Lab Manual

Power Engineering
(MEAE303)
(Diploma in Mechanical Engineering)

Amity Polytechnic
Amity University, Greater Noida
(Session 2021-22)
 Table of Contents
Preamble.....................................................................................................................................3

Introduction:...........................................................................................................................3

Remote mode of teaching and learning..................................................................................3

Challenges..............................................................................................................................3

Use of virtual labs for teaching and learning..........................................................................3

Advantages.............................................................................................................................4

Resources................................................................................................................................4

Standard plan for conduct of virtual labs...............................................................................4

How to Use the Manual..............................................................................................................5

Tabulation of labs/resources......................................................................................................5

Subject Area...........................................................................................................................5

Brief about the lab / resource..................................................................................................5

Hyperlink to the resource.......................................................................................................5

Discipline / area-wise virtual labs manual of relevant courses..................................................6

List of coordinators and resource persons for Virtual Labs.....................................................23

Preamble

Introduction:

The aim of the lab is to give a practical insight to Diploma students about the advanced technological
knowledge, understanding, and awareness related to automobile field. This course will enable the students in
understanding procedure of inspection and maintenance of various types of engine systems, diagnosis of
engines and other systems.

Remote mode of teaching and learning

Virtual lab refers to a virtual teaching and learning environment aimed at developing students’ laboratory
skills. As one of the most important eLearning tools, they allow the student to conduct various experiments
without any constraints to place or time, in contrast to the constraints of real labs. Virtual labs incorporate
various pedagogical techniques that help learners to better understand the theoretical information. These
techniques include visual learning, active learning, recall-based learning, gamification & storytelling. They
also offer students access to a realistic lab experience that will allow them to perform experiments and practice
their skills in a risk-free and interactive learning environment.

Challenges

Engineering education is facing major challenges as it seeks to provide necessary and robust practical
experience for all its undergraduate students. The limitation of resources (capital and operational), the
increasing number of engineering students and the need to provide safe, up-to-date laboratory experiences have
become global issues. Although the use of virtual laboratories (VLs) can provide some relief, within the
engineering curriculum further pedagogical research is still needed. Virtual labs is well-suited to be used as a
supplement or as a preparatory tool but also has merit when the laboratory is unable to be accessed, for
example, with the global pandemic COVID-19.

Use of virtual labs for teaching and learning

Virtual labs are simulated learning environments that allow students to complete laboratory experiments online
and explore concepts and theories without stepping into a physical science lab. Students can try out lab
techniques for the first time and become more familiar with advanced lab equipment that might otherwise be
inaccessible. Through animations, students can explore life science at a molecular level and look inside the
machines they are operating. Virtual lab software creates opportunities for alternative access to science
education.
Advantages

Engine technology has come a very long way over the decades, from two-valve systems with gravity-fed
combustion mixtures to the modern-day fuel injection systems. There’s also been an influx in electric vehicle
technology, eliminating the need for a combustion engine. Some technologies that have changed the world of
automobile engines are:

 Hybrid engines,
 Direct injection
 Variable valve timing
 Turbocharging
 Cylinder deactivation
 Electric vehicle (EV)
 Hydrogen fuel cell
 Active alternators
 LPG gas compatibility

Resources

The practical included in the course will be covered with the help of virtual labs and practical experimental
videos available on various web resources. YouTube videos will be helpful to demonstrate various concepts
and application videos.

Standard plan for conduct of virtual labs

 Introduction components and working of 2 stroke and 4 stroke engines.

 Introduction components and working of petrol and Diesel engines.

 Engine maintenance and decarbonizing procedure.

 Valve timing diagram for 2 stroke and 4 stroke engines.

 Study of combustion chamber of petrol and Diesel engines.

 Gasoline and Diesel fuel injection system

 Electronic fuel injection system.

 Exhaust gas analysis methods.

 Practical understanding of the course content by vlab, practical videos, etc.
How to Use the Manual

Students will revise the concepts of the practical to be conducted. The experimental procedure will be helpful
for students to know the steps of conduction of the experiments.

