the reason for such unstable movements? If
you said convectional currents generated by boiling water, you are correct. This is
similar to what happens with plate movement.
Activity 5.2 Plate Tectonics

Now we are going to do an experiment which will help you to understand the fact
that both continental and oceanic plates float on top of the mantle. It will also
demonstrate that the semi-liquid mantle generates convectional currents which
makes the plates above unstable.
Take a large bowl and fill it up with water. This water represents the mantle layer.
Then take two plastic plates one with water to represent oceans and the other one
with sand to represent continents. Now, place them on the surface of water in the
bowl. What did you observe?
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We are sure you noted that the two plastic plates floated on water but they are not
stable. They are sometimes moving towards each other and other times away from
each other. This brings up the concept of plate tectonics. Remember we defined
plate tectonics as the movements and processes that take place within the crust
of the earth and the landforms that result from these processes. The movements
of the plastic plates from your experiment is similar to what happens with the oceanic
and continental plates as they float on top of the semi-liquid mantle material. You
should also note that if plates collide or move towards each other, this is called plate
convergence and that when they move apart, this is called plate divergence. This
happens along plate margins.
Plate margins are boundaries between plates. It is important for you to note that
there are three types of plate boundaries as explained below.
5.2.2 Types of plate boundaries

Now let us look at the types of plate boundaries before we look at examples of plate
movements that occur along these boundaries.
(a) Divergent /constructive plate boundary

This is where two plates move away from each other. Divergent plate boundaries
are constructive because they lead to new material being born. For example, North
American and Eurasian plates. Look at the Fig. 5.4 (a) which illustrates how plates
move at the constructive boundary.
(b) Convergent or destructive plate boundary

Here plates move towards each other and collide at the zone of subduction. Convergent
plate boundary is destructive because it destroys features along the edges. Fig. 5.4
(b) shows the convergent plate margin.
(c) Transform or conservative plate boundary

This is when two plates move horizontally in opposite direction past each other. Not
many changes, in terms of landforms, occur along this boundary. This is why it is
called conservative. The transform plate boundary is shown on Fig. 5.4 (c).
5.2.3 Examples of plate movements

You now know that plates can move towards each other (converge) or they can move
apart (diverge). We now want to look at which plates converge and which ones
diverge. We will then describe the features that are formed during plate movement.
It is, therefore, important for you to study and understand the following examples
before you proceed to the next section.
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Oceanic vs continental plates converging
It is important for you to know that when an oceanic plate and a continental plate
collide, the oceanic plate which is denser is pushed underneath the lighter continental
plate. This happens at the zone of subduction. The rocks at the edges of the oceanic
plate are subdued into the mantle where temperatures are very high. We hope you
still remember the characteristics of the mantle? Yes, it is very hot. Because of the
high temperatures, the rocks on the edges of the oceanic plate melt and they are
destroyed. A good example is when the Nazca plate which collided with the South
American plate at the zone of subduction and led to the formation of the Andes
fold mountains. An oceanic trench also forms along the zone of subduction e.g. the
Java Trench. Sediments of eroded materials will accumulate in the trench and folded
up by compression forces to form fold mountains as illustrated on Figure 5.5. As this
happens, the processes will be accompanied by volcanoes and earthquakes. You
shall notice that the strongest volcanoes and earthquakes of the world occur along
this zone.
Figure 5.5 Convergence of an oceanic and a continental plate
b) Continental vs continental plates converging
When two continental plates collide, their edges crumble and bend upwards to form
fold mountains. A good example that you can refer to are the Himalaya Mountains
that were formed due to the collision of Indo-Australian and the Eurasian plates.
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Figure 5.6 Convergence of two continental plates
c) Oceanic vs oceanic plates diverging

Have you ever tried to close a pot full of boiling water? If you open the pot, the water
will bubble out escaping from the container due to pressure inside. This is similar to
what happens when the crust opens up to form deep cracks or fissures when oceanic
plates diverge. The divergence of two oceanic plates causes a gap to be created in
the crust which opens a way for the magma in the mantle to flow onto the surface.
The magma cools and solidifies to form a ridge in the middle of an ocean called
the mid- oceanic ridge. An example is the Mid –Atlantic Ridge which formed in the
middle of the Atlantic Ocean.
Figure 5.7 Oceanic plates diverging forming a mid- oceanic ridge
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d) Continental vs continental plates diverging
You should also note that if a continental plate splits into two or if two continental
plates diverge due to forces of tension, a deep crack called a fault is produced. This
leads to the formation of an elongated depression called a rift valley. A good example
is the Great East African Rift Valley. The rift valley can be a site for lakes. Lake Malawi
and Lake Tanganyika lie within the Great East African Rift Valley.
Figure 5.8 Continental plates diverging forming a rift valley

(a)Faulting and upwarping
(b)Rifting of the crust and formation of the rift valley
e) Oceanic vs oceanic plates converging.

Another scenario is the convergence of two oceanic plates. When two oceanic plates
converge, it results in opening up of fissures which run form the mantle to the surface
which cause the occurrence of a series of volcanoes. For example, the convergence
of the Pacific plate and the Philippines plate led to the formation of a group of
volcanic islands called an island arc.
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f) Island arc
Figure 5.9 Island arcs form from the upwelling magma at the convergence zone
Study the following map which shows the distribution of fold mountains along plate
boundaries. You will note that most fold mountains are located along convergent
plate boundaries. Thus, when two continental plates converge, they cause their
edges to fold up into fold mountains along the convergent boundary.
Figure 5.10 The global distribution of fold mountains
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Now we want you to attempt questions in Activity 5.3 to check if you have understood
what you have learnt on plate tectonics so far. If you cannot answer the questions
correctly, you are encouraged to revisit the topic before you proceed to the next
topic.
Activity 5.3 Plate boundaries

1.State two minerals that make up the core of the earth.
2.Explain any three types of plate boundaries (6
3.Using information from Figure 5.7, describe and explain the distribution of
fold mountains.
5.3 Folding and resultant landforms

In the previous section you learnt about the movements that occur within the crust
as a result of the convectional currents caused by the hot magma in the mantle.
These convectional currents cause forces of tension and compression on the rocks in
the crust. You should have a fair understanding of this first for you to be able to link
them to the processes of folding and faulting. Thus, this unit will explain further, the
processes that occur in the crustal rocks and the resultant landforms. Be reminded
that folding and faulting are still part of the tectonic process.
5.3.1 What is Folding

Folding refers to the bending of rock layers due to forces of compression. Remember
compression forces are those forces acting horizontally towards each other. You can
try to apply compression force on a flexible plastic ruler. What do you observe? You
should have seen that the middle part bends upwards and the two outside ends
bend downwards.
Thus, the rock layers that bend upwards form an upfold or anticline. Those layers
that bend downwards form a downfold or syncline. The sides of a fold are called
limbs. Initially we have horizontal layers of sedimentary rock which are then folded
up to form the different parts as you can see on the diagram below.
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Figure 5.11 Parts of a fold
5.3.1.1 Types of folds

We are now going to take you through the different types of folds. It is important to
note that the nature of folds depend on the amount of force applied and the amount
of bending.
a) Simple fold
In a simple fold both limbs have the same steepness. This is because compression
force being applied on both sides is relatively the same.
Figure 5.12 A simple fold
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b) An asymmetrical fold
One limb is steeper than the other. Can you suggest the reason why this is so?
I am sure you noted that it is because the forces of compression applied from
the two sides are different.
Figure 5.13 An asymmetrical fold
c) Overfold
An overfold forms if pressure continues and one limb is forced over the other. If
compression forces continue to be applied on the overfold, one limb will thrust
over the other resulting in a recumbent or overthrust feature.
Figure 5.14 An Overfold
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d) Recumbent fold or overthrust fold
This results from continued pressure which causes the rock layers to fracture
and leave both limbs nearly horizontal.
Figure 5.15 A Recumbent fold
e) Nappe
If the recumbent fold is displaced further, along a fault, a nappe is formed as
you can see from the diagram above.
Figure 5.16 A Nappe
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5.3.2 Landforms resulting from folding
The major landforms that result from folding are the fold mountains. You would
realise that the process of formation of fold mountains occur in stages. The initial
stage involves collision of plates which results in the formation of a trench. The trench
becomes the site of a sea. Deposition of sediments will take place in the trench layer
upon layer. Compression forces continue to force the tectonic plates closer together
squeezing the sediments in between. As the continental plates continue to approach
each other, the sedimentary rocks are folded up forming fold mountains.
It is important here to note that, as fold mountains develop, the weight of sediments
cause faulting and volcanic eruptions occur forming volcanic features in association
with fold mountains as illustrated in Figure 5.17.
Figure 5.17 Development of fold mountains Stages A, B and C
5.3.3 Importance of fold mountains

You now have an idea of the processes that lead to the formation of fold mountains
and their distribution. Let us now look at the importance of fold mountains and also
problems associated with their existence.
• Some fold mountains may expose minerals such as oil, iron and limestone which
benefit people.
• Snow covered slopes of fold mountains encourage sporting activities
• Relief rainfall is formed on windward slope of mountains and benefit people.
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• Some fold mountains are so beautiful that they attract tourists and bring in foreign
currency.
• Some fold mountains attract settlement as they are good for defence.
5.3.4 Problems of fold mountains

• Steep slopes hinder settlements
• Steep slopes lead to high rate of erosion
• High erosion causes shallow soils which makes it difficult to practise arable
farming.
• Sometimes mountains block lines of communication such as roads and railway
lines making construction of these very expensive.
• Rain shadow zones which are prone to drought may be created on the leeward
side
5.4 Faulting and resultant landforms

In this section we want to look at another process related to folding. Faulting is the
fracturing or breaking of rock layers in the crust due to internal forces of tension and
compression which cause displacement of rocks.
Remember from your study of folding you learnt that compression forces push
towards each other. On the other hand, tension forces pull apart. When either of
these forces are applied, a crack develops. Such a crack is called a joint if there is no
displacement of rocks. If there is displacement of rocks along the crack or fault line it
is called a fault. Vertical displacement in a rock is called a throw. Refer to Figure 5:14.
5.4.1 Types of faults

You will note that there are three types of faults depending on the type of force
applied.
Normal fault – results when forces of tension act upon a block of horizontally
layered sedimentary rocks. The fault plane or scarp will become an escarpment. The
escarpment is formed by vertical displacement as shown on Figure 5.18.
Reverse fault – forms when compression forces push inward the horizontal layers of
sedimentary rocks. Compression force may cause the rock to fault (break) if the rock
is brittle when put under stress
Tear fault – occurs when there are horizontal movements along a fault line which
results in lateral displacement of rocks. Refer to Figure 5.18.
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Figure 5.18 (a) normal fault (b) reverse fault (c) tear fault
5.4.2 Landforms resulting from faulting

You have so far learnt about the process of faulting. Let us now look at the major
landforms that result from faulting.
Rift valley.
If tension force act upon a block and two fault lines develop, the middle block drops
forming a rift valley. A good example which you might be familiar with now is the Great
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East African Rift Valley which extends from Beira, Mozambique through Ethiopia into
the Red Sea. Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi occur in this rift valley. The diagrams
in Figure 5.15 illustrate the formation of a rift valley.
Figure 5.15 Formation of a rift valley (a) by compressional forces (b) by tensional
forces
Block mountain
If compression force act upon a block and two fault lines develop, the fault-
bordered block in the middle may be pushed up forming a horst or block mountain.
An example of a block mountain is Ruwenzori Range. The diagrams in Figure 5.16.
illustrate the formation of block mountains due to tensional forces.
Figure 5.16. Formation of a block mountain

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You must also note that sometimes faults occur in series and cause displacement
of rocks upward or downward. The raised blocks become block mountains and the
elongated fault-bordered depressions become the rift valleys. Thus, rift valleys occur
in association with block mountains as shown on the Figure 5.17 below.
Figure 5.17 Faults and their associated landforms
Fault scarps
Fault scarp is another feature that results from faulting. A fault scarp is a steep slope
created on the face of a block when displacement occurs along a fault line. A fault
scarp is also called an escarpment. Figure 5.14b) above shows you this feature.
Plateaus
Plateaus are formed as a result of the earth’s bending upward or downward. The
uplifted parts become the plateaus and the depressed areas become the basins as
shown on Figure 5.18 below.
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Figure 5.18 Tectonic plateau and its accompanying basin
5.4.3 Importance of faulting

Like any other tectonic processes, faulting pose both benefits and problems to
people. Let us now look at the benefits.
• Block mountains leads to formation of relief rainfall on the windward side which
benefit farmers
• Springs that occur at the foot of the fault scarps attract settlements.
• Faulting leads to development of beautiful landforms such as rift valleys,
escarpments and block mountains which attract tourists.
• Faulting leads to formation of rift valleys which become sites for lakes such as
Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. Do you still remember in which rift valley
these two are located?
• Lakes can become important fishing grounds
• Faulting may cause displacement of rocks which may expose minerals.
• Faulting creates deep cracks which may create passages for steam jets from
underground which can be exploited for geothermal power.
5.4.4 Negative effects of faulting

• When faulting occurs, deep cracks formed may hinder development of transport
routes.
• Displacement of rocks by faulting creates steep scarp slopes and deep valleys
which makes it difficult to build settlements and grow crops
• Steep slopes make it difficult to construct roads, railways and pipe and power
lines.
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• Deep narrow valleys created by faults are often dry and create natural droughts.
• Faulting cause crustal instability which leads to occurrence of earthquakes and
volcanoes which are more hazardous to human life.
Activity 5.4 Folding and faulting

1. Define the following terms
- folding
- faulting
2. State any two types of folds and draw diagrams to illustrate each of these
types.
3. Draw a well-labelled diagram to show all the parts of a fault.
4. Outline the benefits and problems associated with faulting.

5.5 Volcanoes and earthquakes

You might agree with me that the two processes of volcanic activity and earthquakes
have been a nightmare in the history of mankind. So many cities have been destroyed
and people lost their lives due to volcanoes and earthquakes. You might have heard of
or experienced any of these phenomena in your life. How do you feel about volcanoes
or earthquakes? Some people have attributed this to misfortunes as a result of anger
of their gods. Scientist, on the other hand, explain volcanoes and earthquakes as
resulting from processes that occur in the earth’s interior. In this unit, we are going
to discuss the causes of volcanoes and earthquakes and their effects on both the
physical and human environment. We are also going to outline the distribution of
these on a global scale.
5.5.1 Volcanoes
Volcanoes are landforms that result from volcanic activity. Volcanic activity involves all
the processes by which magma is forced into the crust and on to the surface.
Magma is the molten rock and other materials formed underground in the mantle.
When magma is ejected from the mantle and it solidifies in the underlying rock, it
forms a variety of features known as intrusive volcanoes. Some magma erupts onto
the surface as lava and results in the formation of extrusive volcanic features. Lava is
the name given to magma when it reaches the ground surface.
Let us now look at the intrusive volcanic features. We are going to summarise these
features on the Figure 5.19 below.
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5.5.1.1 Intrusive volcanic features
As we have explained to you earlier on, intrusive features are formed when hot
molten magma penetrates into the bedding planes between the horizontal layers of
sedimentary rocks, cools and solidifies before reaching the surface. The main features
are the batholiths, sill, dyke, laccolith and lopolith.
Figure 5.19 Intrusive volcanic features
In this section we shall describe the characteristics of each feature.
Batholith
As you can see from the diagram, a batholith is a deep-seated, dome- shaped large
mass of granite rock which solidified underground. This feature can only be exposed
onto the surface by the process of erosion. When exposed on to the surface it forms
a feature known as ruware/ idwala or bonhardt.
Sill
This feature forms when magma squeezes itself horizontally into the bedding planes
of sedimentary rocks in the crust. When the surface is eroded, they are exposed
as escarpments and sometimes they become sites of a waterfall. Sills are resistant
to erosion and can form caps on top of hills or mountain ranges protecting them
from erosion. For example, the Three Sisters in South Africa’s Cape Province and the
Nyanga Dolerite Sill in Zimbabwe.
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Lopolith
This is a saucer-shaped feature formed when magma penetrated horizontally into
the bedding planes of sedimentary rock. Initially the feature is like a sill and as it
cools and solidify, some magma subsides back into the magma chamber leaving a
depression in the middle and saucer-like feature. Upon exposure onto the surface,
lopoliths form mountain ranges.
Laccolith
A laccolith is an arch –like igneous intrusion formed when magma cools and solidifies
along the bedding planes of sedimentary strata (layers). Magma is released from a
pipe –like feeder coming from the magma chamber deep down. As it pours out it
forces igneous rock layers to curve up forming an arch-like shape.
Dyke
Dykes are igneous intrusions that form when magma cuts across the horizontal layers
of sedimentary rocks and solidified. They can be vertical or inclined. A good example
is the one that you might be familiar with, the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe which stretches
from Mvurwi in the North East to Zvishavane in the South East.
5.5.1.2 Extrusive volcanic features

You have learnt about the different volcanic landforms that are formed within the
crust. Now we will take you through the extrusive features. As we mentioned earlier
on, extrusive features are those that were formed when magma and other materials
(gases and solids) erupted as lava onto the surface. You will notice that the extrusive
volcanic activity has a direct effect on the physical and human environment. Apart
from the different types of volcanoes, other major features that we are going to
discuss here include the lava plateau, craters, calderas, geysers, and hot springs.
5.5.1.3 Types of volcanoes

In this section we will look at the different types of volcanoes paying more attention
to how each of the features were formed. You should try to draw each of the given
diagrams on your own in order to increase your understanding of the concepts.
Ash and cinder cone.

