All 4 2

GDANSK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
FACULTY OF OCEAN ENGINEERING AND SHIP TECHNOLOGY

SECTION OF TRANSPORT TECHNICAL MEANS
OF TRANSPORT COMMITEE OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
UTILITY FOUNDATIONS SECTION
OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING COMMITTEE OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ISSN 1231 – 3998

ISBN 83 – 900666 – 2 – 9
Journal of
POLISH CIMAC
DIAGNOSIS, RELIABILITY
AND SAFETY
Vol. 4 No. 2
Gdansk, 2009
Science publication of Editorial Advisory Board of POLISH CIMAC

Editor in Chief: Jerzy Girtler Editorial Office Secretary: Jacek Rudnicki
Editorial Advisory Board
J. Girtler (President) - Gdansk University of Technology J. Macek - Czech Technical University in Prague
L. Piaseczny (Vice President) - Naval Academy of Gdynia Z. Matuszak - Maritime Academy of Szczecin
A. Adamkiewicz - Maritime Academy of Szczecin J. Merkisz – Poznan Unversity of Technology
J. Adamczyk - University of Mining and Metallurgy of R. Michalski - Olsztyn Warmia-Mazurian University
Krakow A. Niewczas - Lublin University of Technology
J. Bachnio - Air Force Institute of Technology Y. Ohta - Nagoya Institute of Technology
L. Bdkowski - WAT Military University of Technology M. Orkisz - Rzeszow University of Technology
C. Behrendt - Maritime Academy of Szczecin S. Radkowski - President of the Board of PTDT
P. Bielawski - Maritime Academy of Szczecin Y. Sato - National Traffic Safety and Environment
J. Borgo - Warsaw University of Technology Laboratory, Japan
T. Chmielniak - Silesian Technical University M. Sobieszczaski - Bielsko-Biala Technology-Humanistic
R. Cwilewicz - Maritime Academy of Gdynia Academy
T. Dbrowski - WAT Military University of Technology A. Soudarev - Russian Academy of Engineering Sciences
Z. Domachowski - Gdansk University of Technology Z. Stelmasiak - Bielsko-Biala Technology-Humanistic
C. Dymarski - Gdansk University of Technology Academy
M. Dzida - Gdansk University of Technology M. lzak - Ministry of Scientific Research and Information
J. Gronowicz - Maritime University of Szczecin Technology
V. Hlavna - University of Žilina, Slovak Republic W. Tareko - Maritime Academy of Gdynia
M. Idzior – Poznan University of Technology W. Wasilewicz Szczagin - Kaliningrad State Technology
A. Iskra - Poznan University of Technology Institute
A. Jankowski – President of KONES F. Tomaszewski - Poznan University of Technology
J. Jawiski - Air Force Institute of Technology J. Wajand – Lodz University of Technology
R. Jedliski - Bydgoszcz University of Technology and W. Wawrzyski - Warsaw University of Technology
Agriculture E. Wiederuh - Fachhochschule Giessen Friedberg
J. Kiciski - President of SEF MEC PAS, member of MEC B. Wojciechowicz - Honorary President of SEF MEC PAS
O. Klyus - Maritime Academy of Szczecin M. Wyszyski - The University of Birmingham, United
Z. Korczewski - Naval Academy of Gdynia Kingdom
K. Kosowski - Gdansk University of Technology M. Zabocki – V-ce President of KONES
L. Ignatiewicz Kowalczuk - Baltic State Maritime S. mudzki - Szczecin University of Technology
Academy in Kaliningrad B. ótowski - Bydgoszcz University of Technology and Life
J. Lewitowicz - Air Force Institute of Technology Sciences
K. Lejda - Rzeszow University of Technology J. urek - Air Force Institute of Technology
Editorial Office:
GDANSK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Faculty of Ocean Engineering and Ship Technology
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G. Narutowicza 11/12 80-233 GDANSK POLAND
tel. +48 58 347 29 73, e – mail: sek4oce@pg.gda.pl
www.polishcimac.pl
This journal is devoted to designing of diesel engines, gas turbines and ships’ power transmission systems containing these
engines and also machines and other appliances necessary to keep these engines in movement with special regard to their
energetic and pro-ecological properties and also their durability, reliability, diagnostics and safety of their work and
operation of diesel engines, gas turbines and also machines and other appliances necessary to keep these engines in
movement with special regard to their energetic and pro-ecological properties, their durability, reliability, diagnostics and safety
of their work, and, above all, rational (and optimal) control of the processes of their operation and specially rational service
works (including control and diagnosing systems), analysing of properties and treatment of liquid fuels and lubricating oils,
etc.
All papers have been reviewed