Tabulation of labs/resources

Subject Area

• Power Engineering is the application of the concept of thermal engineering. In this the main focus is on
the application of different laws like IC engine, Refrigeration, Air compressor etc. The subject is
starting with the power cycle; Gas power cycle where the working fluid does not change phase
throughout the cycle where the working fluid used here is air.

Brief about the lab / resource

 Virtual Labs

 YouTube Videos

 Lab Manuals

 Experimental Apparatus

Hyperlink to the resource

http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/rtvlas/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXQ27pU3_7E&t=83s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pzHuwrpgyAM&t=18s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oty1j-S2Bvc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rCkfCrO8gDo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0PrgUOAG-fU
Discipline / area-wise virtual labs manual of relevant courses

Experiment 1

1. Aim: Dismantling assembly of petrol engine

 Remove the cylinder head of an engine. Observe the various parts like combustion chamber,
location of valves, spark plug or Injector.

Apparatus: Model of four stroke petrol Engine (Maruti- 800).

Theory:

PARTS OF I.C ENGINE:-

Piston: It moves from BDC to TDC. One stroke of piston is define as

movement of piston form one Extreme (TDC or BDC) to other
extreme (BDC to TDC).

Material : Cast Iron, Aluminium Alloy.

Function: Its purpose is to change the volume enclosed by the cylinder ,

to exert a force on a fluid inside the cylinder or to cover and uncover
ports. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force
from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod or connecting rod.
Cylinder: It is same as used in four stroke engine except it does not
have valve mechanism. It has two ports on side wall of cylinder.

Material: Cast Iron, Alloy Steel.

Function: It provide the space for combustion and compression.

Crankshaft: It is used to convert reciprocating motion of piston into

rotary motion.

Material: Alloy steel, SG Iron.

Function : Its help in converting reciprocating motion of piston into rotary

motion.

Inlet and Exhaust Port: Two stroke engines contain ports except valves. These ports open and
closed due to piston movement. When the piston is
moving towards TDC inlet ports opens and when it moves toward BDC
exhaust port opens.

Materials: Special Alloy Steel.

Function: Its helps in the entry and exit of the fuel when ever
needed.

Transfer Port: These engines contain one extra port which is known
as transfer port. It is connected from crankcase to combustion
chamber. Its main function is to supply the charge from crankcase to
combustion chamber when piston is moving from TDC to BDC.
Material: Special Steel Alloy.

Function: It directs the fresh intake charge into the upper part of the cylinder, pushing the
residual exhaust gas down the other side of the deflector and out the exhaust port.
Inlet and Exhaust Manifold: These are
connected to inlet and exhaust port and regulate
the flow of charge and exhaust gases.
Material: Special Aluminium alloy
Function: The primary function of the intake manifold is to evenly distribute the combustion
mixture (or just air in a direct injection engine) to each intake port in the cylinder head. an
exhaust manifold collects
the exhaust gases from multiple cylinders into a smaller
number of pipes – often down to one pipe.

Flywheel: It need smaller flywheel compare to four stroke engine

because less power fluctuation.

Material: Cast Iron

Function: Its helps in fluctuation of speed.

Crankcase: This is the part where crankshaft situated. The inlet port is also connected with
crankcase. First charge enters into crankcase and
send to combustion chamber through transfer port.

Material: Aluminium Alloy, Steel, Cast Iron.

Function: . Both sides of the piston are used as working

surfaces: the upper side is the power piston, the lower side acts as
a scavenging pump. As the piston rises, it pushes
out exhaust gases and produces a partial vacuum in the crankcase, which draws in fuel and air.
As the piston travels downward, the compressed fuel/air charge is pushed from the crankcase
into the cylinder.
Spark Plug: It is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to the
combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air mixture by an
electric spark, while containing combustion pressure within the engine.

Material: Copper and Nickel Alloy.

