AFCAP MAL 016 Pavement Design Manual Malawi

REPUBLIC OF MALAWI
Ministry of Transport and Public Works
DESIGN MANUAL
for Low Volume Sealed Roads
Using the DCP Design Method
September 2013
REPUBLIC OF MALAWI
Ministry of Transport and Public Works
DESIGN MANUAL
for Low Volume Sealed Roads
Using the DCP Design Method
September 2013
IV Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method
Part A - 1: Introduction
FOREWORD
I am pleased to provide the foreword to this Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using
the DCP Design Method. Since the publication of the Ministry’s Highway Design Manual in 1978,
ongoing research in the southern African region, including Malawi, has led to new technologies
and practices in the cost-effective provision of low volume sealed roads. As a result, the current
manual is no longer appropriate for the design of low volume sealed roads, and a new manual is
required to reflect these developments. This Manual supports the Malawi Government’s policy of
providing safe and reliable all-season road access to the country’s rural population through the use
of appropriate and cost-effective interventions.
The Government of Malawi commits significant funding for the improvement of road infrastructure
in the country. It is therefore important that such funding is utilised efficiently and effectively by all
roads agencies in Malawi. This can be achieved by their adherence to the best practice methods
and techniques included in the Manual. This Manual will complement the Ministry’s efforts in
providing policy guidance to the construction industry in the upgrading of gravel and earth roads
to a paved standard.
I am pleased to note that the preparation of the Manual was undertaken in close consultation with
all stakeholders in the road sector to ensure that it best meets practitioners’ requirements.
It is my sincere hope that this Manual will herald a new era in the more efficient and effective
provision of low volume sealed roads in Malawi. In so doing, it will make a substantial contribution
to the improved infrastructure of our country and, in the process, enhance economic growth and
reduce poverty.
I commend this manual to all stakeholders in the road sector.
Hon. Mohammed Sidik Mia

Minister of Transport and Public Works
M i n i s t r y o f Tr a n s p o r t a n d P u b l i c W o r k s
Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method V
PREFACE
The Ministry of Transport and Public Works is charged with the responsibility of providing adequate,
safe and well maintained transport infrastructure to effectively contribute to the socio-economic
growth and development of the country.
In discharging its responsibilities, the Ministry uses the Roads Authority to execute its policy in the
road sector. In this regard, the Authority is mandated to develop and maintain the classified road
network to an appropriate standard.
One of the major challenges faced by the Roads Authority has been the management of a large
network of unpaved roads which have imposed a significant technical and financial burden on the
organization. This is due, in part, to the use of non-renewable gravel resources which are being
seriously depleted. For these reasons, the Authority initiated the development of a new Design
Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method. The design approaches
included in the Manual are based on the body of local research information that has been available
from previous research and investigations carried out both in Malawi and in the region.
The Manual serves as a standard reference and source of good practice for the design and
construction of low volume sealed roads. The aim of the Manual is to provide all practitioners
with comprehensive guidance on the wide range of factors that need to be addressed in a holistic
manner when undertaking the upgrading of unpaved roads to a paved standard.
The Ministry expects all practitioners in the road sector to adhere to the approaches set out in
the Manual. This will ensure that a consistent, harmonised approach is followed in the design and
construction of low volume sealed roads in the country.
The Manual, by its very nature, will require periodic updating to take account of the dynamic
nature of developments in low volume road technology. The Ministry, therefore, would welcome
comments and suggestions from any stakeholders as feedback on all aspects of the Manual during
its implementation. All feedback will be carefully reviewed by professional experts with a view to
amending future updates of the manual.
Moffat Chitimbe
Secretary for Transport and Public Works
VI Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Ministry of Transport and Public Works wishes to acknowledge the valuable support that
was provided by the United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) for
the preparation of the Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design
method. The project was carried out under the aegis of the Africa Community Access Programme
(AFCAP) – a DFID-funded research programme that promotes safe and sustainable access for
rural communities in Africa. The project was managed by the Malawi Roads Authority, under the
direction of its Chief Executive officer - Eng. P.J. Kulemeka.
The project benefitted from the valuable inputs provided by a Technical Working Group comprising
professionals from both public and private sector organisations. The Technical Working Group
participated in workshop discussions, field work and training during the process of the development
of the Manual. The Technical Working Group comprised the following persons:
Technical Working Group
Ministry of Transport and Public Works: Ministry of Local Government

- Mr. K. Mphonda and Rural Development:
- Mr. T. Masimbi - Mr. H. Kumwenda
Roads Authority
- Eng. P.C. Kasakatira - Eng. D. Kalinde
- Eng. B.C. Kapoteza - Mr. W. Kaunde
- Eng. F. Dimu - Mr. S. Banda
Road Fund Administration University of Malawi

- Mr. G. Gondwe - Dr. I. Ngoma
National Construction Industry Council Consultants

- Mr. G. Khonje - Eng. T. Hiwa
- Eng. D. Kara
Contractors Facilitator
- Mr. F. Kavwenje - Eng. J. Chagunda
- Mr. R. Dilawo
Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method VII
Project Management:
The project was managed by the Crown Agents and carried out under the general guidance of the
AFCAP Technical Services Manager, Eng. R. Geddes.
Manual Development
The manual was developed and written by Eng. M. Pinard, AFCAP consultant.
Peer Review
The manual was reviewed by the following researchers who have all been involved in various aspects
of DCP development and its application to LVSR design:
- Dr. J. Rolt, Independent Consultant, formerly Chief Research Scientist, UK Transport Research
Laboratory
- Dr. P. Paige-Green, Chief Researcher, CSIR, South Africa
- Eng. E. Kleyn, Independent Consultant, South Africa
- Eng. G. van Zyl, Independent Consultant, South Africa
VIII Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
> Greater than
< Less than
% Percentage
A AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic

AFCAP Africa Community Access Programme
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials

B BS British Standard

C CBR California Bearing Ratio
CESA Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles
CML Central Materials Laboratory
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
CUSUM Cumulative Sum

D DBM Drybound Macadam
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DESA Design Equivalent Standard Axles
DF Drainage Factor
DN The average penetration rate in mm/blow of the DCP in a pavement layer
DSN800 The total number of blows required to penetrate the pavement to a total
depth of 800mm (Pavement Structure Number)

E EF Equivalence Factor
ESA Equivalent Standard Axle (80 kN)
EMC Equilibrium Moisture Content
EOD Environmentally Optimised Design

G GPS Global Positioning System

H HGV Heavy Goods Vehicle
HV Heavy Vehicle
HVR High Volume Road

I IDD In Situ Dry Density
ILO International Labour Organisation
IWP Inner Wheel Path

K kN Kilo Newton

L LGV Light Goods Vehicle
LHS Left Hand Side
LL Liquid Limit
LSD Layer Strength Diagram
LSP Layer Strength Profile
LV Low Volume
Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method IX
LVR Low Volume Road
LVSR Low Volume Sealed Road

M MC Moisture Content
MDD Maximum Dry Density
MGV Medium Goods Vehicle
MK Malawi Kwacha
MESA Million Equivalent Standard Axles

N NCIC National Construction Industry Council
NG Natural Gravel
NMT Non-motorised Traffic
NPV Net Present Value

O OMC Optimum Moisture Content
ORN Overseas Road Note
OWP Outer Wheel Path

P P075 Percentage material passing the 0.075mm sieve
PI Plasticity Index
PL Plastic Limit
PM Plastic Modulus

R RA Roads Authority
RC Relative Compaction
RHS Right Hand Side

S SADC Southern African Development Community
SB Subbase
SG Subgrade
T ToR Terms of Reference

TRL Transport Research Laboratory

U UCS Unconfined Compressive Strength
UK United Kingdom
USD United States Dollar

V VEF Vehicle Equivalence Factor
VOC Vehicle Operating Costs
vpd Vehicles Per Day

W WBM Waterbound Macadam
WIM Weigh-in-Motion

X Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method
CONTENTS
Foreword II
Preface III
Acknowledgements IV
List of Abbreviations VI
PART A: OVERVIEW
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Purpose 1
1.3 Scope 1
1.4 Development 2
1.5 Structure and Contents 3
1.6 Benefits of Using the Manual 3
1.7 Sources of Information 4
1.8 Updating the Manual 4
2. MAIN COMPONENTS OF A LVSR

2.1 Pavement 5
2.2 Cross Section 6
2.3 Drainage Elements 6
PART B: ROAD DESIGN PROCESS
1. DESIGN PROCESS
1.1 Introduction 9
1.2 Purpose and Scope 9
1.3 Goal 9

2. PRELIMINARY ROAD EVALUATION
2.1 Introduction 11
2.3 General Assessment 11
2.4 Visual Assessment 12
2.5 Structural Assessment 14
2.5 Strip Maps 16
3. TRAFFIC
3.1 Introduction 25
3.3 Procedure for Estimating Design Traffic 26
4. GEOMETRICS AND ROAD SAFETY

4.1 Introduction 35
4.3 Geometrics 35
4.4 Road Safety 38
Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method XI
5. PAVEMENT DESIGN
5.1 Introduction 47
5.3 Background to DCP Method 47
5.4 Design Principles 47
5.5 DCP Design Procedure 51
5.6 Strengths and Limitations of the DCP Design Method 54
6. MATERIALS
6.1 Introduction 61
6.3 Approach to Using Local Materials 61
6.4 Selection of Materials 62
6.5 Specification of Materials 64
6.6 Testing of Materials 64
7. SURFACINGS
7.1 Introduction 69
7.3 Bituminous Surfacings 69
7.4 Non-Bituminous Surfacings 72
7.5 Factors Affecting Choice of Surfacings 75
7.6 Life Cycle Cost Analysis 76
8. DRAINAGE
8.1 Introduction 81
8.3 Hydrology 81
8.4 Road Level 82
8.5 Road Surface Drainage 83
8.6 Subsurface Drainage 84
8.7 Drainage Channels 84
8.8 Culverts 89
8.9 Low Level Structures 90
8.10 High Level Bridges 91
PART C: DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND GUIDELINES
1. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
1.1 Introduction 93
1.2 Design Approach 93
1.3 The Road Environment 94
1.4 Environmentally Optimised Design 95
1.5 Design Strategy 95
1.6 Surfacing Options 96
` 1.7 Context Sensitivity 97
XII Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method
2. ENVIRONMENT
2.1 Introduction 101
2.2 Climate 101
2.3 Moisture Regime 104

3. MATERIALS
3.2 Materials Characteristics 107
3.3 Local Materials 110
3.4 Specifications 110
3.5 Materials Selection 111
3.6 Materials Testing 113
3.7 Materials Prospecting 113
4. PAVEMENT DESIGN
4.2 Pavement Design Methods 118
5. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
5.2 Problem Soils 123
5.3 Construction Issues 126
5.4 Vehicle Overloading 129
5.5 Maintenance Issues 129
5.6 Road Safety 131
6. COST ANALYSIS
6.2 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis 133
6.3 Optimum Pavement Design Solution 136
7. IMPLEMENTATION
7.2 Planning Impacts 139
7.3 Design Impacts 140
7.4 Construction Impacts 140
7.5 Maintenance Impacts 141
7.6 Pavement Monitoring Impacts 141
7.7 Environmental Impacts 141
Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method XIII
ANNEXES
Annex 2B: Example of Determination of Uniform Sections from CUSUM Analysis 20
Annex 2C: Determination and Choice of DN Percentile Values 21
Annex 2D: Sample of Strip Map 22
Annex 2E: Evaluation of Condition of Existing Gravel Road 23
Annex 3A: Determination of Normal, Generated and Diverted Traffic 32
Annex 3B: Design Example: Determination of Traffic Design Loading 33
Annex 4A: Speed Reduction Measures in Villages 39
Annex 5A: Determination of Strength-Balance of Pavements 56
Annex 6A: Determination of Laboratory DN Value 65
Annex 7A: Life Cycle Cost Comparison between a Single Otta Seal plus
Sand Seal and a Double Chip Seal (hypothetical only) 78
Annex: A: DCP Design Example 145
Annex A1: Alpha-Beta Road: DCP Results and Analysis 151
Annex A2: Determination of 80th Percentile Values for Uniform Sections 154
Annex A3: Uniform Sections 156
Annex A4: Layer Strength Diagrams 156
Annex B: Glossary of Terms 160
XIV Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method
LIST OF FIGURES
PART A
Figure 1-1: Structure of the Manual 3

Figure 2-1: Main components of a LVSR pavement 5
Figure 2-2: Cross Section 6
Figure 2-3: Drainage elements 6
PART B
Figure 1-1: Road design process 10

Figure 2-1: Typical DCP effects with large stone in pavement layer 19
Figure 3-1: Procedure for establishing design traffic class 25
Figure 3-2: Structural design period 26
Figure 3-3: Relationship between BN100 and Load Equivalent Exponent (n)
for strength-balanced pavements 29
Figure 4-1: Road cross section 35
Figure 4-2: Details of road edge 37
Figure 5-1: The DCP 48
Figure 5-2: Layer-strength profile 49
Figure 5-3: Relationship between DN and CBR 50
Figure 5-4: Flow diagram of DCP design procedure 51
Figure 5-5: Collective DCP design profiles 52
Figure 5-6: Average and extreme DCP strength profiles 52
Figure 5-7: Layer-strength diagram for various traffic classes 53
Figure 5-8: Comparison of required and in situ strength profiles 53
Figure 6-1: DN/density/moisture relationship 53
Figure 7-1: Common types of bituminous surfacings 70
Figure 7-2: Cost components of a LCC analysis between a single
Otta seal+sand seal and Double Surface Dressing 77
Figure 8-1: Crown height for LVSRs 82
Figure 8-2: Potential drainage problems associated with depressed pavement
construction 83
Figure 8-3: Beneficial interception of surface runoff and subsurface seepage 84
Figure 8-4: Types of side drain 85
Figure 8-5: Typical masonary scour check 86
Figure 8-6: Typical layout of mitre drain 87
Figure 8-7: Mitre drain angle greater than 45 degrees 88
Figure 8-8: Interceptor, cut-off or catchwater drain 89

Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method XV
PART C
Figure 1-1: Traffic loading versus dominant mechanism of pavement distress

(Schematic only) 94
Figure 1-2: Road environment factors 94
Figure 1-3: Application of the principle of environmentally optimised design 95
Figure 1-4: Framework for sustainable provision of LVSRs 97
Figure 2-1: Distribution of rainfall in Malawi 102
Figure 2-2: Moisture movements in pavements and subgrades 104
Figure 3-1: Flow diagram stages for materials prospecting 114
Figure 4-1: Wheel load transfer through pavement structure 117
Figure 5-1: Moisture movements in expansive soils under a paved road 124
Figure 5-2: Determination of soil expansiveness (Modified Van de Merwe Chart) 124
Figure 5-3: Illustration of concept of “compaction to refusal” 127
Figure 5-4: Deflection-life relationship showing benefits of “compaction to refusal” 127
Figure 5-5: Impact of overloading on pavement performance 129
Figure 6-1: Alternative pavement options 133
Figure 6-2: Distribution of costs and benefits during the life cycle of a road option 134
Figure 6-3: Components of a typical life cycle cost analysis 135
Figure 6-4: Combined cost for various pavement structure capabilities 136
Figure 7-1: Road project cycle and influence on final cost 139
XVI Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method
LIST OF TABLES
PART A
Table 2-1: Purpose of main pavement components 5

PART B
Table 1-1: Road design process 10

Table 2-1: Frequency of DCP testing: 14
Table 2-2: Percentiles of maximum DCP penetration rate to be used
to assess in situ material condition 15
Table 3-1: Structural design period 27
Table 3-2: Vehicle classification for traffic counts 28
Table 3-3: Commercial vehicle classification 28
Table 3-4: Lane width adjustment factor for design traffic 30
Table 3-5: Designated traffic class for pavement design 31
Table 4-1: Typically recommended roadway widths 36
Table 4-2: Safety of slopes (vertical:horizontal) 37
Table 5-1: DCP design catalogue for different traffic classes 52
Table 6-1: Approximate relationship between laboratory CBR and
DN values at varying moisture contents 62
Table 7-1: Typical service life of surfacings 71
Table 7-2: Suitability of various surfacings for use on LVSRs 76
Table 8-1: Recommended crown height in relation to drain type and
longitudinal gradient 82
Table 8-2: Recommended camber and cross fall for LVSRs 83
Table 8-3: Spacing between scour checks 87
Table 8-4: Maximum spacing of mitre drains 89

PART C
Table 2-1: Climatic zones: Approximate mean annual rainfall,

N-Values and Thornthwaite Moisture Index 103
Table 3-1: Pavement material types and characteristics 108
Table 3-2: Variation of CBR with moisture content 109
Table 3-3: Fundamental pavement material selection factors 112
Table 4-2: Main characteristics of the DCP design method 120
Table 5-1: Minimum compaction requirements 128
Table 5-2: Maintenance activities 130

Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method XVII
LIST OF PHOTOS
PART B
Photo 7-1: Example of Cobble Stone surfacing 72

Photo 7-2: Example of burnt Clay Brick surfacing 73
Photo 7-3: Example of Concrete Brick surfacing 74
Photo 7-5: Example of Concrete surfacing (shelter pattern) 74
XVIII Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Part A
Part: A
Overview
Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Part A 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Low volume roads (LVRs), defined as those roads that carry both less than about 300 vehicles
per day (vpd) and about 1 million equivalent standard axles over their design life, constitute a
significant proportion of the Malawi classified road network. Whilst the approach to the design
of these relatively lightly trafficked roads follows the general principles of any good road design
practice, they nonetheless differ in a number of respects from the traditional approaches that are
generally directed at relatively heavily trafficked roads carrying a greater proportion of multi-axled
commercial vehicles. In particular, for LVRs relatively more pavement distress is attributable to the
environmental effects than is the case for higher volume situations.
Whilst there are significant life cycle benefits to be achieved from upgrading Malawi’s relatively lightly
trafficked unpaved roads to a paved standard, the cost of doing so following traditional standards
and specifications is prohibitive. However, based on research and investigations carried out over
many decades in the Southern African region, including Malawi, there is now performance based
evidence on which new design standards and specifications for various aspects of low volume
sealed road provision can be based. These findings have been incorporated in the development
of this Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method in which
the design of the pavement is based specifically on the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) design
method. The manual reflects historical experience in Malawi and the region and takes full account
of the positive experience gained in the country from the construction of similar roads dating back
over 20 years.
1.2 Purpose
The main purpose of this Manual is to provide practitioners with a rational, appropriate and
affordable approach to the design of LVSRs in Malawi. This is achieved by consolidating in one
document the latest approaches to the provision of LVSRs including developments in pavement
design and surfacing technology and use of road building techniques that allow maximum use to
be made of local materials.
The manual is expected to serve as a nationally recognised document, the application of which will
harmonise approaches to the provision of LVSRs in Malawi.
1.3 Scope
The Manual applies primarily to the upgrading of existing unsealed LVRs to a sealed standard
using the existing alignment to the maximum extent possible. However, the method can also be
used for the design of new roads albeit with a slightly different approach to the evaluation of the in
situ conditions and to the construction techniques required. The design is based on the Dynamic
Cone Penetrometer (DCP) and is aimed at achieving a balanced pavement design whilst optimising
the in situ material strength in the existing gravel road.
Other complementary aspects of road design are also dealt with so as to ensure that they are all
addressed in an appropriate manner by the designer. However, the following qualifications to the
scope of the manual should be noted:
2 Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Part A
• Geometric design: Since by their very nature LVSRs will generally follow the existing
alignment which may not be fully engineered, the Manual does not deal with geometric
design calculations for determining the horizontal and vertical curvature of the road but,
rather, assesses the adequacy of the existing alignment in terms of such issues as safety
and drainage.
• Surfacing design: A wide range of alternative surfacing types is presented and guidance
is provided on the factors which influence their choice for particular applications. However,
the detailed design of such surfacings is not addressed as this is available in other guidelines
on this subject.
• Drainage design: The Manual provides a framework to assist the designer in evaluating
the adequacy of existing drainage infrastructure and the need for new infrastructure.
However, the manual does not deal with detailed drainage design which can be found in
other guidelines on this subject.
1.4 Development
The development of the manual was overseen by a Technical Working Group comprising a wide
cross section of stakeholders in Malawi including representatives from the following organisations:
• Ministry of Transport
• Roads Authority
• Road Fund Administration
• National Construction Industry Council (NCIC)
• University of Malawi
• Consultants
• Contractors
• Road Materials Suppliers
As a result of the high level of local participation in the development of the manual, it has been
possible to capture and incorporate a significant amount of local knowledge in the document.
The manual draws extensively on the outputs of previous research and investigation work carried
out in Malawi as follows:
1) erformance Review of Design Standards and Technical Specifications for Low Volume
P
Sealed Roads in Malawi. AFCAP Project MAL/016, May 2011.
2)
Collaborative Research Programme on Highway Engineering materials in the SADC Region:
Volume 1 – Performance of Low Volume Sealed Roads: Results and Recommendations
from Studies in Southern Africa. UK Transport Research Laboratory, November, 1999.
3) alawi Low Volume Roads Study: An investigation into the use of Laterite instead of
M
crushed stone or stabilised material as a base course for bituminous surfaced roads. Scott
Wilson Kirkpatrick and Partners/Henry Grace and Partners and Imperial College of Science
and Technology, UK. December, 1988.
1.5 Structure and Contents
The Manual is divided into three sections as follows:
Part A: OVERVIEW
for Low Volume
Design Manual
Sealed Roads
Part B: DESIGN PROCESS
Part C: DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND GUIDELINES
Figure 1-1: Structure of the Manual
Part A (this part): Provides an overview of the manual, including its purpose and scope, the
approach to its development, its structure and content as well as the benefits to be
derived from using the manual and the manner of its updating.
Part B Provides the various steps to be followed in the design of a low volume sealed
road, including an evaluation of the existing road, the traffic characteristics; the DCP
pavement design procedure, an overview of alternative types of surfacings as well as
the other related aspects such as drainage, road safety considerations and materials
requirements.
Part C Provides the design philosophy underlying the relatively new approaches to the
design of LVSRs. In so doing, it provides guidance on each aspect of the road
design process plus other supplementary topics not addressed in Part B such as
the significance of the road environment factors on design, vehicle overloading and
practical considerations, such as dealing with problem soils.
1.6 Benefits of Using the Manual
There are a number of benefits to be derived from adopting the approaches advocated in the
manual. These include providing LVSRs that:
• re less expensive in economic terms to build and to maintain through the adoption of
A
more appropriate, locally derived technology and design/construction techniques that are
better suited to local conditions
• inimise adverse environmental impacts, particularly with regard to the use of non-
M
renewable resources (gravel)
• Increase employment opportunities through the use of more appropriate technology,

including the use of labour based methods where feasible
• Incorporate road safety measures to minimise road accidents
• ake better account of the needs of all stakeholders, particularly the local communities
T
served by these roads
• oster local road building and maintenance capacity through the greater use of small scale,
F
local contractors
• ltimately, facilitate the longer term goal of socio-economic growth, development and
U
poverty alleviation in the region
1.7 Sources of Information
In addition to providing general information and guidance, the manual also serves as a valuable
source document because of its comprehensive lists of references from which readers can obtain
more detailed information to meet their particular needs. A bibliography can be found at the end of
each chapter of the Manual.
1.8 Updating of the Manual
As LVSR technology is continually being researched and improved, it will be necessary to update
the manual periodically to reflect improvements in practice. All suggestions to improve the manual
should be in accordance with the following procedures:
• ny proposed amendments should be sent to the Chief Executive Officer, Roads Authority,
A
motivating the need for the change and indicating the proposed amendment
• ny agreed changes to the manual will be approved by the RA after which all stakeholders
A
will be advised accordingly
2. MAIN COMPONENTS OF A LVSR
2.1 Pavement
The main components of LVSR pavement are shown in Figure 2-1 and whilst the purpose of these
various components is summarised in Table 2-1.
Formation
Surfacing
Base course
Pavement
Improved subgrade/
new subbase
In situ subgrade
Figure 2-1: Main components of a LVSR pavement
Table 2-1: Purpose of main pavement components
Pavement component Purpose
Surfacing •
Provides a smooth running surface
• Provides a safe, economical and durable all-weather surface
• Minimises vehicle operating and maintenance costs
• Reduces moisture infiltration into the pavement
• Provides suitable properties for the local environment,
e.g. dust suppression, skid resistance and surface texture
• Delineates traffic lanes and shoulders, bicycle paths, traffic
calming devices
• Visually enhances the road environment for road users and
adjacent residents
Base (base course) • P

rovides the bulk of the structural capacity in terms of load-
spreading ability by means of shear strength and cohesion
• Minimises changes in strength with time by having relatively low
moisture susceptibility
• Minimises the ingress of moisture into the pavement by having
adequate shrinkage and fatigue properties
• Assists with the provision of a smooth riding surface by having
volume stability with time and under load
Subbase/improved • rovides a stable platform for the construction of the base and
P
subgrade (reformed surfacing
& compacted original • Assists in providing adequate pavement thickness so that the
gravel wearing course strains in the in situ subgrade are kept within acceptable limits
In situ subgrade • R
efers to the naturally occurring material on which the pavement
and improved subgrade are constructed
2.2 Cross Section
Figure 2-2: Cross section
2.3 Drainage Elements
Figure 2-3: Drainage elements
NOTES
8 Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Part B
Part B - 1: Design Process
Part: B
Design
Process
Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Part B 9

1. DESIGN PROCESS
1.1 Introduction
There are a number of steps to be followed in upgrading an unsealed road to a sealed standard.
These steps constitute a design process that needs to be undertaken in a systematic and structured
manner in order to produce the most appropriate design that achieves the specified functionality
of the road in a cost-effective and environmentally sustainable manner. The design process must
also be carried out in a manner that, at each stage, is fully responsive to the road environment in
Malawi in terms of such features as the climate (rainfall and temperature), drainage, topographic
and sub-soil conditions.
1.2 Purpose and Scope
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the design process that is followed in the Manual in
upgrading an unpaved road to a paved standard. The various steps in the process and the main
outputs of each step are summarised Figure 2-1.
1.3 Goal
The goal of the road design process is to produce a design that will not only achieve operational
efficiency, but will also be safe and cost-effective, be aesthetically pleasing, and minimise the
environmental impacts. The role of the road designer is to produce the most appropriate design
that achieves the specified functionality using the design inputs from all relevant disciplines. The
design must take into account all inputs from stakeholders and road users.
Whereas, previously, economics were the dominant yardstick by which roads were evaluated, we
are now entering a new era, where the social, environmental and even cultural dimensions of roads
are being increasingly taken into account as part of the responsible decision-making process.
Today, the emphasis is on providing roads that are cost-effective and safe to use; that make
maximum use of locally available materials; that employ methods of construction that maximise the
use of local labour and, above all, that are sustainable in the long term through planned, affordable
maintenance interventions.
Figure 1-1: Road design process
Main activity Sub-activities Chapter no.
• Undertake assessment of:

- horizontal and vertical alignment
- pavement in situ strength in situ material 2
properties
- drainage conditions
Preliminary road evaluation
• Produce strip map (plan and profile)
2
showing route characteristics
• Establish design traffic volumes and loading

for determining:
Traffic - geometric design requirements (horizontal 3
and vertical alignment, cross section)
- pavement design requirements
• Determine horizontal and vertical alignment

4
and cross section elements
Geometrics and road safety
• Determine road safety measures 4
• Undertake DCP design 5

Pavement design
• Determine suitable pavement structure 5
• Establish materials requirements 6

Materials
• Select materials for pavement structure 6
• Consider alternative surfacing options 7

Surfacing
• Select suitable surfacing 7
• Determine drainage and erosion control

Drainage and erosion control 8
requirements

2. PRELIMINARY ROAD EVALUATION
2.1 Introduction
Information on the physical characteristics and condition of the existing gravel road and its
environment are needed before its upgrading requirements can be established. A preliminary road
evaluation must therefore be carried out involving appropriate investigations aimed at collecting
and compiling information on the road’s physical characteristics and surrounding environment as
an input for subsequent decision making and design.
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the scope of the preliminary road evaluation which will
typically include the following stages of investigations:
• General assessment
• Visual assessment
• Structural assessment
2.3 General Assessment
A general assessment of the road is made by undertaking the following activities:
2.3.1 Desk study

Maximum use should be made of all available information before undertaking any field surveys.
Sources of information typically includes:
• vailable historical data from previous construction and maintenance should be collected
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for review and any sections of poor alignment and accident black spots should be identified
for attention in the design
• erial photographs from Google Earth which provide a free and very useful source of
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information, including a number of road environment factors such as the alignment of the
road, drainage patterns, low-lying areas, locations of settlements, etc.
• reviously collected information on the location and variety of materials used in constructing
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the gravel road – usually available from the Central Materials Laboratory
2.3.2 Consultations with local people

It is important to involve the future users of the upgraded road, including the communities served
by the road. Such persons can provide valuable information on various physical characteristics,
such as the likelihood of flooding of certain sections of the road, adequacy of existing culverts, the
location of weak pavement layers and accident black spots.
2.3.3 Geometric and road safety assessment

The geometric characteristics of the unpaved road, in terms of its horizontal and vertical alignment,
will normally be retained for the paved road with minimal improvements. Nonetheless, any
hazardous locations or obvious geometric shortcomings, particularly as they affect road safety,
such as sharp bends combined with poor sight distance, or inadequate road markings, should be
also be noted for possible improvement including appropriate measures for producing a safer road
environment (Chapter 4).
In general, traditional, full scale topographic surveys are not necessary to determine the geometric
assessments indicated above. Instead, they can be achieved with the use of a simple GPS device
which is sufficiently accurate for a LVR upgrading. Where drainage may be problematic, for example,
at low-lying points on the road, cross-sections will be required using survey instruments.
2.3.4 Traffic assessment

The type of traffic using the existing road as well as that which is likely to use the new sealed road
needs to be carefully assessed. In rural areas, a wide variety of motorised and non-motorised traffic
should be expected as well as a large number of pedestrians in peri-urban areas. Appropriate
surveys should therefore be carried out to capture not only various types of traffic movements
but also information on pedestrian crossing and pick-up points. Such information is required not
only for designing the road pavement (Chapter 5) but also for considering appropriate measures
for avoiding edge break/shoulder damage as well as for deciding on an appropriate cross section,
including locations for provision of laybyes (Chapter 4).
Any historical traffic counts available should also be obtained and can provide useful inputs to
estimating future growth rates.
2.3.5 Climate assessment

The characteristics of the climate such as historical annual rainfall data is to be collected as this
will provide valuable information on the moisture regime in which the paved road will operate.
Such information will alert the designer to the potential sources of moisture infiltration into the road
pavement and the measures that should be taken to mitigate such entry.
2.3.6 Materials assessment and laboratory testing

An assessment must be made of the source and availability of all materials required to upgrade the
road including the surfacing, pavement layers, construction water and concrete as well as the cost
implications. Every effort should be made, as far as possible, to obtain materials that are as close
as possible to the road alignment so as to reduce haulage costs.
Samples of the base material, and if necessary the support layers in each uniform section, must be
tested in the laboratory to provide information to aid construction and to ensure that the materials
meet the relevant specifications as discussed in Chapter 6: Materials.
2.4 Visual Assessment
2.4.1 Road condition

A visual assessment of the road is required to determine its general condition. This is achieved by
identifying any weak areas and isolated failures that require to be rectified before the pavement
layer(s) and surfacing are constructed.
In flat terrain, low-lying, poorly drained areas should be noted and may require lifting the new road
on to a low embankment. This will not only facilitate longitudinal drainage but also avoid saturation
of the pavement by ensuring an adequate crown height relative to the invert of the side drains.

The following defects are to be noted along the length of the road for inclusion on a strip map in
the manner indicated in Section 2.6.1:
• Ruts
• Shear deformation
• Potholes
• Oversize material
It is important to distinguish between those defects caused by general inadequate structural

capacity of the existing pavement and those caused by poor drainage, particularly in the shoulders
or outer wheel path (OWP) of the gravel road. Whereas the former will probably require increasing
the structural capacity of the existing pavement, for example, by importing a new pavement layer(s),
the latter defects could be rectified by improving the drainage without importing new layers. Thus,
isolated problem areas should be rectified individually rather than taking them as representative
of the section. This requires that the DCP survey be carried out in a discriminating manner
2.4.2 Drainage and erosion

When a gravel road is being upgraded to a paved standard, it is important to ensure that the
drainage system is functioning well. As the upgrading of major items of drainage structure such
as bridges and large culverts is generally expensive, existing infrastructure should be utilised as
much as possible. Where required, however, the necessary drainage infrastructure should be
provided to an appropriate level as effective drainage of the road to a very large extent affects
its performance and ultimate life. A thorough assessment of the existing road drainage system is
therefore necessary, including the following:
• Culverts
- Adequacy of opening (size, flooding, length of culvert)
- Outlet conditions (ponding, silting, erosion, headwalls)
- Structural strength (condition of concrete or other materials)
• Low level structures (causeways, drifts, etc.)