@Copyright by Faculty of Ocean Engineering and Ship Technology Gdansk University of Technology
All rights reserved
ISSN 1231 – 3998
ISBN 83 – 900666 – 2 – 9
Printed in Poland
K.F. Abramek: ANALYSIS OF POSSIBILITIES IN USING CRANKSHAFT
CASING PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS FOR DIAGNOSING TECHNICAL
CONDITION OF THE PRC SYSTEM ………………………………………….. 7

: SELECTED
POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF NANOMETERIALS IN AUTOMOTIVE
INDUSTRY ……………………………………………………………………… 15

! : PROPOSITION OF METHODOLOGY FOR
ENGINE LUBRICANTS RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES ESTIMATION …… 21
"#: "$%&'%*+/'4'%*"'%'&'+$4'*OR

LUBRICITY TESTING WITH THE T-02 FOUR-BALL TESTER ……………. 27
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= : ANALYSIS OF SHIP SHAFT LINE COUPLING
BOLTS FAILURE ……………………………………………………………….. 33
>;#?! : THE LIMITATION OF USE OF BIOCOMPONENTS IN THE

FORM OF FATTY ACID METHYL ESTERS BASED ON ANALYSIS OF
ELECTED TURBINE FUEL PROPERTIES ……………………………………. 41
A. Erd: ELEMENTS OF THE UML MODEL OF THE RAIL VEHICLE

MAINTENANCE SYSTEM …………………………………………………….. 49
X!
>;

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= : THE USE OF
ACOUSTIC EMISSION TO IDENTIFICATION DAMAGES BEARINGS
THE MAIN AND CRANK ENGINES ABOUT THE AUTOMATIC
IGNITION ……………………………………………………………………….. 57
[# : NOWADAYS ASPECTS OF THE SELECTION OF THE

"$'+$%*+/'='+%=%*+/'*4'&=;''&'==ES … 71

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RHODIUM INNER CATALYST APPLICATION IN A SELF-IGNITION
ENGINE ON TOXICITY EQUIVALENT FACTOR (TEF) OF VOLATILE
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOC’S) IN EXHAUSTS …………………………. 77

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RHODIUM ACTIVE COATING INSIDE A SELF-IGNITION ENGINE ON
_%&+&'%$=%"%4=;`_%x{'%= ………………… 85
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AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AVIATION TURBINE FUELS ………... 91
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PROCESS OF THE CASCADE COMPRESSION UNITS AND SOME
DIRECTIONS OF THEIR APPLICATION ……………………………………. 103
# : ENDOSKOPIC EXAMINATIONS OF MARINE DIESEL

ENGINES’ TURBOCHARGING SYSTEMS …………………………………... 111
" ! : THE ANGLE MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY EVALUATION
BY MEANS OF INCREMENTAL ENCODER ………………………………… 121
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LUBRICATED OIL WITH MICROPOLAR STRUCTURE …………………… 129
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LUBRICATED OIL WITH MICROPOLAR STRUCTURE …………………… 137
\#: EROSION PROBLEMS IN PNEUMATIC TRANSPORT

INSTALLATIONS ………………………………………………………………. 145
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} : TYPES OF DAMAGE TO TURBINES
OF AIRCRAFT TURBINE ENGINES AND POSSIBILITY OF THEIR
DIAGNOSING …………………………………………………………………... 153
&[ : SEMI-MARKOV MODEL OF MAINTENANCE OF URBAN

TRANSPORT BUSE …………………………………………………………….. 161
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*4'&=='+%=|+'+/'%%=$&+|"' …………... 169
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IMPROVED MAINTAINABILITY TO IMPROVED OPERATIONAL
READINESS IN NAVY HELICOPTERS ………………………………………. 177
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~! : DAMAGES TO STRUCTURAL
COMPONENTS AND UNITSOF A GAS TURBINE ENGINE ……………….. 183
$& : DRAWING CONCLUSIONS ABOUT RELIABILITY OF POWER