Function: To ignite the air/fuel mixture. Electrical energy is transmitted

through the spark plug, jumping the gap in the plugs firing end if the voltage
supplied to the plug is high enough. This electrical spark ignites the gasoline/air
mixture in the combustion chamber.
 Experiment 2

Aim: Trial on single/multicylinder petrol and diesel engine with heat balance sheet

• To draw up a thermal energy distribution graph (heat balance) for the CI engine by
performing load tests at the rated speed of the engine with Electrical break dynamometer.

Apparatus with specification :

1. Single cylinder water cooled diesel engine.
 Make.
 RatedHorsepower:5 H P. 1500 r p.m.
 Stroke: 110 mm.
2. Dynamometer
 Make
 Type: Electrical D .C type

3. Panel Board
It consists of Amp meter, Voltmeter and Switch fuse carrier.

4. Fuel measuring tank.

Mounted on a sturdy iron stand, burette tube three way cock with connecting tube.

5. Air intake measurement.

 Make:
 Size:
6. Stopwatch.
Theory:
The performance of an engine is generally given by heat balance sheet. To draw the heat balance
sheet for I.C. Engine, it is run at constant load. The quantity of fuel used in a given time and its
calorific value, the amount, inlet and outlet temperature of cooling water, the temperature of
exhaust gases, etc. are recorded. After that the heat used in difference section is calculated using
the standard formulas which are given in the calculation section.

Experimental procedure:
The following steps have been followed:
1. The level of the diesel in tank is checked and line up with the fuel pump through fuel
measuring apparatus.
2. The engine started by hand cranking.
3. The inlet cooling line is fully opened.
4. A light load is put in the engine by inserting the load in electrical load box, and sat
the voltage 220 V using voltage varior.
5. After achieving steady state condition, all the necessary data is noted down.
6. 3-set of each data is noted for 3- different load.
7. First data is taken in no-load condition.
Observations:
Given: C.V of fuel = 45MJ/kg
Generator efficiency=97%
Diameter of orifice meter= 0.015 m
Coefficient of discharge= 0.65
Table 1:
SL. No Voltage (V) Current (I) Load in terms
of current (I)

Table 2:
SL. Fuel Time Manometer Exhaust gas Flow Time Cooling
No Consumption taken reading temperature of taken water
in ml in sec in °C cooling in temperature
water Sec °C
in litre

Left Right Inlet Outlet

limb limb

Calculation:
Brake power (B. P) = V/1000 C KW
Where, C Efficiency of generator.
Fuel Consumption:
Volume of fuel flow rate of fuel = (Final volume of fuel - initial volume of fuel)/Time
(m3/sec)

Mass flow rate of fuel (mf) = (Volume flow rate of fuel × density of fuel). (Kg/hr) Sp. Gravity of fuel =0.86

Sp. Fuel Consumption:

B.P s. f. c = Fuel used in kg/ hr = mf (Kg/KW-h)

Experimental procedure:
The following steps have been followed:
1. The level of the diesel in tank is checked and line up with the fuel pump through fuel
measuring apparatus.
2. The engine started by hand cranking.
3. The inlet cooling line is fully opened.
4. A light load is put in the engine by inserting the load in electrical load box, and sat
the voltage 220 V using voltage varior.
5. After achieving steady state condition, all the necessary data is noted down.
 6. 3-set of each data is noted for 3- different load.
7. First data is taken in no-load condition.

Observations:
Given: C.V of fuel = 45MJ/kg
Generator efficiency=97%
Diameter of orifice meter= 0.015 m
Coefficient of discharge= 0.65
Table 1:
SL. No Voltage (V) Current (I) Load in terms
of current (I)

Table 2:
SL. Fuel Time Manometer Exhaust gas Flow Time Cooling
No Consumption taken reading temperature of taken water
in ml in sec in °C cooling in temperature
water Sec °C
in litre

Left Right Inlet Outlet

limb limb

Calculation:
Brake power (B. P) = V/1000 C KW
Where, C Efficiency of generator.
Fuel consumption:
Volume of fuel flow rate of fuel = (Final volume of fuel - initial volume of fuel)/Time
(m3/sec)

Mass flow rate of fuel (mf) = (Volume flow rate of fuel × density of fuel). (Kg/hr)
Sp. Gravity of fuel =0.86