- Adequacy of existing structure to cope with floods
- Structural condition
- Width
- Erosion
• Surface drainage
- Standing water due to rutting, etc.
• Drainage channels
- Adequacy of side drains (shape of drain, ponding, silting, erosion)
- Catchwater drains and cut-off drains (shape of drain, ponding, silting, erosion)
- Mitre drains (frequency, shape of drain, ponding, silting, erosion)
• Down chutes (condition, frequency, erosion)
Erosion is closely related to drainage and depends on soil type, climate and site conditions.
A general assessment of erosion potential is needed for embankments, cuttings, road reserve and
borrow areas, leading to design of anti-erosion measures where necessary.
2.5 Structural Assessment
A pavement structural assessment is required to ascertain the strength and bearing capacity of
the existing gravel road which is to be incorporated as part of the new pavement structure. The
procedure for undertaking the structural assessment of the gravel road is as follows:
2.5.1 STEP 1: Undertake DCP survey along existing road

A DCP survey must be carried out along the full length of the road with each measurement being
taken to a depth of at least 800 mm. The standard method for using the DCP is presented in Annex
2A, including a typical DCP field form.
The frequency of the DCP measurements will depend on a number of factors including the variability
in road conditions and level of confidence required. The recommended frequency for upgrading a
gravel road to a paved standard should be as follows, with the tests staggered at outer wheeltrack/
centre line/outer wheel track (See Table 2-1):
Table 2-1: Frequency of DCP testing
Road condition Frequency of testing/km*

Uniform (low risk) 5
Non-uniform (medium risk) 10
Low-lying/distressed (high risk) 20
*E
nsure that at least 20 DCP tests are performed per likely uniform section to provide adequate
data for statistical analysis.
Care must be exercised in carrying out the DCP survey by discarding any measurements which
could produce anomalous results. Such results could arise, for example, where large stones
occur in the pavement layer (see Figure 2-1) which would produce misleadingly high resistance to
penetration (low DN values).
(c) (d) (a) (b)
Figure 2-1: Typical DCP effects with large stones in pavement layer
Typical DCP effects with large stones in pavement layer:

(a) cone cannot (b) cone breaks stone (c) c one tries to push (d) U
sually provides
penetrate at all and but penetration is stone aside. Result is a normal result
the test needs to be characteristically high because of side
re-done hard and DSN800 friction generated on
is high cone shaft

It may sometimes be necessary to ignore the DCP readings in the top 30-50 mm of the gravel layer
due to the effect of upward pushing of the material at the surface during the initial stages of the DN
measurement. In such a situation, the DN values obtained would not be meaningful as they would
not be reflective of the shear strength of the material.
2.5.2 STEP 2: Obtain DCP penetration rates in pavement layers and input
results into DCP computer programme
As the inherent in situ strength of the material is strongly dependent on the prevailing moisture (and
density) conditions, it is essential that an estimate of the in situ moisture condition is made at the
time of the DCP survey for comparison with the expected moisture regime in service. To this end,
at least 2 samples per kilometre should be obtained for moisture content determination from the
outer wheel track road at depths of 0-150, 150-300 and 300-450 mm.
2.5.3 STEP 3: Obtain moisture content beneath pavement at time of survey.

The DCP results obtained at each measurement point must be entered into the DCP programme
and the data processed, as guided, to obtain weighted average DN values (penetration rate in
mm/blow), for each 150 mm layer of the pavement structure and the DSN800 value (total number
of blows required to reach a depth of 800 mm.
2.5.4 STEP 4: Determine uniform sections

Following completion of Step 2, the DN values for each 150 mm layer as well as the DSN800 should be
plotted against the chainage of the road, using a cumulative sum (CUSUM) technique to identify uniform
sections along the road. This will typically identify changes in underlying materials types, transitions
from cut to fill or variable soil moisture conditions. An example of the manner of determining uniform
sections using the CUSUM analysis method described above is presented in Annex 2B.
2.5.5 STEP 5: Adjust DCP results for moisture conditions

Based on the estimate of the in situ moisture condition at the time of the DCP testing (Step 2)
adjust the DCP results obtained in Step 4 in accordance with the percentile values shown in Table
2-2. It can be seen that the DCP data collected during the dry season will be relatively stronger
(lower DN) than that collected during the wet season. The use of the respective 80th and 20th
percentiles (design traffic < 0.5 MESA) or the 90th and 30th percentiles (traffic loading 0.5 - 1.0
MESA) effectively results in an estimate of the expected in service conditions.
Table 2-2: Percentiles of maximum DCP penetration rate to be used to assess in situ material conditions
Percentile of minimum strength profile

Anticipated long-term (maximum penetration rate – DN mm/blow)
in-service moisture content Design traffic Design traffic
in pavement < 0.5 MESA 0.5 – 1.0 MESA
Drier than at time of DCP survey 20 30

Same as at time of DCP survey 50 65
Wetter than at time of DCP survey 80 90
The in situ moisture content tends to be a function of the height of the pavement layer(s) above
natural ground level, adjacent cuttings, material properties and the depth of the water table below
natural ground level. Given a conducive moisture regime (see Section 8.4), after surfacing the
moisture content in the base tends to stabilise to equilibrium at typically 70 – 90% of OMC.
An example of the application of the above table to determine an appropriate percentile value of
the minimum in situ strength profile of the pavement that should be used for design purposes is
provided in Annex 2C.
2.5.6 Interpretation of results

The designer should not undertake the DCP design of a road as a desk exercise. For proper
interpretation of the DCP results, the designer needs to be intimately familiar with the ground
conditions at the time of the survey. The DCP survey should be complemented with a visual
condition survey (see Section 2.6.1) in which the designer must be involved in order to obtain a
proper “feel” for or “understanding” of for the road that is being designed.
2.6 Strip Maps
In order to provide a good “picture” of the existing unpaved road in terms of the key road environment
factors that may affect the design of the paved road, a strip map should be produced. The details
included in this linear map will assist with the application of the Environmentally Optimised Design
(EOD) approach to the design of the road (See Annex 2D). The map will also be of assistance
to the designer in terms of showing such features as access roads, lay-bys/bus stops etc for
which particular attention should be given in terms of side drainage and visibility as well as to
the contractor in preparing his tender. Such a map would normally obviate the need for a more
traditional and expensive detailed topographic road survey that can hardly be justified for a low
volume road.
The following items should be included on the strip map which is illustrated in Annex 2E.
2.6.1 Road cross section

The cross section describes the profile of the road relative to the natural ground level in terms of
the following:
• Embankment
• Level
• Depression
• Cutting
2.6.2 Road condition

The condition of the existing gravel road generally reflects a number of factors affecting its
performance such as gravel quality, pavement bearing capacity, moisture regime and drainage. For
example, severely distressed sections are often located in areas where the gravel quality is poor
and/or the road level may be low and/or drainage is poor. The in situ conditions must be catered
for in the final design.
During the visual assessment, the road condition should be rated into the following four categories
based on the degree and extent of the occurrence as described in Annex 2D.

Band A: Good - Few defects
Band B: Fair - Few defects with degree of defects seldom severe
Band C: Poor - General occurrence of particular defects with degree of severe
Band D: Very poor - Many defects. The degree of the majority of defects is severe and
the extent is predominantly general to extensive
2.6.3 Traffic
Information on traffic volumes will influence both the pavement design (type of surfacing, thickness
and quality of pavement materials) and the geometric design (width of pavement and shoulders)
of the road.
Motorised traffic should be categorised and colour coded into the following bands:
Band A: < 75 vpd

Band B: 76-150 vpd
Band C: 151-300 vpd
Band D: > 300 vpd
Band D: > 15% (Very steep)
2.6.4 Vertical gradient

The vertical gradient will influence a number of design parameters including type of surfacing and
drainage requirements. This parameter can be determined by means of a GPS and should be
categorised and colour coded into the following bands:
Band A: < 3% (Flat)

Band B: 3-7% (Moderate)
Band C: 7-15% (Steep)
Band D: > 15% (Very steep)
2.6.5 Pavement strength (bearing capacity)

The pavement bearing capacity (DSN800) provides a good indication of the existing strength of
the unpaved road to a depth of 800 mm as obtained from the DCP survey This parameter should
be determined for each uniform section and colour coded into the following bands of relative
bearing capacity :
Band A: DSN800 = > 200 (very high)

Band B: DSN800 = 151-200 (high)
Band C: DSN800 = 101-150 (moderate)
Band D: DSN800 = <100 (low)
2.6.6 Drainage features

The following drainage features should be shown against the chainage of the road:
• Drainage structures
• Direction and angle of water flow
• High points
• Low points
• Possible locations of mitre drains
ANNEX 2A: Use of the DCP
Attention should be paid to the following issues when using the DCP.
• he equipment must be held vertically at all times. Any deviation from the vertical will
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result in difficulties in getting repeatable readings from the measuring staff. In addition, the
friction effects between the falling mass and the upper rod reduce the energy imparted to
the cone
• he hammer must touch the base of the handle before being released, without jolting the
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equipment vertically. The hammer should be released to fall under its on mass and not
“thrown” down
• hen testing “hard” materials, the hammer will often bounce a number of times on the anvil
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before coming to rest. It should not be lifted for the next drop before coming to total rest
• he test should start with the upper portion of the shoulder of the cone flush with the
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surface of the layer being tested
• uring testing, it is common to note that uplift or mounding of the layer around the DCP
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hole occurs. This may result in a gradual rise of the measuring staff relative to the equipment
and hence a reduction in the reading being obtained. Care should be taken that the base of
the measuring staff is not affected by this “mounding”
• he cones will suffer from wear and deformation, particularly when testing hard materials,
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and need to be replaced periodically. Prior to any test, the condition of the cone should be
checked to ensure that the point is sharp, the whole cone is screwed into the shaft and
the lower surface is not excessively rough (see Photograph 2A-1). High tensile or tempered
cones are not recommended as they tend to shear off when striking a hard stone
Photo 2A-1: Typical cones and problems

(From left to right: disposable cone, conventional cone, worn cone tip,
worn cone, incorrect cone with shoulder too wide, 30° cone)

Figure 2-1: Typical DCP Field Form and Example Measurements
DCP Test Measurements

Project Name: Nchisi Road
Chainage (km): 0.060 Surface Type: Unpaved

Direction: West Thickness (mm): -
Location/offset: Lane 1/ 2.00 m Base type: Natural gravel (laterite)
Zero Error (mm): 44 mm Thickness: 120 mm
Test date: 06.08.2010 Surface Moisture: Dry
No. Blows Cumulative

Penetration No. Blows Cumulative
Penetration
Blows Depth (mm) Blows Depth (mm)
1 0 0 44 26 5 125 379
2 5 5 62 27 5 130 388
3 5 10 72 28 5 135 411
4 5 15 86 29 5 140 426
5 5 20 93 30 5 145 441
6 5 25 101 31 5 150 460
7 5 30 115 32 5 155 478
8 5 35 131 33 5 160 497
9 5 40 148 34 5 165 510
10 5 45 166 35 5 170 519
11 5 50 183 36 5 175 546
12 5 55 202 37 5 180 563
13 5 60 222 38 5 185 578
14 5 65 238 39 5 190 597
15 5 70 259 40 5 195 610
16 5 75 271 41 5 200 629
17 5 80 288 42 5 205 643
18 5 85 300 43 5 210 684
19 5 90 310 44 5 215 710
20 5 95 321 45 5 220 736
21 5 100 332 46 5 225 758
22 5 105 341 47 5 230 790
23 5 110 358 48 5 235 830
24 5 115 365 49 5
25 5 120 372 50 5
ANNEX 2B: E
xample of Determination of Uniform Sections
from CUSUM Analysis
1. CUSUM Analysis
B C CUSUM
Chainage Measured DCP Difference (Accumulated
(km) (DN Value -mm/blow) from average (A-B) values of C)
1 14 -1.2 -1.2
2 13 -0.2 -1.4
3 15 -2.2 -3.6
4 14 -1.2 -4.8
5 13 -0.2 -5.0
6 14 -1.2 -6.2
7 7 5.8 -0.2
8 9 3.8 3.4
9 8 4.8 8.2
10 13 -0.2 8.0
11 15 -2.2 5.8
12 18 -5.2 0.6
13 14 -1.2 -0.6
14 16 -3.2 -3.8
15 14 -1.2 -5.0
16 14 -1.2 -6.2
17 15 -2.2 -8.4
18 18 -5.2 -13.6
19 14 -1.2 -14.8
20 15 -2.2 -17.0
21 9 3.8 -13.2
22 10 2.8 -10.4
23 9 3.8 -6.6
24 12 0.8 -5.8
25 9 3.8 -2.0
26 11 1.8 -0.2
Average: A = 12.8mm/blow

2. Uniform sections
Homogenous sections
10
CUSUM of DCP DN values
5
0
(mm/blow)
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Chainage
ANNEX 2C: D
etermination and Choice of DN Percentile
Values
1. DCP Survey results - DCP Survey results–Uniform section derived from

CUSUM analysis of DN 150 (Base)
(N.B. DN 0-150 = DN in first 150mm of pavement.
Chainage Point DN 150 Percentile of minimum strength profile

(km) No (Base) (max. penetration rate – DN mm/blow)
(mm/blow) 20th 50th (Mean) 80th
0.00 1 2.29
0.25 2 4.44
0.50 3 2.00
0.75 4 8.67
1.00 5 3.75 3.46** 5.24 8.19
1.25 6 8.07
1.50 7 5.11
1.75 8 5.37
2.00 9 6.60
2.25 10 10.12
Anticipated long-term in-service

moisture content in pavement*
Drier than at time of DCP survey 3.46 N/A N/A

Same as at time of DCP survey N/A 5.24 N/A
Wetter than at time of DCP survey N/A N/A 8.19
* This is one of the most carefully considered decisions the designer will have to make to ensure that a
reliable DCP design is achieved. See Section 2.5.5 for the basis on which the decision should be made.
** The percentile value in an Excel spreadsheet may be obtained from the expression:
= PERCENTILE(N$1:N$10,0.2) where N is the column containing the DN values.
2. Definition of percentile
A percentile of a range of values is the point in the range at or below which a given percentage of
values is found. For example, the 80th percentile of the distribution of DN values given in the above
example is the point at or below which 80% of the values fall, i.e. 8.19, as illustrated below.
DN value % ile* DN %ile Anticipated long-term

(mm/blow) in-service moisture content in pavement
2.00
2.29 Drier than at the time of DCP survey
3.75 20th 3.36
4.44
5.11
5.37 50th 5.24 Same as at time of DCP survey
6.60
8.07
8.67 80th 8.19 Wetter than at time of DCP
10.12
* %ile value may need to be adjusted for the design traffic loading as indicated in Table 2-2.
ANNEX 2D: Sample of Strip Map
Road Profile
Chainage
Drainage
Condition
Traffic
Gradient
Bearing capacity
Road Plan Features
Legend
Condition Good Traffic < 75 vpd Gradient < 3% Bearing > 200
Fair 76-150 vpd 3 – 7% capacity 151-200
Poor 151-300 vpd 7 – 10% (DSN 800) 101-150
Very poor > 300 vpd > 10% <100

ANNEX 2E: E
valuation of Condition of Existing Gravel
Road
General approach
The assessment of the condition of the existing gravel road is based on functional descriptors in
which various attributes of distress are described in terms of type, degree and extent of occurrence
for each assessment segment, i.e. the length of road for which one assessment rating is recorded
(typically 1 km). During the survey the rating team (typically two raters) should travel along the road
at no more than 20-25 km/hr, and stopping at least one within every kilometer.
Types of distress
The types of distress to be recorded are as follows:
• Ruts
• Corrugations
• Gravel thickness loss
• Potholes
Degree of distress
The degree of a particular type of distress is a measure of its severity and should be the best
average assessment of the seriousness of a particular type of distress. The general descriptions of
degree of each type of distress are presented below.
Degree Severity Description

1 Slight Distress just discernible
2 Moderate Distress is distinct
3 Severe Distress is significant
4 Very severe Distress is extreme
The rating of the various types of distress shall be as follows:
Rating Ruts Corrugations Gravel Thickness Potholes

(Depth mm) (Depth mm) (mm) (Number)
Good < 25 < 25 125 – 150 <5
Fair 25 - 50 25 - 50 75 – 125 5 – 15
Poor 50 - 75 50 - 75 50 – 75 15 – 25
Very poor > 75 > 75 < 50 > 25
Extent of distress
The extent of distress is a measure of how widespread the distress is over the length of the road
segment. The general descriptions of extent of each type of distress are presented below.
Extent Description
1 No or isolated occurrence over parts of the segment length
2 Intermittent (scattered) occurrence, over significant parts of the segment
length or extensive occurrence over a limited portion of the segment length
3 More frequent occurrence over a major portion of the segment length
4 Extensive occurrence over most of the segment length
Overall condition
The description of the overall condition of the gravel road is based on its composite rating which
reflects the raters assessment of the average degree and extent of each distress type as presented
in the table below.
Rating Description
1 = Good Few defects
2 = Fair Few defects with degree of defects seldom severe. Extent is only local if
degree is severe
3 = Poor General occurrence of particular defects with degree of severe
4 = Very poor Many defects. The degree of the majority of defects is severe and the extent is
predominantly general to extensive
Example of assessing overall road condition
Assment Distress Assessment Overall

Segment Ruts Corrugations Gravel Thickness Potholes Condition
Start Finish Degree Extent Degree Extent Degree Extent Degree Extent
0.00 0.05 3 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 = Fair
0.05 0.10 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 3 4= V. poor
Whereas the assessment of the various types of distress is based on reasonably quantitative
criteria, that for the overall condition assessment is based more on a qualitative assessment of
the individual ratings.
Part B - 3: Traffic
3. TRAFFIC
3.1 Introduction
Reliable information on traffic volumes and patterns is essential for different aspects of the road
design process, including:
• Geometric design: For geometric design purposes, the volume and composition of
traffic, both motorised and non-motorised, influence the cross section design (carriageway
and shoulders)
• avement design: The deterioration of sealed roads caused by traffic results from both
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the magnitude and frequency of individual axle loads. Thus, pavement design requires
information on the total number of commercial vehicles which will use the road and their
axle loads
• Road safety: The volume, type and characteristics of the traffic using the road will all
influence the type of road safety measures required to ensure a safe road environment,
particularly with regard to catering for the requirements of vulnerable road users, including
non-motorised traffic and pedestrians
The objective of this chapter is to provide the procedures required for estimating the design traffic
loading as outlined in Figure 3-1.
Step 1 Step 4 Step 7

Select design period Estimate mean daily Establish traffic lane
ESA per all vehicle distribution
classes
Step 2
Estimate initial traffic
volume (AADT) per Step 5 Step 9
vehicle class Estimate traffic growth Establish traffic class
per vehicle class (based on DCP design
catalogue)
Step 3
Estimate mean ESA per
vehicle class Step 6
Estimate cumulative
ESAs for all vehicle
classes over design
period (in one direction)
Figure 3-1: Procedure for establishing design traffic class
Part B - 3: Traffic
3.3 Procedure for Estimating Design Traffic
3.3.1 STEP 1: Select design period (Step 1)

A structural design period must be selected, over which the cumulative axle loading is determined
for the basis of the pavement design. Such a period is defined as the time span in years considered
appropriate for the road pavement to function before reaching a terminal value of accepted
serviceability after which major rehabilitation or reconstruction would be required. In addition to
its role in estimating the quantum of the design traffic for pavement design purposes, the design
period also forms the basis for expectations of how the constructed pavement will perform. Thus,
it is expected that a certain amount of maintenance work will need to be carried out in order to
meet the design life.
Figure 3-2 illustrates the definition of the design period in relation to its
terminal serviceability level (e.g. riding quality (roughness) or rutting).
Constructed pavement
Reseal
serviceability
Pavement serviceability
If surfacing or drainage are

not properly maintained
STRUCTURAL
Terminal value of serviceability REHABILITATION
STRUCTURAL DESIGN PERIOD
Figure 3-2: Structural design period
The various factors that influence the choice of design period include:
• The strategic importance of the road (i.e. its classification)

• Maintenance strategies (highly trafficked facilities will demand long periods of low
maintenance activity)
• Funding considerations
• The anticipated time for future upgrading of the road
• The likelihood that factors other than traffic, e.g. a highly reactive subgrade, will cause
distress necessitating major rehabilitation in advance of any load-related distress
Based on the above factors, Table 3-1 provides guidance on the selection of the structural design
life. Choosing a relatively short design life reduces the problem of long-term traffic forecasting
whilst choosing a relatively long design life requires greater care in estimating the design traffic
loading if over/under-design of the pavement, and the related cost implications, are to be avoided.
Part B - 3: Traffic
Table 3-1: Structural design period
Design data reliability Importance/level of service

Low High
Low 10 yrs 10 - 15 yrs
High 10 - 15 yrs 15 - 20 yrs
3.3.2 STEP 2: Estimate initial traffic volume per vehicle class

This is determined on the basis of appropriate traffic surveys to establish the traffic volume by
each traffic class in terms of the Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) at the time of the road
opening. In arriving at the AADT, cognisance should also be taken of the possibility of diverted
traffic (existing traffic that changes from another route) and generated traffic (traffic generated from
the development).
The two most commonly used types of traffic surveys for LVRs are:
• utomatic Traffic Survey (traffic counters with inductive loops and weighing-in-motion
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(WIM) sensors
• Manual Traffic Survey
The objective of undertaking either of the above types of traffic surveys is essentially to obtain an
estimate of the AADT using the road, disaggregated by vehicle type. Prediction of such traffic is
notoriously imprecise, especially where the roads serve a predominantly developmental or social
function. Thus, the timing, frequency and duration of traffic surveys should be given very careful
consideration in terms of striking a balance between cost and accuracy.
Errors in estimating traffic for LVSRs can be reduced by conforming to the following rules:
• Count for seven consecutive days

• On some days count for a full 24 hours, preferably with one 24-hour count on a weekday
and one during a weekend; on other days, 16 hour counts (typically 06.00 – 22.00 hours)
should be made and expanded to 24 hour counts using a previously established 16:24
hour expansion ratio
• Avoid counting at times when road travel activity increases abnormally; for example, just
after the payment of wages and salaries, or at harvest time, public holidays or any other
occasion when traffic is abnormally high or low
• If possible, repeat the seven-day counts several times throughout the year
Care should be exercised in selecting appropriate locations for conducting the traffic counts
to ensure a true reflection of the traffic using the road and to avoid under- or over-counting.
If any junctions occur along the road length, counts should also be conducted before and
after the junctions and the turning movements of buses and trucks recorded to guide the
selection of road width and type of seal at those areas
All traffic, both motorised and non-motorised, is grouped into one of twelve categories as shown
in Table 3-2 for subsequent capacity analysis for cross-section and surfacing design and axle load
analysis for pavement design.
Part B - 3: Traffic
Table 3-2: Vehicle classification for traffic counts
Vehicle Classification
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Car Pick-up 4WD Minibus Large Med. LGV MGV HGV Tractor Motor Bicycle Animal
bus bus Cycle cart
Capacity analysis Axle load analysis Capacity analysis
The definitions of the commercial vehicle classification shall be as in Table 3-3:
Table 3-3: Commercial vehicle classification
- Large bus Seating capacity of 40 or more

- Medium bus Seating capacity of 28 or more
- Light Goods Vehicle (LGV) 2 axles, including steering axle
≤ 3 tonnes empty weight
- Medium Goods Vehicle (MGV) 2 – 5 axles, including steering axle
≥ 3 tonnes empty weight
- Heavy Goods Vehicle (HGV) 6 or more axles, including steering axle
≥ 3 tonnes empty weight
3.3.3 STEP 3: Estimate mean ESA per vehicle class (VEF)

Static axle load data on the vehicles expected to use the road is required to determine the mean axle
load Equivalence Factor (EF) and, subsequently the mean Vehicle Equivalence Factor (VEF), i.e. the
sum of the axle load EFs for each vehicle. Such data should preferably be obtained from surveys of
commercial vehicles using the existing road or, in the case of new roads on new alignments, from
existing roads carrying similar traffic. Where project specific axle load surveys are not carried out,
recourse may be made to historical information.
The axle load EF is determined from converting the surveyed axle loads to ESAs/axle and then
deriving a representative weighted average value for each vehicle class. In some cases, there will
be distinct differences in each direction and separate EFs should be derived for each direction.
The EF (ESAs) is derived as follows:
EF = [W/8160]n (for loads in kg) or = [W/8.16]n (for loads in tonnes)

where W = axle load (in kg or kN)
n = power exponent
and the standard axle load is taken as 8160 kg or 8.16 tonnes
In the DCP design method, the value of “n” has been found to be affected by the composition of the
pavement structure in terms of its “balance” which influences the load sensitivity of the pavement.
Moreover, the exponent “n” is related to the Pavement Balance Number, BN (the number of blows
to penetrate the top 12.5% of the pavement as a percentage of the number required to penetrate
800 mm), through the derived model which is illustrated in Figure 3-3. (See Chapter 5 and Annex 5A).
For LVSRs, which are commonly constructed from granular materials in both the base course and
Part B - 3: Traffic
Figure 3-3: Relationship between BN100 and
load equivalent exponent (n) for strength-balanced pavements
improved subgrade, the mean BN value of the existing pavement should be determined for each
uniform section from which the related damage exponent “n” can be obtained from Figure 3-3 for
use in determining the design traffic loading for the section. However, the minimum recommended
value of n is 3.
3.3.4 STEP 4: Estimate mean daily ESA for each vehicle class
The estimated mean daily ESAs for each vehicle class (DESA) is obtained from the traffic data
derived in Step 2 and the VEFs derived in Step 3 as follows:
- DESA = AADT x VEF
3.3.5 STEP 5: Estimate traffic growth per vehicle class

Following the establishment of the baseline traffic, further analysis is required to establish the total
design traffic based on forecast of traffic growth in each vehicle class. To forecast such growth,
it is first necessary to sort traffic in terms of the following categories:
• Normal traffic – that which pass along the existing road in the absence of its upgrading
to a higher standard
• Diverted traffic – that which changes from another route to the project road, but still
travels between the same origin and destination points
• Generated traffic – additional traffic that occurs in response to the new or improved road
The methods typically used for determining normal, diverted and generated traffic are
presented in Annex 3A.
Part B - 3: Traffic
3.3.6 STEP 6: E
stimate cumulative ESA (CESA) for all vehicle classes over the
design period (in one direction)
The one-directional design traffic loading, i.e. the cumulative equivalent standard axles (CESA),
for each traffic category expected over the design life may be obtained from the following formula:
CESA = 365 x DESA x [(1 + r)N – 1]/r
where
DESA = mean daily ESAs for each vehicle class in the first year (one direction)
(From Step 4)
r = assumed annual growth rate expressed as a decimal fraction (From Step 5)
N = design period in years (from Step 1)
The total CESA for all vehicle classes is then obtained from summing the CESA for each vehicle class.
3.3.7 STEP 7: Establish traffic lane distribution

The actual design traffic loading (ESAs) needs to be corrected for the distribution of heavy vehicles
between the lanes in accordance with Table 3-4.
Table 3-4: Lane width adjustment factors for design traffic loading
Cross Section Paved width Corrected design Explanatory notes

traffic loading (ESA)
Single < 3.5 m Double the sum The driving pattern on
carriageway of ESAs in both this cross-section is
directions very channelised.
Min. 3.5 m but less The sum of ESAs in Traffic in both
than 4.5.m both directions directions uses the
same lane
Min. 4.5 m but less 80% of the ESAs in To allow for overlap in
than 6 m both directions the centre section of
the road
6 m or wider Total ESAs in the Minimal traffic overlap
heaviest loaded in the centre section
direction of the road.
More than one lane in 90% of the total ESAs The majority of
each direction in the studied direction vehicles use one lane
in each direction.
3.3.8 STEP 8: Establish traffic class for pavement design

For pavement design purposes, it is necessary to determine which traffic class the roads falls into.
Based on the DCP design catalogue, the design traffic classes are designated as follows:
Part B - 3: Traffic
Table 3-5: Designated traffic classes for pavement design
Traffic Class Cumulative Number of ESAs

(CESA – one direction)
LE 0.01 0.003 – 0.01
LE 0.03 0.01 – 0.03
LE 0.10 0.03 – 0.10
LE 0.30 0.10 – 0.30
LE 0.70 0.30 – 0.70
LE 1.0 0.70 – 1.0
If estimates of cumulative traffic are close to the boundaries of the traffic ranges, then the basic
traffic data and forecasts should be re-evaluated and sensitivity analyses carried out to ensure that
the choice of traffic class is appropriate. Such an analyses would consider minimum/maximum
values for such key variables as traffic growth, VEF and design period.
Part B - 3: Traffic
ANNEX 3A: D
etermination of Normal, Generated and
Diverted Traffic
Normal traffic: Different methods may be used to forecast normal traffic. These include:
(a)
Growth related to GDP - traffic growth can be related directly to growth in Gross Domestic
Product (GDP). This forecasting method is preferable because it refers to changes in overall
economic activity. However, it requires a reliable GDP forecast. If this is not available,
forecasts should be based on time series data as described below.
(b) Extrapolation of time series data - the most common form of traffic forecasting, this uses
estimates based on past traffic growth trends. Linear extrapolations assume growth rate
will remain constant in absolute terms; constant elasticity extrapolations assume constancy
in relative (percentage increase) terms. Fuel sales data may be used as an indicator of
national traffic growth, though improving fuel efficiency must be considered. Time series
extrapolations should not exceed the length of time of either the historical data or reliably
predictable economic conditions.
(c)
Differential growth rates – where a particular component of traffic grows at a different
rate, it should be specified and separately considered. Housing or factory developments,
for example, can affect road traffic growth rates and composition.
Diverted traffic: Such traffic is typically forecast to grow at the same rate as traffic on the road
from which it was diverted. Assignment of diverted traffic is normally done by an “all or nothing”
method. Here the assumption is that all vehicles which would save time or money by diverting will
do so. With this method, it is important that all perceived user costs are included.
Generated traffic: Such traffic is generally difficult to forecast accurately and can easily be over-
estimated. It is likely to be significant only in those cases where the road investment brings about
large reductions in transport costs. For example, small improvements in an existing developed
road system, or over short lengths of road are unlikely to create substantial generated traffic.
Generated traffic is best determined from demand relationships in which the price elasticity
of demand for transport reflects the responsiveness of traffic to a change in transport costs
following a road investment. This elasticity ranges typically from - 0.6 to - 2.0 with an average
of about -1.0. This means that a one per cent decrease in transport costs leads to a one percent
increase in traffic.
Part B - 3: Traffic
Traffic volume
Total traffic
Diverted traffic
Generated traffic
Normal traffic growth
Current traffic
Figure 3B-1: Traffic Development of an Improved Road
In summary, estimating traffic growth over the design period is very sensitive to economic conditions
and prone to error. It is therefore prudent to assume low, medium and high traffic growth rates as
an input to a traffic sensitivity analysis for pavement design purposes.
ANNEX 3B: D
esign Example: Determination of Traffic
Design Loading
A. Design inputs:
1. Design Life = 20 years

2. Road width = 5m (surfaced shoulder breakpoint-to-shoulder breakpoint)
3. A 7-day traffic count summary (AADT both directions) is as follows:
Day Car Pick-up 4WD Mini- Large Med. LGV MGV HGV Tractor Motor Bicycle
Animal
bus bus cycle cart
Mon 65 14 10 4 1 2 9 1 0 1 11 81 1
Tue 55 12 8 4 2 4 11 2 0 2 12 69 2
Wed 60 10 6 5 2 4 7 1 0 1 11 57 1
Thu 72 13 7 6 3 8 9 3 0 1 15 63 3
Fri 80 18 12 8 2 4 6 2 0 2 25 80 3
Sat 95 20 15 10 3 10 25 4 0 7 20 52 4
Sun 50 9 7 6 1 3 10 1 0 2 15 42 1
ADT 68 14 9 6 2 5 11 2 0 2 16 63 2
Part B - 3: Traffic
4. Vehicle growth rate = 4.5% average for all vehicle classes:

5. Vehicle equivalence factors as follows:
Vehicle Type VEF (ESA/vehicle)

Large bus 1.2
Medium bus 0.8
LGV 1.0
MGV 1.5
HGV 3.5
6. Pavement Balance Number BN = 38 (from which damage exponent n = 4)
B: Design calculations
1. Estimation of mean daily ESA (DESA) per all vehicle classes

- Large bus 2 x 1.2 = 2.4
- Medium bus 5 x 0.8 = 4.0
- LGV 11 x 1.0 = 11.0
- MGV 2 x 1.5 = 3.0
- HGV =0
Total ESA/day = 20.4 (both directions)
2. Estimation of Cumulative ESAs (CESA) for all vehicle classes over design life
The design CESA can be computed from the following equation:
CESA = 365 * DESA* [(1 + r)N – 1]/r