An ash and cinder cone is formed when lava is violently ejected through a crater to
great heights and it breaks up into smaller fragments. The violent eruption is as a
result of high temperatures and pressure deep down. These small rock fragments
(cinder) will fall back to the ground and build up a cone. The cone is tall, steep-sided
and has a narrow base and is made up of alternating layers of ash and cinder. An
example is the Jos Plateau and Likaiyu in Kenya. To understand this better, study
Figure 5.20.
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Lava cone
Lava cones can be classified into two depending on the nature of material, that is,
whether the material is fluid or viscous. Now let’s look at these two types of lava cone
namely basic and acid lava cones.
a) Basic lava cone or shield volcano

Basic lava cone is formed by highly fluid lava which is highly mobile. This means that
it flows over long distances. The eruption of fluid lava is normally quiet or less violent
but with very hot lava flows. As a result of the nature of material, they produce gently
sloping cones as shown on Fig 5.17a) below. An example is Nyamlagira near Lake
Kivu in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
b) Acid lava cone

When lava is said to be viscous, it is thick and less mobile. As a result, viscous lava
when forced out through a vent, it flows slowly over short distances and quickly
solidifies producing a steep-sided dome –shaped cone. Sometimes they form a plug
dome that may completely block the vent. Good examples are the Hoggar Mountains
in Algeria. Figure 5.17b) below will help you to understand this type of cone.
5.21 a) Basic lava cone b) Acid lava cone
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Composite cone
This is the most magnificent and beautiful of them all. It is formed from alternating
layers of ash and lava. A violent eruption begins at a central vent forming a layer of
ash. As the eruption ceases, lava pours out forming a layer on top of ash. The cycle
continues and the cone continues to build into a very big feature. Some lava escapes
from the sides of the cone where it builds up small conelets as you can see from
Figure 5.18 below.
Figure 5.22 A composite volcano
Caldera
A caldera is a very large crater about 2 kilometres in diameter and 100metres deep
and sometimes contain lakes. Let us look at the two ways by which this landform can
be formed:
a) By eruption
When a composite volcano explodes violently, it blows off and disintegrates its top
into ashes leaving the crater greatly enlarged. This enlarged crater or depression is
the one called a caldera.
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Figure 5.23 Formation of a caldera by eruption of the crater
b) By subsidence
A caldera may also form through subsidence. Thus, after a major eruption, there
is depletion of magma in the magma chamber below. As a result, a huge chasm is
formed beneath the volcano. The weight of the cone above will cause some faults
to develop. Do you still remember what faults are? If you have forgotten, please go
back to your topic on faulting. With time the weight of the cone will cause the whole
cone to collapse into the chasm beneath leaving a large depression called a caldera.
Figure 5.24 Formation of a caldera by subsidence

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Lava plateaus
Lava plateaus form when lava reaches the surface through an elongated fault line
called a fissure. The lava spreads over the surface and builds up a platform called a
lava plateau. An example is Haruj el Aswad of Central Libya.
Hot springs
Hot springs are also volcanic features. We are sure you are familiar with these features
since we have some in Zimbabwe. Have you ever heard about the Nyanyadzi Hot
Springs? Hot springs are streams of water flowing from underground. Remember you
learnt that deep down in the crust the rocks are very hot because they are closer to
the hot molten magma. If underground water gets in contact with these rocks, it is
heated and it bubbles out to the surface quietly through rock cracks as a hot spring.
Geysers
It is important for you
to note that geysers
are formed in almost
the same way as hot
springs. However,
with geysers, the
temperatures of
underground rocks
are too high that
water in contact with
the rocks boils and
converts into steam.
The steam escapes
onto the surface
with great pressure
at regular intervals
acquiring the colour
of materials dissolved
in the boiling water.
Figure 5.25 (a)

geysers (b) hot
spring
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Activity 5.5 Volcanic activities
1. Define the following terms as they are used in the study of volcanoes and
earthquakes
a) magma
b) lava
2. Describe any two intrusive volcanic features.
3. With the aid of well- labelled diagrams, explain the formation of a caldera.
5.5.3 Earthquakes
Another tectonic process that we will introduce to you is the earthquake. An earthquake
is the sudden shaking or vibrating of the earth’s crust resulting from crustal instability.
Here are some of the causes of earthquakes.
5.5.3.1 Causes of earthquakes

• Tectonic movements - This is when plates move or slide past each other causing
shock waves which cause earth tremors.
• Volcanic eruptions - the movement of molten rock beneath or onto the surface
also cause shaking of the surrounding rocks resulting in earth tremors.
• Folding and faulting- the displacement of rocks due to faulting also cause earth
tremors.
• Enormous or large water bodies such as lakes and dams exert pressure on the
crustal rocks causing them to shake. Can you quickly think of examples of such
lakes or dams that you know? Examples include Lake Kariba, Lake Tanganyika
and Cabora Bassa.
5.5.3.2 Origin and nature of earthquakes

The point at which an earthquake originates underground is called the focus. This
may be several kilometres below the ground surface. The point on the earth’s surface
directly above the focus is called an epicentre. This is where the shock waves first hit
the surface. The shock waves are the ones that give rise to an earthquake.
5.5.3.3 Types of shock waves.

Let us now look at the types of shock waves that cause the tremors. These can either
be body waves or surface waves:
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a) Body waves
Body waves travel through the crust. They can either be primary or secondary waves.
Primary waves cause the crustal rocks to move back and forth in the direction of wave
movement whereas secondary waves cause crustal rocks to move sideways at right
angles to the direction of wave movement.
b) Surface waves
They travel through the surface rocks. They are of two types, love (L) waves and
Rayleigh (R) waves. Love waves cause surface rocks to move sideways at right angles
to the direction of wave movement. Rayleigh waves cause surface rocks to move in
a circular manner like sea waves. Figure 5.12 shows the focus, the epicentre and the
paths followed by the different types of waves.
Figure 5.26 The nature of an earthquake
You should note that it is these waves that cause vibrations. The surface waves
produce the most damage to buildings and human life that occurs in an earthquake.
Earthquakes differ in terms of their magnitude and intensity. Magnitude of an
earthquake is the total amount of energy released. Magnitude is measured by an
instrument called the Richter Scale. Intensity of an earthquake refers to the effect
produced by an earthquake and it is measured by an instrument called a seismograph.
You must however not confuse magnitude with intensity.
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Activity 5.6 Earthquakes
1. Define the following terms
a) focus of the earthquake
b) epicentre of the earthquake
2. Draw a well labelled diagram to illustrate the characteristics of an earthquake.
3. Describe surface waves and body waves of an earthquake.
5.5.4 Distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes

Having discussed the various causes of volcanoes and their types, as well as the
origin and nature of earthquakes, lets now illustrate and explain the distribution
of volcanoes and earthquakes. First and foremost, let us look at the distribution of
volcanoes.
In Zimbabwe, there are volcanic features which resulted from intrusive volcanic
activities. The features were formed underground and were exposed to the surface
after a long period of denudation. Most of these features are made of granite rocks
that make the Great Dyke in Central Zimbabwe, the Flood Basalts and granite sills in
the Eastern Highlands and other several lava plateaus around the country.
Around the world, volcanoes occur along the mid – oceanic ridges such as the Mid
–Atlantic Ridge and Mid – Indian Ocean Ridge. They also occur along rift valleys such
as the Great East African Rift Valley in Africa which resulted in such features as Mt
Kilimanjaro, Mt Kenya, Mt Nyamlagira and Mt Meru.
As you can see on the map on Figure 5. 27, volcanoes also occur along convergent
zones along plate boundaries. Can you explain why this is so?
Where do earthquakes occur?

Earthquakes occur so often but most of them go without being noticed either because
they are too small or too far. From the causes of earthquakes that we discussed in the
previous session, where do you think most earthquakes occur?
You will realise that most earthquakes are as a result of tectonic processes and as
such most of them occur:
• Along plate boundaries where plates converge or diverge due to forces of
compression or tension which results in crustal instability such as the West Indies
and the Great East African Rift Valley
• Along mid-oceanic ridges where oceanic plates diverge creating a fissure through
which new material finds its way to the surface. The movement of the material
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may be so violent that it causes the earth to shake. Most recently recorded
earthquakes are concentrated along the margins of the Pacific Ocean.
• Along volcanic islands.
• At a local level, earthquakes have been experienced around large water bodies
such as Lake Kariba because of the weight of water exerted on the crust.
• Where large –scale mining operations take place and around construction sites
minor earth tremors can occur due to rock blasting.
From your map on Figure 5.27, you will also realise that world’s major active volcanoes
and earthquakes occur along regions of crustal instability such as plate boundaries,
fold mountains, oceanic trenches and mid- oceanic ridges.
Figure 5.27 Distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes in the world
Summary
In this unit, you learnt about the origin of continents through the continental drift
theory. This topic introduced you into plate tectonics which cause tectonic processes
such as folding and faulting. You also went on to describe the various landforms that
result from folding and faulting. The unit also touched on the causes and formation of
different types of volcanoes and the nature of earthquakes. We hope you benefited
a lot from this unit and you are ready to learn about the effects of such processes on
human activities and on the physical environment.
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1. Which of the following landforms is a result of collision of two oceanic plates?
A. an island arc
B. a rift valley
C. fold mountains
D. an oceanic ridge
2. Which of the following is not a result of faulting?

A. a block mountain
B. an oceanic trench
C. an escarpment
D. a rift valley
3. The following are direct causes of earthquakes except

A. volcanic eruption
B. tectonic movements
C. large water bodies
D. extreme temperatures
4. What feature is formed at a divergent plate boundary?

A. oceanic ridge
B. block mountain
C. deep sea trench
D. island arc
5. The following are features of an earthquake except

A. epicentre
B. focus
C. surface waves
D. tension forces
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6. a) Using information on the map in Figure 5.27, describe and explain the
distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes. (7)
b) Explain how a composite volcano was formed. (5)
7. Outline the benefits and problems posed by folding. (7)
Research Work
Visit the local council and find out how your local community is benefiting from
the landforms in your area. Compile a list of such landforms in terms of:
a) a) name of landform
b) b) benefits of each landform
c) c) problems posed by each landform.
Progress Check list

Now that you have come to the end of the unit, you should now go through the
objectives we listed at the beginning of the unit and check how many of them you
those you feel you have not yet been achieved. Then for any that you put an X
against, find the section dealing with it in the unit and go over it again.
Objective Check
Are you now able to… Box
• outline the continental drift theory
• describe tectonic movements
• explain implications of plate tectonics on climate
• describe processes of folding and faulting
• describe resultant landforms
• outline the distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes
• explain the causes of volcanoes and earthquakes
Further reading
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Unit 6: Landforms resulting from water action
and river processes
6.1 Seasonal nature of rivers in Zimbabwe
6.2 Processes operating along a river channel
6.3 Landforms resulting from river processes
Introduction
Have you ever seen a river flowing? Well as it flows there are so many processes that
will be going on. Some which can not be seen by our own eyes. In the previous unit
you learnt about Tectonic plates and their effects, plate boundaries and how these
landforms formed. In this Unit, however you are going to learn about landforms that
result from water action and river processes. This Unit will help you understand how
various landforms form through water action and the processes that take place in a
river channel
Objectives
• describe the nature of seasonal water flow in rivers
• explain the river processes in shaping the landscape
• describe landforms resulting from river processes
Key Words
• Landforms these are land features that are formed on the
earth’s surface due to different processes.
• River Processes these are occurrences that take place in a river.
• Seasonal water means the flow of water in rivers basing on seasons
flow e.g. winter and summer.
Time
You are expected to take an average of 10 hours to go through this unit. Make sure
that you read each topic at times suitable to you.
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Study skills
In this unit you will be learning about landforms. You will have to use your imagination
and or previous experience in relation to landforms that you have seen or that you
know.
6.1 Seasonal nature of rivers in Zimbabwe

Do you know that Zimbabwe has a lot of water attractions? It has many rivers and
some flow all year round while others flow seasonally. Some rivers flow in summer
as soon as the rains begin to fall, while others flow all year round. Rivers which flow
all year round are called perennial rivers. Those that flow seasonally or for a short
period of time are referred to as seasonal or intermittent rivers. Examples of major
rivers found in Zimbabwe are Save, Mutirikwi, Runde, Munyati, Gwaai and Sanyati
to mention just a few. The Highveld of the Zimbabwe is known as the watershed of
the country. Water flows in three different directions in this region to the north west,
south east and north east. The Save, Mutirikwi and Runde flow to the south east. The
likes of Sanyati, Munyati flow north–west. North- east rivers flow into the Zambezi
rivers while south east and south rivers flow into the Limpopo. In Zimbabwe the water
volumes increase in summer and decreases during winter. Why do you think this
happens? There are some factors that affect the seasonal variation of rivers. These
include droughts, vegetation cover, the terrain of an area and rock permeability.
Droughts
Have you ever seen a drought-stricken area? This is when an area receives lower
rainfall than anticipated. When this happens, it results in shortage of surface and
underground water. When drought occurs. it affects the growth and yields of crops
due to shortage of water. In turn, this causes starvation and loss of livestock.
Vegetation cover
Did you know that loss of vegetation cover results in shortage of water? Deforestation
causes the ground to be bare and unable to hold rain water. The bare soil alone
cannot hold water for without the aid of vegetation cover which binds and holds
soils together. Eroded material and soil will be washed away into rivers resulting in
siltation of rivers. You should note that this means that heaps of soil will be piled up
in the rivers causing the base of the river to rise and therefore affects the seasonal
flow of rivers.
The terrain of an area

This means the steepness or gentleness of a slope. Rivers flow in terrains that are
mainly gentle and easy to erode. Steep slopes are not mainly favourable for the
smooth flow of rivers.
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Rock permeability
This is the hardness or softness of rocks. Rock permeability has to do with the rock
composition and formation. This causes the rock to be hard or soft. There is less run-
off when rocks are permeable. There would be more of infiltration as the water will
seep into the ground.
Activity 6.1 Seasonal nature of rivers in Zimbabwe

Describe the season nature of rivers in Zimbabwe?
1.Find out the meaning of the following terms:
(a) Perennial river
(b) Intermittent river
(c) Seasonal river
6.2 Processes operating along a river channel

You should know that there are various processes that operate along a river channel.
Processes operating along a river channel are also the same with those that operate
along the stream. In this case we are going to focus on the river processes shaping
the river channel.
6.2.1 River Transportation

Note that river transportation is the process where the river moves its materials from
one place to another. Did you know that rivers transport their load in four main ways?
We are going to describe the four main types of river load
These four ways are:
1. Solution (solution/dissolved load)
2. Suspension (suspended load)
3. Saltation (saltation load)
4. Traction (bed load)
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Figure 6.1 River transportation processes
From figure 6.1 you should be able to tell the amount and type of load carried by the
river along the river channel. The amount and type of load carried by the river varies
due to:
1. Season (flood time, dry season, mass movement)
2. Type of rocks (which give result to the dissolved loose materials of various sizes)
3. Bare or vegetated surface
4. Human activities such as farming, gold panning, mining, pollution and dumping
waste material along the river channel
6.2.2 River erosion

Do you know what erosion is? This is the process by which a river removes materials
on the river bed or river bank when it is flowing. The energy of the flowing river washes
away some soil and rock particles. This removal of materials usually takes place when
streams are flowing fast and the sediments on the river channel are eroded due the
frictional force of running water. Take a container of water and pour it on a steep
surface. What do you see? Certainly. you will see flowing water turned to the colour
of soil. This shows that the water has carried some soil particles. If you continue doing
that, you will observe that, tiny channels will form as evidence of soil being washed
away and that is erosion.
Let us continue our discussion on erosion by looking at the types of erosion occurring
in a river:
• Head ward erosion which occurs in the upper course

The upper course of the river is the area near its source. Mainly the type of erosion
which occurs is called head ward erosion. Head ward in the sense that the river
velocity would be high enough to erode and at the source and lengthens the river.
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• Vertical erosion which occurs in the upper course
This involves the fast flowing of water as it deepens the channel of the river. The
permeability of the rocks in the upper course are not uniform thus resulting in
formation of river features like waterfalls.
• Lateral erosion which occurs in the middle and lower course.

This happens in the middle and lower course of the river as the river would have lost
its velocity. Erosion is quite less but there is more of deposition in the lower course
of the river than erosion. Lateral erosion is the wearing away of material on the river
banks. Lateral erosion widens the channel.
These directions are done through the following processes

• hydraulic action- this is the sheer force of the moving water which separates loose
and solid rocks particles from the channel bed and banks
• abrasion or corrosion- this process occurs when the rivers load rubs against the
river bank as it is being transported along the river bed
• potholing-this is a result from the abrasion process we discussed above. Potholes
are round holes drilled into riverbed by pebbles and stones due to the swirling of
water associated with the turbulent flow (to be discussed later)
• corrosion or solution – this is when river water dissolves the rock particles in the river
channel through chemical weathering processes such as solution and hydrolysis
• attrition-this is when the solid materials carried by the river hit against each other
or rub against each other and break into smaller particles.
The breaking material causes erosion when it hits against the banks and river bed,
thereby tearing off other material while breaking into pieces.
6.2.3 River deposition

Deposition occurs when there is a reduction in river velocity or when river does not
have enough strength to transport its material. As a result, the river drops whatever
sediments or eroded materials it would be carrying. Deposition occurs in any of the
following places along the course of the river:
Channel bed: The other name for channel bed is the river bed. Did you know that as
the river loses its velocity it deposits its material on the river bed? Heavy materials
like boulders are deposited first and lastly fine silt as it reaches the mouth of the river.
The river valley flow during floods: A river valley flow during floods has high
velocity as the water will be rushing downstream. Materials are eroded and are
carried downstream until the river loses its velocity. There is more of erosion and
transportation that deposition.
The banks of a river: The river banks are the areas which the water is in contact with
when it is in flood. After a flood there is deposited material which is called alluvium
which is left on the bank of the river. It is a composition of silt, clay and sandy soils.
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The soils are quite favourable for agricultural activities as they are fertile. Figure 6.2
below shows deposition on the banks of a river.
Figure 6.2 The banks of a river
The river mouth: What came into your mind when you read the term “the river
mouth”? Well this is where the river meets the sea or ocean. The area is called the
river mouth. Deposition takes place as the river loses it velocity and this results in the
formation of deltas. The material that the river deposits blocks the channel smooth
flow and this results in the channel breaking into several channels which are known
as distributaries. The more the river deposits material, the more the distributaries
are formed. There are various types of deltas which include arcuate, cuspate delta,
estuarine and birds foot. Figure 6.3 shows types of deltas.
Figure 6.3 Types of delta