Heat supplied by the fuel (Qs) = mf×C.V×3600. (KJ/hr)

Heat equivalent to b.p:
QB.P = B.P × 3600 (KJ /hr)
Heat carried away by exhaust gas:
The amount of heat carried away by exhaust gas Q e = (ma+ mf) × C pg × (T g – T
a). (KJ/hr)
Where, T g = Temperature of exhaust gas (K) Ta =
 Temperature of air. (K)
C pg = Sp. Heat of exhaust gas. ( KJ/Kg-K)
Heat carried away by cooling water:
The amount of heat carried by cooling water (Q w) = mw× C p w × (TO -TI) Where,
TO = outlet Temperature of water. (K)
TI = inlet Temperature of water. (K) m W
= mass flow rate of water (kg/sec) C P W =
Sp. heat of water. (KJ/kg -k)
Unaccounted heat:
QU = (QS – QW – QE – B. P ) (KJ/hr)

result:
Heat balance sheet:
CREDIT DEBIT
100% 1.Heating b .p %
2.Heating %
injacket water
3.Heat in %
exhaust gas.
4.Heat %
accounted
100% Total 100%
 Experiment 3

Aim: Morse Test on Multicylinder Diesel/Petrol engine

Objects:
1. To perform "Morse Test" on a Multi cylinder petrol engine at different speed and
determine i. p, b .p and f. p. Of engine at each speed.
2. To determine the mechanical efficiency of the engine.
3. To plot the characteristic curve f.p. vs Speed.

Apparatus with specification:

 Multi cylinder water cooled petrol engine.
1. Make:
2. Rated Horsepower:
3. No. of Cylinders:
4. Capacity:
5. Cylinder Bore:
6. Stroke:
 Dynamometer:
1. Type:
2. Constant
 Tachometer.
 Others.

Theory:
Morse Test, applicable only to multi cylinder engines use to find indicatedpower, break power
frictional power and mechanical efficiency of the petrol engine as well as diesel engine for set
positions of throttle, choke and for a selected speed by cutting each cylinder in succession. If
the engine consists of 'k cylinders then the break power of the engine should be measured k-
times cutting each cylinder turn by turn The cylinder of petrol engine is made inoperative by
shorting the spark plug. If all the ‘k” cylinders of the engine are in working,then
i.P1 +i.p.2+i.p3... i.Pk 𝑛=1 𝑏.𝑝𝑛 +f.p..........................(1)
=∑𝑘
Where i.p, b .p. and f p. are respectively indicated, brake and frictional power and suffix stands
for the cylinder number.
Observation data:
Sl. Speed in ( r .p Shorted 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑖𝑛 𝐴)
No .m.) / voltage in ( V) Cylinder

Initial load
(All cylinder
in acting
Condition)

With No 1
Cylinder
Shorted

With No 2
Cylinder
Shorted

With No 3
Cylinder
Shorted

With No 4
Cylinder
Shorted

RESULTS:
Sl. No Speed in (r. I. p b. p f. p Mech.
p. m ) / Efficiency
voltage in ( (𝜂m)
V)

Draw the curve between fp. Vs. Speed.

Sample calculations:
Students have to show one set of calculation in details. Use the following formula to find
out theb.p
b.p= 2NWr/4500 (in hp)
= 2NWrg/60 (inw)
where W = Load indicated by the weighing device in kg N =
Shaft speed in r.p.m.
r = Arm length in m g
= 9.81 m/s

PRECAUTION
 Experiment 4

Aim: Visit website- http://library.think.quest.org and http://www.grc.nasa.goe and prepare a brief report on gas
turbine and jet propulsion.