= 365 x 20.4 x [(1 + 0.045)20 – 1]/0.045
= 365 x 20.4 x [(1.045)20 – 1]/0.045
= 365 x 20.4 x [2.411- 1]/0.045
= 365 x 20.4 x 31.3
= 233,059 ESA
= 0.23 Million equivalent standard axles (MESA) (both directions)
3. Estimation of corrected design traffic loading for 5 m wide road:

- Corrected design traffic loading = 80% of ESAs in both directions (ref. Table 3-4)
= 0.80 x 0.23 MESA
= 0.18 MESA
4. Establishment of design class for pavement design

- Traffic falls within CESA range 0.10 – 0.30 (after undertaking sensitivity analyses to
evaluate changes in assumptions regarding variables such as VEF, growth rates, etc.)
- Design traffic class = LV 0.30
Part B - 4: Geometrics and Road Safety

4. GEOMETRICS AND ROAD SAFETY
4.1 Introduction
In principle, the aim of geometric design is to provide an alignment which is the best compromise
between operational efficiency, safety and economy. However, the lightly trafficked characteristics
of LVSRs mean that upgrading improvements should be planned at the lowest practicable standards
if costs are to be justified by benefits obtained. Thus, the challenge faced by the designer is to
provide for all road users so that they can travel safely on the road versus practical and cost
considerations on the ground.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide guidance on the approach that should be adopted in
evaluating the adequacy of the geometrics and road safety characteristics of the existing alignment.
The chapter does not deal with the various factors affecting the choice of geometric standards or
details of alignment design (horizontal and vertical curvature, etc.) which are outside the scope of
the manual. Instead, the chapter focuses on the following elements of the existing gravel road in
the context of their adequacy for retention in the new paved road..
• Geometrics
- cross-section
- horizontal alignment
- vertical alignment
• Road safety
- road safety measures
4.3 Geometrics
4.3.1 Cross-section
The various elements of a LVSR cross-section are illustrated Figure 4-1. Each of these elements
can influence not only the capacity of the road, but also its safety, integrity (in terms of its drainage
adequacy) and, ultimately, its structural performance. The adequacy of the existing cross-section
must therefore be evaluated against the minimum requirements so that, where necessary, carefully
considered improvements can be made, bearing in mind the cost implications against the benefits
to be derived.
Centre line
Roadway
Carriageway
Cutback slope Chamber Chamber Shoulder breakpoint
Shoulder Shoulder
Lane Lane Embankment
Open side drain side slope
Figure 4-1: Road cross section
Of particular importance in assessing the adequacy of the roadway width is the issue of catering
simultaneously for the requirements of both motorised and non-motorised traffic as well as
pedestrians. Typically recommended values for the cross-section elements for various classes
of LVSRs are presented in Table 4-1 and provide a yardstick against which the adequacy of the
existing gravel road cross-section may be assessed.
Table 4-1: Typically recommended roadway widths
Traffic flow Roadway width (m)

(AADT) Carraigeway Shoulder Total
150-300 6.0 – 6.5 2 x 1.25 8.5 – 9.0
75-150 5.5 – 6.0 2 x 1.0 7.5 – 8.0
< 75 3.0 – 3.3* 2 x 1.5 6.0 – 6.3
* essentially a single lane road with wide shoulders
(a) Roadway: The width of the roadway (carriageway plus shoulders) has a large effect on
construction costs and should be minimised subject to operational and safety criteria. In
principle, enough overall width should be provided for two design vehicles to pass each
other safely, if necessary at low speed in steep terrain.
If severe roadway width constraints exist, for example in urban or peri-urban areas, then
lesser roadway widths than indicated in Table 4-1 may be acceptable, particularly at the
lower end of the traffic range in each traffic class and, in addition, if the shoulders are
sealed and the incidence of NMT is low. In such cases, consideration can be given to
adapting the side drainage arrangements to economise on space constraints, with the use
of either covered or uncovered, U-type, brick-lined drains.
(b) Shoulders: Shoulders fulfill a variety of functions in the operation of LVSRs including:
• Structural
- to allow wide vehicles to pass each other safely on relatively narrow roads
• Safety
- to provide safe room for temporarily stopped or broken down vehicles
- to allow pedestrians, cyclists and other vulnerable road users to travel safely
• Drainage
- to allow rain water to drain from within the pavement layers
- To reduce the extent to which water flowing off the surface can penetrate into the
pavement (e.g. by extending a seal over the shoulder)
ealing of shoulders is recommended as it offers numerous advantages over unsealed

S
shoulders including:
• hey provide better support and moisture protection for the pavement layers and
T
also reduce erosion of the shoulders (especially on steep gradients)
• They improve pavement performance by ensuring that the zone of seasonal moisture
variation does not penetrate under the outer wheel track
• They reduce maintenance costs by avoiding the need for regravelling at regular
intervals
• They reduce the risk of road accidents, especially where the edge drop between the
shoulder and the pavement is significant or the shoulders are relatively soft

(c) Camber and cross-fall: In order to shed water effectively off the roadway, the minimum
normal cross fall shall be not less than 3%, including shoulders where they have the same
surface as the carriageway.
(d) Side slopes: Side slopes should be designed to ensure the stability of the roadway and
to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery if a vehicle goes out of control across the
shoulders. In addition, the position of the side drain invert should be a reasonable distance
away from the road to minimise the risk of infiltration of water into the road if the drain
should be full of water for any length of time. Figure 4-2 illustrates the layout of the side
slopes within the road cross section.
Carriageway Hinge point

Shoulder
Toe of slope
m
Side slope Ditch Back slope
Figure 4-2: Details of road edge
Table 4-2 indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design of the side and back
slopes which is dependant on the type of material and the height of cuts and fills.
Table 4-2: Safety of slopes (vertical:horizontal)
Type of Height of Side slope Back Safety

Material Slope (m) Cut Fill slope classification
0.0 - 1.0 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
Soil 1.0 - 2.0 1:3 1:3 1:2 Not recoverable
>2.0 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock Any angle Dependant on costs Critical
Expansive 0.0 - 2.0 n/a 1:6 Recoverable
clay >2.0 n/a 1:4
4.3.2 Horizontal alignment

The over-riding principle to be followed is that the horizontal alignment should largely dictate the
speed and not vice-versa, i.e. major costs should not be incurred merely to provide a fully, design
speed-related, alignment. Thus, the existing alignment should be used as much as possible.
Extreme bends (usually > 135° and gradients (usually > 12%) may at the discretion of the engineer
require correction on grounds of safety.
4.3.4 Vertical alignment

The vertical alignment should be retained as much as possible, subject to an over-riding need to
ensure that the crown height of the road is at least 0.75 m above the invert of the longitudinal drain.
4.4 Road Safety
4.4.1 General measures

Road safety is of primary importance for all road users in Malawi whether they are travelling on
LVSRs or more highly trafficked trunk roads. There appears to be no statistical evidence to indicate
that accident rates on LVSRs are much different to HVRs and it has become apparent that the core
problem is unacceptable driver behaviour which needs to be addressed, irrespective of the type
of road.
It has also become apparent that the safety concerns of LVSR users are different to those of
HVSR users. This is largely because there tends to be a much higher incidence of vulnerable road
users (NMT, pedestrians and animals) on LVSRs than on HVSRs. The challenge in such a situation
is to ensure that the speed of motorised traffic is restrained to relatively low levels, particularly
within villages. This is not easily achieved because the roads serving these villages often serve two
conflicting functions in that they cater for both inter- and intra-village traffic. As a result, specific
speed reduction measures are required to minimise traffic accidents. Such measures may be
achieved in a number of ways including:
• Appropriate road signage, including traffic signs and road markings

• se of well designed road humps and rumble strips in and around villages and other
U
danger spots, such as very sharp bends
• Pedestrian crossings in urban and peri-urban areas
• Use of shoulder humps to deter drivers from using the road shoulders
• Use of relatively wide shoulders (± 1 m), especially in built-up areas
The context specific application of the above measures requires the development of a “total village
treatment” with the objective of instilling in the driver a perception that the village is a low-speed
environment in which driving speed should be reduced. This concept, which is increasingly being
adopted successfully in a number of countries, is elaborated upon in Annex 4A.
4.4.3 Road safety audits

Because of the paramount importance of road safety on LVSRs, a road safety audit should be
undertaken as part of the preliminary road evaluation process (ref. Chapter 2). Such an audit
should systematically identify hazardous features, including accident “black spots” and the accident
potential related to the improvement/upgrading of the road, and should propose treatments that
will reduce crash risk to road users. Site specific remedial treatments should be identified and
prioritised for early implementation, based on the risks identified at the audit stage. In addition to
the road safety audit, road safety education and enforcement should be given high priority in order
to promote a road safety “culture” for road users of all ages in the country.

ANNEX 4A: Speed Reduction Measures in Villages
1. Introduction
Speed reduction measures in villages require special attention. This is because the roads serving
these villages are often required to serve two conflicting functions in that they must cater for both
inter- and intra-village traffic. As a result, traffic entering the village often does so at speeds that are
much too high for a village environment where there is slow moving turning traffic, parking outside
shops and stalls and the needs of pedestrians who require to move along or across the road. Such
a situation requires the need for a comprehensive “village treatment” which will induce a driver to
reduce speed significantly as he or she passes through a village.
2. Total village treatment

The objective of this is to develop, in the driver, a perception that the village is a low-speed
environment and to encourage him to reduce speed as a result of this perception. To this end, the
road through the village is treated as being in three zones, namely:
(i) The approach zone

(ii) The transition zone
(iii) The core zone
2.1 The Approach Zone

This is the section of road prior to entry into the village, where the driver needs to be made aware
that the open road speed is no longer appropriate. This is the section of road where speed should
be reduced typically from 80 km/h down to 50 km/h, before entering the village. The village entry
should be marked by a Gateway as described later in this annex.
2.2 The Transition Zone

This is the section of road between the village entrance, or Gateway, and the core zone of the
village. The target speed, and posted speed limit in this zone would be typically 50 km/h. The first
road hump or humps in a series of humps will be sited in this zone. In this context, with adequate
advance warning provided by the approach zone and Gateway, road humps are quite safe.
2.3 The Core Zone

This is the section identified as being in the center of the village, where most of vehicle/pedestrian
conflict would be expected to take place. This would normally be where any shops are sited, bus-
bays or other pedestrian generating activity. This is the section where pedestrian crossing facilities
are most likely to be established and where the target speed, and posted speed limit, should
typically be 40 km/h. Road humps would normally be provided within this zone with advisory speed
limits of 20 km/h in order to enforce the lower speed environment required.
2.4 Typical Village Treatment

A typical treatment, showing the three zones outlined above, is illustrated in Figure A-1.
The elements which make up the village treatment are as follows:
1) Roadway bar markings: These are used in the approach zone as the initial warning to the
driver that a speed reduction is required. They are painted on the carriageway immediately
in advance of the village entry point or Gateway (Figure A-2).
2)
The gateway: This marks the main entrance to the village and is a clear indication to the
driver that the road is now changing in character at this point as an additional encouragement
to reduce speed. Details of the Gateway are shown in Figure A-3.
3)
Rumble strips: These are used as warning devices to drivers to reinforce the fact that the
road through the village has been narrowed (Figure A-4).
4)
Road humps: These are the main self-enforcing means of producing a speed reduction.
There are two types of humps as follows:
a) Watts profile hump which has been designed to provide the required reduction in
speed while at the same time providing a reasonably comfortable ride for passengers
and the least damaging effect on vehicles when travelling at the advisory speed
(Figure A-5).
The specific purpose of the Watts profile hump is to lower traffic speeds. As such,
it is most useful as a back-up to the gateway so that drivers have little option but to
slow down before reaching the core zone. For this reason, the first hump in a series
of humps should always be a Watts profile hump, and should always be sited in the
transition zone, i.e. between the Gateway and the core zone.
b) Flat-top hump (see Figure 4B.2): The top portion of this hump is flat with a ramp
on either side at a grade of 1:15. The height of the hump is 100 mm and the
minimum width of the flat section (measured along the road centre line) is 3.7 metres
(Figure A-6).
The flat-top hump will generally be used at locations within the core zone of the village where
there is the greatest pedestrian demand. In this situation, the hump may be combined with
a pedestrian crossing, which would be sited on the flat part of the hump.
The recommended spacing and combination of road humps is shown in Figure A-7.
5)
Pedestrian crossings: Such crossings can be expediently combined with flat-top humps
by locating them on the flat top of the hump which itself is located in the core zone of the
village and has been designed to provide a safe crossing place for pedestrians, as well as
functioning as a speed retarder.
6)
Traffic signs and road markings: These are used to provide warning information to
motorists at all elements of the village treatment, such as at entry to the Gateway, at the
start and exit of the core zone, in advance of road humps, advising speeds, etc.
7)
Bus-bays and shelters: These should generally be provided in the core section of the
village and should be in pairs. They should be located back-to-back, i.e. when there is
a bus in each bay, they should be facing away from each other so that passengers leaving
a bus and then crossing the road, will be behind a bus parked on the opposite side, and
will not be crossing in front of it.
8)
Pedestrian routes: The aim should be to identify the major pedestrian routes within the
village, to determine at what point they join the road, and whether any realignment is
necessary to ensure that pedestrians are led to appropriate crossing places. The main
pedestrian route within a village should always join the road within the core zone.

Notes:
1. Layout not to scale.
2. Road cross-section dimensions and speed limits are indicative only and should be amended
to suit site conditions and traffic regulations.
Figure 4A-1: Village treatment - typical layout with approach, transition

and core zones and posted speed limits
Figure 4A-2: Village Treatment – Transverse bar marking and retro-reflective

pavement markers (RPRM) in approach zone
Figure 4A-3: Village treatment – gateway approach to village
Figure 4A-4: Village treatment: rumble bars
Figure 4A-5: Village treatment – Watts profile hump Part B - 4: Geometrics and Road Safety
Figure 4A-5: Village treatment – Watts profile hump

Figure 4A-7: Village treatment: Typical spacing and combination of road humps
Figure 4A-8: Figure 4A-9: Figure 4A-10:

(To be used with plate (To be used with plate (To be used in with plate
shown in Figure A-11) shown in Figure A-12) shown in Figure A-12)
HUMPS 20
for 500m km/h
Figure 4A-11: Figure 4A-12:
Plate for use with sign shown in Figure A-8 Plate for use with sign shown in Figures 9 and 10
Figure 4A-13: Village treatment – back-to-back bus-bays with flat top hump
Part B - 5: Pavement Design

5. PAVEMENT DESIGN
5.1 Introduction
In order to upgrade an unsealed road to a sealed standard as cost effectively as possible, optimal
use must be made of the in situ materials within the prevailing road environment. As a result of
undergoing many years of trafficking, coupled with climatic wetting and drying cycles, the unsealed
road would have achieved a significant degree of subgrade compaction, localised areas would have
been strengthened and an accumulation of residual gravel wearing course over the years would
provide a sound support or foundation for the new road. Optimising the use of these conditions
usually results in a reduced need to import large quantities of virgin material by only adding a new
layer (s), if necessary, to cater for the design traffic.
The main purpose of this chapter is to present the design procedure to be followed in upgrading
an unpaved road to a LVSR standard, based on the use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
method. The chapter presents the background to the development of the DCP design method,
provides an overview of the design approach, outlines the procedure to be followed in designing
LVSR roads and highlights the advantages and limitations of the method. A pavement design
example is presented in Annex A.
5.3 Background to the DCP Design Method
The original development of the DCP dates back to the mid-1950s in Australia based on an older
Swiss original, and was used initially as a non-destructive testing device to evaluate the shear
strength of a material in a pavement. The use of the DCP for pavement design purposes was
further enhanced in the mid-1960s and 1970s in South Africa where results from back analysis
of some 57 roads in different traffic and climatic environments, together with some accelerated
pavement testing with the Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) were used to verify the concepts used in
the design method and to establish expected life versus DCP penetration curves.
During the mid 1980s, a formal computerised method was developed for the DCP bringing in new
concepts and methodologies. The simplicity and ease of use makes the DCP ideally suited for
designing the upgrading of gravel roads to a paved standard. One of the major advantages of the
test is that the pavement is tested in the condition at which it performs. The simplicity of the test
allows repeated testing to minimise errors and also to allow for temporal effects.
5.4 Design Principles
5.4.1 Design philosophy

The philosophy behind the DCP design method is to achieve a balanced pavement design
whilst also optimising the utilisation of the in situ material strength as much as possible. This is
achieved by:
1) Determining the design strength profile needed

2) Integrating the strength profile with the in situ strength profile
To utilise the existing gravel road strength, the materials in the pavement structure need to be
tested for their actual in situ strength, using a DCP. This instrument has been designed to provide a
rapid, relatively low-cost, non-destructive method of estimating the in situ strength of fine-grained
and granular subgrades, base and sub-base materials and weakly cemented materials.
5.4.2 DCP number (DN)

The DCP measures the penetration per blow into a pavement through each of the different
pavement layers. This rate of penetration in mm/blow (the DN value) is a function of the in situ
shear strength of the material at the in situ moisture content and density of the pavement layers at
the time of DCP testing.
5.4.3 Layer-strength diagram

The profile in depth of the pavement gives an indication of the in situ properties of the materials
in all the pavement layers up to the depth of penetration of 800 mm. A schematic of the DCP is
shown in Figure 5-1 while a typical DCP in situ strength profile (layer-strength diagram) is shown
in Figure 5-2.
Handle
8 kg Hammer
3 mm
575 mm 60˚
1935 mm
20 mm
Anvil 60˚ Degree

hardened cone tip
Tape measure on a second rod
Hardened 60˚ cone
Figure 5-1: The DCP

0
100
PENETRATION DEPTH (mm)

200
300
400
500
600
700
800
1 3 10 30
DN (mm)/blow)
Figure 5-2: Layer-strength diagram
5.4.3 DCP structure number

The DCP structure number is the number of DCP blows required to penetrate a pavement structure
or layer. For example, the DSN800, a parameter which allows the bearing capacity of different
pavements to be compared, is the number of blows required to penetrate the pavement to a depth
of 800 mm.
5.4.4 Pavement strength balance

The DCP design and analysis method is based strongly on the concept of pavement strength
balance in which the strength balance of a pavement structure is defined as the change in the
strength of the pavement layer with depth. A well balanced pavement structure is one in which the
strength of the pavement layers and their composite bearing capacity decrease progressively and
smoothly with depth from the surface without any discontinuities.
From a knowledge of the DN values of various pavement layers, those of relatively high and
relatively low strength can be distinguished from each other and the balance of the pavement at
any depth can be evaluated. This has led to the development of a pavement classification system
in which shallow, deep and inverted pavements can be distinguished from each other and further
differentiated in terms of whether they are well-balanced, averagely balanced or poorly balanced.
The more the final bearing capacity is derived from the upper pavement layers (base and subbase)
relative to the lower layers, the “shallower” the pavement structure. In contrast, the more the lower
layers (subgrade) contribute to the final bearing capacity relative to the upper layers, the “deeper”
the pavement structure.
Standard pavement balance curves and the classification of the pavement structure derived from
the DCP measurements are presented as part of the output of the DCP analysis programme and the
designer does not have to manually determine this information. Nonetheless, the underlying concepts
behind the manner of determining Standard Pavement Balance Curves (SPBC) and classifying
pavements on the basis of their balance is presented as background information in Annex 5A.
5.4.5 Relationship between DN and CBR

The DCP rate of penetration into gravel or soil material (i.e. the DN value in mm/blow) is a reasonably
good predictor of CBR (and UCS) at the prevailing in situ moisture and density conditions using
the Kleyn relationship CBR = 410 x DN-1.27 which is applicable to low traffic roads with DN values
> 2 mm/blow.
The relationship between the DN value and both CBR and UCS is illustrated in Figure 5-3. It must
be stressed that the CBR values were determined using the South African TMH 1 testing standards
for which the procedure for CBR determination differs significantly from the British Standards (BS).
Thus, the DN-CBR correlation based on the BS method of CBR determination would be quite
different to the one based on the TMH 1 method.
Figure 5-3: Relationship between DN and CBR
As illustrated in Figure 5-3, there is a fair amount of scatter in the DCP-CBR plot. This is due not
only to the inherent variability exhibited by natural gravels but also to the very poor reproducibility
of the CBR test. It is for this important reason that the evaluation of the imported material for use
in the pavement layer(s) is based on a laboratory DN value rather than a laboratory CBR value as
presented in Chapter 6.

5.5 DCP Design Procedure
5.5.1 Flow diagram

A flow diagram of the DCP design process is shown in Figure 5-3 and is self-explanatory. The
process entails carrying out two parallel streams of activity aimed ultimately at determining a
suitable pavement structure from a design catalogue and comparing that with the existing pavement
structure determined from the DCP survey.
1 Undertake DCP Survey Determine in situ LSP for

each uniform section 6
Determine moisture content

2
along road pavement Determine required LSP
7
for each uniform section
This chapter
Determine DN values in
Chapter 2
3 pavement layers of entire Compare in situ LSP with

road (from DCP programme) required LSP for each 8
uniform section
Determine uniform sections

4 (CUSUM analysis) Determine upgrading
9
requirements
Adjust DN values for

5 design moisture content
Figure 5-4: Flow diagram of DCP design procedure
The manner of undertaking Steps 1 to 5 has been described previously in Chapter 2. In Section
2.5.5, the expected, long-term, in-service moisture conditions in the new sealed road were
considered in relation to the moisture conditions prevailing when the DCP survey was carried out
on. On this basis the DN value for each layer in each uniform section to be used for design is based
on the 20th, 50th or 80th percentile as indicated in Table 2-2.
The manner of carrying out the remaining Steps 6 to 9 of the DCP design procedure is
described below.
5.5.2 Step 6: Determine in situ layer strength profile for each uniform section
This determination is best undertaken using the DCP program. Input into the program the DN values
obtained from Step 5 and, based on an average analysis for each uniform section as undertaken
by the program, the layer strength (DN) profiles for each uniform section are plotted as shown
in Figures 5.5 and Figure 5.6 and the percentiles to be used in the design process are
computed automatically.
Figure 5-5: Collective DCP Figure 5-6: Average and extreme

strength profile DCP strength profiles
5.5.3 Step 7: D
etermine the required layer strength profile for each uniform
section
For a particular design traffic class (see Chapter 3), the required layer strength profile for each
uniform section is determined from the DCP design catalogue which is presented in Table 5-1 and
illustrated in Figure 5-7 for different traffic categories. These have been derived from back-analysis
of a number of LVSRs in the region, including Malawi.
The design catalogue is based on the anticipated, long term, in-service moisture condition. If there
is a risk of prolonged moisture ingress into the road pavement then the pavement design should
be based on the soaked condition.
Table 5-1: DCP-DN design catalogue for different traffic classes
Traffic Class LE 0.01 LE 0.03 LE 0.1 LE 0.3 LE 0.7 LE 1.0

E80 x 106 0.003 - 0.010 0.010 - 0.030 0.030 - 0.100 0.100 - 0.300 0.300 - 0.700 0.700 - 1.0
0- 150 mm Base
≥ 98% Mod. AASHTO DN ≤ 8 DN ≤ 5.9 DN ≤ 4 DN ≤ 3.2 DN ≤ 2.6 DN ≤ 2.5
150-300 mm Subbase
≥ 95% Mod. AASHTO DN ≤ 19 DN ≤ 14 DN ≤ 9 DN ≤ 6 DN ≤ 4.6 DN ≤ 4.0
300-450 mm subgrade
≥ 95% Mod. AASHTO DN ≤ 33 DN ≤ 25 DN ≤ 19 DN ≤ 12 DN ≤ 8 DN ≤ 6
450-600 mm
In situ material DN ≤ 40 DN ≤ 33 DN ≤ 25 DN ≤ 19 DN ≤ 14 DN ≤ 13
600-800 mm
In situ material DN ≤ 50 DN ≤ 40 DN ≤ 39 DN ≤ 25 DN ≤ 24 DN ≤ 23
DSN 800 (blows) ≥ 39 ≥ 52 ≥ 73 ≥ 100 ≥ 128 ≥ 143

DN (mm)/blow)
1- 10 100
0
100 LE 0.01
LE 0.03
200
LE 0.1
Depth (mm)
300
LE 0.3
400
LE 0.03
500
LE 1
600
700
800
Figure 5-7: Layer Strength Diagram for various traffic classes
5.5.4 STEP 8: C
ompare representative in situ strength profiles with the required
strength profile
Plot the required strength profile on the same layer-strength diagram on which the uniform section
layer strength profiles were plotted as illustrated in Figure 5-8. The comparison between the in
situ strength profile with the required design strength profile allows the adequacy of the various
pavement layers in depth to be assessed for carrying the expected future traffic loading. Points
lying to the right of the required strength profile for a specific traffic category indicate material of
inadequate strength at that depth.
DN (mm)/blow)
Figure 5-8: Comparison of DCP design and in situ strength profiles
5.5.5 STEP 9: Determine the upgrading requirements

Option 1: If the in situ strength profile of the existing gravel road complies with the required strength
profile indicated by the DCP catalogue for the particular traffic class, the road would need to be
only re-shaped, compacted and surfaced (assuming that the drainage requirements are adequate).
Option 2: If the in situ strength profile of the existing gravel road does not comply with the required
strength profile indicated by the DCP catalogue for the particular traffic class, then the upper
pavement layer(s) would need to be:
• eworked - if only the density is inadequate and the required DN value can be obtained at
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the specified construction density and anticipated in-service moisture content
• Replaced – if the material quality (DN value at the specified construction density and
anticipated in-service moisture content) is inadequate, then appropriate quality material will
need to be imported to serve as the new upper pavement layer(s)
• Augmented – if the material quality (DN value) is adequate but the layer thickness is
inadequate, then imported material of appropriate quality will need to be imported to make
up the required thickness prior to compaction
5.6 Strengths and Limitations of the DCP Design Method
5.6.1 Strengths
The main strengths of the DCP method are as follows:
• elatively low cost, robust apparatus that is quick and simple to use allowing comprehensive
R
characterisation of the in situ road conditions
• Provides improved precision limits compared to the CBR test
• Very little damage is done to the pavement being tested (effectively non-destructive) and
very useful information is obtained
• The pavement is tested in the condition at which it performs and the test can be carried out
in an identical manner both in the field and in the laboratory
• The simplicity of test allows repeated testing to minimise errors and also to account for
temporal effects
• The laboratory DN value is determined over a depth of 150 mm and not just the top
25 – 50 mm as with the CBR test
• The method is as good or better than any other method in taking into account variations in
moisture content and provides data quickly for analysis

Whilst not necessarily a strength, the DCP method of design provides a number of aspects of in-
built conservatism as follows:
(a) The DCP survey would probably record a conservative DN value in the gravel wearing
course as, when incorporated in the new pavement structure, typically as the new subbase,
compaction to refusal of this layer would most likely result in a higher density/lower DN
value compared with that obtained during the original DCP survey. Underlying layers should
also be improved slightly during compaction of overlying materials.
(b) Improved drainage, which should be a mandatory requirement when upgrading a gravel
road to a paved standard, would invariably reduce in-service moisture conditions along the
section affected and, by so doing, lower DN values.
(c) For well balanced pavements, if the traditionally recommended load equivalent exponent
of 4 to 4.2 is used, this could over-estimate the design traffic loading which would result in
the need for a thicker pavement than required.
5.6.2 Limitations
The main limitations that are likely to affect the results and their interpretation and that need to be
considered when using the DCP design method include:
• Use in very coarse granular or lightly stabilised materials

• Very hard cemented layers in the pavement structure
• The possibility of not recording very weak or thin layers when taking depth measurements
every 5 blows
• Poorly executed tests (hammer not falling the full distance, non-vertical DCP, excessive
movement of the depth measuring rod, etc.)
• Changes to standard specifications and the associated bidding documents
• As with all empirical methods, use outside the type of environment (materials, climate,
traffic, etc.) in which it was developed
Many of the above limitations are controllable if taken into account when using the DCP. Ultimately,
the onus remains on the designer to understand the environment and implications of each test in
relation to the in situ state of the material. This includes aspects such as material composition,
presence of large stones or hard layers, moisture content, density, etc. Sound engineering
judgment and understanding as well as knowledge of the specific site are necessary to maximise
the information that can be obtained from a DCP profile. Thus, unless the field conditions are fully
comprehended, the design engineer may draw erroneous conclusions or wrongly extrapolate data
provided from site teams.
ANNEX 5A: D etermination of Strength-Balance of Pavements
Pavement strength balance concepts

The pavement balance at any depth can be determined from the following formula:
DSN(%) = D[400B + (100 - B)2]/[4BD + (100 – B)2]
Where: DSN = pavement structure number (%)

B = parameter defining the standard pavement balance curve (SPBC)
D = pavement depth (%)
The above formula allows a series of curves to be developed for different pavement structure
numbers and depths. These can be plotted as Standard Pavement Balance Curves (SPBC) as
shown in Figure 5A-1.
Figure 5A-1: Standard Pavement Balance Curves

The number of DCP blows required to reach a certain depth, expressed as a percentage of the
number of DCP blows needed to penetrate the pavement to a depth of 800 mm, is defined as the
Balance Number (BN) at that depth as illustrated in Figure 5A-2. For example, the BN100 in the
Figure is the number of blows as a percentage of the DSN800 required to penetrate to a depth of
100 mm, i.e. 40 at 12.5% (100/800 = 12.5%).
Figure 5A-2: Graphic representation of the formula for the

Standard Pavement Balance Curve (SPBC)
Figure 5A-3 shows pavement strength-balance curves for typical natural gravel and lightly cemented
pavements in the Southern African region.
Figure 5A-3: Shows pavement strength-balance curves for typical natural gravel
and lightly cemented pavements in the Southern African region.
The higher the BN100 value (those tending to 80), the greater is the contribution to overall strength
from the upper pavement layers. Such pavements are considered to be “shallow” and tend to
be composed of one or two thin, strong and relatively stiff upper layer(s) with rapidly diminishing
support at depth from the underlying material. In contrast, the lower the BN100 value the greater the
contribution to overall strength from the lower pavement layers. Such pavements are considered
to be “deep” and tend to be composed of a number of relatively less rigid layers of relatively equal
strength, affording generous support at depth.
A relationship between the BN100 value and the power exponent “n” used to calculate the load
equivalency factor has also found that shallower pavements are more susceptible to overloading
(i.e. they exhibit a higher “n” exponent) than deep pavements.