I hope from the above discussion you are now able to draw well labelled diagrams
showing the processes that take place along the river channel, as well as explaining
how the processes occur and where and when they take place. Refer to figure 6.1.
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6.3 Factors influencing the rivers energy
You should note that river energy is simply its ability or work to erode, transport and
deposit eroded material and or load. I guess you still remember that energy is the
ability to do work. Rivers have also work to do and their work is to erode, transport
and deposit load. We have now introduced you to yet another term, river load. What
do you think river load is? You are correct if you say, it is the soluble or solid matter
a river carries along the channel. Give three examples of river load. Some examples
you can add to your list are leaves, sand tree branches and rocks. Let us now discuss
these factors that influence river energy together.
Gradient of channel
Note that gradient is the steepness or gentleness of a slope. Here we are referring to
the kind of space or area covered by the river channel. The gradient through which
the river flows determines the amount of energy a river has in its ability to erode and
transport the sediments or the load. On a steep gradient, the river energy is more
and its power to erode is great. The upper course of the river has steep gradient;
therefore, this means that the fast-flowing water possess more energy and erosion
is higher at the upper course of a river. It is a different case at the lower and middle
course of the river channel. whereat these sections of the river there is a gentle
gradient. The gentle gradient then causes less energy to erode and transport its
load. Note that with little energy in the river a lot of deposition takes place.
NB. As far as gradient is concerned the upper course of the river has more
energy to erode and transport river load as compared to the middle and lower
course.
1. Volume/ discharge
Water flowing in a river is due to the pull of gravity and the pull of gravity is determined
by these mass (load) and hence volume of the water being moved. Upper course
river has smaller discharge because their only source of water is from overland
flow (surface runoff) which is generated in the immediate surrounding and channel
precipitation. Middle and lower course river sections, however, have high volumes
due to the fact they obtain water from upstream or upper course tributaries surface
runoff generated in the immediate surrounding and channel precipitation. As far as
volume is concerned, middle and lower course stream have more energy to erode,
transport and deposit as compared to the upstream course.
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Activity 6.2 Processes operating along a river channel
1. Name and describe any two river transportation processes (4)
2. Describe the processes of river erosion or deposition (4)
3. State any two landforms that can be found in the deposition stage of a river (2)
6.4 Landforms resulting from river processes

Do you happen to live close to a river or have you ever been to a rive before? Well,
the water might be clear or dirty at times but you should know that there are various
processes which will be taking place.
6.4.1 River valley

A river valley is the area which is found along the river channel which is either V-shaped,
U-shaped or asymmetrical. River valleys varies from place to place.
Characteristics of river valley
• Characteristics of a river from its source to the mouth are different or they vary
due to the rivers ability to erode, transport and deposit material which is affected
by the gradient of the river.
• Long profile-this is the cross section along the length of the river from the source
to the mouth as shown in figure 6.3
• Short profile –this refers to the cross section of the river valley from the crest line
through the channel to crest line.
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Concave-shaped; steep The part further downstream The gentlest part of the river
part of the river close to which is gentler. It is also and also furthest from the
the mouth. Also called the called the Middle course mouth of the river. It is also
Upper course called the Lower course
Figure 6.7 A long profile of a river
6.4.2 Types of valleys common or the common features in major

sections of the river profile
1. Upper course
In the upper course of the river profile there is the existence of v-shaped valleys.
They are a result of fast flowing rivers that have a downward erosion, the fast-
flowing river deepens the river channel. Where the resistance of the rocks
in these areas is not the same, some of the river features are formed. These
features we will discuss them later under figure 6.8.
Figure 6.9 Widened river channel on the middle course
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2. Middle course
In the middle course the river channel widens since the river would be flowing
in a less steep gradient of the middle course as there is a gentle gradient. At
this course there is more of lateral erosion which is the wearing away of material
on the banks of the river and the transportation of materials become dominant.
Since there will be less steep gradient it will result in reduced velocity. This then
cause material to be deposited on the river bed.
NB. Note that because of the gentle gradient, the river velocity is reduced and
deposition of sediments begins to occur on the river beds.
Figure 6.8 Diagram of the v-shaped river valley at the upper course
3. Lower course
In the lower course there is the existence of U-shaped valleys. When the river
flows in plains in the lower course, there is much of deposition due to the reduced
velocity or there is reduction in the speed of the river during transportation
leading to deposition. Lateral erosion increases and the result is the widening
of the river channel giving a U-shaped river valley.
NB. You should know that not only u-shaped river valleys are the resultant
landforms of the deposition on the river channel, but there are also many
features which are formed as a result of the deposition as we are about to
discuss.
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Figure 6.10 U-shaped river valley at the lower course
Meanders
Meanders are a result of erosion and deposition landforms. Meanders usually lead to
the existence of ox-bow lakes. Meanders usually become more pronounced on the
middle course of the river channel. The meanders are also a result of the river flowing
along its lines of weaknesses and avoiding obstacles along the course. It is also
attributed to the alternating occurrence of erosion and deposition along the river
channel resulting in the river swaying sideways (meandering). On the outer bank of
the meander, erosion is active creating a river cliff (as shown in the diagram below),
on the inner bank there is active deposition resulting or creating a slip-off slope (as
illustrated in the diagram below)
Figure 6.11 A cross section of a river meander
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Ox-bow lakes
What is an ox-bow lake? Have you ever come across this word before? The ox-bow
lakes are a result of both erosion and deposition because of the meandering action
taking place in the river channel. As in figure 6.7 below you should be able to know
that the area marked ‘erosion’ leads to the meander becoming more pronounced.
The meander neck becomes smaller as erosion continuous. The river finds a new
channel that is straight and the isolated body of water is known as the ox-bow lake.
Eventually the ox-bow lakes dry up and become fertile areas for the growth of crops.
Figure 6.12 The formation of Ox-bow lakes
Waterfalls
Have you ever seen a waterfall before? Or maybe the mighty Victoria falls? Did you
know that waterfalls and rapids are a result of a river bed that has rocks of different
resistance to erosion (heterogeneous rocks)? Where resistant rocks that lie on the river
bed abruptly end, the water would fall resulting in a waterfall. Actually, you should
know that in order for a waterfall to be created there is the presence of homogenous
rocks with the hard and resistant rock at the upper profile and a soft rock which is
easily eroded at the middle course resulting in the creation of a gorge on the waterfall.
Waterfalls also occur where there is a drop in the river course or channel. Waterfalls
represent a higher fall than rapids (which are to be discussed later in the lesson). As a
river descends the scarp in areas of faulting, it also forms a waterfall for example, the
Victoria falls is an example of a waterfall resulting from faulting. The type of waterfall
is a Knick point which is a break in the long profile due to uplifting of the land.
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Figure6.13 Formation of a water fall
Tip
From what we have explained about the formation of the waterfall, I hope you are
now able to draw and explain the conditions necessary for the formation of a waterfall.
Rapids
Rapids are also landforms that form due the occurrence of resistant bands or rocks
across the channel. This means that the area downstream of the band can be
deepened, therefore forming a rapid. They also form due to a series of resistant
bands over wide rocks bands. They also occur when the river flows down the edge
of a plateau or where there is faulting. To add on, rapids are also formed where there
are many alternate layers of hard and soft rocks on the river bed. Such rapids often
result in river navigation and in some instances such as along the Zambezi river, they
create the ideal environment for water sports like rafting which is also a major tourist
attraction.
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Figure 6.14 The rock structure that causes rapids
Therefore, from what we have discussed you are now able to describe the formation
and explain the resultant landforms from a river profile or a cross section.
Reflection
We have come to the end of our unit. Hopefully you mastered all the concepts of this
unit. For further reading and clarification use relevant websites as well as the books
given on further reading.
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Summary
Well done you have completed another unit. Please go over the points below and
check whether you have understood everything in this unit. If you did not understand
some of the concepts in this unit, please go back and read again before attempting
the end of unit assessment test below. As part of your revision please fill in some
summary points below.
• River Processes these are operations that take place in a river.
• Seasonal water flow means the flow of water in rivers basing on seasons e.g.
winter and summer.
• Drought is a dry spell caused by receiving inadequate rainfall.
• Hydraulic action is the process by which a water removes materials on the river
bed or river bank when it is flowing.
• Gradient is the steepness or gentleness of a slope.
• Rivers help in shaping the earth’s surface through erosion, transportation and
deposition.
• The characteristics of a river from its source to mouth vary due to the ability of the
river to erode, transport and deposit material.
• V-shaped valleys are a result of fast flowing rivers
• The speed of a river is low at its mouth therefore resulting in deposition to take
place.
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End of unit assessment
Section A Multiple choice
Answer the following questions by choosing the correct answer from the options
given.
1. Gradient is
A. A slope
B. The gentleness of a slope
C. The steepness or gentleness of a slope
D. The long profile of a river
2. Eroded material is first deposited when
A. A river gains velocity
B. A river loses velocity
C. Velocity is high
D. The river is in flood
3. Which of the following is a type of a delta?
A. Zeugen
B. Delta
C. Piedmont
D. Birds foot
4. Lateral erosion is
A. The wearing of material on the river banks
B. The wearing of material on the river bed
C. The wearing of material in the lower course of the river
D. Erosion of material.
5. A waterfall is found in
A. The middle course of the river
B. Lower course of the river
C. Upper course of the river
D. All the courses of a river
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Section B Answer all questions
6. Identify four processes by which a river erodes its channel (4)

7. Identify features commonly found in the lower course of a river valley (4)
8. Define the term hydraulic action with reference to the processes that occur in a
river channel (2)
9. What measures would you take to reduce the problem of siltation in the rivers of
Zimbabwe? (4)
10. If you were the Zimbabwean minister of environment, what problems would you
face in trying to implement the measures stated above? (3)
Research Work
Visit a river site in your local area to do this research. We would like you to measure
the velocity of a river. Record your measurements and present them to your facilitator.
Good luck. Use the following materials and guidelines to help you in your research.
Note that you will need someone to help you carry out the research and make sure
the part of the river you will choose is safe enough to carry out this work.
Materials needed for the research
1.Tape measure
2.Floats (these may be orange peels or anything that can float on water)
3.At least two poles to mark your starting point and finishing point (make sure the
area you select should be about 20metres in length from starting point to finishing
point.)
4.A timer or stop watch
5.A rope
How to carry out the research
• First and fore most you should find a suitable place to do this exercise and this
should be a straight path along the river channel. Make sure it is safe.
• Now measure the distance using your tape measure. Mark your starting and
finishing points with the poles to approximately 20 metres or so.
• With your timer in hand, at the starting point drop a float just near the river bank
and start to record the time taken by the float up to the finishing point
• Use another float, this time throw it in the middle part of the river to measure
the velocity.
Make sure you will be recording this. Below is a formula used to measure velocity.
The distance will be according to your measurements on the actual ground that is
approximately 20 metres. The time is the average seconds taken by the float and
the velocity would be in metres per second.
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Progress Check list
Do you remember the objectives of this unit? Do not worry if you need reminding,
achieved. Tick against those you are sure you have achieved. Put an X against those
you feel you have not yet achieved. For any that you feel you have not yet achieved,
find the section dealing with it in the unit and go over it again. Right, mark yourself.
Objectives Check
box
Can you now:
• Describe the nature of seasonal water flow in Zimbabwe
• Explain the river processes in shaping the landscape
• Describe landforms resulting from river processes
Further reading
117
Unit 7 Landforms resulting from wind action
in Zimbabwe and Africa
7.1 Characteristics of arid and semi-arid regions
7.2 Distribution of arid and semi-arid regions
7.3 Wind action processes such as erosion, transportation and deposition
7.4 Landforms resulting from wind action in Africa
Introduction
Have you ever seen a whirlwind in action? We are sure one way or the other you
have seen or experienced the wind blowing. Can you touch wind? Of course, no,
but its effects are seen on landforms that result from its actions? In the previous unit
you learnt about the river process and the landform resulting from wind action. Have
you heard of the term arid or aridity? In this unit you are going to learn about the
characteristics and distribution of arid and semi-arid regions. Furthermore, you are
going to learn about wind processes such as erosion, transportation and deposition.
Objectives
• describe the characteristics of arid and semi-arid regions
• explain the distribution of arid and semi-arid regions
• explain the processes of wind action
• describe the landforms resulting from wind action
Key Words
Arid regions these are areas which are hot and very dry or known as
deserts
these are dry areas that receive less than 250 mm of rainfall
annually. They also known as hot deserts
Semi-arid these are areas which are not completely dry but resemble
regions characteristics of arid areas. They receive little or no rainfall at
most.
These are areas with a long dry season such that the
evapotranspiration exceeds the precipitation. The rain in
these regions higher than that of the arid areas.
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Time guide
You are expected to take not more than 10 hours to go through this unit.
Study skills
This unit requires you to use your imagination, critical thinking and research skills. You
should also visit relevant websites on desert landforms so that you view images of
some of these landforms. There are websites that can show you animations or even
videos on landforms.
7.1 Characteristics of arid and semi-arid regions

7.1.1 Arid regions
Do you remember what we said arid areas are? We gave the definition of arid regions
as dry areas that receive less than 250 mm of rainfall annually. They are also known
as hot deserts.
Note that arid areas are characterised by the following:
• The areas are dry meaning that they receive less than 250mm throughout the
year.
• The day temperatures can reach 40°C while the night temperatures they can
reach -4°C.
• The evapotranspiration in these areas always exceeds the precipitation.
• Droughts occur frequently.
• There is little or no vegetation cover.
• Gusts of wind blow strongly due to absence of vegetation which could have
acted as wind breaks.
You have gone through the characteristics of arid areas. Now let us move on and look
at the characteristics of semi-arid areas:
7.1.2 Semi-arid regions

Note that semi-arid regions have high temperatures and do experience rainfall.
These are quite hot but fairly humid areas
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Characteristics
• The region experiences rainy summers and cool dry winters.

• Rainfall is usually between 250-500mm
• Temperature usually between 21°C and 32°C.
• There is sparse vegetation such as short grasses and scattered trees
Henceforth, from the characteristics above it is prudent to mention that the semi-arid
region is quite different from the arid region.
Activity 7.1 Characteristics of arid and semi-arid regions

1. Explain any three characteristics of arid regions (6)
2. What do you think are the causes of aridity? Give two points (2)
7.2 Distribution of arid regions

7.2.1 Distribution of arid regions
Do you know any desert in the world? Arid regions are those regions which are mainly
called the hot deserts. The hot deserts are found in three different places in Africa.
These are the Kalahari Desert in Botswana, Namib desert in Namibia and the Sahara
Desert 30° north of the equator covering one quarter of the Saharan area. Worldwide
most hot deserts are located between 15° and 30° north and south of the equator
and mostly on western coast. These areas are characterised by high pressure. Figure
7.1 shows the location of deserts in Africa.
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Figure 7.1 The location of the Desert type of climate in Africa
7.2.2 Climatic characteristics of arid areas

Note that these areas are very dry. They receive rainfall which is less than 250mm.
When the areas experience rainfall it is usually of high intensity and short lived
(meaning for a short period of time) in other words a short storm. There is no or
little cloud cover and the temperature ranges from 38-40 degrees Celsius. The high
temperatures result in high evapotranspiration rates and this causes a deficit in
moisture levels. At night temperatures drop down to at least 0 degrees Celsius and
this causes the formation of dew. High wind speeds are common in the arid regions.
You have probably heard of the Sahara or Namib deserts. There are various types
of deserts. Hot deserts are located north and south of the equator in the interior of
continents and the west coast. Hot deserts are arid regions in the world include the
Kalahari and Namib deserts in southern Africa, The Sahara Desert in north Africa, the
Indian Thar desert, Arabian desert, West Australian, the Mohave in Western America
and the Atacama in South America. Figure 7.2 show the locations of the deserts
mentioned above.
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Figure 7.2 The global distribution of hot deserts
7.2.3 Vegetation cover in arid areas

Deserts support the growth of a few and small plants. However, the vegetation is
scarce due to extreme harsh weather conditions like high temperatures and less
rainfall. The saline soils which are infertile and sandy support the growth of very little
specialised vegetation like xerophytic plants. Xerophytic plants grow in semi-arid
regions where ground water is available. These are plants that grow in arid and semi-
arid conditions. They can survive with little water.
7.3 Distribution of Semi-arid regions

Have you ever heard of semi-arid regions? The semi-arid region is quite different
from the arid region. This region is also known as the savannah climatic region. It
covers the largest part of Africa and is mainly found within the tropics. This type of
climate also constitutes much of the low veld areas of Zimbabwe.
NB. You should also note that in most cases it is affirmed that due to climate
change the semi-arid regions are slowly turning to arid regions.
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Activity 7.2 Distribution of arid and semi-arid regions
1.Describe how arid and semi-arid region are distributed. Give three points for
each area. 6)
2.Describe the climatic characteristics of arid and semi-arid regions.
7.4 Wind action processes and resultant landforms

Have you ever noticed that air is not stationery? It moves from place to place. As it
moves it erodes, transports and deposits material. These are therefore called wind
action processes. Wind also has the ability to curve landforms as it erodes and deposits
material. Wind plays a very important role in landform development in desert areas.
7.4.1 Wind erosion

We hope you are familiar with the word erosion and you have heard it before. You are
probably wondering if it is possible for wind to erode. Yes, wind has the capability to
erode. In this section you are going to see examples of landforms that were formed
due to wind erosion. Wind erosion is the process whereby wind participates in the
removal or eroding of loose materials. Wind erosion is a very effective process in this
case because of the existence of large areas with dry and loose unconsolidated sand
soils and silt. The absence of vegetation cover also facilitates or promotes the wind
action to erode as there is nothing that binds the soil particles together. Nevertheless,
we have three main processes of wind erosion namely deflation, abrasion and attrition.
These processes are to be discussed as follows:
Deflation: What comes into your mind if you hear the word deflation? Deflation is a
process by which wind blows away dry and unconsolidated sand, silt and dust from
surfaces. Wind removes loose materials and if it has a high velocity (speed) even
heavier particles can be moved. For deflation to occur it also takes into play the
surface roughness, clay content of the soil and moisture. When clay is wet it becomes
sticky and the particles are not eroded quite easily. Wind deflation results in what are
called deflation hollows. Below is a diagram showing a depression hollow.
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In A the wind blows away light material from the surface of the earth.
In B, a depression results from the continued removal of light materials from the
surface.
Figure 7. 4 The formation of a deflation hollow
In B, a depression results from the continued removal of light materials from the
surface.
Abrasion: It is the blasting effect of sand and rock materials as they are being
transported through the process known as saltation. This sand blasting is usually
effective in areas with less resistant rocks as well as near the ground level. Abrasion
results in landforms which are called rock pedestals, yardangs and zeugens and these
are mainly found in hot deserts.
Attrition: As wind transports its material, the material is constantly rubbing against
each other as it moves. The rock particles wear off as this happens. This is therefore
called attrition.
7.4.2 Wind transportation

Did you know that wind can transport loose material from the ground for a long
distance? The distance depends on the speed of the wind. For the transportation to
occur it depends with the wind velocity, turbulence and direction of the wind as well
as the nature of materials being transported. The transported materials vary in size.
Wind transportation is favourable when winds are strong usually 20km per hour. You
should know that wind transports its material in suspension, saltation and creep form.
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Suspension
Have you ever seen a whirlwind? Usually it picks up every loose material that is in
its way. The loose material could be papers, sand and silt. These are then carried in
suspension form or in air? Well wind has the capacity to move things in suspension
form. Material that can be carried or transported in suspension form include sand,
silt and clay.
Saltation
Do you know that wind has the ability to carry rock particles and sand from the
ground? The material is lifted up and down from the ground in what can be referred
to as a hopping manner.
Surface creep
There are some material which are quite big to be lifted and transported by wind.
These materials include pebbles and large rock fragments. They are rolled along the
surface depending on the direction of the wind. The diagram below shows the three
transportation processes.
Figure 7.5 Wind transportation processes
7.4.3 Wind deposition and resultant features.