Report on gas Turbine and Jet propulsion

Gas turbines have been used for electricity generation in the periods of peak electricity demand. Gas turbines
can be started and stopped quickly enabling them to be brought into service as required to meet energy
demand peaks.
The Thermal efficiency of the gas turbine is 20 to 30% compared with the modern steam power plant 38 to
40%. In future it is possible to construct efficiencies in and around 45%. Following are the fields of Gas
Turbine applications: Power Generation Aviation Oil and Gas industry Marine Propulsion A Gas Turbine is
used in aviation and marine fields because it is self contained, light weight not requiring cooling water and
fit into the overall shape of the structure.
Simple gas turbine plant consists of Turbine, Compressor and Combustor. The simple gas turbine works on
Brayton cycle or joule cycle.
The working fluid is compressed in a compressor which is generally rotary, multistage type. Heat is added to
the compressed fluid in the combustion chamber . This high energy fluid at high temperature and pressure
then expands in the turbine thereby generating power.
Features about Brayton cycle
• The Brayton cycle was proposed by George Brayton in 1870 for use in reciprocating engines.
• Modern day gas turbines operate on Brayton cycle and work with rotating machinery.
• Gas turbines operate in open-cycle mode but can be modelled as closed cycle using air standard
assumptions.
• Combustion and exhaust replaced by constant pressure heat addition and rejection.
Close Brayton Cycle
Process involved in close Brayton cycle
The Brayton cycle consists of four internally reversible processes:
– 1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
– 2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
– 3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
– 4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

Efficiency of Brayton cycle

METHODS TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY OF BRAYTON CYCLE
1. Regenerating (Regenerator)
2. Intercooling
3. Reheating

JET PROPULSION
Sir Isaac Newton in the 18th century was the first to theorize that a rearward directed acceleration could
propel a machine forward at a great speed. This theory was based on his own third law of motion. As the hot
air blasts backwards through the jet nozzle the aeroplane moves forward.
The key to a practical jet engine was the gas turbine, used to extract energy from the engine itself to drive the
compressor.
Jet engine cycle
• All air-breathing jet engines operate on the Brayton cycle (open cycle mode).
• The most basic form of a jet engine is a turbojet engine.
• Some of the parameters of a jet engine cycle are usually design parameters and hence often fixed
a priori: eg. compressor pressure ratio, turbine inlet temperature etc.
• Cycle analysis involves determining the performance parameters of the cycle with the known
design parameters.
The different processes in a turbojet cycle are the following:
• a-1: Air from far upstream is brought to the air intake (diffuser) with some acceleration/deceleration
• 1-2: Air is decelerated as is passes through the diffuser
• 2-3: Air is compressed in a compressor (axial or
centrifugal) 3-4 The air is heated using a combustion
chamber/burner
4-5: The air is expanded in a turbine to obtain power to drive the compressor
5-6: The air may or may not be further heated in an afterburner by adding further
fuel 6-7: The air is accelerated and exhausted through the nozzle.
𝑛=1 𝑏.𝑝𝑛 +f.p..........................(1)
Where i.p, b .p. and f p. are respectively indicated, brake and frictional power and suffix stands
for the cylinder number.
Apparatus: Model of engine having valves, valve timing diagram.

Theory:

A valve timing diagram is a graphical representation of the opening and closing of the intake
and exhaust valve of the engine, The opening and closing of the valves of the engine depend
upon the movement of piston from TDC to BDC. This relation between piston and valves is
controlled by setting a graphical representation between these two, which is known as valve
timing diagram.

Fig. Valve timing diagram of a 4 stroke petrol engine

I.V.O-INLET VALVE OPEN

100-- 200 BEFORE THE PISTON REACHES TDC

I.V.C-INLET VALVE CLOSE

300-400 AFTER THE PISTON REACHES BDC

E.V.O-EXHAUST VALVE OPEN

300-500 BEFORE THE PISTON REACHES BDC

E.V.C-EXHAUST VALVE CLOSE

100-150 AFTER THE PISTON REACHES TDC

Fig. Valve timing diagram of a 4 stroke Diesel engine

I.V.O-INLET VALVE OPEN 100-200 BEFORE TDC

I.V.C-INLET VALVE CLOSES 250-400 AFTER BDC

F.V.O-FUEL VALVE OPEN 100-200 BEFORE TDC

F.V.C-FUEL VALVE CLOSES 150-200 AFTER TDC

E.V.O-EXHAUST VALVE OPEN 390-500 BEFORE BDC

E.V.C-EXHAUST VALVE CLOSEE 100-150 AFTER TDC

In an ideal engine, the inlet valve opens at TDC and closes at BDC. The exhaust valve opens
at BDC and closes at TDC. The fuel is injected into the cylinder when the piston is at TDC
and at the end of compression stroke but in actual practice it will differ.