Pavement classification
The pavement strength balance curves have been used to develop a pavement classification
system in which any pavement is classified in terms of the Balance Curve (B) which is the balance
curve of the pavement and the deviation (A) between the SPBC and the measured balance curve
which represents a “goodness of fit” parameter for the pavement. This deviation from a SPBC
represents the state of imbalance in the structure.
By way of example, Figure 5A-4 illustrates a balanced pavement structure while Figure 5A-5
illustrates an unbalanced structure in which the imbalance is indicated by the deviation of the
pavement balance curve from the SPBC.
Figure 5A-4: Balanced structure
Figure 5A-5: Unbalanced structure
The A and B parameter limits for defining the different categories in the pavement classification
system are summarised below:
Shallow pavements B ≥ 40 (BN ≥ 42%)

Deep pavements 0 ≤ B < 40 (12.5% ≤ BN < 42%)
Inverted pavements B < 0 (BN < 12.5%)
Well balanced 0 ≤ A ≤ 1200

Averagely balanced 1200 < A ≤ 3000
Poorly balanced A > 3000
Each cell in the classification system is defined by an A and a B descriptor, resulting in a possible
9 classification categories.
Part B - 6: Materials
6. MATERIALS
6.1 Introduction
Naturally occurring soils, gravel soil mixtures and gravels occur extensively in many parts of
Malawi. These unprocessed materials are a valuable resource as they are relatively cheap to exploit
compared, for example, to processed materials such as crushed rock, and are often the only
source of material within a reasonable haul distance of the road alignment. Thus, in order to
minimise construction costs, maximum use must be made of locally available materials. However,
their use requires not only a sound knowledge of their properties and behaviour but also of the
traffic loading, physical environment and their interactions.
Although many naturally occurring materials do not meet conventional selection criteria they,
nonetheless, still provide satisfactory performance. Their choice must therefore be based on
locally developed selection criteria, non-standard testing, and attention to construction technique.
In addition, it is important to recognise that the specifications for materials must be coupled to the
pavement design method being used - in this case, the DCP design method.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide guidance on the selection and use of locally available
materials in the construction of LVSRs. The topics covered include:
• Approach to using local materials

• Selection of materials
• Specification of materials
• Testing of materials
6.3 Approach to Using Local Materials
In order to optimise the use of naturally occurring materials, a holistic approach is required in
which attention is paid to the compatibility between the pavement structure, the materials used,
the type of surfacing, construction processes and, above all, control of moisture through effective
drainage. Moreover, where some degree of risk in long-term performance can be accepted, then
strict requirements may be relaxed and a wide range of naturally occurring non-standard materials
may successfully be used. However, such use demands careful attention to three factors:
• asic engineering principles; there must be a careful evaluation of the in-service environment
b
and a reasonable assurance that adequate internal and external drainage will be provided
(see Chapter 8)
• compacted density; there must be very good construction quality control (see Section 6.4 (2)
• probability of failure; there must be a realistic acceptance of the higher risk of lesser
performance
A fundamental feature of the DCP design method is that it utilises the existing road structure without
disturbing its inherent strength derived from consolidation by traffic over many years and requires the
addition of a minimum thickness base (sometimes subbase) layer of appropriate quality. Such quality
is expressed in terms of the materials DCP resistance to penetration, i.e. its DN value, at the specified
compaction density and expected in service moisture condition – the parameter that serves as the
criterion for selecting the materials to be used in the upper/base layer of the LVSR pavement.
The DCP design approach and related method of materials selection differ markedly from the more
traditional design approaches. In these latter approaches, pavement materials are traditionally
evaluated by classification tests, such as grading and plasticity. However, research and investigations
from the region and internationally have led to replacing these criteria with tests and specifications
based on the measurement of the required engineering properties of strength and stiffness. More
specifically, it has been shown that provided the design DN value is achieved - essentially a
measure of a material’s shear resistance to penetration at a given moisture and density - then in-
service performance indirectly takes account of the actual grading and plasticity of the material
which do not need to be separately specified for LVSRs. Thus, a poorly graded, highly plastic
material would not be expected to provide a relatively low DN value (high resistance to penetration)
that might be specified for the base layer of a LVSR.
6.4 Selection of Materials
The materials selected for use in the upper layers of a LVSR should exhibit the following attributes
at the specified density and anticipated in-service moisture content:
• adequate bearing capacity under any individual applied load

• adequate bearing capacity to resist progressive failure under repeated individual loads
• the ability to retain bearing capacity under various environmental influences such as climate,
drainage and moisture regime
As discussed in Section 6.3, the criterion to be used for selecting a material for use in a LVSR
should be based primarily on its strength as measured by resistance to penetration, or DN value.
A proper evaluation of the suitability of the materials for incorporation in the pavement will require
a knowledge of the DN/moisture/density relationship as discussed below.
(1) Strength – The required strength of the material is determined in terms of a laboratory DCP
DN value at a specified moisture and density. The procedure for obtaining the laboratory
DN value of the material is presented in Annex 6A.
Table 6-1 provides an approximate guide to the relationship between the laboratory CBR and DN
values at varying moisture contents.
Table 6-1: Approximate relationship between laboratory CBR and

DN values at varying moisture contents
Material CBR and DN values at moisture content

Classification Soaked OMC 0.75 OMC
CBR DN CBR DN CBR DN
NG801 80 3.7 95 3.2 150 2.2
NG651 65 4.5 90 3.8 145 2.5
NG452 45 5.7 70 4.2 110 3.0
NG302 30 8.0 60 4.7 95 3.2
NG252 25 9.1 55 5.0 85 3.5
NG153 15 14.0 50 5.4 80 3.6
NG103 10 19.0 35 7.0 60 4.6
1 - @ 98% MAASHO; 2 - @ 95% MAASHO; 3 - @ 93% MAASHO.
(2) The strength/density/moisture relationship: The moisture and density dependence
of the materials to be used in the imported upper/base layers of the new road must be
evaluated carefully so that a full understanding is obtained of the potential performance of
the material under the possible moisture conditions which may occur in service.
Achievement of the above will require that a normal borrow pit investigation is carried out
with representative samples being obtained for laboratory testing to determine the DN
value at varying moisture contents and densities.
Figure 6-1 shows a typical relationship between DN, density and moisture content for a
naturally occurring material in Malawi which illustrates two critical factors that crucially
affect the long-term performance of the road:
1) The need to specify the highest level of density practicable (so-called “compaction
to refusal” by employing the heaviest rollers available.
2) The need to ensure that the moisture content in the outer wheel track of the road
does not rise above OMC. This will require careful attention to drainage, as discussed
in Chapter 7.
DN at varying MC and % compaction
12.0 11.0%
9.5%
10.0
SOAKED
8.0 7.3%
6.6%
6.2%
6.0 4.8%
OMC 3.8%
3.4% 3.5%
4.0 3.0%
2.2%
2.0 1.4%
0.75 OMC
0.0
92% 93% 94% 95% 96% 97% 92% 99% 100% 101%
% BS Heavy Compaction
Figure 6-1: DN/density/moisture relationship
(3)
Grading modulus (GM): This parameter is expressed by the relationship:
GM = [300-(P2+P425+P075]/100 where P2, etc., denote the percentage passing through
that sieve size. Its inclusion as a specification criterion is to avoid the unnecessary testing
of materials that are patently unsuitable for use in a pavement layers in terms their grading
and/or plasticity, e.g. very fine, plastic soils or very coarsely/poorly graded gravels.
6.5 Specification of Materials
The two material’s parameters that need to be specified for the imported pavement layers are
as follows:
(a) Density: The density to which the material in the upper/base layer must be compacted
should be the highest that is practicable, i.e. “compaction to refusal”.
(b) DN value: The DN value of the materials to be used in the upper/base layer of the pavement
at a specified density and moisture content. These values will be determined as an output
of the DCP design method.
(c) Grading modulus: The minimum GM (typically > 1.0) and maximum GM (typically < 2.25)
of the material as a prerequisite for subsequent laboratory testing.
6.6 Testing of Materials
Materials testing is normally prescribed in standards put out by various countries, of which the BS
(British), ASTM (American) and TMH (South Africa), are in common use in the region. Unfortunately,
these methods differ in many respects with regard to the actual test procedure and the method
of testing. For example, authorities employing a BS LL device will obtain a Plasticity Index (PI)
on average 4 units higher than those using an ASTM LL device. It is important, therefore, not to
indiscriminately mix testing standards because the differences in test procedure produce quite
different results leading to inconsistencies in the quality of materials incorporated in the road works.
ANNEX 6A: Determination of Laboratory DN Value
The procedure to be followed in determining the DN value of a material is similar to that for
the more traditional CBR test except that a DCP is used to penetrate the CBR mould instead of
the CBR plunger.
1. Collection of samples
Potential borrow pits shall be surveyed by trial pit excavation and sampling at the detailed design
stage. The survey shall prove sufficient quantities for all pavement layers and the sampling frequency
shall be the minimum indicated in Table 6A-1 per DN test.
Table 6A-1: Minimum test frequency
Intended Use Required volume (m3)/ DN test

Base course 5 000 m3
Subbase 10 000 m3
Improved subgrade 10 000 m3
Fill 20 000 m3
2. Preparation of samples
The manner of dealing with oversize in the sample preparation for DN testing should
be in accordance with the SANS 3001 Procedure 2 (crushing method) which may be summarised
as follows:
• Screen field sample on 20 mm sieve

• emove material retained on 20 mm sieve and crush so that all material passes
R
20 mm sieve
• Recombine crushed material with rest of field material and mix thoroughly
• Take care not to over-crush material
• Use minimum effort to reduce material so that it passes the 20 mm sieve
3. Compaction of samples
Some natural, particularly pedogenic, gravels (e.g. laterite, calcrete) exhibit a self-cementing
property in service, i.e. they gain strength with time after compaction. This effect must be evaluated
as part of the test procedure by allowing the samples to cure prior to testing in the manner
prescribed below.
(a) Thoroughly mix and split each borrow pit sample into nine sub-samples for DN testing
in a CBR mould at three moisture contents: (a) soaked, (b) at OMC and (c) at 0.75 OMC
and three compactive efforts: (a) BS Light, (b) BS Intermediate and (c) BS Heavy as
summarised below:
Compactive effort Moisture content

BS Light Soaked OMC 0.75 OMC
BS Intermediate Soaked OMC 0.75 OMC
BS Heavy Soaked OMC 0.75 OMC
(b) The samples should be allowed to equilibrate for the periods shown below before DN
testing is carried out to dissipate compaction stresses and to allow the samples to cure.
(a) 4 days soaked: After compaction, soak for 4 days, allow to drain for at least 15
minutes, then undertake a DCP test in the CBR mould to determine the soaked DN
value.
(b)
At OMC: After compaction, seal in a plastic bag and allow to “cure” for 7 days
(relatively plastic, especially pedogenic, materials (PI > 6), or for 4 days (relatively
non-plastic materials (PI < 6)), then undertake a DCP test in the CBR mould to
determine the DN value at OMC. (N.B: The curing period is required to dissipate pore
pressure generated during the compaction process).
(c) At 0.75 OMC: Air dry the sample in the sun (pedogenic materials) or place the
sample in the oven to maximum 50 degrees Celsius (non-pedogenic materials) to
remove moisture. Check from time to time to determine when sufficient moisture has
been dried out to produce a sample moisture content of about 0.75 OMC (it doesn’t
have to be exactly 0.75 OMC, but as close as possible). Once this moisture content
is reached, seal the sample in a plastic bag and allow to cure for 7 days (pedogenic
materials) or for 4 days (non-pedogenic materials) to allow moisture equilibration
before undertaking the DCP test at approximately 0.75 OMC. Weigh again before
DCP testing to determine the exact moisture content at which the DN value was
determined.
4. Determination of DN value
Each of the nine specimens should be subjected to DCP testing in the CBR mould as summarised
below and illustrated in Figure 6A-1.
(a) Secure the CBR mould to the base plate and compact sample in standard CBR as indicated
in Section 1.1 above.
(b) Place the full mould on a level floor and place the annular weight on top of the mould.
(c) Place an empty CBR mould upside down next to the full mould as shown. Alternatively use
bricks or cement blocks to provide a steady platform for the base of the DCP ruler level with
or slightly higher than the top of the full mould.
(d) Position the tip of the DCP cone in the middle of the CBR mould, hold the DCP in a vertical
position, knock it down carefully until the top of the 3 mm shoulder is level with the top of
the sample and record the zero reading.
(e) Knock the cone into the sample with “n” number of blows and record the reading on
the ruler after every “n” blows as shown in the example. At OMC and 0.75 OMC “n” may
be 5. At 4-days soak “n” may be 1 or 2. “n” does not have to be the same number for
all readings.
(f) Continue until just before the tip of the cone touches the base plate and stop there in order
not to blunt the cone (the last reading minus the “zero blows” reading must be less than the
height of the mould 115 mm).
(g) Determine the weighted average DN value (see example below).
Figure 6A-1: Determination of laboratory DN value (Not to scale)
5. Procedure for calculating weighted average DN value for DCP lab test:
1. Record the readings as shown and calculate the DN per “n” blows and Average DN
per blow.
2. Calculate the Weighted Average DN for the whole test using the formula:
DN = ∑(Avg DN per blow x DN per n blows)

Penetration depth
Note that the Weighted Average DN is different from the Average DN which is not
representative for the sample and is only to illustrate the difference.

3. Carry out at least 2 more tests on the same material and calculate the average DN
for the three (or more) tests.
4. Assess whether the material satisfies the design criteria from the DCP Design
Catalogue.
Table 6A-1: Determination of lab DN values at varying moisture contents and specific density
4 Days Soaked OMC 0.75 OMC

98% BS Heavy 98% BS Heavy 98% BS Heavy
No of DCP DN per Avg. DN No of DCP DN per Avg. DN No of DCP DN per Avg. DN
blows n Reading n blows per blow blows Reading n blows per blow blows n Reading n blows per blow
(n) (mm) (mm/blow) (mm/blow) (n) (mm) (n) (mm) (mm/blow) (mm/blow)
0 130 0 129 0 123
1 150 20 20.0 5 137 8 1.6 5 141 18 10.60
1 167 17 17.0 5 149 12 2.4 5 151 10 9.40
1 180 13 13.0 5 178 15 3.0 5 165 14 8.67
1 190 10 10.0 5 194 14 2.8 5 178 13
1 215 25 25.0 5 216 16 3.2 5 190 12
22 4.4 5 206 16
2 214 8
Penetration depth 85 87 91
Average DN (mm/blow) 17.0 2.90 2.94
Weighted average DN
(mm/blow) 18.62 3.15 2.96
Part B - 7: Surfacings
7. SURFACINGS
7.1 Introduction
The surfacing is a very important part of a LVSR pavement. It prevents gravel loss, eliminates dust,
improves skid resistance, and reduces water ingress into the pavement. The prevention of water
ingress into the pavement is especially important in LVRSs where moisture sensitive materials are
often used.
There are a large number of surfacing options available for use on LVSRs and they offer a range of
attributes which need to be matched to such factors as expected traffic levels and loading, locally
available materials and skills, construction and maintenance regimes and the environment. Careful
consideration should therefore be given to all these factors in order to make a judicious choice of
surfacing to provide satisfactory performance and minimise life cycle costs.
The main purpose of this chapter is to provide a broad overview of:
• he various types of surfacings, both bituminous and non-bitumnous, that are potentially
T
suitable for use on LVSRs, including their constituents
• The performance characteristics and typical service lives of the various types of surfacings
• The factors affecting the choice of surfacings
The chapter does not deal with the design of surfacings which is outside of the scope of
the manual.
7.3 Bituminous Surfacings
7.3.1 Surfacing types

The main types of thin bituminous surfacings that are typically used for LVSRs and are relatively
low cost are as follows:
1) Surface dressing
2) Cape Seal
3) Otta seal
4) Cold mix asphalt
5) Slurry seal
6) Sand seal
The more common types of bituminous surfacings used on LVSRs are shown in Figure 7-1 and are
discussed briefly below.
SAND SEAL 3 SINGLE OTTA

1 Prime 2 SEAL
1
2 Binder No Prime 2
3 Sand 1 Binder 1
2 Graded
SINGLE SURFACE aggregate
DRESSING
1 Prime 3
2
2 Binder 1
3 Stone DOUBLE OTTA 2 1
SEAL 2 layer
No Prime
DOUBLE SURFACE 2
1 Binder 1 layer
DRESSING 5 1
2 Graded
1 Prime 4
3 aggregate
2 Binder
2
3 Large Stone 1
4 Binder
5 Small Stone
CAPE SEAL 4 COLD MIX

1 Prime ASPHALT 2
2 Binder 3 1 Tack
2
3 Stone 1 2 Asphalt 1
4 Slurry Premix
Figure 7-1: Common types of bituminous surfacings

Figure 7-1: Common types of bituminous surfacings
7.3.1 Surface Dressing

This non-structural seal (single or double) consists of a spray(s) of bituminous binder followed by
the application of a layer(s) of aggregate (stone chippings). The binder acts as a waterproofing seal
preventing entry of surface water into the road structure while the chippings protect this film from
damage by vehicle tyres.
7.3.2 Cape seal

A Cape Seal consists of a single 13 mm or 19 mm aggregate, penetrated with a binder and covered
with a slurry seal. If 19 mm aggregate is used, the slurry is applied in two layers. The function of the
slurry is to provide a dense void filler to enhance the stability of the single-sized coarse aggregate
layer. The coarse aggregate is left proud to provide the macro texture for skid resistance.
7.3.3 Otta seal

An Otta seal is a sprayed bituminous surfacing comprising a mixture of graded aggregates ranging
from natural gravel to crushed rock with relatively soft (low viscosity) binder, with or without a sand
cover seal. This type of seal contrasts with the single sized crushed aggregate and relatively hard
(high viscosity) binders used in Chip seals. The following are the main types of Otta Seals:
• Single/Double Otta seal: - open/medium/dense graded

- Sand seal/no sand seal cover
7.3.4 Cold mix asphalt

Cold Mix Asphalt is a coarsely graded aggregate seal, similar in make-up to the Otta seal, but uses
emulsion instead of hot bitumen as the binder. It is particularly suited for labour-based applications
and can be constructed entirely with hand tools, simple equipment and a pedestrian roller for
compaction. It relies on bitumen bonding and particle interlock more than on the strength of the
aggregates. Because of its porous nature durability of the seal may be a concern.
7.3.5 Slurry seal
A Slurry Seal consists of a homogeneous mixture of pre-mixed materials comprising fine aggregate,
stable-mix grade emulsion (anionic or cationic) or a modified emulsion, water and filler (cement or
lime). The production of a slurry can be undertaken in simple concrete mixes or more sophisticated
purpose-designed machines which mix and spread the slurry. The seal is used for treating various
defects on an existing road surface such as arresting loss of chippings and restoring surface
texture.
7.3.6 Sand seal

This seal consists of a spray of binder followed by the application of a coarse, clean sand or
crusher dust as aggregate. This surfacing is used on low-volume roads, especially in drier regions,
but can also be used for resealing, or for temporary by-passes. For new construction two layers
are usually specified as single layers tend to be not durable. There is an extended curing period
(typically 8 – 12 weeks) between the first and second seal applications to ensure complete loss of
volatiles and thus prevent bleeding.
7.3.7 Typical service life

The life of a surface treatment depends on a wide range of factors such as the quality of the
design, climate, pavement strength, binder durability, standard of workmanship, adequacy of
maintenance etc. As a result, the service life of the surfacing can vary widely. In general, however,
thin seals, which are typically used as temporary or holding measures in a phased surfacing
strategy, have much shorter service lives (generally < 10 years) than double/combination seals
(generally > 10 years).
Table 7-1 provides a broad indication of the relative service lives of different types of surface
treatments which, together with other factors (Section 7-5) could assist in the selection of the type
of surfacing in the context of a life-cycle cost analysis (Section 7-6).
Table 7-1: Typical service life of surfacings*
Type of surfacing Typical service life (years)

(a) Thin seal/phased strategy
• Single sand seal 2 - 3
• Double sand seal 3 - 6
• Slurry seal 3 - 5
• Single chip seal 6 - 8
(b) Double/combination seal strategy

• Double chip seal 8 - 10
• Cold mix asphalt 8 - 10
• Single Otta seal 8 - 10
• Single Otta seal + Sand seal 10 - 12
• Cape seal (13 mm + single slurry) 10 - 12
• Cape seal (19 mm + double slurry) 12 - 15
• Double Otta seal 15 - 18
* Assumes that timeous routine and periodic maintenance is carried out
7.3.8 Design of bituminous surfacings

Various methods have been developed by various authorities for the design of bituminous surfacings.
The design of a particular type of surfacing is usually project specific and related to such factors as
traffic volume, climatic conditions, available type and quality of materials.
The detailed design of surface treatments is beyond the scope of this manual. Relevant references
dealing with such design are presented in the bibliography.
7.4 Non-Bituminous Surfacings
7.4.1 Main types

The main types of non-bituminous surfacings that are potentially suitable for use on LVSRs include
the following
(1) Stone paving

- Cobble Stone
(2) Fired clay or concrete brick

- Unmortared/mortared joints
(3) Concrete
- Non-reinforced concrete
7.4.2 Stone paving

(a) Cobble Stone
Bricks suitable for road surfacing can be produced by firing clay in large or small scale kilns using
coal, wood or some agricultural wastes as a fuel. The bricks must achieve certain strength, shape
and durability requirements. The fired bricks are generally laid on edge to form a layer of typical
100 mm thickness on sand or sand-cement bedding layer and jointed similarly. Kerbs or edge
restraints are necessary and can be provided by sand-cement mortared fired bricks. The fired
bricks are normally laid in a herring bone or other approved pattern to enhance load spreading
characteristics. Un-mortared brick paving is compacted with a plate compactor and the jointing
sand is topped up if necessary. For mortar bedded and jointed fired clay brick paving, no compaction
is required.
Photo 7-1: Example of Cobble Stone surfacing
7.4.3 Fired clay brick
Bricks suitable for road surfacing can be produced by firing clay in large or small scale kilns using
coal, wood or some agricultural wastes as a fuel. The bricks must achieve certain strength, shape
and durability requirements. The fired bricks are generally laid on edge to form a layer of typical
100 mm thickness on sand or sand-cement bedding layer and jointed similarly. Kerbs or edge
restraints are necessary and can be provided by sand-cement mortared fired bricks. The fired
bricks are normally laid in a herring bone or other approved pattern to enhance load spreading
characteristics. Un-mortared brick paving is compacted with a plate compactor and the jointing
sand is topped up if necessary. For mortar bedded and jointed fired clay brick paving, no compaction
is required.
Photo 7-2: Example of burnt Clay Brick surfacing (Herringbone pattern)
7.4.4 Concrete bricks

Concrete brick paving is a well-established technique for applications from light pedestrian to rural
roads to very heavy vehicle loading. The success of the technique is based on the proven ability of
individual bricks to effectively disperse load to adjacent bricks through the sand joints. Concrete
brick pavements have good load spreading properties especially on low strength subgrades. They
are also well suited for heavily stressed turning areas or intersections and are re-usable if road base
failure occurs. They can be laid in a variety of patterns (e.g. Herringbone, Stretcher) depending on
user preference.
Concrete bricks are produced with a maximum aggregate size of 6 mm and typical dimensions of
200 x 100 x 70 mm thick with a minimum crushing strength of 25 MPa. Bricks below this strength
are unlikely to provide adequate resistance to traffic impact and are likely to break or wear rapidly
or irregularly.
Photo 7-3: Example of concrete brick paving (Herringbone pattern)
7.4.5 Un-reinforced/reinforced concrete

Unreinforced or reinforced concrete slab pavements, of varying thickness (as little as 50 mm with
ultra-thin, mesh-reinforced, surfacings) can be used to provide a high strength, durable road
surface with very low maintenance requirements. Concrete of minimum 20 MPa quality is required
to be used. Joints are required to accommodate thermal expansion and contraction. Whilst it
would normally be difficult to justify the use of concrete surfacing on LVSRs, this may be necessary
on very steep grades, particularly in high rainfall areas, where bituminous or other types on non-
bituminous surfacings may not be feasible.
Photo 7-5: Example of reinforced concrete surfacing
7.4.5 Typical service lives
The service life of a non-bituminous surfacing is relatively much longer than for a bituminous
surfacing. This is due largely to the superior durability of the surfacing material, mostly natural
stone, which is very resistant to the environment. Provided that the foundation support and road
drainage are adequate, non-bituminous surfacings require relatively little maintenance and will last
almost infinitely.
7.4.6 Design of non-bituminous surfacings

The design approach for non-bituminous surfacings is similar to that of the more traditional
bituminous surfacings, in that design inputs are principally traffic volumes, subgrade soil conditions
and other environmental factors.
A number of design catalogues have been developed based on a combination of experience

gained in LVR trials in other countries; existing published design details; engineering judgment and,
where relevant, correlation with bituminous LVR design catalogues in terms of equivalent structural
number. The designer is referred to other publications dealing with the design of non-bituminous
surfacings, such as the Ethiopia Design Manual for Low Volume Roads.
7.5 Factors Affecting Choice of Surfacings

The choice of the appropriate surfacing type in a given situation will depend on the relevance or
otherwise of a number of factors, including the following:
• Traffic (volume and type)

• Pavement (type – strength and flexural properties)
• Materials (type and quality)
• Environment (climate – temperature, rainfall, etc.)
• Operational characteristics (geometry – gradient, curvature, etc.)
• Safety (skid resistance - surface texture, etc.)
• Construction (techniques and contractor experience)
• Maintenance (capacity and reliability)
• Economic and financial factors (available funding, life cycle costs, etc.)
• Other external factors
The suitability of various types of surfacings for use on LVSRs, in terms of their efficiency and
effectiveness in relation to the operational factors outlined above is summarised in Table 7-2.
Whilst not exhaustive, the factors listed in the table provide a basic format which can be adapted
or developed to suit local conditions and subsequently used to assist in making a final choice of
surfacing options. These options can then be subjected to a life cycle cost analysis and a final
decision made with due regard to prevailing economic factors and be compatible with the overall
financial situation.
Table 7-2: Suitability of various surfacings for use on LVSRs
Thin seal/phased strategy Double/Combination seal strategy

Surfacing attributes SSS DSS SLS SSD SSD+SS DSD SOS SOS+SS DOS CS 13 mm CS 19 mm CMA
Ease of design
Ease of construction
Service life
Suitability for LBM
Risk of poor mtce capability
High skid resistance
Early road marking
Suitability for turning actions
Sensibility to material quality
Constr. sensitivity *
to gradient (>8%)
Very good SSS-Single Sand Seal
DSS-Double Sand Seal
Good SLS-Slurry Seal
SSD-Single Surface Dressing
Reasonable SOS-Single Otta Seal
DSD-Double Surface Dressing
Poor/not suited DOS-Double Otta Seal
CS-Cape Seal 13/19 mm+Single/Double SLS
CMA-Cold Mix Asphalt
7.6 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis
In order to determine the most cost-effective type of surfacing to use on a LVSR, it is necessary to
undertake a life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis of the feasible options. Such an analysis focuses on the
cost of the various surfacing options by comparing the construction and maintenance costs during
the life of the road according to the criterion of minimum total (life cycle) costs.
The main inputs for undertaking a LCC analysis include:
• Assumed service life of surfacing

• Construction cost for surfacing options
• Maintenance cost for surfacing options
• Discount rate
The analysis assumes that the vehicle operating costs imposed by the various options are similar
due to very small differences in their roughness levels.
In the life-cycle analysis process, the alternative pavement/surface options are compared by
converting all the costs and benefits that may occur at different times throughout the life of
each option to their present day values. Such values are obtained using discounted cash flow
techniques involving the use of an appropriate discount rate, to determine the Present Value (PV)
of the pavement/surface options. The lowest PV option represents the financially optimum solution.
The discount rate used must be representative of the country.
Figure 7-2 shows the manner of undertaking a LCC analysis by comparing the PV of all costs and
maintenance interventions that occur during a given analysis period. The example is a hypothetical
one used for illustrative purposes only and does not necessarily reflect a real life situation.
An example of a LCC comparison between a single Otta Seal plus sand seal and a Double Surface
Dressing is presented in Annex 7A.
SSD (Precoated chips) SSD (Precoated chips)
Figure 7-2: Cost components of a LCC between a single Otta seal

+ sand seal and a double Surface Dressing
ANNEX 7A: L
ife Cycle Cost Comparison between a Single
Otta Seal plus Sand Seal and a Double Chip
Seal (hypothetical only)
1. An illustrative example of a life cycle cost analysis is presented below of the more
conventional double Chip Seal with the equivalent alternative of the single Otta Seal
plus a sand seal cover. The analysis assumes that “best practice” is followed in terms of
maintenance intervention measures being carried out at the appropriate time.
2. The life cycle cost analysis is based on discounted cash flow techniques, employing the
Present Worth Method of economic analysis. This method involves the conversion of all
costs incurred in the construction and subsequent maintenance of the seal, including
the provision of road marking, to a common base year of Present Value (PV) costs. It is
assumed that the vehicle operating costs are similar for both seals. The totals of the PV’s
of costs for both seals can then be compared with each other. The difference in these PV’s
gives a good relative comparison of the life cycle costs of the seals.
Table 7A-1: Life cycle cost analysis for Double Chip Seal
Activity Years after Base 8% Discount PV of

2
construction cost/m ($) factor cost/m2 ($)
1. Construct Double Chip Seal - 10.00 1.0000 10.00
2. Fog spray 4 02.00 0.7350 1.47
3. Road marking 4 00.96 0.7350 0.71
4. Single Chip Seal (pre-coated) 8 10.00 0.5403 5.40
5. Road marking 8 00.96 0.5403 0.52
6. Fogspray 12 2.00 0.3971 0.79
7. Road marking 12 00.96 0.3971 0.38
8. Single Chip Seal (pre-coated) 16 10.00 0.2919 2.92
9. Road marking 16 00.96 0.2919 0.28
10. Residual value of surfacing 20 (5.00) 0.2145 (1.07)
Total $21.40/m2
Table 7A-2: Life cycle cost analysis for single Otta Seal + sand seal cover
Activity Years after 1999 Base 8% Discount PV of

construction cost ($) factor cost ($)
1. Construct single Otta Seal
+ sand Seal - 7.25 1.00 7.25
2. Road marking 5 0.96 0.6806 0.65
3. Single Otta reseal 10 7.25 0.4632 3.36
4. Road marking 10 0.96 0.4632 0.44
5. Roadmarking 15 0.96 0.3152 0.30
Assume life span of 20 years.
thus, no residual value. 0.00
Total $12.00/m2
Conclusion:
The above calculations indicate that, in LCC terms, the cost of the Double Chip seal option is
approximately 78% higher than the single Otta seal plus sand seal cover. As is apparent, the cost
advantage of the latter over the former is derived mainly as a result of lower initial construction
costs, longer seal life and less maintenance interventions. The difference would be even greater if
any haulage of aggregate is involved or if screened gravel within the project area were used for the
Otta Seal rather than crushed aggregate.
NOTES
Part B - 8: Drainage
8. DRAINAGE
8.1 Introduction
Effective internal and external drainage are of crucial importance to the good performance of LVSRs
which are generally constructed from relatively moisture-sensitive, naturally occurring materials.
Lack of good drainage can lead to ingress of water in the road structure, subsequent weakening
of the pavement materials and eventual failure of the road. It is therefore of critical importance to
ensure that when a gravel road is being upgraded to a sealed standard that the existing drainage
system is functioning properly and, if this is not the case, to undertake the necessary improvements.
Such improvements need to be considered carefully because judging the effectiveness of different
options is quite difficult and the cost of the options can vary greatly.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a drainage framework to assist the designer in evaluating
the adequacy of existing infrastructure and the need for new infrastructure when low volume gravel
roads are upgraded to a paved standard. The general approach adopted is to make maximum use
of existing drainage facilities and to evaluate their adequacy to ensure that the performance of the
road will not be adversely affected by inadequate drainage infrastructure. The chapter does not
deal with detailed drainage design which is outside of the scope of the manual.
The chapter addresses the following drainage-related issues:
• Hydrology
• Structural loading
• Road level
• Road surface drainage
• Sub-surface drainage
• Drainage channels
• Culverts
• Low level structures
• High level structures
• Subsurface drainage
8.3 Hydrology
It is necessary to undertake a hydrological analysis in order to obtain information on runoff and

stream flow characteristics. Such information is used as a basis for checking the adequacy of
the hydraulic design of the existing drainage facilities such as culverts, low level structures and
drainage channels or for designing new facilities, where required.
8.3.1 Return period

Recommended return periods for different types of structures on low volume roads should be
in accordance with national standards. The return period of the existing infrastructure should be
determined and should then be compared to the values recommended in the national standards.
Previous experience with regard to the adequacy of the facilities as experienced by both road users
and the Roads Authority should be taken into account in this process.
8.3.2 Methods of design flood estimation & hydraulic calculations

Various methods for the determination of the design flood can be used. The designer is referred to
the guidelines available on design flood determination.
8.3.3 Hydraulic calculations

Hydraulic calculations are necessary to determine or evaluate the size and spacing of drainage
structures. Other factors to be determined for the design of the drainage structures include flow
velocities, flow depths and flow patterns. Design procedures are left to the designer, who is referred
to available guidelines.
8.4 Road Level
8.4.1 Crown height

The crown height of a LVSR, i.e. the vertical distance from the bottom of the side drain to the
finished road level at the centre line, is a critical parameter that correlates well with the in-service
performance of pavements constructed from naturally occurring materials. This height must be
sufficiently great to prevent moisture ingress into the potentially vulnerable outer wheel track of the
carriageway for which a minimum value of 0.75 m is recommended.
Centre line
Base
Side slope Subbase
h
Natural ground level d Improved subgrade
In situ subgrade
Drain
h = crown height
Figure 8-1: Crown height for LVSRs
The recommended minimum crown height of 0.75 m applies to unlined drains in relatively flat ground
(longitudinal gradient, g, less than 1%). The recommended values for sloping ground (g > 1%) or
where lined drains are used, for example, in urban or peri-urban areas, are shown in Table 8-1.
Table 8-1: Recommended crown height in relation to drain type and longitudinal gradient
Crown height (m)

Unlined drains Lined drains
g < 1% g > 1% g < 1% g > 1%
0.75 0.65 0.65 0.50
In addition to observing the crown height requirements, it is also equally important to ensure that
the bottom of the subbase is maintained at a height of at least 150 mm above the existing ground
level (distance d in Figure 8-1). This is to minimise the likelihood of wetting up of this pavement
layer due to moisture infiltration from the drain.
Because of the critical importance of observing the minimum crown height and minimum height
of the bottom of the subbase above existing ground level, along the entire length of the road, the
measurement of this parameter should form an important part of the drainage assessment carried
out during the preliminary road evaluation (ref. Chapter 2). This is to ensure that any existing
drainage problems associated with depressed pavement construction, often observed on gravel
roads that have evolved over time with no strict adherence to observing minimum crown heights
(see Figure 8-.2), is avoided.
Centre line
Shallow ditches poor
surface drainage Natural surface
Water ponding
Shallow cut
Moisture migration
Figure 8-2: Potential drainage problems associated with depressed pavement construction
8.4.2 Deep cuttings and high embankments