Well we have been talking about how wind erodes and transports material. Wind
reaches a point where it finally deposits the material. You should know that wind
deposit its material when wind velocity drops. Firstly, course material such as sand
are deposited first then finer materials like dust comes last. There are various types
of sand dunes which are formed due to wind deposition. Namely there are barchan
dunes, seif dunes transverse dunes and loess deposits.
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Barchan dunes
These are crescent shaped dune with a convex windward side. It also has two horns
which curve downwind on either side of the steeper concave slip to the leeward side.
They are formed at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind. You should
know that barchan dunes are symmetrical. See how the barchan dune is formed in
Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.6 Characteristics of a barchan dune
Seif dunes
The other name for seif dunes is longitudinal dunes. These are long kind of ridge
like dunes. They run parallel to the direction of the prevailing wind. Did you know
that seif dunes can be up to 100 or 200 metres long? They are also asymmetrical in
cross profile. It is also safe to say that seif dunes develop where barchan dune suffers
a blow-out which then causes partial destruction. Below is a diagram showing seif
dunes.
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Figure 7.7 Seif dunes
Transverse dunes
These types of dune are a bit different from the others. They start of as irregular
ridges formed due to coalescence of several barchans. Mainly these dunes form a
series of long wavy ridges. These ridges will be lying at right angles to the direction
of the winds.
The dunes lie at right angles to the prevailing winds.
Figure 7.8 Transverse dunes
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Loess deposits
These are thick brownish yellow like sandy loam rich in lime and are homogeneous in
structure. They are sand deposits from deserts and are deposited in areas outside the
desert margins. Loess are rich fertile soils and did you know that they cover at least
10% of the earths land surface.
Activity 7.3 Wind action processes

1.Draw a well labelled diagram showing the formation of a barchan dune (6)
2.What problems do you think are caused by development of barchans?
7.4.4 Landforms resulting from wind erosion in Africa

Have you ever been to a desert? Or have you seen some landforms that are found in
deserts? Some look pretty funny. Well you should know that those landforms are as
a result of wind and water action in the deserts. The processes of deflation, abrasion
and attrition have led to the development of landforms in hot deserts. There are
different landforms that are found in deserts. We are going to look at rock pedestals,
yardangs, deflation hollows and zeugens.
Rock pedestals
These are landforms which are found in deserts. The rocks which form this type of
landforms are those with alternating bands of weak and hard rocks. As wind blows
the softer rock is eroded at a faster rate than the hard rock. This however results in
landforms which are mushroom shaped like as shown below in Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9 Formation of a rock pedestal

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Yardangs
Yardangs are landforms which develop where rock masses have vertical bands of hard
and soft rock. The rock masses lie parallel to the prevailing wind. There is more of
wind abrasion which attacks the soft rock to form troughs whereas the more resistant
rock form ridges. The ridges are therefore called yardangs.
Figure 7.10 Yardangs and how they form
Zeugens
These are landforms which develop where rocks have horizontal layers of soft and
hard rocks. Wind erosion attacks the soft weaker rock producing ridges and furrow
landscapes. The ridges formed are called zeugens.
Figure 7.11 Zeugens
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Activity 7.4 Wind action processes
1.Give similarities and differences between yardangs and zeugens (6)
2.List three reasons why wind erosion is an effective process in the development
of landforms in desert areas. (3)
3.Draw a well labelled diagram of a piedmont zone (5)
4.Explain the diagram (5)
Reflection
We hope that you have mastered this unit. What is abrasion? Hope you got that right.
If not go back and read again. Do not forget to meet up with your teacher and get
further clarification.
Summary
Well done you have made it. Hope you were able to understand this unit. Below is a
list of key points. They will help you to revise. Please add some of your points. Make
sure you revise thoroughly before you attempt the end of unit test.
• Wind deposits found on the desert margins are referred to as loess
• Arid regions receive little or no rainfall at all.
• Wind transports its material through suspension, surface creep and saltation.
• There arid and semi-arid regions but the semi-arid regions are slowly turning
arid.
• There are various types of deserts which are hot, cold and temperate
• Deserts occur due to different effects. Most of them are found on the western
coasts and interior continents.
• There are various types of sand dunes which include seif dunes, yardangs,
zeugens and transverse dunes
• Rock pedestals have alternating bands of hard and soft rocks and are mushroom
like in shape.
• Temperate are areas between 35 and 50 degrees north with moderate to low
temperatures.
Tip
We hope you have understood the concepts of this unit. Before you attempt the end
of unit assessment make sure you have read and visited relevant websites to help you
understand quite clearly.
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End of unit assessment
Section A Multiple choice
Answer the following questions by choosing the correct answer from the options
given.
1. Deserts receive an annual rainfall of
A. 1000mm
B. 300mm
C. 700mm
D. 250mm
2. The vegetation cover consists of

A. Grass
B. Medium sized trees
C. Xerophytic plants
D. Oases
3. Weathering processes that occur in deserts are

A. Mechanical
B. Exfoliation
C. Pressure release
D. Physical
4. Which of the following is a type of a desert?

A. Erg
B. Yardang
C. Zeugen
D. Playa
5. Depositional features of wind found outside the desert are called

A. Barchan dunes
B. Seif dunes
C. Loess
D. Ripples
6. With the aid of diagrams explain the formation of a

a) Yardang (4)
b) Seif (4)
7. State any five characteristics of semi-arid regions (5)

8. Give any four characteristics of arid regions (4)
9. What causes deserts to occur? Give four points (4)
10. Rock pedestals result from ……………. (2)
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Progress Check list
Do you remember the objectives of this unit? Do not worry if you need reminding,
achieved. Tick against those you are sure you have achieved. Put an X against those
you feel you have not yet achieved. For any that you feel you have not yet achieved,
find the section dealing with it again. Right, mark in the unit and go over it yourself.
Objectives Check
Box
Can you now:
• Describe the characteristics of arid and semi-arid regions
• Explain the distribution of arid and semi-arid regions
• Explain the process of wind action
• Describe the landforms resulting from wind action
Further reading
132
Unit 8 Hazards associated with landforms
development and disaster risk management
8.1 Volcanoes as hazards
8.2 Earthquakes as hazards
8.3 Mass wasting
8.4 Flooding
8.5 Disaster risk management of volcanoes, earthquakes, flooding and mass
wasting.
Introduction
Have you ever seen a hazard or disaster be it on television or in online sources?
Disasters do happen in many parts of the world. In the previous unit, you learnt
how landforms develop through tectonic processes of folding, faulting, volcanoes
and earthquakes. What do you think are hazards? Certainly, hazards are associated
with danger and harm to the environment, people and their property. A hazard is
any source of potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on something or
someone. Because of the suffering they bring upon people, they are called hazards.
Now we are going to describe the hazards associated with the processes that lead
to formation of these landforms. However, these processes have their own benefits
which we are also going to highlight in this unit. We will also discuss methods of
disaster risk management of these hazards namely volcanoes, earthquakes, floods
and mass wasting as well as mitigation measures.
Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to
• describe the hazards associated with development of landforms

• identify ways of disaster risk management of volcanoes, earthquakes, floods and
mass wasting
• describe mitigation measures for these hazards
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Key words
Hazards any natural phenomenon that may cause great
harm or suffering of people.
Risk management measures taken to reduce the impact of a hazard
Mitigation reducing the impact of a problem
Time
You are expected to spend no more than 10 hours to go through this unit.
Study skills
You are encouraged to revisit your Unit 5 on plate tectonics and volcanoes and
earthquakes to have a better understanding of the concepts that follow in this unit.
You are also advised to take down some notes as you go through this unit noting
down important points.
8.1 Volcanoes as hazards

In this section of the unit let us discuss the negative and positive effects of volcanoes.
I am sure you have heard of volcanoes and their effects on human activities before.
As you learnt in the previous unit, volcanoes are violent by nature and when they
erupt, they affect human activities negatively. Lava flows sometimes burn up people
and cause great loss of lives. Some eruptions cause great damage to property and
infrastructure such as buildings, roads, railways and communication lines. Volcanoes
can leave people homeless after their villages are destroyed or buried under ashes.
They also cause disruption of service provision such as electricity, water and transport.
Volcanoes often cause air pollution as they are associated with gases, dust and ash
which may affect the respiratory system of humans and cause diseases.
Some volcanic eruptions may cause tsunamis if they occur in seas or oceans. Tsunami
refers to the giant sea waves that result from both volcanic and earthquake activities
which cause rising of the sea floor. Tsunami results in floods, loss of lives, destruction
of property, food shortages, disruption of service provision and diseases. A good
example is the tsunami that occurred in Krakatoa in South East Asia in 1883 which
drowned thousands of people.
Small hot rock particles called cinder can be thrown into air and destroy people and
vegetation; and bury farmlands, roads and settlements. Volcanoes can also trigger
landslides which destroy settlements and cause loss of life. In Africa, areas that are
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prone to volcanic activity include the Western part of the Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC) and Cameroon. In Zimbabwe there is no active volcanic activity.
Now that you have gone through this discussion on negative effects of volcanoes.
We now want you to attempt the following case study and check how much you have
understood so far.
Activity 8.1 Effects of volcanic activity
Case study
Imagine you live in a settlement close to a sea and the major economic
activities in that settlement are farming and fishing. A major volcanic eruption
occurs and affects the whole settlement.
Brainstorm some of the negative effects that are likely to be caused by the
volcanic eruption.
When you are through, compare your responses with points that you can pick
from our discussion above.
In spite of the dangers associated with volcanoes, did you know that they also come
with some positive results? Like what? Can you just brainstorm some of their benefits?
Compare your responses with what is in this discussion.
Volcanic eruptions result in the formation of minerals such as diamonds and copper.
When volcanic rocks are weathered, they give rise to rich agricultural soils. In addition,
the ashes formed from violent eruptions form rich soils for agriculture as well. Hot
springs that result from volcanic activity may supply households with hot water. Tall
volcanic cones may result in the formation of relief rainfall which benefits both people
and animals who live in the windward side. Tall volcanic mountains may also attract
settlements as they provide favourable climate as well as defence. We guess you
have heard of or seen settlements on hill tops and wondered why people would
build their houses up there! These are some of the reasons. Volcanic rocks such as
igneous can be used for building purposes. Some volcanic features attract tourists,
for example, volcanic mountains, hot springs and geysers.
Activity 8.2 Hazards caused by volcanoes

Despite the dangers posed by volcanic activities, people continue to live in
areas that frequently experience volcanoes. Explain why this is so. (5)
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8.2 What are tsunamis and their effects?
Did you know that most waves form due to winds or tides, but tsunamis have a
different cause altogether? A tsunami is most often formed by an earthquake, but it
can also be formed by an underwater landslide, volcano eruption or even meteorite.
The process is fairly complex, so let’s start digging into it.
Tsunamis are indeed waves, but unlike wind waves, they have a much larger
wavelength. Think a bit about waves; in the context of physics, not in the context of
sea waves. A defining characteristic of every wave is its wavelength. Wind waves have
short wavelengths which can be clearly seen on any shoreline. They come in every
few seconds, with a few meters in between, sometimes, even less. But a tsunami has
a huge wavelength, oftentimes longer than a hundred kilometres and this is why they
are so dangerous. Tsunamis are almost always not singular waves, but come in as
train waves.
The vast majority of tsunamis form due to earthquakes, specifically tectonic tsunamis.
As an earthquake happens, the ground beneath the water is moved up and/or down
abruptly and as this movement happens, a mass of water is displaced and starts
moving in all directions. This marks the start of a tsunami. The displaced water starts
to move as a wave.
8.2.1 Effects of tsunamis

We are sure you can imagine some of the effects of tsunamis. Can you list what you
think are effects of tsunamis?
Figure 8.1 Infrastructure destroyed by Tsunami
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Look at the figure 8.1, what do you think are some of the effects shown on figure 8.1?
The following are some of the effects of tsunamis:
• destruction of onshore infrastructure

• destruction of boats and fishing facilities
• death of people, animals and vegetation
• soil erosion
8.3 Earthquakes as hazards

Just like volcanoes, you will realise that earthquakes are also a cause for concern to
human activities. Let us look at some of the negative effects of earthquakes.
Earthquakes cause lowering or rising of the sea floor which can cause tsunamis to
occur. This can cause floods along coastlines. What are tsunamis by the way? If you
said tsunamis are huge sea waves advancing towards the land as a result of raised sea
floor levels, you are correct. They can cause displacement of rocks laterally or vertically
which can destroy property and communication lines. They also cause landslides and
opening up of deep cracks on the earth’s surface which may destroy infrastructure.
A good example is the tsunami that occurred in South East Asia in 2004. Now study
the photograph on Fig 8.2 below and take note of the various ways by which people
living in the area might have been affected.
Figure 8.2 An earthquake devastated area
However, did you know that earthquakes can also benefit people.? When an earthquake
occurs, geothermal energy can be exploited for power. Heat energy produced can
be converted into electricity.
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8.4 Mass wasting
Have you ever heard about or seen mass wasting? Mass wasting is another hazard
associated with landform development. Mass wasting refers to the movement of
loose rock boulders and particles down the slope under the force of gravity. This
process is also called mass movement and the movement can be slow such as soil
creep or rapid such as rock falls or avalanches and mudflows. Rapid mass movements
destroy everything in their path, killing people, burying buildings, roads, and valleys.
They can occur everywhere where there are steep slopes.
Now, for you to have a better understanding of this process, let us discuss in details
the different types of mass wasting.
Soil creep
What do you understand by creeping? If you thought of a very slow movement you
are correct. Soil creep is a steady downward movement of soil on a sloping land.
Rain water lubricates soil particles and enables them to slide over each other down
the slope. Soil creep is also caused by wetting and drying of soil which weaken soil
particles. Wetting and drying of soil also contribute to soil creep as well as trampling
of grazing animals. Soil creep as we noted earlier on, is a very slow process and
cannot be noticed. However, the effects can be recognised such as bulging walls with
mounds of sand behind walls and fence poles that lean in the direction of the slope.
The diagram below may help you to understand the effects of soil creep.
Figure 8.2 Effects of soil creep
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Mudflow
Mudflows occur on soil-covered slopes. If heavy rains occur continuously, they turn
soil into semi-liquid state. The soil which is now mud starts flowing like a liquid and
this is known as mudflow.
Imagine the sandy desert slopes which are not protected by vegetation! If heavy
torrential storms occur and more rain falls than the soil can absorb, mudflows occur
on these surfaces.
Do you still remember that when a volcano erupts it may lead to the formation of
mounds of ashes? When heavy rain falls on the volcanic ash covering the slopes,
mudflows occur as well. These can destroy and bury settlements, roads and rivers at
the bottom of the slopes. This happened in the Rif Atlas Mountains of Morocco in
1963.
Figure 8.3 Features of a mudflow
Landslides
You might have seen a landslide or watched a movie or news bulletin on television.
If so, try to describe the nature of landslides and how they occur. And then compare
what you have with our discussion here.
A landslide is whereby large quantities of loosened surface rocks and soil suddenly
slide down a steep slope such as a cliff face or a valley side. This is as a result of the
lubricating effect of water and the pull of gravity. Human activities such as quarrying
and deforestation on steep slopes can cause landslides. Landslides can also be
triggered by an earthquake or prolonged heavy rains. During in 2019, when Cyclone
Idai struck Zimbabwe landslides are common in the Eastern Highlands.
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Figure 8.3 The occurrence of a landslide
Rockfall
You might have heard about rockfalls before. What do you think is a rockfall? As the
name suggests, this is when a mass of rock falls from a steep slope. This is the most
rapid form of mass wasting. Sometimes the fallen rocks breakdown and accumulate
at the bottom of the slope forming a mound called talus. However, if rockfall occurs
close to a settlement, it may destroy homes and cause loss of life. Imagine your
homestead was located at the foot of a hill or mountain, and a rock fell from the pick
and landed on one of your huts. What do you think would happen?
Figure 8.4 The occurrence of a rockfall
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Activity 8.3: Effects of Mass wasting
1. Briefly describe the following mass wasting processes.
a) soil creep
b) landslide/avalanche
c) rock fall
d) mudflows
2. What do you think are the conditions necessary for the occurrence
of these processes?
3. Outline the effects of mass wasting on human activities.
8.5 Flooding
Floods occur when heavy rains fall and rivers overflow their banks into the surrounding
plains. In Zimbabwe floods are very common in areas like Muzarabani, Mt Darwin as
well as the Save Valley. Tropical cyclones also trigger massive flooding as they are
associated with heavy rainfall. The recent Cyclone Idai that occurred in Manicaland
during the 2018/2019 rain season caused massive flooding particularly in Chipinge
and Chimanimani. Did you ever witness or have you ever heard about this disaster
on the television or radio? Certainly, you could have heard about Cyclone Idai. If so,
quickly list down its effects that it caused in the areas affected. If you mentioned that
many people and livestock died, roads and bridges were damaged and homes were
reduced to rubble, you are a star!
Figure 8.4; Effects of Cyclone Idai floods.
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Activity 8.4: Effects of cyclones
Study the photograph on Figure 8.4 above.
Describe the scene on the photograph.
8.6 Disaster risk management of volcanoes, earthquakes,

flooding and mass wasting.
In this section we discuss the disaster risk management of the hazards associated
with landform development. Disaster risk management, in this context, are the
measures to mitigate the hazards. It is important for you to note that it is impossible
to completely eradicate the hazards but we can only reduce their impact.
Now let us go through some of the measures to mitigate effects of any hazard.
Early warning system (EWS): This is when the authorities monitor all signs of volcanic
eruption and warn the local people of the upcoming disaster. Such signs include rock
cracks, hot patches on rock surfaces and abnormal animal behaviour. People should
also be warned of the rising water levels in rivers and be prepared for a possible
danger of floods. This can be done through radios, television or social media.
Evacuation: Despite the hazards posed by volcanoes, earthquakes and floods, many
people are still attracted to settle in volcanic areas, coastal areas and flood plains
because of the rich agricultural soils, minerals and other opportunities offered by
such areas. In the event of an earthquake, volcano or floods, the people must be
moved from these densely populated areas to safer places. This is called evacuation.
Resettlement: This involves moving the affected people from their original homes to
the newly allocated areas on a more permanent basis.
Rescue operations: These are done to minimise the number of deaths when a
volcano, flooding or an earthquake occurs. Upon occurrence of such disasters some
people will be trapped in collapsed buildings, roof tops or trees and they need to
be rescued. In Zimbabwe, rescue operations are often done by the military using
their helicopters, boats and other rescue equipment. When Cyclone Idai disaster hit
Zimbabwe in 2019, the military, volunteers and other disaster management teams
played a crucial part in rescuing the people in trouble.
Building disaster resilient structures: People must be encouraged to build structures
that are resistant to these disasters. For example, putting rubber shock absorbers on
foundations and using light weight material when building to reduce the effects of
earthquakes. In areas that are prone to floods they must use strong materials for
building.
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Education and awareness: People in areas that are prone to the hazards must be
taught what to do before, during and after the disaster.
Aid: The government or local, authorities, well-wishers and non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) can provide aid to the affected people in the form of coffins
to bury the dead, ambulances and medicine for the injured, clothes, blankets, food,
clean water and tents for the homeless.
8.5.1 Action to take in areas at risk of a volcano