Inlet Valve opening and closing:

In an actual engine, the inlet valve begins to open 5°C to 20 °C before the piston reaches the
TDC during the end of exhaust stroke. This is necessary to ensure that the valve will be fully
open when the piston reaches the TDC. If the inlet valve is allowed to close at BDC, the
cylinder would receive less amount of air than its capacity and the pressure at the end of
suction will be below the atmospheric pressure. To avoid this inlet valve is kept open for 25°
to 40°after BDC.

Exhaust valve opening and closing: -

Complete clearing of the burned gases from the cylinder is necessary to take in more air into
the cylinder. To achieve this exhaust valve is opens at 35° to 45° before BDC and closes at
10° to 20° after the TCC. It is clear from the diagram, for certain period both inlet valve and
exhaust valve remain in open condition. The cranks angles for which both valves are open are
called as overlapping period. This overlapping is more than the petrol engine.

Fuel valve opening and closing:

The fuel valve opens at 10° to 15 °before TDC and closes at 15° to 20 ° after TDC. This is
because better evaporation and mixing fuel.

The extreme position of the bottom of the cylinder is called “Bottom Dead Centre” [BDC].IN
the case of horizontal engine, this is known as “Outer Dead Centre” [ODC]. The position of
the piston at the top of the cylinder is called “Top Dead Centre” [TDC]. In case of horizontal
engine this is known as “Inner Dead Centre” [TDC]. In case of horizontal engine this is
known as “inner dead center “[IDC].

Suction or inlet valve opens slightly before top dead centre in vertical engine (or inner
dead centre in horizontal engines) so that the charge is not restricted at the dead centre
position. The valve continues to be opened. Well beyond the bottom dead centre or outer
dead centre in horizontal engines to admit more charge due to high velocity at charge in the
inlet manifold. The charge air from atmosphere enters the cylinder due to suction stroke. The
angle between inlet valve opening and closing gives the suction process in crank angles in
degrees. Exhaust valve opens considerably before the end of the working stroke that is before
bottom dead centre. This no doubt reduces the power output from the engine.

Port timing in two stroke engine:

Two-stroke engine has no valves instead they have ports. They are inlet port, transfer port
(transfer fuel from the crankcase to the cylinder) and an exhaust port. The sequence of
operation of the ports is controlled by reciprocating movement of the piston in the engine
cylinder.

Since the one cycle is completed in one revolution of the crank, the sequence of operation of
the ports can be represented in a circle (360°). This representation is known as a port timing
diagram. The port timing diagram gives an idea about when a phase of the two-stroke cycle
takes place.

The diagram shown above illustrates the sequence of various events such as opening and
closing of ports. Here,
TDC - Top Dead Center
BDC - Bottom Dead Center
IPO - Inlet port open
IPC - Inlet port close
TPO - Transfer port open
TPC - Transfer port close
EPO - Exhaust port open
EPC - Exhaust port close

When the  piston move from BDC to TDC - Transfer port close, Exhaust port close, Inlet port
open.
Ignition starts about 20° before TDC
When the piston moves from TDC to BDC - Inlet port close, Exhaust port open, Transfer port
open.

EPO- 70 ° before BDC

TPO - 60° before BDC
TPC - 60° after BDC
EPC - 70° after BDC
IPO - 50° before TDC
Ignition- 20° before TDC
IPC - 50° after TDC

Importance of port timing diagram

The port timing has great influence on engine performance. A well tuned port timing results
the better performance of engine, while badly tuned port time cause decreasing the efficiency
of  engine. Incorrect port timing cause the leakage of fresh charge, cause partially burning of
fuel, unwanted drop and rise of pressure inside the engine cylinder.
 Experiment 3

Aim: Electronic Fuel Injection System Diagnosis:

a. Diagnose Electronic fuel Injection system with diagnostic tester/ engine scanner.

b. Perform On-Board diagnosis.

c. Read trouble code at engine check Light/Malfunction Indicator light.

d. Use Engine scanning tool for diagnosis

e. Locate various Components of Electronic fuel injection system.

f. Identify components of EFI system.

g. Perform stand –alone diagnosis using a multi-meter and test lamp.