Existing deep cuttings and high embankents require special attention with regard to drainage to
ensure that they will be stable when the road is upgraded.
The adequacy of the drainage of deep cuttings should be investigated. Where necessary, measures
such as cut-off (interceptor or catch-water) drains up-slope and behind the cut face must be
provided (see Section 8.7.4). The application of other techniques such as reducing the batter
should only be used where absolutely necessary.
The erosion of the faces of the slopes should also be addressed where necessary. The stability of
fills and the role of stormwater should also be investigated in order to evaluate the need for kerbs,
down chutes, etc.
8.5 Road Surface Drainage
In order to shed rain water falling on the surface of the road, it is necessary to ensure that the
cross-section profile is constructed with adequate camber or cross-fall. The term camber implies
two slopes away from the centre line to the shoulders while cross-fall implies a single slope from
shoulder to shoulder.
The recommended camber or cross-fall values for sections of road which are not superelevated
are shown in Table 8-2. It is assumed that, as a matter of policy, shoulders will be sealed because
of the many advantages that this offers.
Table 8-2: Recommended camber and cross-fall values for LVSRs
Carriageway and shoulder slope (%)

Road type Topography Camber (CA) or
Flat (g<1%) Other (g>1%) Cross-fall (Cr)
Two-lane 2.5 2.0 Ca
Single- lane 3.5 3.0 Cr
8.6 Subsurface Drainage
Adequate stormwater drainage may in some cases alleviate the need for expensive subsurface
drainage. Subsurface drains need only be installed when seepage or high water tables are
encountered and not as a general policy in cuts.
Localised seepage can be corrected in various ways but seepage along pervious layers combined
with changes in road elevation (grade) may require subsurface drains as well as ditches (see
Figure 8-3) or, sometimes, cut-off drains transversely across the road in situations where there is
a likelihood of water movement under pavement layers from higher positions on subgrade rock.
From
rock
Centre line
Paved
shoulder
(a) Ditch and gutter

Seepage
zone
Perforated
(b) Perforated drain subsurface
alternate drain
Figure 8-3: Beneficial interception of surface runoff and subsurface seepage
8.7 Drainage Channels
Several types of drainage measures may be used for achieving effective external drainage of
a LVSR. Such measures seek to prevent water from damaging the pavement or surrounding
environment by safely channeling it away from or across the road, avoiding erosion and instability
of embankments and cuttings. They include:
• Side drains
• Erosion control devices: scour checks and lined drains
• Mitre drains
• Interceptor (cut-off or catch-water) drains
The design of a drainage channel to carry a given discharge is accomplished in two stages,
as follows:
(1) Stage A: Decide on a cross-section that will carry the design discharge on a given slope.
(2) Stage B: Determine the degree of protection required to prevent or minimise erosion.
To accomplish the above, the existing drainage channels should be evaluated to determine whether
they need to be improved. The investigation should also address the need for other drainage
channels which do not exist, but which are required.
The following section highlights the important features of drainage channels that should be used
as a yardstick for assessing the adequacy of the existing channels.
8.7.1 Side drains
As illustrated in Figure 8-4, side drains (also referred to as table drains) can be constructed in
three forms, V-shaped, rectangular or trapezoidal. These drains need to have sufficient capacity to
collect all rainwater from the road carriageway and dispose of it quickly and in a controlled manner
to minimise damage.
v-shape
rectangular
trapezoid
Figure 8-4: Types of side drains
The V-shape is the standard shape for ditches constructed by a motor grader. It can easily
be maintained by heavy equipment. However, it carries a lower capacity than other cross
section types.
The rectangular shape requires less space but needs to be lined with bricks, mortared stone or
concrete, to maintain its shape. This shape is often used in urban or peri-urban areas where there
is limited space for drainage.
The trapezoid shape carries a relatively high flow capacity and by carefully selecting the right
gradients for its side slopes, will resist erosion. This shape is suited to labour-based work.
The choice of side drain cross-section depends on factors such as:
• he required hydraulic capacity, maintenance arrangements, space restrictions, traffic

T
safety (where possible, side drains should never be deeper than 0.50 metres) and
any other requirements relating to the height between the crown of the pavement and the
drain invert
• he cost and erosion potential of the drain. For example, in soft materials the trapezoidal
T
drain may be easy to construct and to maintain whereas in hard materials (e.g. shales) it
could be costly and unnecessary to construct this type of drain and, instead, the use of
more outlets/mitre drains may be the more cost-effective solution
The following recommendations are made regarding desirable slopes for side drains:
(a) To avoid ponding and siltation minimum slope should be in the range 1- 2%.
(b) Drains steeper than 1% may need scour protection, depending on the erodability of the soil
and the vegetative cover.
8.7.2 Erosion control devices
(a) Scour checks: The scour check acts as a small dam and, when naturally silted up on the
upstream side, effectively reduces the gradient of the drain on that side, and therefore
the velocity of the water. Scour checks are usually constructed with natural stone or with
wooden stakes. Masonary or concrete scour checks require less maintenance but are
more expensive to construct.
Typical designs for scour checks are shown in Figure 8-5
Figure 8-5: Typical natural stone scour checks
The distance between scour checks depends on the road gradient and the erosion potential of
the soils. Table 8-3 shows recommended values but these may need to be modified for more
erodible soils.
Table 8-3: Spacing between scour checks
Road Gradient (%) Scour check interval (m)

3 Not required
4 17
5 13
6 10
7 8
8 7
9 6
10 5
12 4
(b) Lined drains: Depending on the road gradient (typically in excess of 8%), the strength of the
material in which the drains are excavated and the velocity of the runoff they are expected
to carry, side drains may need to be lined. Such lining can be made from concrete, stone
or bricks. Rock, if available, is the preferred building material and can be laid as a dry or
wet masonary. The size of the rocks should be a minimum of 200 mm to avoid being
washed away.
8.7.3 Mitre drains

Mitre drains are constructed at an angle to the centre line of the road. They are intended to remove
water from a drain next to the toe of a fill, and to discharge it beyond the road reserve boundary.
Several mitre drains can be constructed along the length of a drain, as the concentration of water
in the drain should ideally be dispersed and its speed correspondingly reduced before discharge.
Speed can be reduced not only by reducing the volume, and hence the depth, of flow but also by
positioning the mitre drain so that its toe is virtually parallel to the natural contours. A typical layout
of a mitre drain is shown in Figure 8-6.
Figure 8-6: Typical layout of mitre drain
The downstream face of a mitre drain is usually protected by stone pitching, since the volume and
speed of flow of water which it deflects may cause scour and ultimately lead to breaching of the
mitre drain.
In order to ensure that water flows out of the side drain into the mitre drain, a block-off is required
as shown in Figure 8-7. It is essential that the mitre drain is able to discharge all the water from
the side drain. If the slope of the mitre drain is insufficient, the mitre drain needs to be made wide
enough to ensure this.
The desirable slope of the mitre drains is 2%. The gradient should not exceed 5% otherwise there
may be erosion in the drain or on the land where the water is discharged. The drain should lead
gradually across the land, getting increasingly shallower. Stones may need to be laid at the end of
the drain to help prevent erosion.
In flat terrain, a small gradient of 1 % or even 0.5% may be necessary to discharge water, or to
avoid very long drains. These low gradients should only be used when absolutely necessary. The
slope should be continuous with no high or low spots. For flat sections of road, mitre drains are
required at frequent intervals to minimise silting.
In mountainous terrain, it may be necessary to accept steeper gradients. In such cases, appropriate
soil erosion measures should be considered.
The angle between the mitre drain and the side drain should not be greater than 45 degrees. An
angle of 30 degrees is ideal. If it is necessary to take water off at an angle greater than 45 degrees, it
should be done in two or more bends so that each bend is not greater than 45 degrees (Figure 8-7).
Block off 3-8m
side drain side drain
30˚ to 45˚
m
itr
e
dr
ain
Figure 8-7: Mitre drain angle greater than 45 degrees
The spacing of mitre drains is highly dependent on the material/erodability charecteristics, storm
duration/intensity and gradient. Table 8-4 gives the maximum spacing of mitre drains. However,
such spacings should normally be more frequent than this and values as low as one every 20 m
may be required to avoid damage to adjacent land, especially where it is cultivated.
Table 8-4: Maximum spacing of mitre drains
Road Gradient (%) Maximum mitre drain interval (metres)

12 40
10 80
8 1201
6 1501
4 2001
2 802
<2 50
Notes: 1
. A maximum of 100 m is preferred but not essential
2. At low gradients silting becomes a problem
8.7.4 Interceptor (cut-off or catch-water) drains

Interceptor drains are ditches that have been constructed more or less parallel to the road. Their
function is to catch and lead away water coming from higher lying areas before it reaches the road
or to direct water to where it can safely cross the road at constructed water crossings, such as
culverts, bridges and drifts.
Figure 8-8: Interceptor, cut-off or catch-water drain
Interceptor drains are seldom lined. They usually have a trapezoidal cross section and are
constructed with the undisturbed topsoil of the area as their inverts. They can readily be grassed as
a protection against scour and transverse weirs can also be constructed to reduce flow velocities.
Wherever possible, the drains should be diverted to a natural watercourse.
8.8 Culverts
The capacity of existing culverts should be determined to ascertain whether they are adequate
for the required return period. If less than the 1: 2 year flood, they should be upgraded to
accommodate the 1: 5 year flood (ref. Table 8-1). If more than the 1:2 year flood, but less than the
1:5 year flood, the designer must decide in terms of the characteristics of the area and previous
experience whether it is justified to upgrade the capacity. In the case where the 1:5 year flood can
be accommodated, existing culverts should be used as they are.
Existing culverts should also be checked for scour, especially at the outlets. Where warranted,
scour protection or energy dissipation must be accomplished.
Where new culverts are required, careful consideration should be given to choosing the most
appropriate, cost-effective type for a particular application taking account of such factors as
purchase and transport costs. Regular maintenance of culverts is also critically important to ensure
unimpeded water flow. When laid at a minimum grade of about 2%, desirable self-cleansing of the
culvert can be achieved.
The following types of culverts are generally available:
• Corrugated metal nestable pipe sections

• Corrugated metal multi-plate arch
• Prefabricated concrete pipe and portal units
• In situ circular concrete culverts or arch culverts
• Large concrete bricks and small reinforced slabs fabricated on site
The designer is referred to the various available guidelines for the design of culverts.
8.9 Low Level Structures
Low level structures typically include:
• rifts: Provide a permanent running surface for traffic through a stream or river bed, and
D
are typically paved with reinforced concrete, masonary or hand-packed stone
• auseways: Are an intermediate drainage structure with service levels superior to drifts,
C
but inferior to low level bridges. They are normally used where flows would make drifts
impassable for extended periods of time
• ow level bridges: provide a river crossing designed to experience zero or very limited
L
damage when submerged. Although they occasionally result in short-term delays due to
flooding, they are usually recommended for low volume roads, due to their overall cost-
effectiveness
When “as–built” drawings are available for the above types of low level structures, the designer
should establish whether the existing structure can carry the expected loads. If such drawings are
not available, then the following should be done:
• he structure should be thoroughly inspected visually to establish whether there are any
T
signs of distress or failure, and if there are, to evaluate the implications thereof
• If the condition of the structure appears to be sound and no significant increase in traffic
volumes or changes in the vehicle composition using the road are expected, the structure
may be used as it is
• If the condition of the structure appears to be sound, but a significant increase in traffic
volumes or a change in traffic composition is expected, slab thickness, reinforcement
details and span lengths should be determined and an analysis should be undertaken
to establish whether the existing structure is adequate to carry the expected loads. The
structure should be strengthened or replaced only if necessary
• If the structure is not in good condition, i.e. when signs of distress and failure are observed,
the implications of these must be evaluated in the light of the expected loading conditions
in order to establish whether the structure is adequate, or whether repairs, upgrading or
replacement is necessary
The designer is referred to the various available codes of practice for the design of highway
bridges and culverts which should be used for the evaluation of the structural loading of bridges
and culverts.
8.10 High Level Bridges
In principle, the approach to evaluating the adequacy of existing high level bridges is as described
above for low level structures.
Where new water crossings are considered necessary on the existing road, In general, the use
of high level bridges on low volume roads should only be considered if economically justifiable
otherwise, as far as possible, the existing low level structures should be retained with any necessary
remedial works.
Part: C
Design
Considerations
Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Part C 93
Part C - 1: Design Considerations

1. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

1.1 Introduction
African Community Access Programme
Traditional approaches toProject
the designMAL/016
of LVSRs in the Southern African region have stemmed from
technology and research carried out in the environments prevailing in Europe and the USA over
40 years ago. However, the environments prevailing in the Southern African region, including that
in Malawi, are very different in terms of climate, traffic, materials and road users. It is therefore not
surprising that many of the imported approaches, designs and technologies are inappropriate for
application in Malawi.
Fortunately, technology, research and knowledge

about LVSRs carried out in the Southern African
environment, including Malawi, have advanced
significantly and not only question much of the
accepted wisdom on LVSR provision but also
show quite clearly the need to revise conventional
approaches. Much of this research was aimed at
deriving local specifications, designs and techniques
for improving the cost-effective provision of low
volume roads sealed with a bituminous or non-
bituminous surfacing. In addition, advances have Research carried out in Malawi has provided
been made in the provision of more appropriate a sound basis for under-standing how LVSRs
deteriorate, leading to the development of
geometric, drainage and pavement design standards revised, standards, specifications and design
Performance Review of Design Standards

coupled with innovative construction techniques
and methods that optimise the use of local labour.
methods that make better use of locally
available materials.
and Technical Specifications for Low Volume

1.2 Design Approach
Sealed Roads in Malawi
The general approach to the design of LVSR pavements differs in a number of respects from
that for HVRs. For example, conventional approaches usually produce very low risk designs and
associated high levels of serviceability requiring numerous layers of selected materials. However,
such standards can hardly be justified when traffic levels are relatively low. Instead, more appropriate
designs are required to provide a pavement that is appropriate to the road environment in which it
Final Fieldwork Report
operates and fulfills its function at minimum life cycle cost at an optimal level of service.
In order to upgrade unsealed roads to a low volume sealed road (LVSR) standard as cost-effectively
as possible, optimum use needs to be made of the in situ materials within the prevailing road
environment. To this end, the main emphasis is on using the existing road pavement structure
Prepared by:
Preparedits
without disturbing for:
inherent strength derived over many years from consolidation by traffic,
coupled with wetting and drying cycles, and on only adding a new layer(s), if necessary, to cater
Michael I. Pinard
Chief Executive
for the design traffic. TheOfficer
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) method of pavement
Independent design lends
Consultant
Roads Authority
itself to such an approach. Private Bag 00426
Functional Building Gaborone
Private Bag B346
The adoption of appropriate designs for LVSRs does not mean BOTSWANA
an increased risk of failure but,
Lilongwe 3
rather, requires
MALAWI a greater degree of pavement engineering knowledge, experience and judgment
and the careful application of fundamental principles of pavement and material behaviour derived
January
from local or regional research. The primary 2011
requirements for mitigating against the risk of LVR
failure are to ensure that the pavements are well drained, the road is timeously and effectively
maintained and axle loads are controlled to acceptable limits.
94 Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Part C
Regional research has also shown that the relative influences of road deterioration factors are
significantly different for low volume roads compared with higher volume roads. A critical observation
is that for sealed roads carrying below 1.0 MESA, pavement deterioration was controlled mainly
by how the road responded to environmental factors, such as moisture changes in the pavement
layers, fill and subgrade, rather than to traffic as illustrated in Figure 1-1. The appropriate design
options for low volume roads therefore need to be responsive to a wide range of factors as captured
in the road environment with the most critical being internal and external drainage.
100
Environment
Percentage contribution
80
60
Area of Traffic
40
interest
20
0
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
Traffic (million ESA)
Figure 1-1: Traffic loading versus dominant mechanism of pavement distress (Schematic only)
1.3 The Road Environment
The pavement design process must be fully responsive to the road environment in Malawi. This
environment can be considered to encompass both local climate (rainfall, temperature range
and evaporation), drainage (effectiveness of drains, carriageway crossfall and crown height) and
topographic and sub-soil conditions.
The various road environment factors that must be considered in the design of LVSRs are illustrated
in Figure 1-2. These factors can impact either on the surface of the road, the pavement or
the geometric aspects and should all be considered in the design of the road as discussed in
Part B of the manual.
Road Safety Regime Climate
Surface/
Maintenance Regime
Sub-surface Hydrology
The
Road
Construction Regime Subgrade
Environment
“Green” Environment Terrain
Traffic Construction
Materials
Controllable Uncontrollable
Factors Factors
Figure 1-2: Road environment factors

The many road environment variables that affect the performance of LVSRs make it impossible
to reduce their design to exact mathematical formulae based entirely on theory. The significant
identifiable variables affecting the design of the pavement are:
• The nature of the materials to be used in pavement construction

• The detrimental effects of water on strength and stiffness
• The nature and volume of traffic
• Design, construction and maintenance provisions
• The funding climate, and the degree of acceptable risk
More than anything else, the management of moisture during the construction and during the
performance phases of a LVSR pavement affects the eventual outcome, and it is clear that very great
emphasis should be placed on this aspect of pavement design, construction and maintenance.
1.4 Environmentally Optimised Design
Invariably, the road environment factors encountered along a section of road will vary. In such
a situation, in order to be as cost-effective as possible, it is necessary to ensure that the use of
materials and pavement designs are matched to the road environment. This can be achieved by
selecting different pavement options in response to different impacting factors along the road
alignment, i.e. by adopting what is called an “environmentally optimised design” (EOD) approach.
This approach is illustrated in Figure 1-3.
Figure 1-3: Application of the principle of environmentally optimised design
The EOD approach economises on deployed resources to achieve an acceptable level of service
and results in the use of a spectrum of solutions ranging from a spot improvement through to the
entire road length, in the process using appropriate pavement compositions, drainage systems
and surfacings, including engineered natural surface (ENS), gravel, bituminous and non-bituminous
surfaces.
1.5 Design Strategy
An appropriate design strategy needs to underpin the LVSR design philosophy enunciated above.
In this regard, a number of strategic factors affecting the design of LVSR pavements must be
decided at the planning stage in order to provide the necessary directive and inputs for these
design process. These factors are discussed below.
Design Life
The factors affecting the choice of the design life of a LVSR include:
• Functional importance of the road

• Traffic volume
• Location and terrain of the project
• Financial constraints
• Difficulty in forecasting traffic
• Maintenance philosophy and capability
It is normally more economical to use a relatively short design life for a LVSR particularly where
design data reliability is low and accurate traffic estimates cannot be made. Table 3-1 in Part B
provides guidance on the selection of the design life of a LVSR.
Design Reliability and Risk

There are many reasons why it would be unreasonable to expect that a pavement design process
can guarantee that a subsequently-constructed pavement will perform to design expectations.
For example, the design values chosen for material properties are, at best, simplifications of their
complex and variable properties within a constantly changing environment, particularly for natural
gravels and soils which tend to be inherently variable. Thus, in any pavement design strategy, it is
necessary to be aware of the main risk factors which could affect the performance of LVSRs so
that appropriate measures can be taken to minimise them. These factors are summarised below:
• Quality of the materials (strength and moisture susceptibility)

• Construction control (primarily compaction standard)
• Environment (particularly drainage)
• Maintenance standards (drainage and surfacing)
• Traffic and overloading
The risk of premature failure will depend on the extent to which the above factors are negative – the
greater the number of factors that are unsatisfactory, the greater the failure of risk. However, this
risk can be greatly reduced by minimising material variability, ensuring that the construction quality
is well controlled, that drainage measures are strictly implemented and maintenance is carried in
a timely manner.
1.6 Surfacing Options
In view of the vulnerability of gravel roads to the effects of the road environment, some form of
durable surfacing is required to protect the underlying natural gravel pavement structure. A wide
range of surfacing options is available including both bituminous and non-bituminous types.
In keeping with the EOD approach described in Section 1.4, such surfacings may be provided
for the entire length of the road, or only the most vulnerable sections. The approach may include
dealing with only individual critical sections (weak or vulnerable sections; roads through villages or
settlements) on a road link (spot improvements), or providing a total whole link design, which could
comprise different design options along its length.
The choice of surfacing type, and when to use it, involves a trade-off between initial construction
costs, level of service and maintenance requirements. This would entail the undertaking of a life-
cycle analysis which is described in Chapter 6.

1.7 Context Sensitivity
In addition to ensuring that the design developed is technically appropriate to the prevailing road
environment, there are a number of other factors that could influence the success of the LVSR
design, its implementation and long-term sustainability. This requires a broadly focused, multi-
dimensional and context sensitive approach in which a number of other influential factors are
considered as illustrated in Figure 1-4.
Politically Socially
supported acceptable
Environmentally Context sensitivity Institutionally

sustainable for sustainable possible
provision of low
volume sealed roads
Financially Technologically
sound appropriate
Economically
viable
Figure 1-4: Framework for sustainable provision of LVSRs
Political support
Demand for low volume road provision needs to be framed under a national policy driven by
government and should be supported at the highest level. The cross-sectoral influence of low
volume road provision and its role in under-pinning other sectoral development strategies and
poverty alleviation programmes should be highlighted, quantified and understood.
The approach adopted for low volume road provision should complement national plans, policies
and strategies and should be responsive to wider needs and demands, including:
• The social and economic goals of poverty alleviation and development

• Increasing rural accessibility
• The use of appropriate technology, promotion of the domestic construction industry and
employment creation
• Protection of the environment
• Cost minimisation and improved efficiency
There is a need to maintain dialogue with political and public stakeholders in order to highlight
the advantages of design approaches and alternative, often unfamiliar, solutions selected for low
volume road provision and maintenance. The language used for advocacy should be carefully
chosen and should avoid negative connotations such as “low standard”; “low cost” and “marginal”.
Social acceptance
Provision of low volume rural road networks should be managed in a way that:
• Ensures community participation in planning and decision making

• Eliminates gender bias and promotes participation by women in the road sector
• Promotes road safety in all aspects of low volume road provision
• Supports cost-effective labour-based and intermediate equipment methods of construction
and maintenance
• Minimises resettlement and mitigates unavoidable resettlement through appropriate
compensation
Institutional capacity
Road authorities and clients should:
• Promote institutional, economic and technical understanding in the provision and

management of low volume roads
• Promote commercial management practices
• Develop a conducive environment for the development of national contractors
• Ensure that design, construction and maintenance approaches for low volume roads are
represented on all tertiary civil engineering training curricula
Technology choice
Technologies for designing, constructing and maintaining low volume roads should:
• Employ appropriate design standards and specifications

• tilise intermediate equipment technology options and reduce reliance on heavy equipment
U
imports
• Promote road construction and maintenance technologies that create employment
opportunities
• Use types of contract that support the development of domestic contractors and consultants
• Be robust to the vagaries of climate and recognise potential impacts of a changing climate
Economic viability
Economic appraisal for low volume roads should:
• mploy tools for low volume roads that are capable of quantifying social, economic and
E
environmental costs and benefits
• Ensure investment decisions for low volume roads are based on an assessment of whole
life costs

Financially sound
Sustainable provision of low volume roads depends on the sustainable provision of funding to the
sector in that:
• oads should not be upgraded to engineered standards if funding is not in place for routine
R
and periodic maintenance requirements
• Designs should not be forwarded that require excessive allocation of maintenance resources
Environmentally sustainable
The design and management of low volume roads should:
• inimise the physical impacts of construction and maintenance activities on the natural
M
environment
• Take account of socio-cultural impacts (community cohesion)
• Minimise the carbon footprint
• Optimise resource management and allow for recycling of non-renewable materials
• Minimise impacts and emissions that might contribute to climate change
Bibliography
1. Behrens L C (1999). Overview of Low-Volume Roads: Keynote Address. 7th Int. Conf.
On Low-Volume Roads. Transportation Research Record No. 1652. TRB.
2 CAPSA (1989). Cost Effective Low Volume Roads. Workshop Session, 5th Conf. on
Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa, Swaziland, 1989.8th
3. Edmonds G A (1979). Appropriate Technology for Low Volume Roads. 2nd Int. Conf. on
Low-Volume Roads. Transportation Research Record No. 702. TRB.
4. Kasakatira K (2010). Low Volume Sealed Roads – The Malawi Experience. 1st AFCAP
Practitioners Conference, 23-25 November, 2010, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
5. Oglesky H O (1990). Dilemmas in the Administration, Planning, Design, Construction

and Maintenance of Low Volume Roads. Transportation Research Special Report 160,
TRB.
6. Parker N A (1997). The Socio-Economics of Paving Low-Volume Roads. Keynote Paper,

1.o Simpóso International de Pavimentacão de Rodovias de Baixo Volume de Tráfego, Rio
de Janeiro, 5 a 10 de Outubro de 1997.
7. Pinard M I and Greening P A K (2004). Sustainable Provision of Low-Volume Roads,

Conference on Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa, Sun City, South Africa.
Part C - 2: Environment
2. ENVIRONMENT

2.1 Introduction
A LVSR pavement must be able to function effectively within the environment in which it is to operate.
This environment has to be accepted as it is and the design, construction and maintenance of the
road must be suitably adapted.
A wide range of environmental factors can affect the design of pavements and need to be carefully
considered in arriving at an optimum solution. For example, the prevailing climate will influence the
supply (precipitation, water table), evaporation (temperature ranges and extremes) and movement
of water in soils. These factors can affect the moisture content and strength of the road pavement,
the selection of suitable materials, and the design of bituminous surfacings.
Following construction and particularly the sealing of the pavement, a new environment is created
which can have a significant effect on the properties of the pavement materials and the underlying
soil. The new environment is the result of superimposing on the natural environment, man-made
factors such as new drainage conditions and surface properties (e.g. vegetated cover replaced by
an impervious seal; introduction of new or removal of old trees and vegetation cover on or near the
verges of the road and the road reserve, etc.)
Usually, the lighter the pavement (and traffic) the more pronounced the relative effect of the
environment will be on the performance of the pavement. For such pavements, environmentally-
induced rather than load-associated distress tends to determine the performance of such pavements.
Thus, structural design procedures for relatively light trafficked pavements and surfacings need to
take particular account of the stresses and strains caused by these environmental factors.
2.2 Climate
Malawi’s climate is tropical continental and largely influenced by the huge water mass of
Lake Malawi, which defines almost two-thirds of the country’s eastern border. The climate ranges
from semi-arid in the lower Shire valley, semi-arid to sub-humid on the plateaux and sub-humid in
the highlands.
Figure 2-1: Distribution of rainfall in Malawi
Rainfall
Annual rainfall ranges from 700 mm to 2400 mm with mean annual rainfall being 1180 mm. Its
distribution is mostly influenced by the topography and proximity to Lake Malawi. The highest
rainfall is experienced in the high altitude and mountainous areas of Mulanje, Zomba, Dedza and
the plateaus of Viphya and Nyika whilst the lowest rainfall is experienced in the low lying areas
of the Lower Shire Valley and other rain shadow areas. Almost 90% of rainfall occurs between
December and March, with very little, if any, between May and October over most of the country.
In the higher rainfall areas of the country, surface runoff

may be high leading to erosion of shoulders and side
slopes, increased soil erosion, flash flooding and siltation
of waterways from the disturbance of soil. Appropriate
design measures must therefore be taken to combat the
potential erosive impacts of high/intense rainfall on road
performance as discussed in Part B, Chapter 8.
Climatic zones
For pavement design purposes a country’s climate can
be divided into a number of zones (Table 3-1) based on Severe erosion of road side slopes in high
rainfall areas.
the Weinert “N” value, a climatic index which is related
primarily to the prevailing annual rainfall. This index (N value) correlates well with the macro climate,
as well as the Thornthwaite Moisture Index Im which gives an indication of the overall availability of
moisture during the year.
Table 2-1: Climatic zones: Approximate mean annual rainfall, N-Values and Thornthwaite
Description Typical Mean Weinert Thornthwaite

Annual Rainfall N Value Mositure index (Im)
Arid < 250 mm 5+ < -40
Semi-arid 250 - 500 mm 4 – 5 -20 to -40
Sub-tropical 500 - 1000 mm 2 – 4 0 to +20
Humid tropical > 1000 mm < 2 +20 to +100
The Weinert N-values and climatic zones provide an important insight into the properties and
engineering characteristics of naturally occurring materials that occur in Malawi. This facilitates a good
understanding of the likely behaviour of these materials in
particular climatic environments and allows practitioners Weinert N-Value
The Weinert N-value is calculated from
to design and construct LVSRs with a greater degree of climatic data as follows:
confidence in a wide range of circumstances. N = 12.Ej
Pa
Where Ej = evaporation during hottest month
Pa = annual precipitation
2.3 Moisture Regime
The moisture regime in which a LVSR pavement must operate has a particularly significant impact
on its performance due to the use of locally occurring unprocessed materials which tend to be
relatively moisture sensitive. This places extra emphasis on drainage and moisture control for
achieving satisfactory pavement life.
Each climatic zone will generally provide a different moisture regime which, other than in localised
areas of micro climate, would be related to the Weinert N-value – the lower the N-value, the greater
the availability of moisture during the year to wet up the pavement, and vice versa.
The various sources of moisture infiltration into a pavement are illustrated in Figure 2-2 and
measures for dealing with them are discussed in Part B, Chapter 8 – Drainage.
Figure 2-2: Moisture movements in pavements and subgrades
Temperature
Mean annual temperatures vary with altitude, ranging from 25˚C in the Lower Shire Valley to 13˚C
on the Nyika Plateau. Frost may occasionally occur in lower lying land on the plateau.
Temperature and solar radiation can both have significant implications on the performance
of bituminous surfacings and should be taken into account in the surfacing design. This applies
to the short term performance related to bleeding and loss of aggregate, and also the rate of binder
ageing.
Bibliography
1. Dickinson, E.J. (1981). Pavement temperature regimes in Australia: Their effect on the
performance of bituminous constructions and their relationship with average climate
indicators. Special Report 23. Aust. Road Res. Board.
2. National Association of Australian State Road Authorities (NAASRA) (1984). Moisture

Movements in Pavements and Subgrades. NAASRA, Sydney.
NOTES
Environment
Part C - 3: Materials
extremes
Design
3. MATERIALS

3.1 Introduction
Naturally occurring soils, gravel soil mixtures and The term “natural gravel” refers to a gravelly The above per
material occurring in nature, such as laterite, of important i
gravels provide an important source of material for use which can be produced without crushing.
in the construction of LVSRs. This is because these Some processing to remove or breakdown materials and
unprocessed materials are relatively cheap to exploit
oversize may still be necessary. However, a considered, as
distinction is made between these “natural”
compared, for example, to processed materials such as gravels and material produced from crushed (dealt with in C
hard rock and typically referred to as
crushed rock, and are often the only source of material
“crushed stone.”
within a reasonable haul distance of the road. Thus, in 5.2.5 Ter
order to mimimise LVSR construction costs, maximum Materials
use should be made of such materials. This is a central Naturally occu
pillar of the LVSR design philosophy. and gravels. L
the in situ ma
Traditional specifications tend to exclude the use of or removing o
unprocessed materials in pavement layers in favour 25% of crush
of more expensive processed materials because they with small am
often do not comply with traditional (HVR-orientated) required.
As-dug, nodular laterite gravel used in
requirements. However, research work carried out in LVSR As-dug, nodular laterite is a typical example
construction.
of natural gravel that occurs extensively in
Malawi and elsewhere in the Southern African region has Malawi. This material has been successfully Standard/trad
shown quite clearly that such “non-standard” materials used in the construction of LVRSs despite its traditional spe
non-compliance with traditional strength and
can often be used successfully and cost-effectively in
plasticity requirements.
Highway and
LVSR pavements provided appropriate precautions are of constructio
observed as discussed in this chapter. probably perfo
is often exces
3.2 Materials Characteristics LVSRs.
Despite the innumerable influences that exist, there are some dominant materials characteristics An essential f
that affect pavement performance which should be appreciated in order to design and construct a requiremen
LVSRs with reasonable confidence. These characteristicsCrushed
dependlimestone
on whether the materials
is a typical are
“standard” bution (gradi
used in an unbound or bound state which affects the mannermaterial that they
in which is produced by crushing
derive their strengthofin avoid the use
blasted, massive rock to a specified grading.
terms of the following intrinsic properties: weakening ef
fluvio-glacial g
• Inter-particle friction in temperate c
• Cohesive effects from fine particles regions has m
• Soil suction forces areas of such
• Physio-chemical (stabilisation) forces
The relative dependence of a material, and the influence of moisture, on each of the above components
of shear strength will significantly influence the manner in which
SADCthey can beon
Guideline incorporated
Low-volumewithin
Sealeda Roads
pavement. In this regard, Table 3-1 summarises the typical relative characteristics of unbound and
bound materials that critically affect the way in which they can be incorporated into a pavement
in relation to their properties and the prevailing conditions of traffic, climate, economics and risk.
Table 3-1: Pavement material types and characteristics
Pavement type
Unbound Bound
Parameter Unprocessed Processed Highly Very highly
processed processed
Material Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
types As-dug gravel Screened gravel Crushed rock Stabilised gravel
Variability High Decreases Low
Plastic
Modulus High Decreases Low
Development Cohesion Cohesion Particle Particle
of shear and suction suction and interlock interlock and
strength some particle chemical
interlock bonding
Susceptibility
to moisture High Decreases Low
Design Material Selection criteria reduces volume Material
philosophy strength of moisture sensitive, soft and strength
maintained only poorly graded gravels maintained
in a dry state even in wetter
state
Appropriate Low traffic Traffic loading increases High traffic
use loading in very environment becomes wetter loading in
dry environment wetter
environments
Cost Low Increases High High
Of particular significance to LVSRs
Unbound/unprocessed
materials such as later-
ite are highly dependent
on suction and cohe-
sion forces for devel- 75
opment of shear resist-
ance which will only be Equilibrium moisture content
generated at relatively
Soil strength (CBR)
low moisture contents.