If you lived near areas of volcanic activity, what action would you take to reduce
the effects of a volcanic eruption? Authorities and scientists should predict volcanic
eruptions. If there are any signs of eruption, they should give an early warning to
people. The people should leave the area and return when it is now safe to do so.
The people should be assisted to evacuate from the place.
8.5.2 Action to take in areas at risk of earthquakes

What do you think people should do in areas where earthquakes are common? Here
are some important advices you can give to people living in earthquake-prone areas.
It is important to have a fire extinguisher, a first aid kit, a torch and a battery powered
radio. You must also have some first aid knowledge. Gas or electric stoves should
be switched off. Heavy objects must not be left on shelves because if an earthquake
occurs, they may fall. During an earthquake, stay calm and remain where you are. Do
not stand near lose heavy objects but stand near the centre of the building. People
should also stay away from windows. When outside stay away from power lines and
from weak buildings which might easily fall. Then after an earthquake check yourself
and others for injuries and provide first aid where necessary. You must quickly check
for any damage on water pipes or electricity lines. One should also check for smell of
gas and switch it off. One must turn on the radio and follow instructions if there are
any from the radio.
8.5.3 Action to take in areas associated with floods

What do you think should be done in areas at risk of flooding in order to reduce
the effects? Definitely something could be done, right! In the event that floods are
predicted, people in low lying areas, their livestock and valuable property must be
moved to a higher ground. Houses can also be barricaded with sandbags to protect
them from flash floods. How is this done? This is done by filling bags with sand and
laying them around the house. They can as well divert some flood water by digging
drainage ditches so that it does not affect houses. During a flood, if flood water rises
rapidly, people should get on top of strong buildings or even climb a tree. Always
remember! Your life is more important than your possessions. Save your life first
before you think of saving your property.
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8.5.4 Action to take in areas at risk of mass wasting
Now let us discuss ways of reducing effects of mass movement. One should always
be alert after heavy rains because heavy rains trigger landslides. Look for signs of
movement on slopes. If possible, one should live the area in danger until rainfall has
stopped and the ground has dried up. People are also advised to keep away from
steep slopes with loose rocks. Do not use heavy machinery which causes vibration
because they might trigger a landslide or a rockfall.
Summary
In this unit we described hazards associated with landforms development. We also
outlined the various ways of disaster risk management of these hazards particularly
volcanoes, earthquakes, flooding and mass wasting. Ways of mitigating against the
hazards were also discussed in this unit. We hope you benefited a lot from this unit.
Please continue to revise this section to have a full grasp of the concepts you have
learnt. Wish you the best in the units that follow.
End of unit Assessment

Section A: Multiple Choice
1. What immediate action can a government take to help flood victims?

A. Early warning systems
B. Evacuating them to higher area
C. Educating them on dangers
D. Rebuilding their structures
2. The most important step to take whilst indoors during an earthquake is to

A. Check yourself and others for injury
B. Turn on the radio for news
C. Make an escape plan for the family
D. Protect oneself from falling objects
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3. In the event of a major cyclone such as Idai, which of the following is not an
immediate form of assistance by the government?
A. Giving tents to the homeless
B. Giving food handouts
C. Building more towns
D. Providing medicine to the injured
4. Which of the following can help to reduce the impact of floods?

A. Deforestation
B. Ploughing along river banks
C. Dredging
D. Growing drought- resistant crops
5. One way of mitigating earthquake hazards is

A. Building houses with light material
B. Planting vegetation
C. Terracing steep slope
D. Building high rise buildings
Section B: Structured Questions

1. What do you understand by disaster risk management in the study of hazards.
(2)
2. Explain any two ways of mitigating the risk of floods. (4)
3. a) Suggest measures you would take to reduce the effects of earthquakes. (4)
b) What problems are you likely to face in implementing these measures?
(3)
Research Work
Visit a nearby area affected by Cyclone Idai and find out the effects of the
cyclone in that area.
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Progress Check list
Now take this time to go through the objectives we listed at the beginning of the unit
and check how many of them you have achieved. Tick against those you are sure you
have achieved. Put an X against those you feel you have not yet to achieved. Then
for any that you put an X against, find the section dealing with it in the unit and go
over it again.
Objective Check Box

Are you now able to…
• describe the hazards associated with development of landforms
• identify ways of disaster risk management of volcanoes, earthquakes,

floods and mass wasting
• describe mitigation measures for these hazards
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Unit 9 Ecosystems: Wetlands and soils in the
tropics
8.1 Importance of wetlands
8.2 Benefits of wetland areas
8.3 Components of soil air, water, organic matter and minerals
8.4 Soil forming processes gleization and cheluviation
8.5 Soil types sand, clay and loam
8.6 Soil profile
8.7 Soil properties texture, structure, colour, pH and organic matter
8.8 Mineral content
Introduction
You have learnt about soils and ecosystems in the previous units. What do you think
are the importance of wetlands to human beings? Ecosystems play a vital role in our
life. In this unit we are going to learn about the importance of ecosystem. You will
also learn about the components of the soil, soil forming processes, soil types, soil
profile, soil properties and their mineral content.
Objectives
• name soil forming processes
• outline the benefits of wetlands
• identify components of the soil
• describe the processes of cheluviation
• explain the importance of wetlands
Key Words
Wetlands are waterlogged areas. Common names include marshes,
dambos and swamps
Soil PH an indication of the alkalinity or acidity of a soil
Gleization a soil forming process which occurs in waterlogged areas.
Anaerobic respiration occurs and results in formation of
gley soils
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Cheluviation a soil forming process which involves downward
movement of minerals. It occurs due to the presence of
chelating agents
Soil texture coarseness or fineness of a soil
Soil structure the arrangement of soil particles
Time
Study skills
• You should note that in this unit we are going to study about wetlands and their
importance.
• You will also need a good understanding of the environment in order to
understand the aspects of soil formation and their properties. If you have any
doubts about the previous concepts go back and have a relook.
9.1 What are the Importance of wetlands?

You have already come across the definition of the term wetland. We said a wetland
is a waterlogged area. A number of animals can be found at wetlands these include
buffaloes, small game like gazelle, lion and giraffe. Attempt the activity below in
order to have a better understanding of wetlands.
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Activity 9.1 Wetlands
Study the photograph below that shows a wetland, describe what you see in the
picture?
Photograph showing different types of animals in a wetland
Figure 9.1 A wetland

From the Figure 9.1, you can see that there are a number of wild animals and plants,
so wetlands are important because they are a habitat for wild animals and plants
Animals like the water buffalo and the black rhino depend on this type of ecosystem
for survival. Birds like the fish eagle survive on these wetlands
Wetlands are important because they are the breeding grounds for fish. These areas
are also nursery grounds for young animals as it offers good protection. Wetlands
shelter wild animals from attack.
Wetlands slow down run off from storms; their plants bind the soil together and
protect shorelines from wave erosion for example in north western Africa in the Niger
Delta.
Can you think of any other reasons why wetlands are important? Yes, they are
beautiful and unique places of interest especially to wildlife enthusiasts, bird viewing
and artists. Examples include the Okavango swamp in Botswana and areas along the
Zambezi valley.
Now that we have seen that wetlands are important as breeding grounds for fish and
water loving animals, they slow down rates of water movement and that they are
good as unique areas of interest we now want to look at the benefits of wetlands.
Can you think of any benefits?
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9.2 The benefits of wetlands
Wetlands are beneficial to mankind because they improve the water quality of an
area. Aquatic plants found in these areas remove nitrates, phosphorus, and pesticides
from agricultural runoff. You may not have heard about “aquatic”. This simply means
water loving plants and animals. Plants and animals in these areas act as a filtering
system as they remove dirty through filtration and sedimentation.
Wetlands help in trapping and slowly releasing water. Trees and grass help by reducing
the speed of moving water, this helps in distributing water into the flood plain.
Tourism is also promoted by the presence of wetlands. These areas offer good
recreational opportunities like canoeing, fishing and swimming. This is beneficial to
human beings as people get employed and a lot of foreign currency is gained from
these activities. Infrastructural development occurs as people come to enjoy these
tourist attraction centres.
Now attempt the task below before we move on to soils.
Activity 9.2 Benefits of ecosystems

1.What are the benefits of ecosystems?
2.Define the term aquatic and give examples of aquatic animals and plants
9.3 What are the soil components?

Do you still remember the definition of the word soil? Take a sample of dry soil,
study the sample and write down the components. You can see that the soil is a
complex mixture of different kinds of particles Each of the components is important
in supporting plant growth. The soil components are:
9.3.1 Minerals
Reflection
As you can see from Figure 9.2 minerals make up 45-49% of the soil. It is the largest
component of the soil. There are two types of minerals which are primary and
secondary. Primary minerals are found in sand and silt areas where the soil materials
are similar to the parent rock. You would see that the materials are usually round or
irregular in shape on the other hand secondary minerals are formed from weathering
of stable minerals like silicate clay. These soils hold more nutrients.
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9.3.2 Water
Figure 9.2 shows that water is the second biggest component of the soil, it constitutes
about 25% of the soil. What do you think is the role of water in the soil? Yes, you were
supposed to say water moves nutrients from one part to another and it also helps
in biological and chemical decay. Water holding capacity depends on the size of its
particles. The smaller the particles the more they can hold water. Clay has the biggest
water holding capacity whilst sand has the lowest. Look around the place where
you stay you can see that soils with large particles quickly drain off whilst those with
smaller particles hold water.
9.3.3 Organic matter

In Figure 9.2, we can see that organic matter makes about 5% of the soil. The organic
components of soils include the residue of dead plants the ones that you see in the
fields after harvest, animals like bacteria and worms. For us to have healthy plants in
the fields it needs to have organic matter. Soils rich in organic matter have potassium,
nitrogen and magnesium. Soils that have a more than 30% organic matter are referred
to as organic soils whilst the others are called mineral soils.
9.3.4 Air
In Figure 9.2, we can also see that another component of the soil is Air. It makes up
25% of the soil. Why do you think we need air in the soil? Yes, air is a very important
component of the soil. Sandy soils have the highest percentage followed by loam
soils and then clay at the bottom. Air is very important component because it is used
by micro-organisms for respiration and for movement of nutrients. Air in the soil has
similar amounts of nitrogen except that of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Components of the soil can be summarized by the Figure 9.2
Figure 9.2 Soil components
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9.4 Soil forming processes
In this section we want to look at the different soil forming processes. Can you name
any processes that are responsible for soil formation? Yes, these processes involve
movement of nutrients from one part of the soil profile to another; these include
chelation, salinization and leaching.
Activity 9.3 Soil forming process

We have seen that soil is a habitat, a place where organisms live. Look around
you. Where do you think the soil could have come from? Discuss your answers
with a colleague.
Soil is formed by the weathering or breakdown of the parent rock Do you still remember
what we said about weathering? Yes, we said that. Weathering is a result of chemical,
physical and biological agents such as running water in rivers and streams, stones
are rolled and rub against each other and break to give soil which can be physical
or organic in form. For example, take two pieces of rock let the rock pieces crush
against each other. What do you see? Rock pieces become smaller and grains of soil
are produced, that is one way in which the soil can be formed.
Can you think of other ways in which soil can be formed? Look at the diagram in
Figure 9.3 which shows a process of soil formation. Look at how carbon is used in the
process of soil formation.
Activity 9.4 The Carbon cycle

1.Describe the main feature of Figure 9.3.
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You can see that the Figure 9.3 shows how Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can
help in soil formation. We produce carbon dioxide when we breathe out and this gas
mixes with water to form weak carbonic acid, this acid mixes with sedimentary rocks
like limestone to give calcium bicarbonate. This is a solution which can easily flow
down the river. So, this process helps to explain how soils are formed in chalk and
limestone regions for example in areas like Chinhoyi caves. Besides weathering the
soil can also be formed through other processes. Which other processes do you think
are also responsible for soil formation? We now want to look at two major processes
of soil formation which include gleization and cheluviation.
9.4.1 Gleization
Another important soil forming process is gleization. This process usually occurs
due to the prevalence of certain environmental conditions. The areas are usually
waterlogged therefore lack oxygen promoting the process of anaerobic respiration.
It can also be called reduction because oxygen is removed. This process has an effect
on soil colour and nutritional status of a soil. Now you can attempt the activity below.
Activity 9.5 Soil Gleization

Study the figure 9.4 and attempt questions that follow
Figure 9.4 Soil Gleization
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1.What is the colour of the soil in the top layer?
2.Can you see the colour changes as you go down the soil layer? Briefly describe
the soil colour changes.
As you can see from the diagram above, the soil layers become lighter as you go
deeper. Why? Because the soil layers in the upper horizon lack oxygen so they have
been reduced of oxygen. The main biological process taking place here is called
anaerobic respiration so the soils turn dark black\blue and are referred to as grey
soils or valley peat soils. The process occurs in areas of high rainfall with a lot of
waterlogging. The grass that usually grows in the upper horizons are usually green in
colour because there are a lot of nutrients and an abundance of water as shown by
Figure 9.5
Figure 9.5 The results of the process of cheluviation
Another important process of soil formation is Cheluviation. Do you still remember the
definition? Yes, it is a soil forming process, which involves the downward movement
of nutrients due to the presence of chelating agents in areas with thick vegetation.
How is the definition different from Gleization? Remember the differences in
environmental conditions.
9.4.2 Cheluviation
From the definition, you can see that it is also a soil forming process like gleization.
Study the illustrations below and try to identify the different environmental conditions
that affect the processes.
So, you can see from the illustration Cheluviation is a soil forming process whereby
plant acids help in the movement of metallic compounds like + aluminium and iron
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from the upper horizon to the lower horizons of the soil profile. The soils then develop
a brick like layer which can also be referred to as a lateritic layer. The process is also
similar to leaching. Study the Figure 9.6 which shows the process of cheluviation.
Activity 9.6 Soil Cheluviation

Describe what you see from the Figure 9.5: What type of soil is likely to be
formed by the soil forming process above?
We can see that there is green grass, pieces of dead grass and thick layer of dark soil.
Soils are dark in colour and are structure less, sticky and boggy-blue in colour. These
soils are found in vleis and dambos. The soils are commonly called hydromorphic
soils.
9.4.3 Salinization
It is another soil forming process that is typical of areas with greater
evapotranspiration than precipitation. It is also found in areas with dry climates.
Figure 9.7: The process of salinisation
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This process occurs in dry regions where precipitation is less than evaporation. Salts
in the soil move from the B horizon to horizon A through the process of capillary
action. The salts are deposited in the upper layers of the soil. The salts move from
the zone with saturated saline aquifer to the capillary zone where there is irrigation as
you can see on the diagram. The resultant soil is saline which means it is salty if tasted
and whitish in colour, this type of soil is of little value to the farmer as it contains
little nutrients the soils are collectively called saline soils because they are salty. The
diagram below explains the process of salinization. Go through the Figure 9.6 9,7
and 9.8 a number of times in order to grasp the concepts.
Figure 9. 7 Salinization process
Figure 9. 8 Soil salinization
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9.4.4 Leaching
So far, we have looked at three main processes of soil formation that are gleization,
cheluviation and salinization we now want to look at the process of leaching.
Nutrients usually move down the layers of the soil after the soil has received a lot of
moisture. It occurs in areas with good drainage. It involves the breakdown of clays
and dissolving of soluble salts that are also called bases. Calcium and magnesium are
moved downwards to the lower horizons.
Figure 9. 9 Soil leaching
Activity 9.7 Leaching
1.List down the types of nutrients that move down the soil horizon.?
2.Describe the type of movement taking place?
3.Identify the environmental conditions that promote this process.?
From the activities that you have done above you can see that leaching is a soil
forming process that involves the removal of soluble materials in solution. It occurs in
areas where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration. Calcium and magnesium are
removed from the A horizon and then deposited in the B horizon. The upper layer of
the soil becomes acidic as it is replaced by hydrogen ions. The layer becomes poorer
as it lacks nutrients.
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9.5 Soil types
Now that we have looked at components of the soil and soil forming processes, we
now want to look at the soil types. There are different types of soils that farmers and
gardeners use. These different types of soils are a combination of three weathered rock
particles, which are sand, silt and clay. A combination of these particles determines
the soil type.
Study the Figure 9.10, which shows soil type, and attempt questions below .
Figure 9. 10 Soil types
Activity 9.8 Soil type

1. Collect samples of soil types listed in figure 9.10 and describe their
characteristics as you feel and see them?
From Figure 9.10, you can see that there are three major soil types, which are sand,
clay, and loam. The soils are dry and gritty with huge spaces in between. Sandy soils
hold little water and drain quickly. Nutrients quickly move down since they are carried
away by runoff.
9 5.1 Sandy soils