Apparatus: Model of Gasoline and Diesel engine fuel injection system, diagnostic tools.

Theory:

Gasoline Fuel Injection Systems: A modern gasoline injection system uses pressure from an
electric fuel pump to spray fuel into the engine intake manifold. Like a carburetor, it must
provide the engine with the correct air-fuel mixture for specific operating conditions. Unlike
a carburetor, however, pressure, not engine vacuum, is used to feed fuel into the engine. This
makes the gasoline injection system very efficient.

There are many types of gasoline injection systems. Before studying the most common ones,
you should have a basic knowledge of the different classifications:

1. Single- or Multi-Point Injection

2. Indirect or Direct Injection

A single-point injection system, also call throttle body injection (TBI), has the injector
nozzles in a throttle body assembly on top of the engine. Fuel is sprayed into the top center of
the intake manifold.
A multi-point injection system, also called port injection, has an injector in the port (air-fuel
passage) going to each cylinder. Gasoline is sprayed into each intake port and toward each
intake valve.

Gasoline Fuel Injection Systems:

Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Gasoline Fuel Injection Systems:

Its construction details consists of parts as fuel tank, electric fuel pump, fuel filter, electronic
control unit, common rail and pressure sensor, electronic injectors and fuel line.
1. Fuel tank is safe container for flammable liquids and typically part of an engine system in
which the fuel is stored and propelled (fuel pump) or released (pressurized gas) into an
engine.

2. An electric fuel pump is used on engines with fuel injection to pump fuel from the tank to
the injectors. Electric fuel pumps are usually mounted inside the fuel tank.

3. The fuel filter is the fuel system's primary line of defense against dirt, debris and small
particles of rust that flake off the inside of the fuel tank. Many filters for fuel injected engines
trap particles as small as 10 to 40 microns in size.

4. In automotive electronics, electronic control unit (ECU) is a generic term for any
embedded system that controls one or more of the electrical systems or subsystems in a motor
vehicle. Idle speed is controlled by a programmable throttle stop or an idle air bypass control
stepper motor.

5. The term "common rail" refers to the fact that all of the fuel injectors are supplied by a
common fuel rail which is nothing more than a pressure accumulator where the fuel is stored
at high pressure. This accumulator supplies multiple fuel injectors with high pressure fuel.

6. The fuel injectors are typically ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are electrically
activated a hydraulic valve (consisting of a nozzle and plunger) is mechanically or
hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into the cylinders at the desired pressure. When the
injector is turned on, it opens, spraying atomized fuel at the combustion chamber. Depending
on engine operating condition, injection quantity will vary.

7. Fuel line hoses carry gasoline from the tank to the fuel pump, to the fuel filter, and to the
fuel injection system. While much of the fuel lines are rigid tube, sections of it are made of
rubber hose, which absorb engine and road vibrations.
Diesel Fuel Injection Systems: The injection system in diesel engines can be of two types as
air injection and airless injection. In air injection system the diesel is injected along with the
compressed air whereas in airless injection system only the liquid diesel is injected into the
cylinder.

Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Diesel Fuel Injection Systems:

The construction details of diesel fuel injection system are fuel tank, fuel filter, fuel pump,
fuel injector, nozzle.

A fuel tank is used for storage. The feed pump is used to feed the fuel to filter where fuel can
be filtered. A fuel injection pump is used to supply precisely metered quantity of diesel under
high pressure to the injectors at well-timed instants. A fuel injector is used to inject the fuel in
the cylinder in atomized form and in proper quantity. Main components of fuel injectors are
nozzle, valve, body and spring.
 Experiment 4

Aim: Exhaust Gas Analysis

a. Perform Exhaust gas analysis of an engine exhaust using 4-gas analyser:

b. Diagnose engine condition from exhaust gas analysis.

c. Follow test cycle –modes of operation.