Consequently, special Optimum moisture content
measures have to be
50
taken to ensure that
moisture ingress into
the pavement is pre-
Soaked
vented (see Chapter 9),
otherwise suction forc-
25
es and shear strength
will be reduced (see
Figure below) which
could result in failures.
Illustrative soil strength/
pF
suction relationship 1 2 3 4
Soil suction
Figure 5-6: Illustrative soil strength/suction relationship
Since most LVSRs are constructed from unbound materials, a good knowledge of the performance
characteristics of such materials is necessary for their successful use as discussed below:
• ategory 1 materials: are highly dependent on soil suction and cohesive forces for
C
development of shear resistance. The typical deficiency in hard, durable particles prevents
reliance on inter-particle friction. Thus, even modest levels of moisture, typically approaching
60% saturation, may be enough to reduce confining forces sufficiently to cause distress
and failure
• ategory 2 materials: have a moderate dependency on all forms of shear resistance –

C
friction, suction forces and cohesion. Because these materials have rather limited strength
potential, concentrations of moisture, typically 60-80% saturation may be enough to reduce
the strength contribution from suction or cohesion sufficiently to cause distress and failure.
This would occur at moisture contents lower than those necessary to generate pore pressures
• ategory 3 materials: have only minor dependency on suction and cohesion forces but
C
have a much greater reliance on internal friction which is maximised when the aggregate
is hard, durable and well graded. Very high levels of saturation, typically 80-100% will be
necessary to cause distress and this will usually result from pore pressure effects
More than anything else, the management of moisture The FMC/OMC ratio is a significant contributory
factor related to the performance of a LVSR. If,
during the construction and operational phases of a through effective drainage, the materials in the
pavement affects its performance, especially when road pavement can be maintained at a moisture
content that does not rise above OMC in the
unbound, unprocessed, generally relatively plastic rainy season, then more extensive use can be
materials are used. It is therefore very clear that made of local, relatively plastic materials that
might otherwise not be suitable if they were to
emphasis should be placed on minimising the entry
become soaked in service.
of moisture into a LVSR pavement so as to ensure
that it operates as much as possible at an unsaturated moisture content. The beneficial effect of
so doing is illustrated in Table 3-2 which shows the variation of a material’s strength (CBR) with
moisture content.
Table 3-2: Variation of CBR with moisture content
Laboratory Laboratory Unsoaked CBR (%)

Soaked CBR (%) at varying FMC/OMC Ratios1
80 105 150 200
65 95 135 185
45 80 115 165
30 65 95 140
15 45 70 110
10 35 60 100
7 30 50 85
3.3 Local Materials
There are a number of naturally occurring materials in Malawi which, although they may not meet
the requirements traditionally specified for their use in the various layers of a road pavement are,
nonetheless, “fit for purpose”. The most abundant of these materials include:
• aterite - a precipitate of aluminium and ferrous oxides whose behaviour is largely

L
dependent on the parent soil in which it is formed. Laterites that form in clayey soils tend to
be plastic and this is very common. This is the major reason why they have not been widely
recommended for road construction as the high plasticity leads to lower soaked CBRs and
most therefore do not meet the traditional minimum base course CBR of 80%
• uartzite – a product of the decomposition of igneous rocks with a large proportion of

Q
quartzite, often mixed with feldspar. Quartz gravel is very hard and may be angular or
rounded. It is usually well graded and may have a high silt content depending on the
composition of the parent rock. The material tends to be of relatively low plasticity and high
strength making it suitable for construction of LVSR base courses in its natural state
Materials specifications are not • ecomposed granite – formed from the decomposition
D
always transferable from one region
of granitic rocks with a low content of quartz or silica.
to another. What may be appropriate
in one region, in relation to such Decomposed granite gravels tend to have low plasticity
factors as material type, climate and and, regardless of the low particle strength, the material
traffic loading, may well be quite
inappropriate in another region where is potentially suitable for use as a basecourse on low
these factors may be quite different. In volume roads
the final analysis, every materials has
its uses and limitations which must
be matched to the traffic, climatic 3.4 Specifications
and other conditions influencing its
performance. Costly failures in some
cases, as well as over-conservative, Specifications are meant to exclude unsatisfactory materials
uneconomic designs in others, can
result when conventional materials for use in roads by placing limits on tpecifications are meant
specifications are rigidly applied with to exclude unsatisfactory materials for use in roads by placing
little regard to local conditions.
limits on their various properties such as grading, plasticity
Conventional specifications are and strength. The derivation of appropriate limits requires an
generally insensitive to the local road
intimate knowledge of the material’s characteristics and their
environment and tend to be applied
in a blanket fashion irrespective likely performance in a specific road environment, particularly
of material type. This makes them climate and drainage measures, and for specific traffic loading.
generally inappropriate for application
in tropical climates where the The challenge is to relate the material’s physical properties
natural gravels behave differently to with performance in a particular environment.
commonly used pavement materials
in North America and Europe.
Until relatively recently, most of the specifications used in
the Southern African region, including Malawi, tended to reflect temperate zone specifications
emanating from Europe and North America. These “conventional” specifications rely heavily on
experience related largely to “ideal” materials having the following properties:
• Restrictive grading requirements

• Low plasticity (PI < 6)
• High road base strength (soaked CBR > 80 per cent
at 98 per cent modified AASHTO compaction)
For LVSRs there is now a general recognition that there is a greater need to view the application
of specifications in terms a “whole road environment”, rather than in terms of individual pavement
layers. This provides scope in some cases to consider a reduction in standard when considering
particular material types within defined environments. Recognising “fitness for purpose” is central
to assessing the appropriate use of non-standard materials in LVSRs.
In setting specification limits, a clear distinction should be drawn between the following material
types that occur in Malawi:
• Natural gravels: transported and residual soils and gravels such as alluvial sands, colluvial
deposits and residual clayey sand deposits
• uricrusts (pedogenic materials): indurated or partially indurated soils such as laterite,

D
calcrete and silcrete
In general, whilst the use of conventional limits with natural gravels is often restrictive, for the
reasons stated above, such limits can be even more restrictive when applied to pedogenic materials.
The reasons for this are summarised below:
• hese materials are not necessarily chemically inert and may be capable of self-stabilisation
T
under the influence of wetting and drying cycles
• Where strength is inferred on the basis of grading, plasticity and/or laboratory CBR,
the potential for self-stabilisation is not taken into account
In addition to the above, conventional specifications refer to the material in its compacted/laid
state on the road. However, conflicts often arise between material acceptability as defined by the
specification and material suitability in terms of its actual engineering performance as a road making
material. This is particularly true when applied to laterites. These materials occur extensively in
Malawi and have performed exceptionally well in a variety of road environments despite their gross
non-compliance with conventional specifications.
3.5 Materials Selection
General selection criteria

The criteria used for selecting road materials for incorporation in a LVSR need to take account
of their actual engineering purpose within the pavement. This requires consideration of the
following factors:
• knowledge of the key engineering properties of the material

A
• The task required of the material
• The governing road environment
• Future alterations to the road environment
Requirements for pavement materials

To perform satisfactorily, pavement materials, particularly in the base, must possess a number
of attributes which must be satisfied with regard to their selection for LVSRs. These are presented
in Table 3-3:
Table 3-3: Fundamental pavement material selection factors
Strength Aggregate particles need to be resistant to any loads imposed during

construction and the design life of the pavement.
Mechanical The aggregate as a placed layer must have a mass mechanical
stability interlocking stability sufficient to resist loads imposed during construction and
the design life of the road.
Durability Aggregate particles need to be resistant to mineralogical change and to
physical breakdown due to any wetting and drying cycles imposed during
construction or in service.
Impermeability Impermeability of the base is generally desirable to prevent ingress of water.
Haul distance Reserves must be within physically and economically feasible haulage distance.
Placeability The material must be capable of being placed and compacted by the
available plant.
Environmental The material reserves must be capable of being won and hauled within
impact any governing environmental impact regulations.
Both the mechanical stability Attainment of the above selection factors would normally lead to
and durability of a pavement
material are strongly correlated the following key attributes of any pavement, namely:
to its strength. Thus, strength
is one of the most important
parameters affecting the
• dequate bearing capacity under any individual applied load
A
performance of a LVSR. • Adequate bearing capacity to resist progressive failure under
repeated individual loads
When very high moisture
contents cannot be prevented, • The ability to retain that bearing capacity with time (durability)
an open-graded permeable • The ability to retain bearing capacity under various environmental
material may be advantageous
to reduce the development of influences which relates to material moisture content and, in
excess pore pressures. turn, to climate, drainage and moisture regime
Segregation of material within
the base can be of concern, In light of the results emanating from research work carried out in
particularly if oversize material
is permitted or if extensive Malawi and elsewhere in the Southern African region, the materials
water binding is used during selected for LVSRs should be based primarily on (1) strength and
compaction.
(2) the strength/moisture/density relationship as discussed below.
(1)
Strength: The required strength is expressed in terms of the DCP design penetration rate
(DN value) for the specific traffic. The DN value reflects the required in situ strength at the
material at the expected in-service pavement moisture.
(2) he strength/density/moisture relationship: A knowledge of the inter-relationship

T
between the moisture, density and strength of a material can provide a critical insight
into its properties and likely behaviour in the prevailing road environment. A laboratory
investigation of this inter-relationship can be used to determine the sensitivity of the
material’s strength to both moisture and density and cognisance should be taken of these
during the design and construction processes.
(5) Note factors pertaining to accessibility
(6) List GPS co-ordinates of potential sites

(7) Plot new sites on the sketch map. Re
the pits lie in clusters or straight lines,
for additional material.
3.6 Materials Testing (8) Record other important information in
access, etc.
Materials testing is normally prescribed in standards put out by various countries, of which the BS
(9) region.
(British), ASTM (American) and TMH (South Africa), are in common use in the Update the base map accordingly.
Unfortunately,
these methods differ in many respects with regard to the actual test procedure
(10) and
Draw theupmethod
a planoffor the detailed s
testing. For example, authorities employing a BS Liquid Limit device will obtain according
a Plasticity Index
to the required material qua
(PI) on average 4 units higher than those using an ASTM Liquid Limit device. sites in case the first selection proves
It is important, therefore, not to mix testing standards because

the differences in test procedure alone are sufficient to explain the
difference in material quality apparently tolerable by pavements in
different Southern African countries.
3.7 Materials Prospecting
Large quantities of natural gravel are required for constructing and

maintaining LVSRs. It is therefore essential that optimum use is
made of all materials available at the lowest possible cost. Very
often, gravels occur as relatively small localised deposits, scattered
around the landscape, and are usually overlain by a cover of soil and
vegetation which makes it very difficult to find them. Consequently, Example of a botanical indicator
for locating calcrete – Snowbush
modern exploration techniques must be employed to ensure that Photo 3-1: Typical botanical
(Eriocephalus ericoides).
all available materials are located as efficiently as possible, instead
of the “haphazard random” methods often used. The ability of remote sensing systems to identify
none of the systems alone can be expected to
The art of prospecting involves looking for clues as to the occurrence Table 3-2 materials
of useful summarises andthe ability of particular typ
then
the type
digging to see what may be there. Learning to identify features that indicate theofpresence
calcrete-bearing landforms that prevai
of gravel
from interpretation of maps and other information is a key activity in prospecting. However, the
most important parts are the desk study followed by the field survey and pit evaluation. 1
Information about gravels in the landscape typically comes from four main sources:
• Geological information from geological maps and reports

• Soils information from agricultural soils maps and reports
• Botanical indicators
• Landscape information from topographic maps, aerial photos and satellite images
• Other local information (e.g. existing borrow pits)
The above sources of information are analysed all together to assess the likelihood that gravel may
occur at a particular place. A typical flow diagram for materials prospecting is shown in Figure 3-1.
Desk Study
• Specification and quantity of materials required
• Interpretation of background material
• Provisional materials map
Plan Survey
• Decide survey methodology and procedure
• Carry out in-house or use consultants
• Consider environmental aspects
Find and Map Sources of Materials

• Reconnaissance field survey
• Detailed field survey
Source Evaluation (Field)

Source Evaluaton (Laboratory) • Areal extent
• Laboratory testing • Profile description
• Visual classification
Data Capture and Feedback

• Reporting
Figure 3-1: Flow diagram stages for materials prospecting
Bibliography
1. Construction Industry Research and Information Association (1988). Laterite in road

construction pavements. Special Publication 47. CIRIA, Westminister, London, UK.
2. Emery, S.J. (1992): The Prediction of moisture content in untreated pavement layers
and application to design in southern Africa. CSIR Research Report 644, DRTT Bulletin
20, CSIR, Pretoria.
3. Grace, H and Toll, D G (1987). Recent Investigations into the Use of Plastic Laterites
as bases for Bituminous-Surfaced Low-Volume Roads. Proc. Fourth Int. Conf. on Low-
Volume Roads, Ithaca.
4. Gourley, C.S and P.A.K Greening. (1999). Performance of Low Volume Sealed Roads:
Results and Recommendations from Studies in Southern Africa. TRL Published Report
PR/OSC/167/99. Crowthorne.
5. McLennan, A K (1986). Towards a strategy for the use of marginal and naturally
occurring materials in pavements. 24th ARRB Regional Symposium, Bundaberg,
Queensland.
6. Metcalf, J B (1991). Use of naturally occurring but non-standard materials in low-cost

road construction, Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 9.
7. Mitchell, R L, van der Merwe C P and Geel, H K (1975). Standardised Flexible Pavement
Design for Rural Roads with Light to Medium Traffic, Ministry of Roads and Road
Traffic, Rhodesia Government.
8. Mitchell M F, Petzer, E C P and Van der Walt, N (1979). The optimum use of natural
materials for lightly trafficked roads in developing regions. Transp. Res. Record 702.
9. National Association of Australian State Road Authorities. (1984). Moisture movements in

pavements and subgrades. NAASRA, Sydney
10. Netterberg, F. and P. Paige-Green (1988): Pavement materials for low volume roads in
Southern Africa: A review. Proceedings ATC Conference, Vol. 2B – Appropriate Materials
and Methods. Pretoria.
11. Netterberg, F (1993) Low-cost local road materials in southern Africa. Geotechnical
and Geological Engineering.
12. Paige-Green, P (1994). Recommendations for the use of marginal base course
materials in low volume roads in South Africa, CSIR Transportek, Pretoria.
13. Roads Department, Ministry of Works, Transport and Comm-unications, Botswana. (2000):
Methods and Procedures for Prospecting for Road Construction Materials. Guideline
No. 3.
14. Roughton International in association with The University of Birmingham and the University
of Nottingham. (2000). Guidelines on Materials and Borrow Pit management for Low
Cost Roads. DFID, London.
15. Transport Research Laboratory (1993) Overseas Road Note 31. A guide to the structural
design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and sub-tropical climates (1993):
Overseas Centre, TRL, Crowthorne, Berkshire, UK. (4th edition).
16. Weinhert H H (1980). The natural road construction materials of Southern Africa.
Pretoria: Academica.
Part C - 4: Pavement Design

4. PAVEMENT DESIGN
4.1 Introduction
The main objective of pavement design is to provide an economic, structurally balanced pavement
structure, in terms of material types and thicknesses, that can withstand the expected traffic loading
over a specified period of time (the chosen design life of the pavement), without deteriorating below
a pre-determined level of service.
The load carrying capacity of the pavement is a function of both the thickness and stiffness of the
materials used in the pavement layers and the support provided by the subgrade. Consequently,
a good knowledge of the mechanical properties of the materials comprising the pavement layers
and subgrade is important for designing the structure.
The outcome of the design process, in terms of the type and thickness of structure chosen,
is influenced by the preceding planning phase and, in turn, determines many aspects of the
subsequent construction and maintenance phases of road provision and management. Thus, in
order to achieve a successful outcome, there is a need to ensure that the LVR design process is
undertaken in a holistic manner and is based on a sound strategy that is related to the wide variety
of design factors that are specific to the Malawian physical, social and economic environments.
Pavement structure and function

The principle function of the pavement layers (base and subbase) is to provide sufficient cover over the
subgrade to limit the stresses and strains induced by wheel loading such that subgrade shear failures
do not occur. The principle function of the surfacing is to keep the pavement dry and waterproof.
Figure 4-1 illustrates conceptually the way in which a pavement functions under loading. In essence,
the wheel load, W, is transmitted to the pavement surface through the tyre at an approximately
uniform vertical pressure, Po. The pavement then spreads the wheel load to the subgrade so that
the maximum pressure on the subgrade is only P1. By proper selection of pavement materials
and with adequate pavement thickness, P1 will be small enough to be easily supported by
the subgrade.
Figure 4-1: Wheel load transfer through pavement structure
Because of the different functions of the surfacing and pavement structure, these basic components
of a road are often independent of one another and a large number of combinations are possible.
However, in terms of the design of the overall road, some surfacings (e.g. surface treatment) do not
contribute to the overall structural strength of the road, while others (e.g. penetration macadam)
do. In the case of earth roads, the natural soil is the main structural component.
Pavement and surfacing options

There is a wide range of pavement and surfacing options, both bituminous and non-bituminous,
that can be used in various combinations in relation to the local environment and are well suited
for incorporation in LVSR pavements (see Part B, chapter 7). These options allow maximum use to
be made of locally available materials and minimum use to be made of more expensive high quality
pavement materials, especially where they have to be processed or hauled long distances.
4.2 Pavement Design Methods
4.2.1 Alternative design methods

There are a number of design methods that may be used for the design of road pavements including
the following:
• CBR Cover Curve method

• AASHTO Structural Number method
• Mechanistic-empirical design method
• Catalogue method
The above methods all vary with regard to their complexity in terms of the input parameters required
to undertake the design process. In general, the more complex methods, such as the theoretically
based Mechanistic-empirical design method, are unsuitable for use with low volume roads due to
their underlying assumptions that do not apply to the materials that are typically used to construct
such roads.
Design catalogues are the easiest design process to use as all the practical and theoretical work has
been carried out and different structures are presented in catalogue form for various combinations
of traffic, environmental effects, pavement materials and design options. These catalogues have
typically been based on accelerated testing (e.g. the South African TRH4 design method and the
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) design method) whilst others have been based on the results
of full-scale experiments where all factors affecting performance have been accurately measured
and their variability quantified (e.g. the UK Overseas road Note 31).
4.2.2 Design methods for LVRs

Pavement design for low volume roads presents a particular challenge to designers. This is
largely because, until relatively recently, such roads were not specifically catered for by the
traditional design methods and the step from an unsealed gravel road to a sealed road was a
large one. Moreover, pavement engineers are required to carefully consider the environment
within which LVRs have to be provided in a manner which is often much more demanding than
with high volume roads.

The primary, empirically-based, pavement design methods that are best suited for the design of
LVR pavements are:
• The CBR catalogue design method

• The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) catalogue method
Both the CBR and DCP pavement component (layer by layer) analysis methods are empirically
derived based on material shear strength and can only be accurate if used for the evaluation and
analysis of pavements similar to those for which they were derived. However, the DCP method is
much further developed and more advanced that the CBR method, allowing for detailed evaluation
and analysis of the pavement structure to an effective depth of 800 mm and incorporating concepts
such as “pavement strength balance” which influence the load sensitivity of the pavement. The
outline characteristics of the CBR and DCP methods of design are outlined below.
4.2.3 CBR Catalogue design method

The CBR catalogue design method relies on the laboratory CBR method for determining the strength
of the in situ and pavement materials. The applicability of the CBR test to materials selection and
pavement design, particularly for LVSRs, has been questioned for a number of reasons, including:
1) Very poor repeatability and reproducibility of CBR For a true mean value of 80, the
CBR can range from 48 to 112,
results with an overall coefficient of variation of the a range that can lead to vastly
order of 20-25%. differing interpretations of the
suitability of the soil for use in the
2) The test was designed as an indicator test for soils; pavement structure.
it is not a performance-related test which explains
The SADC/TRL design guide
the frequent anomalous behaviour of road pavements
(Performance of Low-Volume
constructed with materials of low CBRs. Sealed Roads: Results and
3) Although the test is used as an indicator test for material Recommendations from Studies
in Southern Africa) has been
selection, materials ranked in the soaked condition do developed for the design of LVSRs
not necessarily rank in the same order at the moisture but is based on the traditional CBR
approach.
contents prevalent in the road pavement.
4.2.4 DCP catalogue design method

The DCP method uses in situ and laboratory measurements of an empirically defined material
property, resistance to penetration, or DN value, to evaluate pavement behaviour. The relationship
between DN value, pavement composition, traffic loading and minimum cover requirements are
used to evaluate the structural requirements suitable for a specific traffic loading and to design an
adequate pavement structure.
Based on Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) full scale testing of 57 sections of low volume roads, an
evaluation was made of various types of low volume roads located in a variety of road environments.
Such testing revealed that most deformation occurred in the upper 200 mm of the pavements, and
not in the subgrade. Thus, pavement behaviour of LVRs is generally evaluated in terms of deformation
originating in the upper layers of the pavement due to inadequate shear strength of the pavement
materials and not due to deformation originating in the subgrade for which a compressive strain
criterion would need to be satisfied.
The main characteristics of the DCP design method are summarised in Table 4-2.
Table 4-2: Main characteristics of DCP design method
Situation Manifestation Cause/ Design Principal Secondary

of Distress Mechanism Approach Design Inputs Design
of distress Inputs
Distressed Shear Shear of Pavement Structural - Layer
pavements Deformation material in Component evaluation: strength
with thin (20 mm rut base/subbase Analysis - DCP diagram(LSD)
surfacings and depth) (upper 200 – DCP measurements - Pavement
granular sub- mm) measurements (DN values) strength
layers (empirical balance
approach with Traffic Design traffic
emphasis on Environment (MESA)
pavement
balance and Moisture Required
minimum regime pavement
material structure
properties) - Layer
thickness
- Layer design
properties
(min.
requirements)
The reliability of the use of empirically derived component analysis design methods, such as the
DCP design method, depends strongly on whether the method is applicable for use on a specific
pavement. In this regard, the pavement needs to have a reasonably well-balanced structure. This
has been found to be typically the case with natural gravel pavements that have undergone “traffic
moulding or re-moulding” whereby compaction under traffic loading coupled with environmental
changes (wetting and drying cycles), cause the pavement structure to attain a strength profile
that exhibits a relatively smooth decrease in strength with increasing depth, i.e. a relatively well-
balanced pavement structure.
Because of the empirical nature of the DCP method, it should be applied in a multi-analysis
approach including visual surveys and test pit information. Moreover, the applicability of the method
should be thoroughly investigated before application. Nevertheless, when found applicable the
DCP method has been found to provide an easy to use and reliable procedure to determine the
upgrading requirements of unsealed roads.

4.2.5 Application of the DCP design method
The DCP method is useful where a basic or more developed pavement structure is already in place
and needs to be enhanced or upgraded. Such upgrading is best accomplished by maximising the
use of the in situ materials and conditions. Over the years and under traffic, unsealed roads achieve
a significant degree of subgrade compaction, localised weak areas tend to become strengthened
and an accumulation of residual gravel wearing course provides a sound support or foundation for
the new paved road. Optimising the use of these conditions usually results in a reduction in the
need to import large quantities of virgin material.
Notwithstanding the above, the DCP method can also be used for the design of new roads (where
no previous gravel road existed) and the rehabilitation of existing paved road. However, whilst the
principles of the method remain substantially the same as for upgrading gravel roads to a paved
standard, the procedures differ somewhat and are not the subject of this manual.
One of the major advantages of using a DCP is that the pavement is tested in the condition
reasonably representative of the conditions at which it performs. The simplicity of the test allows
repeated testing to minimise errors and also to account for temporal effects. Sound engineering
judgment and understanding as well as knowledge of the specific site are necessary to maximise
the information than can be obtained from a DCP profile.
In principle, the DCP method can also be used for the design of earth/sand roads for which the
procedure would be similar to that for gravel roads. However, because of the less substantial
nature of the in situ pavement, the construction process would be different in that there may be
need for initial compaction of the roadbed before undertaking the DCP survey to establish the
overlying pavement layer requirements.
Bibliography
1. Committee of State Road Authorities (1996). Structural design of flexible pavements for
interurban and rural roads. Pretoria: department of Transport. Technical Recommendations
for Highways (TRH4).
2. Kleyn, EG and van Zyl G D (1988). Application of the DCP to Light Pavement Design.
First Int. Symposium on Penetration testing, Orlando, USA.
3. Kleyn, E G (1982). Aspects of pavement evaluation and design as determined with the
aid of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP). M.Eng. Thesis, University of Pretoria,
Pretoria.
4. Mitchell, R L, van der Merwe C P and Geel, H K (1975). Standardised Flexible Pavement
Design for Rural Roads with Light to Medium Traffic, Ministry of Roads and Road
Traffic, Rhodesia Government.
5. Transport Research Laboratory (1993). Overseas Road Note 31. A guide to the structural
design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and sub-tropical climates (1993):
Overseas Centre, TRL, Crowthorne, Berkshire, UK. (4th edition).
6. Transport Research Laboratory (1993). Measuring Road pavement Strength and

Designing Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer.
Unpublished Project Report UPR/IE/76/06. Project Record No. R7783.
7. Van der Merwe, C.P. (1999). Material and Pavement Structures for Low Volume Roads
in Zimbabwe. Unpublished Report, Harare.
8. Wolff H, Emery, S J, van Zyl, G D and Paige-Green, P (1995). Design Catalogue for Low-
Volume Roads Developed for South African Conditions. Proc. Sixth Int. Conf. on Low-
Volume Roads, Proc. Sixth Int. Conf. on Low-Volume Roads, Minneapolis, Minnesota, June
25-29, 1995.
Part C - 5: Practical Considerations

5. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Introduction
ment Design, Materials & Surfacing 5 - 15
There are a number of practical considerations that may influence the final design of a LVSR that
have not been specifically addressed in previous chapters of this manual. These include:
• Expansive
Problem soils soils: These clay soils exhibit particularly large volumetric changes
• (swell and
Construction shrinkage) following variations in their moisture contents. They
issues
Very High 8 %
Medium 2 %
• shrink and
Vehicle overloadingcrack when they dry out and swell when they get wet. The cracks
High 4 %
• allow water
Maintenance issues to penetrate deep into the soil, hence causing considerable ex-
Pavement of the Design, Materials & Surfacin
• Roadpansion. This results in deformation and unevenness
safety issues road surface, since
the expansion and the subsequent heave are never uniform. Furthermore, if the
side slopes are not gentle enough these volume changes may produce lateral
Some of the key factors that need to be taken into account in addressing the practical considerations
Low < 2 % displacements (“creep”) of the expansive soil. When dry, some expansive soils
listed above are discussed below. 70
present a sand-like texture and are prone to erosion to a much greater extent Expansiv
than what would be normally expected from their plasticity and clay content. (swell an
Very High 8 %
5.2 Problem Soils
60
Medium 2 %
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
shrink an
Low < 2 %
Plasticity Index % (PI)
Clay Content (< 2 µm)
High 4 %
The measures chosen to minimize or eliminate
50 the effects of expansive soils
measure of soil expansiveness
for unfavourable
LVSRs needproperties
to be economically realistic and proportionate to the risk allow wa
n der Merwe Chart).By virtue of their for road construction,
40 a number of subgrade soils fall into
of potential pavement damage and increased maintenance
the category of “problem soils” and, when encountered, would normally requireand usertreatment
special costs. pansion.
to be carried out on material the expan
0.425 mm sieve.
Typicalinmethods
before acceptance include:
the pavement
30
foundation. In Malawi, the following types of problem soils
merit special consideration: 20
side slop
realignment, where possible 
Low < 2 % displacem
10
• Expansive

clays
excavation and replacement present a
• Micaceous soils
 chemical treatment
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 than wha
• Low-strength soils Clay Content (< 2 µm)
 minimising moisture changes The meas
Qualitative measure of soil expansiveness
Performance risk
 wide (at least 2 m), sealed (Modified van der Merwe Chart). for LVSR
shoulders
In assessing the appropriateness of the measures of potent
avoidance of side drains N.B - PI test to be carried out on material

available for dealing with problem soils, a careful
passing the 0.425 mm sieve.
Typical m
 gentle side slopes (1:6 or flatter)
balance has to be struck between the cost of the
 minimum earthworks cover
measures and the benefits to be derived. This would Expansive“black
Expansive “black cotton”
cotton” soil
soilexhibiting
exhibiting widely
wide-
gitudinal cracking caused of 0.6 m  realig
requirebythat a life-cycle analysis be carried out to spaced
spacedshrinkage
shrinkagecracks.
etric changes in an expansive
e. determine whether the costs
Collapsible of the These
sands: measures would
sandy soils t1 Time
 excav
0
be at least offset by the benefits. Bearing in mind
occur mostly in the arid and semi-arid re- Normal settlement  chem
the relatively gions
small user benefitsAfrica,
of southern generated by LVSRs
particularly in the
with soil partially
when compared
saturated  minim
Kalahari Desert regions of western isBot-
with higher trafficked roads, it
unlikely that the more extensive  w
swana and eastern and costly They
Namibia. measures
exhibit
Settlement
Additional settle-
would be justified.
a weakly cemented soil fabric which, ment - no change sh
under certain circumstances, may be in-
in applied pressure
but increase in
 av
Expansive duced
soils to rapid settlement. A characteristic moisture content  ge
Expansive soils are those
of these soils iswhich exhibit
that they areparticularly
all unsaturat-  m
large volumetric changes (swell and shrinkage)
ed, generally have a low dry density and a Typical longitudinal cracking and pavement of
Typical longitudinal
deformation caused by largecracking caused by
volumetric changes
following variations
low clay in moisture
content. At thecontents. The
in-situ moisture Figure 5.7 - Thesoil
basic concept of additional
large
of volumetric
an expansive changes
subgrade. in an expansive
mechanism of expansion illustrated in Figure 5-1 large
is settlement due to collapse of soil fabric9 Collapsib
tlement in excess of 150 mm content they can withstand relatively soil subgrade.
that of seasonal wetting and drying, withexcess
consequent
of the movement of the water table. Soils at the
rolling. imposed stretches well in
Box 5.3do- Conditions occur mo
edge of the overburden
road wet up pressure
and dry out withat little
a different
or noratebefore
than those undertoabepaved satisfisurface,
ed
thus bringingsettlement.
about differential movement. It ischange collapse settlement can
this movement rather than the low soil strength occur gions of so
However, without any Kalahari
(most expansive soils
in the are often
applied relatively
stress, but an strong at their
increase in equilibrium
 the soilmoisture
must havecontent) which brings
a collapsible
about failure. Such failure typically takes the form of associated fabriclongitudinal crack development, swana and
moisture content, additional settlement
will occur, as shown in Figure 5.7. The  it must be partially saturated a weakly
rate of settlement will depend on the  the applied load must exceed the under cer
permeability of the soil. Useful indicators overburden pressure duced to r
for assessing the collapse potential of a of these so
occurring first in the shoulder area and developing subsequently in the carriageway, as well as
general unevenness of the pavement surface, arcuate cracking and settlement near trees and
transverse humps and cracks at culvert sites.
Figure 5-1: Moisture movements in expansive soils under a paved road
The chosen measures to minimise or eliminate the effects of expansive soils for LVSRs will depend
on their degree of expansiveness. This property may be determined from the relationship between
the Plasticity Index (PI) and clay content of the soil as illustrated in Figure 5-2 (Note: the PI is
measured on the material passing the 0.425 mm sieve).
70
60
Very high 8%
Medium 2%
50
Plasticity Index % (PI)
Low < 2%
High 4%
40
30
20
Low < 2%
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Clay content (< 2 µm) %

Figure 5-2: Determination of soil expansiveness (Modified Van de Merwe Chart)

The measures for dealing with expansive soils need to be economically realistic and proportionate
to the risk of potential pavement damage and increased maintenance and user costs. Typical
measures include:
• Acceptance of problem and strategy to re-work and re-seal e.g. after 10 years
• Realignment, where possible
• Excavation and replacement
• Chemical treatment
• Minimising moisture changes
- wide (at least 2 m), sealed shoulders
- avoidance of side drains
- gentle side slopes (1:6 or flatter)
- minimum earthworks cover 0.6 m
The measures for dealing with expansive soils need to be economically realistic and proportionate
to the risk of potential pavement damage and increased maintenance and user costs. Typical
measures include:
• Acceptance of problem and strategy to re-work and re-seal e.g. after 10 years
• Realignment, where possible
• Excavation and replacement
• Chemical treatment
• Minimising moisture changes
• Wide (at least 2 m), sealed shoulders
• Avoidance of side drains
• Gentle side slopes (1:6 or flatter)
• Minimum earthworks cover 0.6 m
Micaceous soils
Micaceous soils contain large quantities of mica (muscovite) and occur in such materials as
weathered granite, gneiss, mica schist and phylitte – materials that occur in various areas of Malawi.
These soils often cause problems with compaction because of the “spring action” of the muscovite
materials which may prevent achievement of the intended density or, even if it is achieved initially,
can cause rutting in the compacted layer at a later stage.
Methods for dealing with micaceous soils include:
• Removing the micaceous soil layer to below the material depth in the subgrade
• Stabilising the micaceous soil with lime or cement
For LVSRs, the loss of shape associated with micaceous subgrades would generally have to
be accepted unless the overlying pavement warrants the expense of the countermeasures
indicated above.
Low-strength Soils
Soils with a soaked CBR of less than 3 per cent (< 2 per cent in dry climates) are described as
Low-Strength soils. These soils may be extremely soft in their natural state or become extremely
soft on soaking. They occur particularly in the low-lying, swampy areas of Malawi. They are easy
to identify either in situ or during site inspections or laboratory testing of their soaked strengths.
Typical treatment measures for such soils include:
• Removal and replacement with suitable material

• Stabilisation – chemical, modification with lime or mechanical
• Use of geo-synthetic products
• Raising of vertical alignment to increase soil cover
Further details on the respective methods of treatment for low-strength soils need to be established
in the design stage at project level and the appropriate measure will depend on soil properties,
site conditions, available equipment, available materials, experience from other sites with similar
conditions and construction economy.
5.3 Construction Issues
One of the challenges of utilising natural gravels in LVR pavements is to maximise their strength,
increase their stiffness and bearing capacity, increase their resistance to permanent (plastic)
deformation and reduce their permeability (and, hence, susceptibility to moisture ingress). These
attributes can be achieved through effective compaction, as discussed below.
Effective compaction of the existing running surface of the gravel road which is to be upgraded is
one of the most cost-effective means of improving the structural capacity of the LVSR pavement.
A well compacted running surface (effectively and typically the subbase of the new pavement)
possesses enhanced strength, stiffness and bearing capacity, is more resistant to moisture
penetration and less susceptible to differential settlement. The higher the density, the stronger the
layer support, the lesser the thickness of the overlying pavement layers and the more economic
the pavement structure. Thus, there is every benefit to achieving as high a density and related
strength as economically possible in the subgrade.
Maximising the strength potential of a subgrade soil can be achieved, not necessarily by compacting
to a pre-determined relative compaction level, as is traditionally done but, rather, by compacting
to the highest uniform level of density possible (“compaction to near refusal”) without
significant strength degradation of the particles. In so doing, there is a significant, beneficial,
gain in density, strength and stiffness and reduction in permeability, the benefits of which generally
outweigh the costs of the additional passes of the roller.
Compaction to near refusal ensures that the soil has been compacted at an appropriate moisture
content to its near elastic state as shown in Figure 5.3 at which point the air voids in the material
are relatively low (< 5%) with the significant benefit of reduced pavement deflection and increase in
pavement life as illustrated in Figure 5.4. If, however, the volume of voids is high after construction,
the pavement will densify under traffic loading and rutting will appear in the wheel tracks. Further,
if both the moisture content is high in service and the air voids are also high, the pavement is
potentially unstable and serious deformation is likely to occur, particularly with heavy traffic using
the road. These potentially adverse situations emphasise the importance of ensuring that the
subgrade compaction is carried out properly by controlling both the air voids and moisture content
at which the specified density is attained.