Sandy soils are usually formed in areas with a lot of granite rocks, these soils have
large crystals and are usually used to grow leguminous crops. These are dry and
gritty which means they are rough when felt in between the fingers. Sandy soils have
the largest soil particles, they hold little water because the gaps that are found in
between the particles allow water to move through very fast. These soils are very
easy to work with and are good for crops like groundnuts. Movement of nutrients is
very fast as this soil has large pore spaces.
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Activity 9.9 Soil types
Revisit figure 9.10 and answer the questions that follow
1.What is the colour of the sandy soils?
2.What type of crops can be grown in these soils?
3.What type of tools can be used to work these soils?
These are dry and gritty which means they are rough when felt in between the fingers.
Sandy soils have the largest soil particles; they hold little water because the gaps that
are found in between the particles allow water to move through very fast. These soils
are very easy to work with and are good for crops like groundnuts. Let us look at clay
soils.
9.5.2 Clay soils

Study the Figure 9.10 and attempt questions that follow.
Clay soils have the smallest soil particles and its particles have a tendency of settling
together. These soils have a tighter hold on nutrients and this makes fertile. The
disadvantages of these soils are that they are badly aerated and heavy to work with
as its particles stick together.
9.5.3. Loam soils

We have looked at clay and sandy soils we now want to move on and look at loam
soils.
These are the most ideal type of soils. Soil particles are of varied nature and are able
to hold soil moisture. These soils drain quickly because they are well aerated. Plants
are able to access moisture in these soils. After looking at the soil types we now want
to move on and look at the soil profile.
9.6 Soil profile

We are a selfie-obsessed and a photogenic generation. Today everything and anything
has a profile somewhere or the other. Do you know even soil has one? Don’t believe
in this! The soil profile is defined as a vertical section of the soil that is exposed by a
soil pit. A soil pit is a hole that is dug from the surface of the soil to the underlying
bedrock.
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Activity 9.10 The Soil profile
Visit the river nearby and look at the sides of the river. Do you notice any layers?
Are there any changes in soil colour as you move down to the river bed?
I am sure you noticed that soil is found in layers, which are arranged during the
formation of soil. These layers are called horizons – the sequence of layers is the soil
profile. The layers of soil can easily be observed by their colour and size of particles.
The main layers of the soil are topsoil, subsoil and the parent rock. Each layer has its
own characteristics. Did you know that these features of the layer of soil play a very
important role in determining the use of the soil? Now let us together look at soil
horizons.
9.6.1 Top soil

It is also called the humus layer, which is rich in organic material. This layer consists
of decomposed material and organic matter. This is the reason why the topsoil has
a dark brown colour. The hummus makes the topsoil soft, porous to hold enough air
and water. In this layer, the seeds germinate and roots of the plants grow. Many living
organisms like earthworms, millipedes, and centipedes, bacteria, and fungi are found
in this layer of soil.
9.6.2. The sub-soil

Just below the topsoil lies another layer called subsoil or Horizon-B. It is comparatively
harder and compact than topsoil. It is lighter in colour than the topsoil because there
is less humus in this layer. This layer is less organic but is rich in minerals brought
down from the topsoil through leaching. I hope you still remember leaching from
section 9.4.4. if you have forgotten, please revisit the concept. It contains metal
salts, especially iron oxide in a large proportion. Farmers often mix horizon-A and
Horizon-B when ploughing their fields.
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9.6.3. Parent material
Parent is also known as bedrock rock and lies just below the subsoil. It contains
no organic matter and made up of stones and rocks, so it is very hard. This layer
represents a transition zone between the earth’s bedrock and horizon A and B. The
soil profile is illustrated in Figure 9.11.
Figure 9. 11 Features of a soil profile

In this section we have seen that soil profile refers to the arrangement of the layers
of the soil from the topsoil to the parent rock. The most important layer is the topsoil
where all plant growth takes place. We now want to move on to the soil properties.
9.7 Soil properties

In section 9.3 we said all soils contain mineral particles, organic matter, water and
air. The combinations of these determine the soil’s properties, that is, its texture,
structure, porosity, chemistry and colour which eventually have an effect on plant
growth. We will start by looking at the soil texture. Attempt the activity below that
deals with soil texture, you should go through all the questions.
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9.7.1 Soil texture
Activity 9.11 Soil texture
Take a soil sample almost the size of a tablespoon. Rub it against your fingers,
what do you feel? Write your observations down.
From the above activity, you can see that we are able to come out with feelings such
as:
• The soil is coarse/rough
• Is fine/smooth
This describes the soil texture. So, you can now define soil texture as the coarseness
or fineness of a soil type. It is a very important property of the soil as it determines
activities to be done in a type of soil. For example, if the soil has small particles then
there is a need to add more nutrients to the soil, to increase the size of soil particles
You should know that soil texture can influence whether soils are free draining,
whether they hold water and how easy it is for plant roots to grow.
• Sand particles are quite big. The pore spaces between the particles in sandy
soils are also quite large. This allows water to drain quickly and air to enter the
soil. Sandy soils tend not to get waterlogged in winter but can be subject to
drought during summer.
• Silt particles are too small for us to see with our eyes. Silt soils have much smaller
pore spaces but a lot more of them.
• Clay particles are smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter. Clay soils are poorly drained
and hold on to the water in their pore spaces for much longer. However, they can
become very hard if they dry out.
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9.7.2. Soil structure
Activity 9.12 Soil structure

Study the figure 9. 12 showing different soil structures:
Granular: Resembles Blocky: Irregular blocks Prismatic: Vertical columns of

cookie crumbs and is that are usually 1.5 - 5.0cm soil that might be a number
usually less than 0.5cm in diameter. of cm long. Usually found in
in diameter. Commonly lower horizons.
found in surface horizons
where roots have been
growing.
Columnar: Vertical Platy: Thin, flat plates of Single Grained: Soil is

columns of soil that have soil that lie horizontally. broken into individual
a salt ‘cap’ at the top. Usually found in compacted particles that do not
Found in soils of arid soil. stick together. Always
climates. accompanies a loose
consistence. Commonly
found in sandy soils.
Figure 9. 12 Soil structures
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1.List the types of soil structure?
2.Describe the importance of the different soil structures in agriculture?
Soil structure describes the way the sand, silt and clay particles are clumped together.
Organic matter (decaying plants and animals) and soil organisms like earthworms
and bacteria influence soil structure. Clays, organic matter and materials excreted by
soil organisms bind the soil particles together to form aggregates. The soil structures
can be crumb; the particles are small and individual and are porous. This structure is
the most ideal for agricultural production.
Granular structure has small individual particles, which are usually non-porous and
are usually found in the A-horizon. This type of structure is fairly productive but has
problems with drainage.
9.7.3 Soil PH
Another soil property that is important is soil ph. It is a measure of a soil ’acidity or
alkalinity. The scale ranges from 0-14.
O is extremely acidic whilst 14 is extremely alkaline and 7 is neutral. When a farmer

wants to grow crops, s/he chooses crops according to the Ph. values in a soil or the
farmer change the Ph. value to suit the crop. The scale is shown in Figure 9. 13 What
do you think are the importance of soil ph. values in a soil.? Go through the diagram
below and identify the value of soil ph.
Figure 9.13 The soil pH range
From what we have seen in the diagram above soil ph. is very important as it helps
the farmer decide on what to grow and also on the types of nutrients that need
to be added on to the soil. Let’s move on to look at another soil property which is
important which is soil colour.
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9.7.4 Soil colour
Activity 9.13 Soil colour
Go back to Figure 9.10 and study the soil colours

1. Write down any 3 colours of soil that you can see?
2.What is the importance of soil colour to a farmer?
If you thought that all soils are brown, think again. Soil colours range from black to
red to white. Sometimes it can even be blue! Soil colour mostly comes from organic
matter and iron. Topsoil is often dark because of organic matter. An even, single
colour indicates the soil is well drained. In contrast, rusty spots and grey patches
(sometimes even a light blue in colour) indicate poor drainage. Red soils will show
that the soils have been oxidized
It is important for you to note that the colour of the soil will indicate the composition
of the soil and will give an idea to the condition that the soil could have undergone.
So, soil colour also helps in determining the amount of nutrients in the soil. The next
important soil property is the amount of organic matter in a soil.
9.7.4. Organic matter in the soil

In the previous section we looked at soil colour as an important soil property, organic
matter also plays a vital role in the soil. Before we discuss their importance can you
attempt the questions below:
For you to be able to attempt this activity make sure you have gone through
section on components of the soil in the first part of this unit.
Activity 9.14 Organic matter in the soil

Go back to Figure 9.10 and study the soil colours
1. Write down any 3 colours of soil that you can see?
2.What is the importance of soil colour to a farmer?
Did you know that organic matter may be divided into aboveground and below
ground fractions? Aboveground organic matter comprises plant residues and animal
residues; below ground organic matter consists of living soil fauna and microflora,
partially decomposed plant and animal residues, and humic substances.
You can see that the best soils are those with high organic content. It helps in nutrient
cycling and adds minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus and iron. Presence of organic
matter helps the rates of water movement in the soil and reduces evaporation. High
organic matter helps in increasing the water holding capacity of the soil.
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Organic matter also helps to improve the arrangement of the soil particles thereby
reducing soil erosion and minimizing soil compaction thereby raising aeration rate
Presence of organic matter helps plants by providing a source of nutrients and
reducing chances of crop failure.
From what we have discussed above it can be seen that organic matter is important
to soils as it provides nutrients and help in the aeration rates of the soil. We now want
to look at mineral content as an important soil characteristic.
9.8. Soil mineral content
Activity 9.15 Soil mineral content

Remember that for us to have a good soil it is supposed to have all the different
minerals.
1. Do you know any soil mineral? If you do, name those you know?
2.Describe the role of the different minerals in the soil?
Soils contain important mineral contents, which are iron, potassium, magnesium
calcium and sulphur. Minerals play an important role in soils as they help plants in
absorbing water adjusting the soil pH. values and providing plants with nutrients.
The most important minerals are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The soil also
contains different sizes of organic matter, water and air.
have understood the concepts listed there. If they are concept you are not sure of,
please revise the sections with those concepts or ask your teacher.
Summary
Here is a reminder of what we have covered in this unit
• Wetlands are waterlogged areas, which absorb pollutants and act as a sponge
to the environment.
• Wetlands provide a habitat for wild animals and plants
• Wetlands control floods as they allow water to filter through in times of flooding.
• The components of the soil are air, organic matter, water and minerals.
• The major soil forming processes are leaching, salinization, gleization and
cheluviation.
• The major soil properties are texture, structure, colour, pH, and organic
matter content. We ended the unit by looking at the mineral content
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Now that you have gone through this unit check out how much you understand by
attempting the questions below
Fill in questions
1. Wetlands can be referred to as
2. Soil components include air, …………………., and……………
3. On a soil ph. the value 14 means the soil is ……………….
4. The most important minerals in the soil are nitrogen, and ……
5. ………is the coarseness or fineness of soil particles.
Structured questions
1. Draw a well labelled diagram to show a soil profile
2. Describe how soils are formed through the process of salinization?
Progress Check list

yourself!
Objectives: Check
Can you now: box
• name soil forming processes
• outline the benefits of wetlands
• identify components of the soil
• describe the processes of cheluviation
• explain the importance of wetlands
Further reading
Here is a list of some of the textbooks you can refer to for further understanding
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Unit 10 Biogeochemical cycles
10.1 Biogeochemical cycles (Nutrient cycle, Nitrogen cycle and Carbon cycle)
10.2 Conservation methods
10.3 Restoration measures
10.4 What is the importance of ecosystems?
In the previous unit you learnt about Ecosystems and Wetlands in the Tropics. You
were also able to list the benefits of Wetland areas. If you have any doubts go back
to the unit and read again. In everyday life we all need, water, nitrogen and carbon to
survive. In this unit we will study about the Biochemical cycles, Conservation methods
in an ecosystem, restoration methods and importance of the ecosystem.
Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to;
• Draw diagrams to show different nutrient cycling models
• Outline the benefits of restoring ecosystems
• Identify methods of conservation of the ecosystem
• Explain the biogeochemical cycles
• Explain the importance of ecosystems
Key Words
Ecosystem is a self-containing system of interdependent organisms in an
environment
Nutrient cycling is the movement that occurs when chemicals are exchanged
between the living and non-living components of the earth
Denitrification is a process which refers to the reduction of nitrates to

molecular nitrogen
Nitrification is the addition of oxygen to ammonia to form nitrites

Conservation is the wise use of natural resources
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Time guide
Study skills
You now have an idea on biogeochemical cycles and nutrient cycling. We want to
look at nutrient cycles in detail. The mineral nutrient cycles were developed by P.F.
Gersmehl in 1976 to show the differences between ecosystems in terms of nutrients
stored in and transferred in the different compartments. Nutrients can be found in
our surrounding.
Activity 10.1: Biotic and Abiotic components Activity

Choose an area you know very well it can be a dam or pond, field or a garden.
Investigate the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of found there.
Describe how the nutrients move from one form to another.
10.1. What is Nutrient Cycling?

From the activity you have done above, you were expected to come out with transfers
that occur between living and non-living components. As plants die, they release
nutrients to the soil, when we grow crops nutrients are transferred to the living
organisms, when the animals die the nutrients are transferred back to the soil. The
continuous movement of nutrients is always in a state of equilibrium as nothing is lost
or gained. Nutrient cycling is then referred to as the continuous chemical movement
of nutrients. It can also be called matter cycling.
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Activity 10. 2: Gersmehl’s Nutrient Cycles
Study the Figure 10. 1 and attempt the questions that follow as this will help
you to have a better understanding of the concept.
Figure 10. 1 Gersmehl’s Nutrient Cycles

From the Figure 10.1 you can see that nutrients are stored in three forms which are
Biomass, Litter and Soil. The nutrient stores above are determined by the availability
of moisture, heat, fire and density of vegetation, competition and lengthy of growing
season. Figure 10. 2 shows the various forms of nutrient cycles in different climatic
regions.
Key
B – Biomass
S – Soil
L – Litter
(left) Figure10.2 Selvas (Equatorial rainforest)

(right) Figure 10.3 Tropical grasslands
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We hope you have noticed that the sizes of the circles are equal to the quantity of
nutrients. Thickness of the lines is proportional to the movement of nutrients. For
example, the Equatorial rainforest has the largest store of nutrients in the biomass
this is because the area experiences very high rainfalls and temperatures and this
results in active plant growth. Soil store is the second largest followed by litter store.
Litter store is the lowest in this region because chemical nutrients are quickly turned
to biomass and soil store because of high rates of leaching, rapid uptake of nutrients
by green plants and presence of microorganisms which quickly turn the chemical
nutrients. We are going to briefly look at the nitrogen and carbon cycles as they
represent the nutrient cycling processes.
10.2 The Nitrogen cycle
Figure 10. 4 The Nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen is the most important gas in the atmosphere where it constitutes 78% of the
air. It is found in molecules and oxides.
Nitrogen found in the atmosphere is fixed into soil through lightning. It is also fixed in
the form of ammonia and is transferred to nitrates by nitrogen fixing bacteria. Where
do you think the nitrogen fixing bacteria is found? Yes, it is found in plants like beans,
clover and alfalfa.
Another process which is important as shown above is ammonification. What do you
think it means? You can use the internet to get the answers. It is the decomposition of
biological wastes by bacteria releasing ammonia into the atmosphere. The ammonia
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is then dissolved in rain or converted to molecular nitrogen. Animal excrement and
urinary wastes also add to ammonia.
Nitrification is another important process in the cycle. Can you identify the process
on the diagram? It occurs in two states which are nitrites and nitrates. Once ammonia
is formed it mixes with oxygen to form nitrites. These nitrates are then transferred to
animals through grazing by plant eating animals called herbivores.
Another process that is important on the cycle is denitrification. It is the change
of nitrates to molecular nitrogen. It is done by denitrifying bacteria. The process
is a reverse of nitrification. These bacteria help in the return of nitrogen back into
the atmosphere. Attempt activity 4 to check on your understanding of the nitrogen
cycle. Go through all the questions carefully if you have any problems go back to the
section.
Activity 10. 4: Nitrogen cycle

1. Describe the main processes in the nitrogen cycle?
After completing the activity on the nitrogen cycle let us move on to look at the
carbon cycle.
10.1.2 Carbon Cycles

What is a carbon cycle, how is it different from the nitrogen cycle? Brainstorm on
these questions as we move to have a deeper understanding of the process. Well
done if you were able to say that It is the movement of carbon elements between the
organic and inorganic components. Sources of carbon include volcanic emissions. It
is also found in living matter as well as in their remains. Fossil fuels like petroleum,
coal and graphite also have carbon.
Carbon is important because when it mixes with oxygen it forms carbon dioxide
which is important for photosynthesis. Do you still remember photosynthesis? If not
discuss with your colleague.
Carbon also helps in the formation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins, it is also the
main mineral in the formation of limestone rock. The Figure 10.5 shows the main
processes in the carbon cycle.
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Figure 10. 5 Carbon Cycles
Study the Figure 10.5 and list the main processes in the carbon cycle. Can you identify
the effects of human beings on the cycle? The main processes in figure 10.5 include
carbonification, respiration, photosynthesis and combustion. Human beings can
affect the cycle through increased burning of plastics and industrial gases, burning of
forests and over extraction of minerals.
After attempting the activity, we now want to move on and look at measures that we
can take to preserve the ecosystem.
10.3 What measures can be used to conserve the ecosystem?