Apparatus: Orsat apparatus, caustic potash solution, alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid,
cuprous chloride solution, brine and dry flue gas sample.

Theory:

To check the combustion efficiency of I. C. engines, it is essential to know the constituents of

the flue gases being exhausted. The various constituents the flue gases are CO2, excess O2,
CO, SO2, and N2. The volumetric analysis of mainly CO2, O2, and CO is required, because
the heat released is sufficiently large when carbon of the fuel burns to rather than when it
burns to CO, secondly to determine the requisite amount of oxygen for proper burning of
fuel. Such an analysis can be carried out conveniently with the help of Orsat apparatus.

An Orsat apparatus is shown in figure. It consists of three flasks to absorb different

gases. Flask no. 1 contains caustic potash solution, and this absorbs CO2 present in the flue
gas. Similarly, flask no. 2 and 3 contains alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid, and cuprous
chloride solution to absorb O2, and CO respectively. 100 ml of a dry flue gas sample is
sucked in the eudiometer tube of the apparatus and is allowed to react with the three solutions
turn by turn. The amount of CO2, O2, and CO absorbed in the respective solution is
estimated from the eudiometer scale.
Procedure:-

1. Fill 2/3 of the aspirator bottle with the brine solution.

2. Fill three flasks i.e. flask no. 1, 2,and 3 with the required quantity of the caustic potash
solution, alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid, and cuprous chloride solution respectively and
close their valves.

3. Open the valve of flask no. 1, now by operating the rubber bladder and opening the three
way cock to the atmosphere, bring the level of caustic potash solution to the mark A. close
the valve of flask no. 1.

4. Repeat as step 3, to bring the level of alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid, and cuprous
chloride solution to their respective marks B and C. Close the valves of flask no. 2 and 3.

5. Open the three-way cock to the atmosphere and raise the aspirator bottle so that air present
in the Eudiometer is expelled to atmosphere. Close the three way cock and

lower the aspirator bottle to read zero on eudiometer scale. The eudiometer is ready to receive
100 ml of gas sample.

6. Open the three-way cock and allow the flue gas sample to enter the eudiometer. Close the
three-way cock, now 100 ml of gas has entered the apparatus. Open the three-way cock to the
atmosphere and raise the aspirator bottle so that whole gas present in the eudiometer is
expelled to atmosphere. Repeat this step twice or thrice so that 100 ml of representative flue
gas sample remain in the apparatus. Close the three way cock finally.

7. Now open the valve of flask no. 1. Raise and lower the aspirator bottle few times so that
gas is passed-in and out of flask several times. Lower the aspirator bottle and bring the level
of caustic potash solution again to mark A. Close the valve of flask. Bring the aspirator bottle
near the eudiometer and position it so that, the liquid level in the both is same. Note the liquid
level on the scale. This gives the %age of CO2 present in the flue gas sample.

8. Repeat the procedure as step 7 to determine the %age of O2, and CO respectively by
passing the remaining sample through the two flasks.

Observations:-

Amount of flue gas after absorption by caustic potash solution = X ml

Amount of flue gas after absorption by alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid = Y ml

Amount of flue gas after absorption by cuprous chloride solution = Z ml

Calculations:-

(i) Amount of flue gas sample = 100 ml

(ii) Amount of CO2 = ( 100 - X ) ml

(iii) Amount of O2 = ( X –Y ) ml

(iv) Amount of CO = ( Y + Z ) ml

(v) Amount of N2 = ( 100 – Z ) ml

Precautions:-

1. The apparatus should be airtight.

2. The eudiometer tube of the apparatus should be well flushed with the flue gas sample
before performing the experiment.

3. The brine solution in the aspirator bottle should be saturated, as it may absorb some
constituents of the gas sample and thereby cause errors.

Results:-

Performance curves are plotted and they are similar to the standard performance Curves.
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