Plastic Elastic-plastic Elastic
Density / stiffness
Point of compaction
to near refusal
(near zero air voids)
No. of roller passes

Figure 5-3: Illustration of concept of “compaction to refusal”
Figure 5-4: Deflection-life relationship showing benefits of “compaction to refusal”
Table 5-1 gives the minimum compaction requirements for the various layers in the pavement.
For the reasons stated above, where the higher densities can be realistically attained in the field
(compaction to near refusal) from field measurements on similar materials or other established
information, they should be specified in the tender documents.
Table 5-1: Minimum compaction requirements
Pavement Layer Material Class Target Density

(Relative compaction)
NG80
Base NG65 98-100% BS Heavy
NG45
NG30
NG15
Subbase/Subgrade NG10 95-98% BS Heavy
NG7
Quality Attainment
LVR design procedures assume that both the material properties and levels of density specified are
achieved in the field. However, in order to attain the specified densities, it is essential to ensure,
as far as practicable, the uniform application of water, the uniformity of mixing and uniformity of
compaction at or near OMC.
It is also important to note that layers below the one being compacted should be of sufficient
density and strength to facilitate effective compaction of the upper layer(s). Adherence to the
compaction recommendations given in Table 5-1 should ensure this.
Whilst it is necessary for natural gravels to be brought to OMC for efficient compaction, it is
necessary to ensure that premature sealing does not lock in construction moisture. This can
be achieved by allowing a significant amount of drying out to occur before sealing takes place,
typically to 50% of OMC, particularly for materials that rely on soil suction forces for strength gain
and improved stability.
The variability of natural gravels is a significant factor in the reliability of performance of the
pavement. However, various measures can be taken during construction to reduce such variability.
These include:
• areful selection during the winning process. Physical properties of natural gravels in
C
most deposits tend to change with depth and location. Careful selection of the material
during the winning process, coupled with appropriate testing on a grid pattern (e.g. use of
the linear shrinkage test) will often facilitate uniform stockpiling of the material. Mixing of
materials in the borrow pit before stockpiling will also assist with uniformity, provided poor
materials are removed beforehand
• Processing of stockpiled material: Power screens have proved effective in screening

out and blending in to overcome deficiencies and can be particularly useful in attaining the
requirements for gravel wearing course materials
• Quality control and assurance: Quality attainment and control are paramount when using
unprocessed materials for LVR construction. Quality assurance procedures and the use
of statistical control methods are recommended. Such measures will eliminate the costly
ramifications flowing from arbitrary decisions to include or exclude the use of certain readily
available materials

5.4 Vehicle Overloading
Incidences of vehicle overloading can have a significant negative impact on the performance of
a LVSR. Figure 5.5 illustrates the adverse impact of overloading on a road pavement and the
consequent need for unnecessarily high maintenance and rehabilitation costs.
The effects of overloading are observed especially by premature failures of surfacing layers (excessive
rutting, bleeding, loss of surface texture, and ravelling being prevalent as early indicators). Naturally,
every effort should be made to limit the amount of overloading (illegal loading) but it is recognised
that current controls may not always be sufficient.
Reduced remaining
service life Earlier time for rehabilitation
Remaining service life Time for rehabilitation
Increased level of Increased level of pavement
Level of Level of pavement deterioration deterioration after overlay
Pavement deterioration
Pavement deterioration
pavement deterioration pavement deterioration before overlay
before overlay after overlay
Increased overlay thickness

Overlay thickness
Existing pavement (legal limits) Existing pavement (overloading)
Figure 5-5: Impact of overloading on pavement performance
While the design process should account for the amount of heavy vehicle axle loads in determining
the design traffic loading (Chapter 6), the specific effects of the very heavy abnormal axle loads on
the pavement must be considered in finalising the design.
In situations where overloading is likely to occur, special attention must be given to the quality and
strength of all the pavement layers during construction. Amongst other measures, there may be
justification in adopting a higher traffic design loading which will result in the need for increased
quality and thickness of the base and subbase/subgrade layers. The specific measures that the
Engineer may deem necessary should, ideally, be based on either proven local practice or at least
specialised advice/analysis in order to maintain a well balanced structure.
5.5 Maintenance Issues
The case for maintenance is a compelling one. Having Road maintenance seeks to conserve
as nearly as possible, the original
spent time, effort and money in planning, designing and designed condition of a road in a
constructing a LVSR, it is vital to ensure that the asset is manner most likely to minimise the total
cost to society of vehicle operation
preserved by timely and effective maintenance in order to: and accident cost, plus the cost of
providing the maintenance itself, under
the constraints of severe resource
• rolong the life of the road and postpones the day
P
limitations.
when renewal will be required
• Reduce the cost of operating vehicles on roads; and
• Help to keep roads open and enable greater regularity, punctuality and safety of road
transport services
The following routine and periodic maintenance activities, which may be of either a cyclic or
reactive nature, are essential to the preservation of LVSRs.
Table 5-2: Maintenance activities
Works Maintenance Type

Category Activity Cyclic Reactive
Routine General:
Maintenance Grass cutting x
Removal of obstacles x
Culvert clearing/repair x
Bridge clearing/repair x
Drain clearing x
Erosion control/repair x
Carriageway markings x
Repairing road signs x
Recurrent Pavement:
Maintenance Pothole repairs x
Surface patching (local sealing) x
Crack sealing x
Edge repairs x
Periodic Rejuvenation seal x
Maintenance Resealing x
Shoulder regravelling/reshaping x
Routine maintenance: Many of the activities listed in Table 5-2 can be carried out cost-
fixed cost activities that are carried
out irrespective of the engineering effectively using labour-based methods. If some of the routine
characteristics of the road or the maintenance work is contracted on a “lengthmen contract”
density of traffic (e.g. grass cutting).
basis, for example, there would be little or no requirement for
Recurrent maintenance: maintenance labour camps for transport to and from the work
activities required throughout the
site, thereby saving money. Some periodic maintenance work
year but whose frequencies vary
with traffic, topography and climate may still require specialised equipment, e.g. bitumen sealing
(e.g. road marking). operations, but labour-based methods can be used for many
Periodic maintenance: activities.
those recurrent activities that are
required at intervals of several years
(e.g. resealing). In view of the moisture sensitive nature of the naturally occurring,
unprocessed materials that are typically used in the construction
of LVSRs, they will present a more demanding challenge than more heavily trafficked HVSRs for
their proper maintenance. Thus, in order to avoid their untimely deterioration, maintenance must
be scheduled and carried out more frequently and expeditiously than for HVSRs. Failure to do so
can result in the loss of a LVSR more quickly than a HVSR. It is therefore essential that the routine
and periodic activities maintenance activities listed in Table 5-2 are carried out timeously.
Maintenance Activities Prior to Upgrading

Any maintenance activities for a gravel road which is planned to be upgraded to a sealed standard
should be carried out just prior to the to the upgrading works. Such works would typically include
the following, where required:
• Drainage improvements (see Part B, Chapter 8)

• Embankment raising (see Part B, Chapter 8)
• eshaping/gravelling works
R
(see Part C, Chapter 5, Section 5.3)
• Other miscellaneous works associated with the
road upgrading Periodic
Maintenance
The above approach will ensure that scarce resources
are used as efficiently as possible and any expenditure
on maintenance will be full preserved by the road Many of the
Grass cutting
Grass cutting–a- typical, labour-based
a typical, routine
labour-based,
upgrading to a LVSR standard. maintenance
routine activity. activity.
maintenance labour-based
on a “length
5.6 Road Safety Issues requirement
site, thereby
Road safety is of primary importance for all road users in Malawi whether they are travelling on
LVSRs or more highly trafficked trunk roads. There appears to be no statistical evidence to indicate
that accident rates on LVSRs are much different to HVRs and it hasGuideline
SADC become apparent that theSealed
on Low-volume core Roads
problem is unacceptable driver behaviour which needs to be addressed, irrespective of the type
of road.
It has also become apparent that the safety concerns of LVSR users are different than those of
HVSRs. This is largely because there tends to be a much higher incidence of vulnerable road users
(NMT, pedestrians and animals) on LVSRs than on HVSRs. The challenge in such a situation is to
ensure that the speed of motorised traffic is relatively low, particularly within villages. This may be
achieved in a number of ways including:
• ppropriate road signage, including traffic signs and road markings;

A
• Use of road humps and rumble strips
• Pedestrian crossings
• Wide or separated shoulders
There is an overriding need to incorporate the above road safety

measures in the LVSR design process and, to this end, a road
safety audit should be undertaken as part of the road design
process.
In addition to the above, road safety education and enforcement

are key factors which can have a major influence on road safety
on all roads and should be given high priority in order to promote The above document provides
practical guidance on how to
a road safety “culture” for all ages of road users in Malawi. make roads safer by highlighting
the key, safety related factors
which need to be incorporated
when planning, designing and
operating road networks.
Bibliography
1. Assum T (1998). Road Safety in Africa: Appraisal of Road Safety Initiatives in Five
African Countries, SSATP Working Paper No. 33, The World Bank, Washington, DC.

2. Austroads (1994). Road Safety Audits, NSW, Australia.
3. Dhliwayo, M E (1997). A Review of the Road Safety Situation in Africa, Proc. 3rd African
Road Safety Conference, Pretoria.
4. National Road Safety Council of Kenya. (1990). Manual on Accident Prevention Using
Low-Cost Engineering Countermeasures. Ministry of Public Works, Nairobi.
5. Ross A (1992). Road Safety Checks. Infrastructure Notes, Infrastructure and Urban
Development Department, World Bank, Washington, D.C.
6. Transport Research Laboratory (1985). Maintenance Techniques for District Engineers.

Overseas Road Note 2. TRL. Crowthorne.
7. TRL (1987). Maintenance Management for District Engineers. Overseas Road Note 1.
T R L, . Crowthorne.
8. Transport Research Laboratory, Ross Silcock Partnership and Overseas Development

Administration (1991). Towards Safer Roads in Developing Countries – A Guide for
Planners and Engineers. TRL, Berkshire, UK

9. Transport Research Laboratory (2002). Cost and SafetyEefficient (CaSE) Design of
Rural Roads in Developing Countries. TRL Unpublished Report PR/INT/242/2002,
Crowthorne.
10. Weston, D.J. 1980. Expansive soil treatment for southern Africa. Proc. Fourth Int. Conf.
on Expansive Soils, Denver.

11. Van Zyl, N J W and Freeme, C R (1984). Determination of damage done to roads by
heavy vehicles. Proc. Annual Transport Convention, Pretoria.
Part C - 6: Cost Analysis

6. COST ANALYSIS

6.1 Introduction
There are always a number of potential alternatives available to the designer in the design of new
roads or the rehabilitation of existing ones, each capable of providing the required performance.
For example, as illustrated in Figure 6-1, for a given analysis period, one alternative might entail the
use of a relatively thin, inexpensive pavement which requires multiple strengthening interventions
(Alternative A) whilst another alternative might entail the use of a thicker, more costly pavement with
fewer interventions (Alternative B).
Alternative A Alternative B
Pavement condition
Terminal Serviceability
0 5 10 15 20
Pavement Life (years)
Figure 6-1: Alternative pavement options
In order to make the most effective use of the available resources, the designer is required to find
which alternative will serve the needs of road users for a given level of service at the lowest cost
over time. Such a task can be achieved through the use of a life-cycle economic evaluation, often
referred to as “life-cycle” or “whole-of-life” costing.
6.2 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis
A life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis requires identifying and evaluating the economic consequences of
various alternatives over time primarily according to the criterion of minimum total (life-cycle) costs.
As indicated in Figure 6-2, the principal components of a LCC analysis are the initial investment
or construction cost and the future costs of maintaining or rehabilitating the road, as well as the
benefits due to savings in user costs over the assessment period selected. An assessment of the
residual value of the road is also included so as to incorporate the possible different consequences
of construction and maintenance strategies for the pavement/surface options being investigated.
Benefits User cost Residual

(+) savings value
Time
(years)
Maintenance
Rehabilitation
Costs
(-)
Construction
Figure 6-2: Distribution of costs and benefits during the life cycle of a road option
Method of Economic Comparison

In the life-cycle analysis process, alternative pavement/surface options are compared by converting
all the costs and benefits that may occur at different times throughout the life of each option to their
present day values. Such values are obtained using discounted cash flow techniques involving the
use of an appropriate discount rate, to determine the Net Present Value (NPV) of the pavement/
surface options. The NPV can be calculated as follows:
where NPV = present worth costs

C = present cost of initial construction
Mi = cost of the ith maintenance and/or rehabilitation measure
r = real discount rate
xi = number of years from the present to the ith maintenance and/or rehabilitation
measure, within the analysis period
z = analysis period
S = salvage value of pavement at the end of the analysis period expressed in terms
of present values
Components of LCC Analysis

The components of a LCC analysis associated with a particular design alternative are listed below
and illustrated in Figure 6.3.
• Analysis period
• Structural design period
• Construction costs
• Maintenance costs
• Road user costs
• Salvage value
• Discount rate

Analysis period
Structural design period

Key:
PC = Initial Construction
PC
RM = Routine Maintenance
ST = Surface Treatment
RV = Residual Value
Costs during life cycle
OV = Overlay
OV
ST ST
RM RM RM RM
Time
(years)
RV
Figure 6-3: Components of a typical life cycle cost analysis
(a) Analysis period: This period is the length of time for which comparisons of total costs are
to be made. It should be the same for all alternative strategies and should not be less than
the longest design period of the alternative strategies.
(b) Structural design period: This is the design life of the road at which time it would be
expected to have reached its terminal serviceability level and to require an appropriate
intervention such as an overlay.
(c) Construction costs: Unit costs for alternative pavement designs will vary widely depending
on such factors as locality, availability of suitable materials, scale of project and road
standard. Other factors that would typically warrant consideration include:
• Land acquisition costs
• Supervision and overhead cost
• Establishment costs
• Accommodation of traffic
• Relocation of services
(d) Maintenance costs: The nature and extent of future maintenance will be dependent on
pavement composition, traffic loading and environmental influences. An assessment needs
to be made of future annual routine maintenance requirements, periodic treatments such
as reseals, and rehabilitation such as structural overlays.
(e) Road user costs: These are normally not considered in a LCC analysis, as the pavement
designs are considered to provide “equivalent service” during the analysis period.
However, when evaluating the viability of costly measures to improve or maintain a high
roughness level, e.g. treatments for expansive clays, the savings for the road user (vehicle
operating costs) compared with the cheapest option are treated as benefits and should be
incorporated as one of the components in the LCC analysis (ref. Figure 6-2).
(f) Salvage value: The value of the pavement at the end of the analysis period depends
on the extent to which it can be utilised in any future upgrading. For example, where the
predicted condition of the pavement at the end of the analysis period is such that the base
layer could serve as the subbase layer for the subsequent project, then the salvage value
would be equal to the cost in current value terms for construction in future to subbase level
discounted to the evaluation year.
(g) Discount rate: This rate must be selected to express future expenditure in terms of present
values and cost. The decision on discount rate is usually based on a combination of policy
and economic considerations.
6.3 Optimum Pavement Design Solution
The optimum pavement design solution, which should be the design objective, is a balance between
construction, maintenance and road user costs and, as illustrated in Figure 6.4, is very much traffic
related. Thus, the optimum structural capacity pavement for a relatively low traffic pavement might
well incur lower initial construction costs but, within its life cycle, this would be balanced by higher
maintenance and VOC. Conversely, a higher traffic pavement would incur higher initial construction
costs but lower maintenance and VOC.
Figure 6-4: Combined cost for various pavement structure capacities

Bibliography
1. ACPA (2002): Life Cycle Cost Analysis. A Guide for Alternative Pavement Designs.
American Concrete Pavement Association, Stokie, Illinois, USA.
2. Baum, W.C. 91982): The Project Cycle. International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, USA.
3. Goldbaum, J. (2000): Life Cycle Cost Analysis State-of-the-Practice. Report No.

CDOT-R1-00-3. Aurora, CO.
4. Ozbay, K et al (2003): Guidelines for Life Cycle Analysis. Final Report. Report No.
FHWA-NJ-2003-012. Trenton, NJ.
5. Walls, J. and M.R. Smith. 91998): Life Cycle Cost Analysis in Pavement Design – Interim
Technical Bulletin. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., USA.
6. Peterson, D. (1985. Life Cycle Cost Analysis of Pavements. Synthesis of Highway

Practice. NCHRP Report 122, Washington, D.C., USA.
NOTES
Part C - 7: Implementation
7. IMPLEMENTATION

7.1 Introduction
Although no two projects are alike, each has its own history and implementation of a particular
project entails following a process or cycle that, with some variations, is common to all. As illustrated
in Figure 7-1, the cycle typically comprises the basic stages of planning, design, construction and
maintenance. Each phase has important, but changing, impacts on the end result in terms of its
“level of influence” on the succeeding phase and the related effect on the total cost of the project.
Figure 7-1: Road project cycle and influence on final cost
Ultimately, the successful implementation of a project should be such as to meet all the objectives
of the project cycle within the budget and time constraints. This requires that the implementing
agency is organised to function in a seamless manner as the project progresses from one phase
to the next.
7.2 Planning Impacts
The planning phase of the project provides the “what, when and where” type of information to the
design and subsequent phases of the project. Information on the type of project required (e.g.
paved, unpaved, standard, etc.), its location (e.g. alignment within a corridor), how it is to be
constructed (e.g. labour or equipment based) invariably provides direction for the design stage
of the project and, indeed, the impact/influence on the construction and maintenance phases of
the project.
As indicated in Figure 7-1, the costs incurred during the planning phase are relatively small
compared with the total expenditure and are incurred during a relatively short period of the project’s
life. However, the downstream level of influence of planning is very large in terms of decisions and
commitments made during the early phases of the project.
7.3 Design Impacts
The design phase of the project in terms of the preparation of plans, specifications and tender
documents provide a direct and influential input for construction and represents the most obvious
and direct interaction between these phases.
The traditional outputs of the design phase are plans and specifications which provide a direct
input for construction and typically comprise the following:
• set of drawings that provide detailed longitudinal and cross-section details and other
A
design aspects
• A set of specifications that describe in detail the materials to be provided and construction
standards to be achieved
In addition to the contract documents and details for construction, proper interaction in the early
stages can assist the construction in the preliminary field engineering phase and in establishing
methods for locating materials and establishing quality and quantity control techniques.
As is the case with the planning phase, the costs incurred during the design phase of the project
are relatively small compared with the total expenditure but the impact/influence is enormous on
the construction and maintenance phases of the project. A well designed project coupled with
responsive tender documents are absolutely crucial if the final product is to achieve its primary
objective in terms of providing an optimum design solution at minimum life-cycle costs.
7.4 Construction Impacts
The construction phase of a road project converts a design recommendation into physical
reality. Successful construction meets the planning and design objectives within budget and time
constraints. In order to move the selected road design to the construction phase, a set of definitive
documents expressing the details of the selected design, or of the alternative offered for contract
tenders, is needed. These documents not only convey details to construction but also serve as
legal documents in procuring the services of a contractor.
The construction phase of a project will suffer if there are shortcomings in the tender documents
in terms of such factors as misleading materials information, inaccurate quantities or impractical
specifications. Such shortcomings are not uncommon on many projects in Malawi and inevitably
lead to an escalation of costs due to claims and delays to project completion.
Whilst the capital costs of construction are a fraction of the operating and maintenance costs,
the actual quality of construction can greatly impact on the cost of maintaining the road. This
emphasises the importance of ensuring a high degree of quality control in the use of local materials
and the adoption of construction methods that are appropriate to the multi-dimensional environment
in which the road is being provided.
Feedback from construction to design is also vital. A seemingly economical design is not effective
if it results in unusual or unmanageable construction problems. Such feedback can often lead to a
change in future specifications and more cost-effective designs.
7.5 Maintenance Impacts
The last phase considered in relation to the preceding phases of the project cycle is maintenance.
This crucial activity occupies a significant number of years in the life of the project and the type
and cost of the activities required is influenced significantly by the preceding planning, design and
construction phases.
Careful consideration of the type of maintenance undertaken and its location along the road may
show some patterns of pavement behaviour that feed back to construction and show weaknesses
in design specifications and construction methods.
As regards the information flows from construction to maintenance, effective maintenance

techniques and procedures are dependent on the actual materials and construction methods
used. They are also related to the problems that were encountered during construction. For
example, poor pavement performance can often be shown to be due to the use of sub-standard
materials, inadequate compaction or non-consideration of drainage impacts. This emphasises
the importance of ensuring a high degree of quality control in the use of local materials and the
adoption of construction methods that are appropriate to the environment in which the road is
being provided.
7.6 Pavement Monitoring Impacts
Periodic monitoring and evaluation of existing roads are desirable as they can show that certain
construction methods and technology, although acceptable under existing specifications, lead to
premature failure and rapid deterioration. For example, seemingly sound materials may degrade
in service which may lead to structural weaknesses. Monitoring the roughness progression would
also confirm assumptions in terms of different strategies and identify the terminal service level after
which rehabilitation would be required.
A good feedback system can also assist in solving many potential design and construction
problems. In this regard, the as-built construction records form the cornerstone of the maintenance
database. Such information provides the initial or zero-age evaluation of the pavement. Moreover,
if the construction data is good and effectively recoded, it will form the backbone of all future
evaluation because the data will be more detailed than can ever be obtained again. In addition,
these records can be used to assist in selecting the initial location of pavement sections to be
periodically monitored.
7.7 Environmental Impacts
The implementation of a road project has a major effect on the immediate environment. The overall
impact is basically its very presence, but its most visible impact on the natural environment is often
during the construction phase. Appropriate measures should therefore be put in place for dealing
with environmental impacts during prior to construction, in the form of an Environmental Impact
Assessment Study, and during construction for which the following is a typical checklist of issues
to be addresed:
Consequential developments:
Will the project stimulate land clearance for agriculture, the development of industry or mineral
extraction? What steps can be taken to mitigate long-term adverse effects?
Social factors:
Has adequate provision been made for vehicle, pedestrian and NMT safety. Are the geometric
standards adopted likely to require provision of additional safety countermeasures (e.g. signage,
education programmes)?
Geotechnical damage:
Has the project been designed to minimise the possibility of landslides and other geotechnical
problems? Have long-term maintenance consequences been taken into account?
Materials resources:
Will the project result in the unacceptable depletion of material resources that may be needed for
subsequent maintenance or other construction projects? Will borrow pits be restored and can their
effect on the landscape be minimised?
Drainage:
Will the project result in increased risks from flooding or landslides as a result of disturbing
natural drainage patterns? Will later development of agricultural land and other settlements affect
hydrological conditions so that drainage works and bridges must be modified? Will any water
impoundments create health hazards?
Ecology:
Have the effects on animals and plants been considered? Has an ecological reconnaissance been
carried out to assess these effects?
Other factors:
Are air pollution, noise and vibration, and visual intrusion issues of concern in the project? If so,
what can be done to mitigate the effects?
Bibliography
1. ACPA (2002): Life Cycle Cost Analysis. A Guide for Alternative Pavement Designs.
American Concrete Pavement Association, Stokie, Illinois, USA.
2. Baum, W.C. 91982): The Project Cycle. International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, USA.
3. Goldbaum, J. (2000): Life Cycle Cost Analysis State-of-the-Practice. Report No.

CDOT-R1-00-3. Aurora, CO.
4. Ozbay, K et al (2003): Guidelines for Life Cycle Analysis. Final Report. Report No. FHWA-
NJ-2003-012. Trenton, NJ.
5. Walls, J. and M.R. Smith. 91998): Life Cycle Cost Analysis in Pavement Design – Interim
Technical Bulletin. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., USA.
6. Peterson, D. (1985. Life Cycle Cost Analysis of Pavements. Synthesis of Highway

Practice. NCHRP Report 122, Washington, D.C., USA.
Annex: A
DCP Design
Example
Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Annex A 145
- 1: Introduction
Example
ANNEX A – DCP DESIGN EXAMPLE
DCPADesign
A.1 Project Details
Annex A:Part
- Project name: Alpha-Beta Road
- Road length: 17 km
- DCP survey carried out in dry season
A.2 Design Procedure
1 Define design period Determine uniform sections 7

(CUSUM analysis)
2 Determine design traffic

Adjust DN values for design 8
moisture content
3 Determine traffic class
Determine in situ LSP each 9

4 Undertake DCP survey uniform section
5 Determine moisture content Determine required LSP for 10

along road pavement each uniform section
6 Obtain DN values in Compare in situ LSP with 11

pavement layers of required LSP for each
entire road (from DCP uniform section
programme)
Determine upgrading 12
requirements
Figure 5-4: Flow diagram of DCP design procedure
A.3 Step 1 – Design Period

- Design period = 20 years
A.4 Step 2 – Design Traffic

- 0.18 MESA (see Part B, Chapter 3, Annex 3B – Determination of Design Traffic Loading).
A.5 Step 3 – Traffic Class

- Traffic Class = LV 0.3 (0.10 – 0.30 MESA) (see Part B, Chapter 3, Table 3-5)
146 Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Annex A
- 1: Introduction
DCPADesign Example
A.6 Step 4: DCP Survey

- The DCP survey was carried out during the dry season.
Annex A:Part
- The results of the DCP survey are presented in Annex A.1 of this annex.
A.7 Step 5: Moisture Content Along Road Pavement

- From laboratory determinations, the average moisture content of samples taken at
every 500 m from the outer wheel track of the road at depths of 0-150, 150-300 and
300-450 mm is generally below OMC.
A.8 Step 6: DN Values in Pavement Layers

- The 20th, 50th and 80th pavement layer DN values as obtained from the DCP programme
are presented in Annex A-1 of this annex.
A.9 Step 7: Uniform Sections

- The uniform sections determined from a CUSUM analysis of the DCP results (see Chapter
2, Annex 2B which illustrates the manner of undertaking such an analysis) are presented in
Annex A-1 of this annex.
- The uniform sections determined from the CUSUM analysis are illustrated in a chart in
Annex A.3 of this annex and are as follows:
Table A-1: Chainage of uniform sections
Uniform Section No. Chainage (km)

1 0.0 – 2.5
2 2.5 – 6.0
3 6.0 – 7.5
4 7.5 – 10.0
5 10.0 – 12.5
6 12.5 – 14.5
7 14.5 – 17.0
A.10 S tep 8: A djustment of DN Values for Design Moisture

Content
- From consideration of the outputs of Step 5 it is assessed that the long-term, in-service
moisture content in the pavement (sealed shoulders and adequate drainage with minimum
crown height of 0.75 m) will be wetter than at the time of the DCP survey. Accordingly, the
80th percentile DN values are used for determining the in situ layer strength profile of each
uniform section. as presented in Annex A.4 of this annex. (see also Section B, Chapter 2,
Annex 2C which illustrates the manner of determining and choosing DN percentile values).
A.11 S tep 9: I n Situ Layer-Strength Profile for Uniform

Sections
- The in situ layer-strength profile for each uniform section is determined from the DCP
programme by undertaking an ‘average analysis’ of each uniform section. The DCP
programme computes the 20th, 50th or 80th DN values for each layer of each uniform
section and provides a graphical representation of the data compared with the DN traffic
class of the road to be designed – in this case Traffic Class LV 0.3.
- 1: Introduction
DCPADesign Example
- A typical printout for Uniform Section 4 (Chainage 7.5 – 10.0 km) is shown in Figure A-1
while printouts for all sections are presented in Annex A.5 of this annex.
Annex A:Part
DN (mm/blow)
Figure A-1: Uniform Section No. 4 - Layer-Strength diagram (LSD)
A.12 Step 10: Required layer-Strength Profile

- Although the required layer strength profile is automatically produced from the DCP
programme as described in Step 9, it should also be obtained from Table 5-1 (see Chapter
5 as follows (see Section B, Chapter 5, Table 5-1) to facilitate a more comprehensive
understanding of the design process. The required layer strength profile for Traffic Class LV
0.3 is presented below.
Traffic Class LE 0.3

E80 x 106 0.100 – 0.300
0- 150 mm Base
≥ 98% MAASHTO DN ≤ 3.2 mm/blow
150-300 mm Subbase
≥ 95% MAASHTO DN ≤ 6 mm/blow
300-450 mm subgrade
≥ 95% MAASHTO DN ≤ 12 mm/blow
450-600 mm
In situ material DN ≤ 19 mm/blow
600-800 mm
In situ material DN ≤ 25 mm/blow
- 1: Introduction
Example
A.13 S tep 11: Comparison of In Situ and Required Layer-

Strength Profiles for Uniform Sections
DCPADesign
- Figure A-1 above indicates that for an 80th percentile moisture condition, the strength of
the 0 – 150 mm layer for Uniform Section 4 is less than that required but is adequate for
Annex A:Part
all the other layers to a depth of 800 mm.
- A comparison of the in situ and required layer-strength profiles can also be presented
manually for each uniform section to facilitate the determination of upgrading requirements
as illustrated in Table A-2.
Summary of design outputs.
Table A-2: Comparison of in situ and required layer strength profiles for uniform sections
Pavement Required
Layer DN DN Values - 80th Percentile*
(mm) Value Section no.
for LV
0.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0-150 ≤3.2 8.07 4.81 4.90 4.03 4.45 6.57 3.95

150-300 ≤6 10.47 7.75 10.07 5.37 5.99 9.71 4.94

300-450 ≤12 9.69 8.78 10.27 7.79 7.09 9.68 7.37
Inadequate in situ layer

Adequate in situ layer(s)
* As obtained in the manner described in Annex B-2.
A.14 S tep 12: Determine Upgrading Requirements

- As illustrated in Table A-2, the in situ strength of the uppermost 150 mm layer of the
existing unpaved road (DN range 3.95 – 8.07 mm/blow) is all below the required strength
(max. DN value of 3.2 mm/blow). Thus, at least a new base layer of the required strength
will be required.
- As illustrated in Table A-3, the effect of adding a new base layer is to subjugate the existing
base layer to that of a subbase layer with a lower strength requirement which must be
evaluated against the required DN value of ≤ 6.
- 1: Introduction
Example
Table A-3: Impact of imported base layer on layer-strength profiles
DCPADesign
Pavement Required
Annex A:Part
Layer DN DN Values - 80th Percentile
for LV
0.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0-150 ≤3.2 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20

150-300 ≤6 8.07 4.81 4.90 4.03 4.45 6.57 3.95

300-450 ≤12 10.47 7.75 10.07 5.37 5.99 9.71 4.94

450-600 ≤19 9.69 8.78 10.27 7.79 7.09 9.68 7.37
Required new base with DN value ≤ 3.2

Inadequate in situ layer(s)equate in situ layer(s)
- As illustrated in Table A-3, the strength of the new subbase (previously the base of
the existing gravel road) in two if the uniform sections, Sections 1 and 6, is inadequate
(DN value > 6). Thus, a new subbase layer of the requisite strength is also required for
these sections to produce an adequate pavement structure for all sections as illustrated in
Table A-4.
Table A-4: Impact of imported base and subbase layers on layer-strength profiles
Pavement Required
Layer DN DN Values - 80th Percentile
for LV
0.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0-150 ≤3.2 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20

150-300 ≤6 6.00 4.81 4.90 4.03 4.45 6.60 3.95

300-450 ≤12 8.07 7.75 10.07 5.37 5.99 9.71 4.94

450-600 ≤19 10.47 8.78 10.27 7.79 7.09 9.71 7.37
Required new base with DN value ≤ 3.2

Required new subbase with DN value ≤ 6.00
- 1: Introduction
Example
- In summary, a new base layer with a required DN value of ≤ 3.2 will be required for all the
uniform sections whilst a new subbase layer with a DN value of ≤ 6.00 will be required for
DCPADesign
uniform sections 1 and 6.