Reflection
Do you still remember what the word conservation means? If not go back to the key
words and have a relook at them. Can you identify ways of conserving the ecosystem?
From the activity that you have done above you have seen that ecosystems can be
conserved through the following ways.
10.3.1 Terracing
It is the creation of bench like features on steep slopes. These features can also be
referred to as field embankments. The terraces help in reducing the steepness of the
slope, especially in mountainous regions like Mutare thereby reducing rates of soil
erosion.
10.3.2. Use of alternative sources of energy

Many sources of energy can be used by human beings instead of firewood. Can
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you think of any sources? Yes, people can use solar and biogas which are cleaner
than firewood. Use of other sources of energy besides firewood helps to reduce
deforestation and land degradation.
10.3.3 Destocking
Is a measure that can be taken to reduce the number of cattle, sheep and goats in an
area. It can be done through culling. In this case the farmer kills or sells the unwanted
livestock at home. This measure helps to reduce rates of deforestation.
10.3.4. Legislation
A number of laws have been put forward to protect the ecosystem. For example,
section 73 of the Environmental Management Act subsection (1) and (2) which talks
about prohibition of discharge of hazardous substances, chemicals and materials or
oil into the environment. Subsection (1) of section 73 states that no person shall
discharge any hazardous substance, chemical, oil or a mixture containing oil into any
waters or any other or any parts of the environment contrary to any criteria prescribed
in terms of section seventy-two. Subsection (2) states that a person who discharges a
hazardous substance, chemical, oil or a mixture containing oil into any waters or any
parts of the environment in contravention of subsection (1) commits an offence and if
convicted of that offence shall pay the cost of the removal of the hazardous substance,
chemical, oil or a mixture containing oil including any cost which may be incurred by
any Government agency or organ in the restoration of the environment damaged or
destroyed as a result of the discharge; and pay the cost of third parties in the form
of reparation, restoration, restitution or compensation as may be determined court
on application of such third parties. (Can you think of any other laws that were put
in place to protect the environment? Do not worry if you cannot remember any; let’s
briefly look at some of the laws?
10.3.4.1. Mines and Minerals Act

It is a law that controls the exploitation of minerals. It overrides most of the acts. It also
awards permits to miners, this reduces overexploitation of the mineral resources as
miners have to follow the due procedures. It deals with issuing of licenses, cancellation
or suspension and registration of mining rights. The mines and minerals act also deals
with prospecting and pegging of the ground.
10.3.4.2. The Forest Act

It is aimed at protecting, management and utilization of the forests in a sustainable
manner. It discourages deforestation and controls cultivation. Cultivation has to be
done 100m away from the stream bank. It also supposed to establish and promote
public education to improve understanding of the forests and their contribution to
the economy. It also protects and conserves the wetlands.
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10.3.4.3. The Water Act
It looks at the utilization of water in a sustainable manner. Its issues permit to
individuals and corporates to access water. It also ensures that pollution to water
bodies is minimized. It also gives powers and procedures of catchment councils and
grants permits to users of water.
10.3.4.4 The Environmental Management Act

It brings together all laws. And measures that protect, conserve and manage the
environment and its resources. This is the most important piece of law that protects
the environment.
10.3.4.5. The Parks and Wildlife Act

A law that is responsible for National Parks and Wildlife. It is a law that established the
Parks and Wildlife board. It helps protects the ecosystem as it reduces overexploitation
of natural resources. You are now in a position to list down the laws that protect the
environment. Can you list them?
10.3.5. Indigenous Knowledge Systems

In rural areas local people have been able to protect the environment through a
number of ways. Can you list the ways of protecting the environment that have been
used in your area? Yes, these are called indigenous knowledge systems.
These are knowledge-based systems which have been developed by a community to

protect their natural environment. It is the local basis for decision making in the rural
communities. These measures include the following:
Taboos are also part of the indigenous knowledge used. There are certain areas and
animals where people believed that certain spirits resided there. It was a taboo to
cut a big tree as this could cause the death of a family member. It was also regarded
a taboo for one to go hunting without permission of ancestors. Taboos helped to
reduce exploitation of natural resources. Can think of any other examples?
In Zimbabwe people have different totems and these come from the natural
environment. People who have a certain animal as their totem refrain from eating
it, this protects animals from extinction. For example, the following have been used
as totems in various parts of Zimbabwe shiri \ inyoni /bird, nzou \ indlovu\ elephant,
shumba \ isilwane\ lion, leg\gumbo\gumpo dube\mbizi\zebra and monkey\shoko\
ncube Can you think of any other totems that have taken their names from animals?
A number of places in Zimbabwe have been set aside for religious purposes like
prayers, rituals and sacrifices. Njelele hills in Matobo are an example. Other examples
include Mutemwa leprosy centre in Mutoko where people go to pray, Ngomakurira
caves and Muchinjikwa in Domboshava. This protects the environment as chiefs and
kings are obliged to guard and put laws that safeguard these spiritual possessions.
The Chinhoyi caves and Makate ruins have also been declared as sacred areas. In
doing so, biodiversity (different plant and animal life) is protected.
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Certain areas in Zimbabwe have been declared no go areas and certain birds and
animals should not be killed as they are seen to bring bad luck when killed for example
pythons and eagles. All fruit trees were not allowed to be cut down.
In rural areas people have been forbidden to use soap at waterholes/springs as it is

believed that soap destroys the natural pores where water flows through
10.4. Restoration methods

A number of measures can be taken to restore the ecosystem. Can you think of any
measures that can be used to restore degraded ecosystems? There are numerous
measures that can be used and these include:
10.4.1. Gully Reclamation

It is a process of improving land that has been disturbed by excess run off back to
its original condition and reducing further damage on it. Gully reclamation is done
through planting vegetation and infilling of the gulleys. This is done to stabilize the
banks and to reduce further headward erosion.
10.4.2. Grass planting

A variety of grass species can be planted to restore the ecosystems. These include
vetiver grass. Grass planting is good as it reduces splash erosion and holds the soil
particles together. The effect of animal movement is also reduced when grass is
planted.
10.4.3. Tree planting

Tree planting is a very important way of restoring ecosystems. The roots of the trees
help in anchoring the soil particles. Large and healthy ecosystems will lead to an
increase in precipitation. As plants release vapour through transpiration this increases
the amount of moisture in the atmosphere leading to an increase in precipitation
and rainfall. I hope you still remember that the planting of vegetation is called
afforestation but when you are planting vegetation where it was once there, it is
called afforestation. Now do you remember the term that describes the process of
cutting down trees without replacing them? Discuss with you friend and write notes
on the effects of the process.
We have looked at ways of conserving the ecosystem which include declaration

of sacred areas and reforestation we want to move on and look at the importance
of ecosystems. You have to attempt the activity below before we can identify the
importance of ecosystems.
10.5 What are the Importance of Ecosystems?

Ecosystems play a vital role in our life. Ecosystems regulate temperatures as they act
as good heat sink. It was going to be very difficult for human beings to survive in
harsh environments.
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The food that we eat comes from the environment so there is need for a good
interrelationship between the living and non-living components of the earth. From
what you have learnt in this unit, what are the importance of ecosystems? You were
expected to come out with the following
• A healthy ecosystem is a good carbon dioxide reducer. Trees trap carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere when they use it during the process of photosynthesis; they
act as a good heat sink
• Ecosystems are important because they bring in revenue to the government
through tourism. People can pay to view the forests and mountains in the area
including recreational parks. The above concept can be referred to as Ecological
tourism Can you think of any other activities that you can do as part of ecotourism?
• Firewood is also obtained from the forests especially in the rural areas of
Zimbabwe. Forests are also a source of food as they provide a variety of fruits.
• Medicines are also obtained from forests which include quinine that cures malaria.
Aloe is obtained from the natural vegetation and has been used to cure skin
ailments You can also ask the local leaders about any other medicine that we can
get from plants.
• A healthy ecosystem is also very important because human beings get oxygen. It
is a waste product of the process of photosynthesis and also provides clean air
have understood the concepts listed there:
Summary
In this unit we discussed about the biogeochemical cycles. We explained on Nutrient
cycling and included known cycles such as nitrogen and carbon. We then looked at
conservation methods like terracing, destocking legislation and indigenous knowledge
systems. Finally, we focused on Restoration methods like gully reclamation, tree
planting and the importance of ecosystems.
End of Theme Assessment

Fill in the gaps provided below
1. The two main nutrient cycles you have studied in this unit are ……and ……
2. Write down any restoration technique in ecosystems study ………….
3. Approximately ………………. % of the air is nitrogen
4. The commonly used form of nitrogen by plants is ………
5. One benefit of ecosystems is………………………………
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Structured Questions
1. Draw and label the nitrogen cycle?
2. Describe any four benefits of ecosystem?
Research Work
1.Imagine that you are a resident of a large area that has been affected by gullies
and dongas what measures would you take to restore the damaged ecosystem?
Progress Check list

yourself!
Objectives: Check
Can you now: box
• draw diagrams to show different nutrient cycling models
• outline the benefits of restoring ecosystems
• identify methods of conservation of the ecosystem
• explain the biogeochemical cycles
• explain the importance of ecosystems
Further reading
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Unit 11 Natural Resources – Conservation of
resources and Wildlife Management
11.1 Resources
11.2 Conservation methods (Fish and Water)
11.3 Types of Wildlife management
11.4 Human wildlife conflict
11.5 Causes of human wildlife conflict
11.6 What is CAMPFIRE?
Introduction
In the previous unit, we discussed about the biogeochemical cycles. We explained
on nutrient cycling and included known cycles such as carbon and nitrogen. In this
unit, we are going to look at natural resource conservation. In our everyday life, there
are materials that we need. Can you list them? Yes, these include fish, water, forest,
wildlife and many others. We are going to study about the conservation methods,
types of wildlife management, human wildlife conflict, and solutions to human wildlife
conflict and benefits of campfire. We guess you may have heard about some of these
concepts before, but however, we will go through them together in this Unit. Get
ready for another exciting Unit.
Objectives
• Describe resource conservation measures
• Identify ways of conserving resources
• Describe wildlife management
• Identify advantages of wildlife management
• Distinguish problem animals from dangerous animals
• Identify the causes of human –wildlife conflict
• Suggest solutions to human-wildlife conflict
• Give reasons for the establishment of campfire
• Discuss benefits of campfire
• Discuss the sustainability of campfire
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Key Words
Natural Is that which exists in a country such as soil, water, minerals,
Resource forests and wildlife for which can be used to improve wealth
of a country
Conservation Sustainable use and management of natural resources including
wildlife, water, air and earth deposits
Conservancy An area of land kept in a natural state for wild animals
Sanctuary A place where birds and animals are kept and are allowed to
move freely
Safari area An area where animals are kept and photos of them can be
taken
Campfire Communal areas management programmed for indigenous
resources
Reserve An unused part of a resource, which can be used to benefit
people
Time guide
Study skills
You have to note that this unit is about natural resources. Look around and identify
any materials that you think could be important in our everyday life. These include
water, forest, soil and fish.
11.1 What are natural resources?

You have already come across the definition of a Natural resource. What did we say
it means? If you have forgotten, go back to the key words section. We said a natural
resource is that which exists in a country such as soil, water, minerals, forests and
wildlife and can be used to improve people’s life. Now that you have understood
what natural resources are let us move on to look at how the natural resources can
be classified.
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11.1.2. Classification of natural resources
Before we classify the natural resources, you need to study the diagram below.
Activity 11.1 Classification of natural resources

Study Figure 11.1 and attempt questions that follow.
Figure 11.1 Classification of natural resources
1. Define the term natural resource?

2. Describe the main classes of natural resources?
3. Give 3 examples of natural resources?
From the study of the Figure11.1, you can see that natural resources are mainly
made of perpetually, potential, and non-renewable resources. A renewable resource
is one that can be replaced by natural processes and is never used up; it can be
reused or increased. Examples include water, forests and fisheries. Renewable
resources like plant are important natural resources though we tend to underestimate
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their real value to us. Forests protect our soils from erosion, provide constructional
timber, wood fuel, food to domestic and wild animals and protect catchment areas.
A non-renewable resource is one that cannot be replaced once it has been used up.
Examples include minerals. The value of minerals is well known. Unfortunately, they
are not renewable because once mined new minerals do not quickly form in their
place. It is therefore necessary to conserve whatever mineral resources we have. This
could be done by recovering as much as possible from a given deposit, extracting
the maximum amount of mineral from a particular ore and use of substitutes (e.g.
aluminium or fibre optics instead of copper). Now that you have an understanding
of natural resources let’s move on to look at how these natural resources can be
conserved. We will start by looking at conservation of fish.
11.2 How are Fish conserved?

Fish are a natural resource due to that it is found in its natural state and could be
useful to people. Fish are a renewable resource that can be exploited without being
finished because it is constantly replenished (to supply again what has been used up).
Before we look at ways of conserving fish let us look at the knowledge that we have
about fish. Attempt activity 11.2.
Activity 11.2 Fish conservation

Attempt questions that are below
1.List down the importance of fish?
2.Identify any four fish types found in dams in Zimbabwe?
3.Describe measures that can be taken to conserve fish?
Fish can be conserved through a number of ways which include:

(a) Quota system: This is introduction of controls on the amount of fish to be
exploited. This has been practiced in countries like South Africa and Namibia
(b) Aquaculture: This the practice of fish farming in order to protect the fish species.
This practice has been done in many parts of Zimbabwe.
(c) Licensing: Local people have been given permits and licenses; this has helped to
reduce overfishing as the locals are limited by the amounts of money paid. The
fishing permits are renewed every year. Ownership of these resources has been
given to the local people and this has helped in conservation. Let’s move on to
another measure that has also been taken which is the setting up of restricted
fishing areas.
(d) Restricted fishing areas: Certain areas in Africa have been left out as breeding
grounds. Areas around Cape Town and Walvis Bay have been left out as breeding
grounds for fish, this has helped to conserve the fish as they are given enough
time to breed. Now that you have looked at ways of conserving fish let us move
on to look at ways of conserving water sources.
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11.2.0 Water
We all know water and we use it on almost daily basis. We have head that water is
life and we need to conserve it. It is therefore everyone’s responsibility to conserve
water or use it wisely, without waste. It is also important to note that we need to keep
our water clean. We guess you know that, only 3% in the world is fresh water and a
very small amount of the 3% is accessible and usable by us. Therefore, we really need
to conserve water. May be you need to first ask yourself what you are doing as an
individual to avoid wastage of water or polluting the precious resource?
Water is a single most valuable natural resource. In fact, all forms of life – plant,
animal and human – would perish without water. Due to the rapid economic growth
(industrial and agricultural) the demand for water has also risen making it easily
available and supply sometimes problematic especially in areas prone to drought.
Water is a renewable resource because it can be exploited without being finished.
Before you learn about water conservation attempt the activity 3 that will help
you during this section. Study the picture in Figure 11.2. Water conservation is the
careful management and wise use of water. Remember conservation does not mean
we should stop using water but demand a responsible and sustainable use of the
resource. Water can be conserved in dams and by protecting their vleis. Vleis are like
sponges because they collect water. Water in urban areas can be conserved by the
use of springer for water gardens instead of an open hose.
Activity 11.3 Water conservation

Study Figure 11.2 and answer the questions that follow
Figure 11.2 Source of water
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1.Suggest three methods of conserving water?
2.Using your family as basis of study estimate the amount of water used by one
person per day and what it will be used for?
3.Suggest areas where your family can reduce the amount of water used?
11.2.2 What are the methods of conserving water?

After going through this topic, you should be in a position to come out with the
number of strategies to conserve water.
At household level we can save our water through employing water saving technologies
like to reduce the amount of water per flash. Water can also be conserved through
recycling of used water. Can you think of any other ways of conserving water?
You can also ask your family members to use drip irrigation rather than flooding as
Figure 11.3 Under this method water is used to irrigate plants effectively as small
drops of water soak into the soil slowly. Loss of moisture is reduced as pore spaces
remain open in the soil reducing erosion.
Figure 11. 3 Drip irrigation

Water can also be conserved through empowering the local community especially
women about managing their local resources. Giving them control over ownership of
resources will help reduce over exploitation of the resource. One way of empowering
women in your local community is through giving them control at water sources like
boreholes, dams and wells.
Building of dams can also be used as a strategy in conserving water and conserve water
for the future use. Dams like Tokwe-Mukosi and Manyuchi have been constructed to
store water for use in the south-eastern lowveld in places like Triangle, Mkwasine and
Hippo Valley. Can you think of any other ways of conserving water?
184
Another natural resource that is very important in our everyday life is soil, why?
Because it is the medium of plant growth. In the next section we look at how it can
be conserved.
11.2.3. Soil conservation methods

You have looked at soil formation in unit 9 now study the Figure 11.4 and attempt
questions that follow as a way of preparing you for the conservation methods.
Activity 11.4 Soil conservation
Figure 11. 4 Areas with gullies
1.Describe the scene in the figure 11.4.