Annex A:Part
- The new base and subbase requirements may be achieved in a number of ways, including:
• eworking the existing layer - if only the density is inadequate and the required
R
DN value can be obtained at the specified construction density and anticipated in-
service moisture content
• eplacing the existing layer - if the material quality (DN value at the specified
R
construction density and anticipated in-service moisture content) is inadequate, then
appropriate quality material will need to be imported to serve as the new upper
pavement layer(s)
• ugmenting the existing layer - if the material quality (DN value) is adequate but
A
the layer thickness is inadequate, then imported material of appropriate quality will
need to be imported to make up the required thickness prior to compaction
A.15 Evaluation of In Situ or Borrow Pit Materials

The in situ or imported materials to be used for the new pavement layers should be evaluated in
terms of assessing their DN values at the anticipated operational in-service moisture content and
density as described in Annex 6A.
ANNEX A1: Alpha-Beta Road: DCP Results and Analysis
Point Chainage DSN800 (blows) DN Base (0-150 mm) (mm/blow) DN Subbase (150-300 mm) (mm/blow) DN Subgrade (300-450 mm) (mm/blow)
No. (km) DSN800 Avg DSN-Avg CUSUM DNBase Avg DSN-Avg CUSUM DN SB Avg DSN-Avg CUSUM DN SG Avg DSN-Avg CUSUM
1 0 289
206.77 82.23 82.23 2.29 4.11 -1.82 -1.82 5.15 6.33 -1.18 -1.18 3.06 7.57 -4.51 -4.51
2 0.25 85
206.77
-121.77 -39.54 4.44 4.11 0.33 -1.49 10.80 6.33 4.47 3.30 15.33 7.57 7.76 3.25
3 0.5 180
206.77 -26.77 -66.30 2.00 4.11 -2.11 -3.60 11.63 6.33 5.30 8.60 16.69 7.57 9.12 12.37
4 0.75 95
206.77
-111.77
-178.07 8.67 4.11 4.56 0.96 8.04 6.33 1.71 10.31 7.87 7.57 0.30 12.67
5 1 135
206.77 -71.77
-249.84 3.75 4.11 -0.36 0.60 6.93 6.33 0.60 10.91 8.87 7.57 1.30 13.97
6 1.25 118
206.77 -88.77
-338.61 8.07 4.11 3.96 4.55 8.80 6.33 2.47 13.39 5.05 7.57 -2.52 11.46
7 1.5 115
206.77 -91.77
-430.38 5.11 4.11 1.00 5.55 9.37 6.33 3.04 16.43 8.05 7.57 0.48 11.94
8 1.75 120
206.77 -86.77
-517.14 5.37 4.11 1.26 6.81 6.24 6.33 -0.09 16.34 6.91 7.57 -0.66 11.28
9 2 107
206.77 -99.77
-616.91 6.60 4.11 2.49 9.30 7.17 6.33 0.84 17.19 9.69 7.57 2.12 13.40
10 2.25 110
206.77 -96.77
-713.68 10.12 4.11 6.01 15.31 10.47 6.33 4.14 21.33 9 7.57 1.43 14.83
11 2.5 355
206.77 148.23
-565.45 2.45 4.11 -1.66 13.65 2.09 6.33 -4.24 17.09 2.73 7.57 -4.84 9.99
12 2.75 128
206.77 -78.77
-644.22 4.74 4.11 0.63 14.28 8.05 6.33 1.72 18.81 10.19 7.57 2.62 12.61
13 3 309
206.77 102.23
-541.99 4.22 4.11 0.11 14.39 5.29 6.33 -1.04 17.78 4.36 7.57 -3.21 9.40
14 3.25 299
206.77 92.23
-449.75 3.75 4.11 -0.36 14.03 6.45 6.33 0.12 17.90 4.32 7.57 -3.25 6.15
15 3.5 304
206.77 97.23
-352.52 3.28 4.11 -0.83 13.20 7.61 6.33 1.28 19.18 4.25 7.57 -3.32 2.83
16 3.75 256
206.77 49.23
-303.29 1.86 4.11 -2.25 10.95 3.92 6.33 - 16.78 4.05 7.57 -3.52 -0.68
Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method
17 4 144
206.77 -62.77
-366.06 3.65 4.11 -0.46 10.48 7.00 6.33 0.67 17.45 4.68 7.57 -2.89 -3.57
18 4.25 176
206.77 -30.77
-396.83 2.91 4.11 -1.20 9.28 5.36 6.33 -0.97 16.48 5.72 7.57 -1.85 -5.42
19 4.5 126
206.77 -80.77
-477.59 5.03 4.11 0.92 10.20 7.84 6.33 1.51 18.00 8.57 7.57 1.00 -4.42
Annex A
20 4.75 130
206.77 -76.77
-554.36 4.85 4.11 0.74 10.94 6.53 6.33 0.20 18.20 7.9 7.57 0.33 -4.09
21 5 199
206.77 -7.77 -562.13 2.93 4.11 -1.18 9.76 3.79 6.33 -2.54 15.66 6.84 7.57 -0.73 -4.82
22 5.25 145
206.77 -61.77
-623.90 3.85 4.11 -0.26 9.50 4.90 6.33 -1.43 14.23 12.93 7.57 5.36 0.54
23 5.5 161
206.77 -45.77
-669.67 2.72 4.11 -1.39 8.11 4.23 6.33 -2.10 12.14 7.28 7.57 -0.29 0.25
151
Annex A:Part
DCPADesign Example
- 1: Introduction
Annex A:Part
DCPADesign Example
- 1: Introduction
152
Point Chainage DSN800 (blows) DN Base (0-150 mm) (mm/blow) DN Subbase (150-300 mm) (mm/blow) DN Subgrade (300-450 mm) (mm/blow)
No. (km) DSN800 Avg DSN-Avg CUSUM DNBase Avg DSN-Avg CUSUM DN SB Avg DSN-Avg CUSUM DN SG Avg DSN-Avg CUSUM
24 5.75 103 206.77 -103.77 -773.43 5.33 4.11 1.22 9.33 12.10 6.33 5.77 17.91 8.92 7.57 1.35 1.60
25 6 165 206.77 -41.77 -815.20 4.11 -4.11 5.22 6.33 -6.33 11.58 7.57 -7.57 -5.97
26 6.25 123 206.77 -83.77 -898.97 4.37 4.11 0.26 5.48 10.07 6.33 3.74 15.33 10.27 7.57 2.70 -3.26
27 6.5 87 206.77 -119.77 -1018.74 6.61 4.11 2.50 7.97 10.27 6.33 3.94 19.27 9.6 7.57 2.03 -1.23
28 6.75 147 206.77 -59.77 -1078.51 2.34 4.11 -1.77 6.20 6.69 6.33 0.36 19.63 13.23 7.57 5.66 4.43
29 7 141 206.77 -65.77 -1144.28 3.34 4.11 -0.77 5.43 6.28 6.33 -0.05 19.58 7 7.57 -0.57 3.86
30 7.25 102 206.77 -104.77 -1249.04 4.90 4.11 0.79 6.22 7.69 6.33 1.36 20.95 9.31 7.57 1.74 5.60
31 7.5 115 206.77 -91.77 -1340.81 3.95 4.11 -0.16 6.06 7.90 6.33 1.57 22.52 9.69 7.57 2.12 7.72
32 7.75 130 206.77 -76.77 -1417.58 4.69 4.11 0.58 6.64 5.32 6.33 -1.01 21.51 6.42 7.57 -1.15 6.57
33 8 162 206.77 -44.77 -1462.35 2.60 4.11 -1.51 5.13 4.10 6.33 -2.23 19.29 5.69 7.57 -1.88 4.69
34 8.25 168 206.77 -38.77 -1501.12 3.38 4.11 -0.73 4.40 4.07 6.33 -2.26 17.03 5.25 7.57 -2.32 2.37
35 8.5 171 206.77 -35.77 -1536.88 3.34 4.11 -0.77 3.63 4.54 6.33 -1.79 15.24 5.37 7.57 -2.20 0.17
36 8.75 190 206.77 -16.77 -1553.65 2.53 4.11 -1.58 2.05 4.80 6.33 -1.53 13.71 9.91 7.57 2.34 2.52
37 9 109 206.77 -97.77
-1651.42 5.67 4.11 1.56 3.61 8.23 6.33 1.90 15.62 7.26 7.57 -0.31 2.21
38 9.25 135 206.77 -71.77
-1723.19 3.86 4.11 -0.25 3.35 5.36 6.33 -0.97 14.65 5.13 7.57 -2.44 -0.23
39 9.5 180 206.77 -26.77
-1749.96 2.65 4.11 -1.46 1.89 4.06 6.33 -2.27 12.38 6.43 7.57 -1.14 -1.37
40 9.75 153 206.77 -53.77

-1803.72 3.37 4.11 -0.74 1.15 5.03 6.33 -1.30 11.09 6.43 7.57 -1.14 -2.51
41 10 173 206.77 -33.77
-1837.49 2.35 4.11 -1.76 -0.61 5.40 6.33 -0.93 10.16 11.42 7.57 3.85 1.34
42 10.25 179 206.77 -27.77
-1865.26 - 4.11 -4.11 -4.72 - 6.33 -6.33 3.83 - 7.57 -7.57 -6.23
Annex A
43 10.5 183 206.77 -23.77

-1889.03 1.65 4.11 -2.46 -7.18 - 6.33 -6.33 -2.50 - 7.57 -7.57 -13.80
44 10.75 187 206.77 -19.77
-1908.80 3.34 4.11 -0.77 -7.95 4.59 6.33 -1.74 -4.23 4.7 7.57 -2.87 -16.67
45 11 117 206.77 -89.77
-1998.57 4.47 4.11 0.36 -7.59 5.71 6.33 -0.62 -4.85 8.43 7.57 0.86 -15.81
46 11.25 960 206.77 753.23 -1245.33 - 4.11 -4.11 -11.70 - 6.33 -6.33 -11.18 - 7.57 -7.57 -23.37
47 11.5 192 206.77 -14.77
-1260.10 3.32 4.11 -0.79 -12.49 3.80 6.33 -2.53 -13.70 4.7 7.57 -2.87 -26.24
48 11.75 222 206.77 15.23
-1244.87 2.85 4.11 -1.26 -13.76 2.34 6.33 -3.99 -17.69 5.43 7.57 -2.14 -28.38
49 12 121 206.77 -85.77
-1330.64 4.45 4.11 0.34 -13.42 7.11 6.33 0.78 -16.91 6.76 7.57 -0.81 -29.19
50 12.25 915 206.77 708.23 -622.41 - 4.11 -4.11 -17.53 - 6.33 -6.33 -23.23 - 7.57 -7.57 -36.76
51 12.5 975 206.77 768.23 145.83 4.11 -4.11 -21.64 6.33 -6.33 -29.56 7.57 -7.57 -44.33
52 12.75 112 206.77 -94.77 51.06 11.71 4.11 7.60 -14.04 10.97 6.33 4.64 -24.92 10.38 7.57 2.81 -41.52
53 13 900 206.77 693.23 744.29 2.73 4.11 -1.38 -15.42 - 6.33 -6.33 -31.25 - 7.57 -7.57 -49.09
54 13.25 102 206.77 -104.77 639.52 6.63 4.11 2.52 -12.90 9.85 6.33 3.52 -27.72 8.12 7.57 0.55 -48.54
55 13.5 140 206.77 -66.77 572.75 3.07 4.11 -1.04 -13.94 6.85 6.33 0.52 -27.20 8.27 7.57 0.70 -47.84
56 13.75 132 206.77 -74.77 497.99 4.47 4.11 0.36 -13.58 5.87 6.33 -0.46 -27.66 9.22 7.57 1.65 -46.18
57 14 102 206.77 -104.77 393.22 6.47 4.11 2.36 -11.22 8.53 6.33 2.20 -25.45 8.12 7.57 0.55 -45.63
58 14.25 86 206.77 -120.77 272.45 6.12 4.11 2.01 -9.21 8.08 6.33 1.75 -23.70 9.8 7.57 2.23 -43.40
59 14.5 140 206.77 -66.77 205.68 2.71 4.11 -1.40 -10.62 9.13 6.33 2.80 -20.90 7.26 7.57 -0.31 -43.71
60 14.75 180 206.77 -26.77 178.91 4.53 4.11 0.42 -10.20 3.99 6.33 -2.34 -23.24 4.65 7.57 -2.92 -46.63
61 15 290 206.77 83.23 262.14 1.77 4.11 -2.34 -12.54 3.98 6.33 -2.35 -25.58 6.34 7.57 -1.23 -47.86
62 15.25 171 206.77 -35.77 226.38 3.67 4.11 -0.44 -12.98 4.97 6.33 -1.36 -26.94 6.58 7.57 -0.99 -48.85
63 15.5 203 206.77 -3.77 222.61 3.38 4.11 -0.73 -13.71 2.85 6.33 -3.48 -30.42 4.17 7.57 -3.40 -52.25
64 15.75 193 206.77 -13.77 208.84 1.98 4.11 -2.13 -15.84 4.94 6.33 -1.39 -31.80 - 7.57 -7.57 -59.82
65 16 184 206.77 -22.77 186.07 2.19 4.11 -1.92 -17.76 4.96 6.33 -1.37 -33.17 8.56 7.57 0.99 -58.83
66 16.25 206 206.77 -0.77 185.30 2.63 4.11 -1.48 -19.24 3.92 6.33 -2.41 -35.58 4.64 7.57 -2.93 -61.76
67 16.5 164 206.77 -42.77 142.54 3.80 4.11 -0.31 -19.55 3.27 6.33 -3.06 -38.64 6.48 7.57 -1.09 -62.84
Annex A
68 16.75 169 206.77 -37.77 104.77 2.69 4.11 -1.42 -20.97 4.76 6.33 -1.57 -40.20 6.58 7.57 -0.99 -63.83
69 17 102 206.77 -104.77 0.00 4.53 4.11 0.42 -20.55 2.24 6.33 -4.09 -44.29 10.85 7.57 3.28 -60.55
153
Annex A:Part
DCPADesign Example
- 1: Introduction
- 1: Introduction
Example
etermination of 80 th Percentile Values

ANNEX A2: D
DCPADesign
for Uniform Sections

Annex A:Part
Point Chainage CUSUM 80th Percentile

No. (km) DSN800 Base SB SG DSN800 DN Base DN SB DN SG
1 0 82.23 -1.82 -1.18 -4.51
2 0.25 -39.54 -1.49 3.30 3.25
3 0.5 -66.30 -3.60 8.60 12.37
4 0.75 -178.07 0.96 10.31 12.67
5 1 -249.84 0.60 10.91 13.97
6 1.25 -338.61 4.55 13.39 11.46
7 1.5 -430.38 5.55 16.43 11.94
8 1.75 -517.14 6.81 16.34 11.28
9 2 -616.91 9.30 17.19 13.40
10 2.25 -713.68 15.31 21.33 14.83
11 2.5 -565.45 13.65 17.09 9.99 180.0 8.07 10.47 9.69
12 2.75 -644.22 14.28 18.81 12.61
13 3 -541.99 14.39 17.78 9.40
14 3.25 -449.75 14.03 17.90 6.15
15 3.5 -352.52 13.20 19.18 2.83
16 3.75 -303.29 10.95 16.78 -0.68
17 4 -366.06 10.48 17.45 -3.57
18 4.25 -396.83 9.28 16.48 -5.42
19 4.5 -477.59 10.20 18.00 -4.42
20 4.75 -554.36 10.94 18.20 -4.09
21 5 -562.13 9.76 15.66 -4.82
22 5.25 -623.90 9.50 14.23 0.54
23 5.5 -669.67 8.11 12.14 0.25
24 5.75 -773.43 9.33 17.91 1.60
25 6 -815.20 5.22 11.58 -5.97 273..2 4.81 7.75 8.78
26 6.25 -898.97 5.48 15.33 -3.26
27 6.5 -1018.74 7.97 19.27 -1.23
28 6.75 -1078.51 6.20 19.63 4.43
29 7 -1144.28 5.43 19.58 3.86
30 7.25 -1249.04 6.22 20.95 5.60
31 7.5 -1340.81 6.06 22.52 7.72 141.0 4.90 10.07 10.27
32 7.75 -1417.58 6.64 21.51 6.57
33 8 -1462.35 5.13 19.29 4.69
34 8.25 -1501.12 4.40 17.03 2.37
35 8.5 -1536.88 3.63 15.24 0.17
36 8.75 -1553.65 2.05 13.71 2.52
37 9 -1651.42 3.61 15.62 2.21
38 9.25 -1723.19 3.35 14.65 -0.23
- 1: Introduction
DCPADesign
Annex A:Part Example
39 9.5
-1749.96 1.89 12.38 -1.37
40 9.75
-1803.72 1.15 11.09 -2.51
41 10 -1837.49 -0.61 10.16 1.34 174.4 4.03 5.37 7.79
42 10.25
-1865.26 -4.72 3.83 -6.23
43 10.5
-1889.03 -7.18 -2.50 -13.80
44 10.75
-1908.80 -7.95 -4.23 -16.67
45 11
-1998.57 -7.59 -4.85 -15.81
46 11.25
-1245.33 -11.70 -11.18 -23.37
47 11.5 -1260.10 -12.49 -13.70 -26.24
48 11.75
-1244.87 -13.76 -17.69 -28.38
49 12
-1330.64 -13.42 -16.91 -29.19
50 12.25 -622.41 -17.53 -23.23 -36.76
51 12.5 145.83 -21.64 -29.56 -44.33 167.4 4.45 5.59 7.09
52 12.75 51.06 -14.04 -24.92 -41.52
53 13 744.29 -15.42 -31.25 -49.09
54 13.25 639.52 -12.90 -27.72 -48.54
55 13.5 572.75 -13.94 -27.20 -47.84
56 13.75 497.99 -13.58 -27.66 -46.18
57 14 393.22 -11.22 -25.45 -45.63
58 14.25 272.45 -9.21 -23.70 -43.40
59 14.5 205.68 -10.62 -20.90 -43.71 140.0 6.57 9.71 9.68
60 14.75 178.91 -10.20 -23.24 -46.63
61 15 262.14 -12.54 -25.58 -47.86
62 15.25 226.38 -12.98 -26.94 -48.85
63 15.5 222.61 -13.71 -30.42 -52.25
64 15.75 208.84 -15.84 -31.80 -59.82
65 16 186.07 -17.76 -33.17 -58.83
66 16.25 185.30 -19.24 -35.58 -61.76
67 16.5 142.54 -19.55 -38.64 -62.84
68 16.75 104.77 -20.97 -40.20 -63.83
69 17 0.00 -20.55 -44.29 -60.55 203.6 3.95 4.94 7.37
- 1: Introduction
Example
ANNEX A3: Uniform Sections

DCPADesign
Annex A:Part
CUSUM of DCP DN values (mm/blow)
Annex A-3: Uniform Sections
ANNEX A4: Layer Strength Diagrams
Uniform Section 1: Chainage 0.0 – 2.5
- 1: Introduction
DCPADesign
- 1: Introduction
DCPADesign
- 1: Introduction
DCPADesign
Annex: B
Glossary
of Terms
Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Annex B 161
A - 1: Introduction
of Terms
PAVEMENT
B: Glossary
Base The layer of the pavement structure resting upon, and through which the
AnnexPart
(or basecourse): load is transmitted to, the subbase, subgrade and supporting soil.
Formation: The surface of the improved subgrade, in its final shape, upon which the
pavement structure, consisting typically of the base course and surfacing is
constructed.
Improved The layer immediately below the pavement which would typically be the
subgrade:
re-shaped and compacted wearing course of the unpaved road.
Subbase: That layer of the pavement structure that lies above the subgrade and below
the base or basecourse.
Subgrade: All the material below the pavement and may include the improved subgrade
and the in situ subgrade.
Surfacing: The uppermost pavement layer which provides the running surface for
traffic. It can consist of a bituminous or non-bituminous type of surfacing.
GENERAL MATERIALS
Borrow area: A site from which natural material, other than solid stone, is removed for
construction of the road works.
Naturally occurring Material from natural sources used in its original state for the construction
gravel/soil: of pavement layers.
Quarry: An open surface from which natural material, other than solid stone, is
removed by drilling and blasting, for construction of the works.
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Asphalt concrete: An admixture of bitumen-bound materials normally consisting of a mixture of

coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and filler bound with straight-run bitumen.
The proportions and grading of the coarse aggregate may be varied to
produce different types of mix with differing properties.
Bituminous binders: Petroleum derived adhesives used to stick chippings on to a road surface,
in surface dressing or to bind together a layer of surfacing or base material.
Bitumen emulsion: A binder in which petroleum bitumen, in finely divided droplets, is dispersed
in water by means of an emulsifying agent to form a stable mixture.
Bituminous seal:
A general term for thin bituminous wearing courses made of surface
treatments or slurry seals or a combination of both.
Cut-back bitumen: Bitumen whose viscosity has been reduced by the addition of a volatile
diluent.
162 Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Annex B
A - 1: Introduction
B: Glossary of Terms
Fog spray: A light application of bitumen emulsion or cut-back, on top of surface

dressing to improve the waterproofness of the surfacing and to assist in
AnnexPart
holding the chippings.
Prime coat: An application of low viscosity bituminous binder to an absorbent surface,
usually the top of the base with the aim of waterproofing the surface being
sprayed and to help bind it to the overlying bituminous courses.
Straight-run Bitumen whose viscosity or composition has not been adjusted by blending
bitumen: with solvents or other substance.
Surface dressing: A surface treatment made of single sized aggregates of crushed material.
Can be constructed in single or multiple layers.
Surface treatment:
A general term for thin bituminous wearing courses made by rolling
aggregate into a sprayed thin film of bitumen. Aggregates can be made
of crushed or natural gravel with a grading depending on the desired type
of surface treatment to be produced. Can be constructed in single or
multiple layers.
Slurry seal: A surfacing material which consists of fine aggregate, mineral filler and
bitumen emulsion, used in one or two layers, or on top of a single surface
dressing (Cape seal).
Sand bitumen: A base material consisting of a cold, mix-in-place combination of sand and
either bitumen emulsion or cutback.
Tack coat: A light application of bituminous binder to a bituminous surface to provide

a bond between this surface and the overlying bituminous course.
Wearing course The uppermost surfacing layer. Can consist of a bituminous mix or a
(bituminous): bituminous seal.
SOILS AND SOIL TESTS
Atterberg Limits: Collective name for Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit tests. Originally proposed
by A. Atterberg for determining soil sattes.
California Bearing The value given to an ad-hoc penetration test where the value 100% applies
Ratio (CBR): to a standard sample of good quality crushed material.
Clay: The finest soil fraction. Comprises colloidally fine, complex silicates formed
by the natural decomposition of igneous rocks.
Clay fraction: That fraction of soil composed of particles smaller in size than
0.002 mm. This is the fraction that generally imparts plasticity to a soil and
in appropriate quantities helps bind the material together. Too much clay
can lead to unacceptable swelling and shrinkage in response to moisture.
Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Annex B 163
A - 1: Introduction
of Terms
Cohesive soil: Soil containing sufficient clay or silt particles to impart significant plasticity
B: Glossary
and cohesion.
AnnexPart
Compaction: The process whereby soil particles are densified, by rolling or other means,
to pack more closely together, thus increasing the dry density of the soil.
Dry density (DD): The mass of the dry material after drying to constant mass at 105 degrees
Celsius, contained in a unit volume of moist material.
Dry density/moisture The relationship between the dry density and moisture content of a soil
content relationship: when a given amount of compaction is applied.
Equilibrium moisture The moisture content at any point in a soil after moisture movements have
content (EMC): stabilised in a constructed pavement.
Lateritic: Soils and rocks containing iron oxides as a major constituent in concentrated
form, remaining behind when more soluble products have been leached
away.
Linear Shrinkage The decrease in one dimension, expressed as a percentage of the original
(LS): dimension of the soil mass, when the moisture content is reduced from the
liquid limit to the oven-fry state.
Liquid Limit (LL): The moisture content, expressed as a percentage, at which the wet soil
fines passes from a plastic to a liquid condition.
Heavy compaction: Laboratory compaction of a soil sample using a 4.5 kg hammer falling
through a height of 115.5 mm to compact a soil in a 150 mm diameter
mould.
Moisture content: The loss in mass, expressed as a percentage of the dry material, when a soil
is dried to a constant mass of 105 degrees Celsius.
Optimum moisture That moisture content at which a specified amount of compaction will
content: produce the maximum dry density.
Particle size The spread of soil sizes (fraction) in a soil sample form gravel to sand to silt/
distribution (grading): clay as measured by passing the sample through a nest of standard sieves.
Plastic Limit (PL): The moisture content at which the damp soil fines pass from a plastic to a
solid condition, i.e. when the soil ceases to behave as a plastic material.
Plasticity Index LL – PL, an indication of the clay content of soils; the larger the PI, the larger
(PI): the clay content.
Plasticity Modulus A measure of PI x % passing the 0.425 mm sieve.

(PM):
164 Design Manual for Low Volume Sealed Roads Using the DCP Design Method Annex B
A - 1: Introduction
B: Glossary of Terms
Plasticity Product A measure of PI x % passing the 0.075 mm sieve.

(PP):
AnnexPart
Residual soils: These are the weathered remains of rocks that have undergone no
transportation. They are normally sandy or gravelly, with high concentrations
of oxides resulting from a leaching process.
Rock: Hard rigid coherent deposit forming part of the earth’s crust, which may be
of igneous (e.g. granite, basalt), sedimentary (e.g. limestone, sandstone)
or metamorphic (e.g. slate, hornfels) origin and which normally requires
blasting. Soft, more easily excavatable materials such as clays, shales and
sands which geologically are rocks will be termed soil in an engineering
classification.
Sand fraction: That portion in a soil mass that will pass between the sieve sizes of 2.0 mm
and 0.075 mm. In geological terms a sand is between 2.0 and 0.06 mm.
Silt: Mineral particles deposited as sediment in water and of such size that all
will pass the 0.075 mm sieve. Individual particles are indistinguishable to
the naked eye.
Silt fraction: That portion of the soil mass that lies between the sizes 0.06 mm and 0.002 mm.
Soil: A mixture of inorganic mineral particles together with some water and air,
which may be further described as sands, gravels, silts and clays.
Soil moisture The suction forces which generate the cohesion in fine grained soils below
suction: the Liquid Limit.
TRAFFIC
Design period: is the period during which the proposed pavement must carry the
estimated cumulative number of standard axles without he need for major
reconstruction work, except for re-sealing. At the end of this period the
pavement should still be in a sufficiently good condition that strengthening
will result in a further period of satisfactory traffic-carrying
Equivalence of an axle or vehicle is the number of passages of an Equivalent Standard

Factor: Axle which would cause the same damage to a road as one passage of the
axle or vehicle in question.
Equivalent A design concept to enable the damaging effect of a range and number of
Standard Axle different axle loads, to be considered in the structural design of a pavement.
(ESA): The equivalent standard axle imposes a load of 8,200 kg.

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REPUBLIC OF MALAWI

Ministry of Transport and Public Works

Ministry of Transport and Public Works

I commend this manual to all stakeholders in the road sector.

Hon. Mohammed Sidik Mia

Technical Working Group

Ministry of Transport and Public Works: Ministry of Local Government

Road Fund Administration University of Malawi

National Construction Industry Council Consultants

A AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic

T ToR Terms of Reference

2. MAIN COMPONENTS OF A LVSR

PART B: ROAD DESIGN PROCESS

4. GEOMETRICS AND ROAD SAFETY

PART C: DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND GUIDELINES

Figure 1-1: Structure of the Manual 3

Figure 1-1: Road design process 10

Figure 1-1: Traffic loading versus dominant mechanism of pavement distress

Table 2-1: Purpose of main pavement components 5

Table 1-1: Road design process 10

Table 2-1: Climatic zones: Approximate mean annual rainfall,

Photo 7-1: Example of Cobble Stone surfacing 72

The Manual is divided into three sections as follows:

Part C: DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND GUIDELINES

Figure 1-1: Structure of the Manual

1.6 Benefits of Using the Manual

• Increase employment opportunities through the use of more appropriate technology,

• Incorporate road safety measures to minimise road accidents

1.7 Sources of Information

1.8 Updating of the Manual

Figure 2-1: Main components of a LVSR pavement

Table 2-1: Purpose of main pavement components

Pavement component Purpose

Base (base course) • P

2.2 Cross Section

Figure 2-2: Cross section

2.3 Drainage Elements

Figure 2-3: Drainage elements

2.3 Drainage Elements

Part B - 1: Design Process

1.2 Purpose and Scope

Figure 1-1: Road design process

Main activity Sub-activities Chapter no.

• Undertake assessment of:

• Establish design traffic volumes and loading

• Determine horizontal and vertical alignment

• Undertake DCP design 5

• Establish materials requirements 6

• Consider alternative surfacing options 7

• Determine drainage and erosion control

Part B - 2: Design Process

2.2 Purpose and Scope

2.3 General Assessment

A general assessment of the road is made by undertaking the following activities:

2.3.1 Desk study

2.3.2 Consultations with local people

2.3.3 Geometric and road safety assessment

2.3.4 Traffic assessment

2.3.5 Climate assessment

2.3.6 Materials assessment and laboratory testing

Figure 1-1: Traffic loading versus dominant mechanism of pavement distress

Table 2-1: Climatic zones: Approximate mean annual rainfall,

• Increase employment opportunities through the use of more appropriate technology,

• Undertake assessment of:

• Establish design traffic volumes and loading

• Determine horizontal and vertical alignment

• Undertake DCP design 5

• Establish materials requirements 6

• Determine drainage and erosion control

2.3.2 Consultations with local people

2.5.3 STEP 3: Obtain moisture content beneath pavement at time of survey.

1. DCP Survey results - DCP Survey results–Uniform section derived from