2.Imagine you are the local Councillor what steps would you recommend to the
people to conserve the soil?
3.What dangers are the people in the area likely to face?
Conservation of the soil can be done through gully control and reclamation. People
in the picture shown above are likely to face problems like collapsing of houses, loss
of agricultural land and vegetation. We can conserve the soil by constructing barriers
across the gulley to reduce speed of the water. Another method that can be used is
backfilling and planting of grass to stabilize the surface. Terracing of steep slopes and
enforcing laws which are designed to protect the environment. We can move on to
look at ways of conserving forests.
185
11.2.4. What can be done to conserve forests?
Figure 11.5 showing severe destroyed forest.
Forest conservation is the careful management use and wise use of forests. Forests
should be conserved to protect our soil from erosion, provide timber for construction,
food to wild and domestic animals and protect catchment areas. We hope you still
remember the importance of forests, if not so go through the internet and find out
the importance of forests before you attempt the questions below.
1. List down the importance of forest
2. Describe the effects of deforestation
From the tasks above you can see that forests help to provide food like honey and fruits,
building materials like roof tiles and wooden poles, fuel from wood, raw materials for
industries and regulation of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Forests
are like the “lungs of the earth”.
On effects you were supposed to have come out with effects like soil erosion, low
agricultural production, migration of animals and increasing droughts.
Forests can be conserved through recycling of forest products like paper and use of
substitutes. Laws can also be implemented to control industrial emissions
Note that forest resources can also be conserved through the recycling of forest
products and good management approaches. These include efficient processing of
cut timber. So far, we have looked at conservation methods of fish, water, and forest
we now want to look at how wildlife can be conserved
We should conserve forest due to that trees reduce our “footprint” and can prevent
catastrophic climate change. They absorb harmful carbon dioxide; give off oxygen
vital for life; shade and cool the Earth’s surface; attract and increase rainfall; prevent
erosion of carbon-rich humus and topsoil.
186
Trees are essential in conserving biodiversity vital for human existence. For example,
bees are pollinators vital to our food chain. One-third of the food we eat would not
be available but for bees. Bees are declining worldwide and the major reason is the
loss of biodiversity. Just as you and all of us need a varied diet, so do bees. The loss
of biodiversity is adversely affecting their immune systems.
You should take note of the fact that there are two principal pieces of legislation
that guide forest management and conservation in Zimbabwe. One of these two is
the Forest Act 19:05 which covers state forests and private forest and also regulate
and, control trade in forest produce and burning of vegetation. The other is the
Communal Land Forest Produce Act 19:04 covers the communally “owned” forests,
including A1 resettlement forest areas.
11.3. Types of wildlife management

Wildlife in Zimbabwe is found in protected areas. Can you name any of these areas?
Activity 11.5 Wildlife management

Wildlife Management provides valuable information on the biology, ecology,
management, and control of various species of wildlife (e.g., alligators, armadillos,
bats, bears, beavers, birds, chipmunks, coyotes, deer, foxes, quail, mice, moles,
muskrats, opossums, rabbits, raccoons, rats, skunks, snakes, squirrels, voles, wild
hogs, wild turkey, woodchucks). It is also the process in protecting endangered and
threatened species.
Study the Figure 11.5 which shows Parks and Wildlife Estates of Zimbabwe. Name
three areas where national parks are found. Which one is the largest national park
in Zimbabwe? This activity will help you to have an idea on how wildlife has been
managed in Zimbabwe.
187
Figure 11.6 National Parks in Zimbabwe
11.3.1 Game parks

You could have heard about game parks or probably you have visited one and saw
what kept there. In Zimbabwe, we have several game parks with a variety of wild
animals. We receive many tourists who come just to see animals in their natural
environment. A game park is a large area of land, especially in Africa, where wild
animals can live safely.
As you can see from Figure 11.7 these are areas where small wild animals are kept
and they differ from national parks in that they are privately owned and managed.
The animals that are kept in these areas include the following kudu, impala, eland
and antelope Figure 11.7 shows the various game parks in Zimbabwe.
188
Figure 11.7 Game Parks, sanctuaries and safaris in Zimbabwe
Examples of game parks in Zimbabwe include Mukuvisi woodlands and Mbizi game
park. Now that we have studied about game parks let’s move on to Conservancies.
11.3.2 Conservancy
We can define a conservancy as a land kept in its natural state in order to protect
wild animals and plants. In Zimbabwe the major conservancies are the Save valley
conservancy and Makuwe conservancy. These areas offer hope to the survival of wild
animals and plants. Let’s move on to look at Safari areas.
189
Activity 11.5: Conservancy
Study the Figure 11.6 which shows Parks and Wildlife estates of Zimbabwe and
complete the tasks below
1.What is a conservancy?
2.List down the Conservancies shown on the map?
11.3.3. Safari Areas

You should take note that a Safari can be defined as an area that has been set aside
for recreational hunting and cropping of wild population. Examples include Dande,
Doma Sapi and Enwarigg in Zimbabwe. In these areas people can go for hunting,
crocodile research, and outdoor recreation. These areas can also include observing
and photographing of wildlife, hiking and sightseeing. In Zimbabwe, the best place
is Victoria Falls whilst Africa boasts of the Serengeti and Masai Mara national parks.
In the next section we look at Sanctuary.
Activity 11.6 Safari Areas

Go back to the Figure 11.5 of Zimbabwe and attempt the following questions so
that we prepare on our next section which looks at safari areas.
1. Identify Safari areas on the map Figure 11.5.
2. What are the major attractions to these areas?
11.3.4. Sanctuaries
What do you think sanctuaries are? You can research on the internet or discuss with
your colleague. Yes, these are areas were animals have been protected from extinction.
After going through the activity, you will have more knowledge on sanctuaries.
Activity 11.7 Sanctuaries

1.What is a Sanctuary?
2.Identify sanctuaries on the map above?
3.Name the animals protected in each of the sanctuaries?
190
We have seen that Sanctuaries are areas where animals are protected from extinction.
These areas include Chimanimani Eland, Mbadze Pan sanctuary where a variety
of birds are kept and Tshabalala Sanctuary which is used for game viewing and
educational purposes.
The last type of wildlife management is we are going to study is National parks.
Activity 11.8 National Parks

Study the map 11.2 which shows national parks in Zimbabwe and then attempt
the questions that follow;
1.Name at least 5 National Parks shown on map 11.2?
2.Identify the main visitor activities shown on the attractions?
3.Which animals are kept in these areas?
From the map 11.5 you can see that Zimbabwe has many National parks. These
have scenic views spectacular relief and areas of historical significance. These areas
include Hwange national park, Mana pools national park, Chizarira national park and
Gonarezhou national park.
Perhaps you have heard cases of people coming into contact with wildlife. In most
of the cases people have been attacked or wild animals have been killed why? In the
next section we want to look at human-wildlife conflict.
11.4 What is Human and Wild life conflict

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) refers to the interaction between humans and wildlife
that negatively affect humans or wildlife. Human-wildlife conflict is always experienced
when human populations grow and encroach on wildlife established territory, and
therefore reducing resources for wildlife. The conflict between wildlife and humans
come in different forms and could range from loss of human life, death of wildlife,
injury of humans, or wild animals as they compete for scarce resources. The conflict
would also affect domesticated animals. Previously, conflict management approaches
included lethal control, regulation of population, translocation, and preservation of
endangered species.
In order for you to have a better understanding of this section let us start by doing
the activity below; Study the picture first and then attempt the questions below.
191
Figure 11.7 Wild animals attacking human
Activity 11.9 Human-wild life conflict

1.Describe the scene in the photograph?
2.What could have caused the scene in figure 11.6?
From the study of the figure 11.7 you can see that human beings are fighting the
wild animals. In other words, the human beings in this area are in total disagreement
with the wild animals. The animals are causing havoc to human settlements. Human
–wildlife conflict is any interaction that causes harm whether it is to the human, the
wild animal or the property. The animals and human beings are in conflict over living
space. Some animals are dangerous to human beings such as the lions and elephants
whilst other animals are referred to as nuisance or problem animals these damage
crops and property and sometimes livestock. Animals like the leopards, wild cats
and jackals have been known to prey on unattended livestock. Another group of
nuisance animal are the baboons and monkeys that can steal cooked and uncooked
foodstuffs. What do you think are the causes of the conflict? Have a moment to
reflect on the causes. In the next section we are going to discuss on causes of human-
wildlife conflict.
192
Attempt the activity below.
Table 11.1 Protected, problem and dangerous
Protected animals Problem/ nuisance Dangerous animals
animals
• Aardwolf • Elephant • Lion
• Cheater • Wild dog • Black and white rhi-
no
• Pangolin • Spotted hyena
• Leopard
• Black rhino • Baboon
• Hippopotamus
• White rhino • Monkey
• Buffalo
• Python • Black backed cackle
• Black member
• Bat-eared fox
Did you know that they are also specially protected plants? These include:
• Flame lily
• Leopard orchid
• Mangrove fern
• Sabi star
11.4.1. Causes of Human – Wild life conflict?
Activity 11.10 Human wildlife conflict

Imagine you stay at the margins of Gonarezhou national park in the south eastern
part of Zimbabwe what problems are you likely to face from the animals in the
national park?
Note that the main cause of human-wildlife conflict worldwide is the competition
between growing human populations and wildlife for the same declining living spaces
and resources. The transformation of forests, savannah and other ecosystems into
agrarian areas or urban agglomerates as a consequence of the increasing demand
for land, food production, energy and raw materials, has led to a dramatic decrease
in wildlife habitats. This is particularly true in Africa where the human population
came close to tripling in the four decades from 1960 and where, in consequence,
settled agriculture has spread to more marginal rangelands leading to encroachment
into wildlife habitats. Under these conditions, conflict between wildlife and local
communities has inevitably increased.
193
Perhaps you might be aware of the fact that general, people living in rural African
have little sympathy for wildlife and see animals purely in terms of their meat value.
This is illustrated by the fact that, in several Bantu idioms, the word niyama used for
wildlife also means “meat”. Rural communities consider wildlife, particularly large
mammals, as threats to their safety and food security. This adverse perception is
particularly strong near protected areas where the presence of wildlife populations
inflicts daily costs on local communities, which can erode local support and tolerance.
In turn, local people can develop a negative attitude towards reserves and wildlife,
increasing conflict and undermining conservation efforts.
Migration of peoples for reasons of security or food safety. Drought, floods, civil
unrest, natural disasters or war disrupt the normal production and distribution of
food, resulting in famines. This phenomenon is on the increase; the number of food
emergencies in Africa each year has almost tripled since the 1980s. Across sub-
Saharan Africa, one in three people are undernourished (McCarthy, 2006). These
factors spur the continuing migration of rural people into areas where resources could
be obtained, and which are frequently occupied by wildlife. The resultant occupation
of the habitat of wild animals by humans leads to conflict. War and civil unrest force
people to seek shelter in protected areas where they exert a strong pressure on natural
resources and enter into competition with wildlife. For example, it is estimated that
more than 120 000 people displaced by civil war are currently living in protected
areas in Mozambique (Government of Mozambique, 2006).
As you have correctly stated, problems can come because of the following reasons.
Due to expansion of rural settlements into the natural forests conflicts as a result can
occur with wild animals on the grazing space, as there will be shortage of grazing
land.
Another area of conflict can come as a result of a drought, during times of drought
there will be food shortages so wild animals especially baboons and monkeys move
towards the nearby rural areas looking for food and steal food items from homes. You
are probably aware that expansion of a settlement can also lead to human wild life
conflict, when a human settlement expand it takes away the habitat for wild animals
and this causes conflict as the animals fail to find alternative shelter wild animals like
elephants and lions can directly affect the people as they feel threatened with the
expansion.
Human –wildlife conflict can also occur as people move into the forests hunting for
games this threatens the existence of wild animals. In the next section we look at
some of the solutions to human wildlife conflict. Think about the possible solutions
to the problems as you attempt the activity below.
194
11.4.2. What are the solutions to Human wildlife conflict?
Activity 11.11: Solutions to Human wildlife conflict

Imagine you are the minister of tourism and have been tasked to address people
on ways of reducing human wildlife conflict, what major points would you include
in your presentation?
These are some of the measures that can be taken to reduce human wildlife conflict.
• Farmers who stay close to national parks can use strobe lights during the night,
these lights can scare away wild animals as animals are scared of electricity. The
flashing scares away wild animals
• Natural barriers can also be used, elephants are scared of bees and hot pepper
so farmers who live close to them can use bee fences as a protection measure.
• Disguise can also be used when dealing with areas with a lot of tigers. As shown
by the Figure 11.8.
• Tigers attack from the back so people can wear masks in the back to scare away
these wild animals as shown by the Figure 11.8.
Figure 11.9 Disguise

• Texting is another measure. Elephant collars are embedded with SMS (a text
messaging component) chips which automatically text nearby residents
• Corridors can also be used, these routes which can be used to guide the movement
of animals to developed areas, they can also be referred to as development
corridors as shown by the Figure 11.9.
195
Figure 11. 9 Animals corridor
Let us move on to campfire as one of the solutions to human wildlife conflict.
11.5. What is CAMPFIRE?

In the key words section do you still remember what we said about CAMPFIRE? If
you are not sure go back to that section and look at it again. CAMPFIRE stands for
Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous REsources. Let’s refresh
by attempting the following questions.
Activity 11.12 CAMPFIRE

1.List down the natural resources you can still remember?
2.Name any two renewable and non-renewable resources?
3.How can we benefit from these natural resources?
The programme was initially designed by the government in order to give local
people control of wildlife and their management and habitat conservation. So, you
can see that campfire was aimed at mitigating human and wildlife conflict through
conservation by utilization.
196
CAMPFIRE was also done in order to reduce the conflict that occurred between
human beings and wildlife and to reduce the number of wild animals in an area.
The programme was also aimed at reducing, poverty and heavy reliance on rain fed
agriculture. The programme was administered by the rural district council. Under this
programme villagers worked with government agencies.
Profits from the programme are then used by the community or given to individual
households in their districts on behalf of their communities. Districts that are part of
the CAMPFIRE project include Hwange, Jambezi, Dete, Victoria falls and rural areas
surrounding Bikita. What are the benefits of campfire to the local people? In the next
section we are going to look at the benefits of campfire.
11.5. 1 What are the benefits of CAMPFIRE?

Attempt the questions below before we look at the benefits of campfire.
1. From the knowledge that you have gained so far about natural resources what
do you think are the benefits of campfire?
2. Can you think of a project you can start in your area to benefit the local people
using resources available?
CAMPFIRE has brought about many advantages to the local people. It has created
jobs for thousands of people who stay in areas surrounding the game parks and this
has helped to reduce dependency on rain fed agriculture.
It has greatly improved the lives of people in rural areas as they have been empowered
and have gained confidence that they have been denied in the past.
CAMPFIRE has also provided incentives for rural communities to conserve wildlife
and to diversify their means of survival
Infrastructural development has also been key in campfire projects. Infrastructure
like roads, clinics, grinding mills boreholes and roads have been constructed using
benefits from campfire
Let’s move on to look at sustainability of campfire Before we can define sustainability
let us do the activity below.
197
11.5.2 How sustainable is CAMPFIRE?
Activity 11.13: How sustainable is CAMPFIRE?

Attempt the questions below
1.What do you understand by the term sustainable use of resource?
2.Can you think of any economic activity that you can carry out using the local
resources for your own benefit?
From the questions that you have answered above you can see that sustainability
involves the wise use of resources for the benefit of the present and future generations.
What is the main aim of CAMPFIRE? Yes, it is meant to conserve wildlife and fight
poverty by giving rural communities the authority to manage and use their resources
especially wildlife in a positive manner.
Now take note of the following of the following successes recorded by CAMPFIRE:
• Between 1989-2004 it has raised more than US$30million which has been
ploughed back into the community
• Income has continuously flowed from FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)
Safari and Kellogg Foundation
• It has managed to promote management and conservation of wildlife and other
natural resources
• 58 administrative districts are now part of the CAMPFIRE project in Zimbabwe
Campfire has managed to promote the living standards of people who stay close
to the wild animals and also gave themselves confidence thereby helping in the
conservation of the environment.
Summary
In this unit we have been able to learn about natural resources. Natural resources can
be renewable or non-renewable. The unit also looked at:
• Ways of conserving natural resources like fish, water, soil and forest
• Wildlife management methods which included Game parks, Conservancies,
Safari areas, Sanctuaries, and National parks
• Dangerous animals like elephants and lions were identified and nuisance animals
like monkeys and hyenas were named.
• Campfire has brought a number of benefits which include empowerment,
self-control, infrastructural development and above all the protection of the
environment
198
1. Natural resources
A. Are the problem of the government B. Can be used
C. Have to do with money D. Recycle themselves
2. Which one is non-renewable?

A. Coal B. Water C. Trees D. Fish
3. Another term for renewable is

A. Finite B. Infinite C. Dirty D. Replenishment
4. Which in is a national park

A. Matopos B. Enwarigg C. Mbizi D. Mukuvisi
5. Hyena is an example of a
A. Dangerous animal
B. Peace-loving animal
C. Nuisance animal
D. Poor animal
Structured Question
1 (a) For a named natural resource in your area suggest how you would earn a
living from it (6)
(b) Identify ways of conserving it (5)
2 (a) Identify reasons why humans and wildlife come into contact (3)
(b) Name 3 possible ways of solving problems associated with human – wildlife
conflict (3)
199
Progress Check list
yourself!
Objectives: Check
Can you now: box
• describe resource conservation measures
• identify ways of conserving resources
• describe wildlife management
• identify advantages of wildlife management
• distinguish problem animals from dangerous animals
• identify the causes of human –wildlife conflict
• suggest solutions to human-wildlife conflict
• give reasons for the establishment of campfire
• discuss benefits of campfire
• describe resource conservation measures
• discuss the sustainability of campfire
Further reading
Mbizi, N. a. (2019). New Trends in Geography Form 4. Harare: Edu light book.
200
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Ministry of Primary and

• Frank Phiri of Inyathi High School in Bubi district, Matabeleland North

Theme Units Description of the theme

Wish you the best!

UNIT 1: AIR MASSES AND AIR MASSES AFFECTING

UNIT 2: FRONTS, TEMPERATE DEPRESSIONS, FRONTAL SYSTEMS AND

UNIT 3: CLIMATE TYPES ON A GLOBAL SCALE AND INTERPRETATION OF

UNIT 4: HUMAN INFLUENCE ON CLIMATE 52

UNIT 6: LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM WATER ACTION AND RIVER

UNIT 7: LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM WIND ACTION IN ZIMBABWE AND

UNIT 8: HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH LANDFORMS DEVELOPMENT AND

UNIT 10: BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES 168

UNIT 11: NATURAL RESOURCES – CONSERVATION OF RESOURCES AND

Divergence a high-pressure belt from which winds are blowing away.

1.1 What is an air mass?

Table 1.1 Source regions and their examples

Type of Source Region Example

Activity 1.1 The effect of source regions on air masses

Table 1.2 The Location of Source Regions and their Temperature

1.2.1 Naming air masses

1.3 Air masses affecting Zimbabwe

Table 1.3 Weather caused by air masses over Zimbabwe

1.3.1 Air masses affecting the weather of Southern Africa

1.4 The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

Figure 1.4 Global winds and the controlling pressure belts

1.4.1 The changing positions of the ITCZ

Activity 1.3 The Inter-tropical Convergence Zone

(b) Describe the weather that is associated with the ITCZ.

1.5 Air masses outside the tropics

1. Identify the airmasses that affect the Cape town area.

End of Unit Assessment

3 Evaluate the effect of the following human activities on air masses

• describe factors influencing the development and distribution of temperate

2.1 Temperate Depressions

Figure 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 showing the development of a temperature depression

Activity 2.1 Fronts, their formation and effects

2.1.1 Weather associated with the fronts

Occluded Dropping Lowering Partly cloudy and Little or none

2.1.2 The formation of rainfall at the cold and warm fronts

2.1.3 Temperate depression diagrams

Figure 2.3 shows a map of the temperature depression

2.2 The effect of temperate depressions on the weather of

Activity 2.3 Temperate depression diagrams and weather

2.3.1 What is a Tropical cyclone?

2.3.2 The aerial view of a tropical cyclone

Figure 2.6 An aerial view of the tropical cyclone

Figure 2.7 A cross-section of the tropical cyclone

Table 2.2 The weather of a tropical cyclone

2.3.5 The distribution and movement of tropical cyclones

Activity 2.3 Temperate depression diagrams and weather

Table 2.3 Effects of tropical cyclones

Activity 2.4 Effect of tropical cyclones

2.5 Mitigation against impact of tropical cyclone

(b) During the tropical cyclone

(c) After the cyclone

• In this unit we described the characteristics of a temperate depression.

• We illustrated and described the structure of the tropical cyclone. We further

• We also saw that Zimbabwe, even though it is land-locked, is in the pathway of

• discuss the distribution and development of tropical