SYSTEMS FROM SMALL NUMBER OF STATISTICAL DATA ……………. 191
#: ANALYSIS OF THE ACTUAL M.E. DIAGNOSTIC PROCESSES

ON VESSELS – USEFULNESS OF SELECTED SYSTEMS DIAGNOSING
THE SHIP ENGINES AND OF THE OPERATING PROCEDURES ON
EXAMPLE OF THE ACTUAL OPERATING EVENTS ………………………. 199
X# =#: ASSESSMENT OF FAILURE DISTRIBUTIONS OF

MARINE POWER PLANTS FUEL OIL SYSTEMS GROUP ……………..…. 207
#
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: HEAVY DUTY DIESEL EMISSION ROAD TESTS 217
= : HISMAR - UNDERWATER HULL INSPECTION AND

CLEANING SYSTEM AS A TOOL FOR SHIP PROPULSION SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE INCREASE ………………………………………………….. 227
"!
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TO ESTIMATE HARMFUL COMPOUNDS IN THE VESSELS EXHAUSTS 235
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_''&=+/'4&*%*;$' ……………………………….. 245
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DIAGNOSTIC TESTING OF SHIP COMBUSTION ENGINE – MAPS OF
DIAGNOSTIC PARAMETERS ………………………………………………… 253
>[
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LINER COLLABORATION ON HIGH POWER ENGINES …………………... 259
<! : SELECTED PROBLEMS TO LOSS AND MAINTAIN THE

"$%"$'+'%*+'/=&%'+ ……………………………………. 267
X\-$ : RANDOMNESS OF ROLLING BEARINGS’ ELEMENTS

GEOMETRY AS PROBABILISTIC FACTOR OF BEARINGS FATIGUE
LIFE ……………………………………………………………………………… 271
&+ <# : APPLICATION OF MARINE ENGINE ROOM SIMULATORS

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/+! : THE RULES OF INFERENCE IN MACHINE STATE RECOGNITION 289
>! : SELECTED ISSUES OF MODELING THE ACCUMULATOR

='+%=|+'==_&%4+%='==' ……………... 299
"> : INFLUENCE OF AXIAL COMPRESSOR FLOW PASSAGE

GEOMETRY CHANGES ON GAS TURBINE ENGINE WORK
PARAMETERS ………………………………………………………………….. 307
$[: THE MULTI-EQUATIONAL MODELS IN THE ANALYSIS OF

RESULTS OF MARINE DIESEL ENGINES RESEARCH ……………………. 315
< : CONSTITUTION OF USEFUL PROPERTY OF COMPOSITE

MATERIALS ……………………………………………………………………. 325
: METHODS OF ESTIMATING THE AVAILABILITY OF

VEHICLES ………………………………………………………………………. 331
~X : DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM OF EXPLOITATION MACHINES ……… 341
~X : PROCEDURE OF CONSTRUCTING AND EVALUATING

&='$;=%+%;'&%*%"&'%'+ …………..…… 349
ANALYSIS OF POSSIBILITIES IN USING CRANKSHAFT CASING
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS FOR DIAGNOSING TECHNICAL
CONDITION OF THE PRC SYSTEM
Karol Franciszek Abramek
West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin

al. Piastów 19, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland
tel.: +48 91 4494811, fax.: +48 91 4494820
e-mail: karol.abramek@ps.pl
Summary
In the paper is presented statistical analysis of the effect of compression-ignition engine working time on the
phenomenon of exhaust gas pressure increase in crankcase and cylinder liner, pistons and rings wear. Characteristics
of the crankcase pressure variations were made for the start-up speed and for selected rotational speeds of the 359
compression-ignition engine crankshaft as well as micrometric measurements of the cylinder liner and pistons and
rings wear. The engine was operated under normal traction conditions while pressure analyses and cylinder liner
micrometric measurements were made, respectively, after an operational run of: 5378 km, 100128 km, and 204864
km. Crankcase exhaust gas pressure measurements were made both with air vent open and closed for a cold
(lubricating oil temperature of 285 K) and a warm engine (333 K). Basing on the analysis of obtained examination
results, it was showed that crankcase exhaust gas pressure measurement (also during the start-up) may be used for
determination of engine run and life.
Keywords: scavenging, wear, piston, rings, cylinder, crankcase
1. Introduction
Construction of the piston-cylinder system, into which such elements as piston, piston rings
and cylinder liner (PRC) can be included, should ensure a slide fit under variable conditions of
mechanical and thermal loads as well as preserve as large leak-tightness as possible [4].
Penetration of exhaust gases into crankcase in the form of scavenging between a piston, piston
rings and a cylinder liner results in development of a specific pressure in crankcase. Moreover, a
growth in scavenging intensity brings about increase of crankcase pressure, drop of engine power,
increase of fuel and lubricating oil consumption, difficulties in engine start-up, in particular at low
ambient temperatures, and excessive environmental pollution with combustion products. Too high
excess pressure developing in crankcase is unfavourable for turbo-compressor lubrication system
[7]. Every turbo-compressor has dynamic seals of the labyrinth type which are very sensitive to an
increased level of excess pressure in crankcase. At that time, a free outflow of the oil lubricating
turbo-compressor’s bearings into oil sump is much hampered or even obstructed. Therefore,
evaluation of the technical condition of the PRC system is very important, which can be a
measurement of exhaust gas pressure in crankcase. This is because a pressure increase occurs
together with a rise in wear.
7
2. Evaluation criteria for measurement method
When estimating the usefulness of crankcase exhaust gas pressure measurements for evaluation
of cylinder liner wear degree, two criteria were adopted. First of all, results of crankcase exhaust
gas pressure examination should be considerably correlated with cylinder liner wear and secondly,
dynamics of determined signal change should be as large as possible. It results from literature [2,
3] that considerably correlated variables should be characterised by the correlation coefficient r t
0.51. It is known from experience that in case of statistical diagnostic analyses it is rather difficult
to obtain such a considerable value of correlation coefficient and it requires large repeatability of
measurement conditions. In this case, growth of exhaust gas pressure in crankcase induced by a
rise in exhaust gas scavenging intensity in result of the increase of wear in the PRC group, in
particular of cylinder liner wear, is regarded as a determined signal change. The following value
was adopted as a dynamics index dp:
Xm Xo
dp = , (1)
Xo
where:
Xm - is a boundary value of signal indicating the necessity of performing a repair or taking an

object out of service,
Xo - is an initial value of signal characterising a new object after termination of the running-in
period.
3. Formulation of research problem
The wear processes in the PRC assembly are unavoidable. Nevertheless, the most intensive is
wear induced by friction phenomena and processes, which is reflected in cylinder liner wear.
Material losses in co-operating parts bring about development of greater and greater clearances
between PRC elements [5]. This favours increase in the intensity of exhaust gas scavenging into
crankcase, destruction of oil film layer, development of more intensive erosion processes and
increase of oil pressure in crankcase [6]. Therefore, pressure increase in crankcase [crankshaft
casing] pressure can be used for forecasting the degree of engine wear, in particular that of
cylinder liner.
Diameter measurements were taken with an inside micrometer calliper in horizontal plane
being distant cylinder liner end face by 20 mm, which corresponds to the piston position in the
upper dead centre (UDC). It is well-known that cylinder circularity becomes deteriorated in result
of wear and resembles an oval. Its larger diameter (defined as DB) corresponds to a plane
perpendicular to the axis of engine crankshaft (it results from the dynamics of crankshaft-pistons-
connecting rods system), while a smaller one (defined as DA) occurs in a plane parallel to the axis
of engine crankshaft. A clearance that develops then between a piston with rings and a cylinder is
the main reason of both scavenging and pressure increase in crankcase. The character of clearance
was determined by the following measures:
circularity deviation measure:
'D’A = DA – Davg [Pm] (2)
D A DB
where: Davg = (3)
2
'D’A = -'D’B (4)
cylinder liner deformation measure after insertion into engine body; it was assumed here that
free cylinder liner diameters did not depart significantly from a I size of 110+0.011 mm since
8
production process in the aspect of precision is set out to that value; the character of clearance
'D A
was expressed by a ratio of oval diameter deviations ( ) from a cylinder nominal diameter
'D B
(D) equal to 110.011 mm ('DA = DA - D and 'DB = DB - D).
4. Test results
Figure 1 presents a dependence of crankcase exhaust gas pressure in the function of rotational
speed for the 359 engine respectively after a run of: 5378 km, 100128 km, and 204864 km. It can
be seen that pressure in crankcase grows together with increase of operational run. For the
rotational speed of crankshaft of 1500 min-1 and that of 2200 min-1, local pressure extremes occur.
This is caused by the phenomenon of packing ring movements reported in literature [1]. Therefore,
these speeds should be avoided when diagnosing technical condition of the PRC assembly. They
affect a measurement error connected with the phenomenon of ring movement. However, it is
evident that increase of operational run clearly affects pressure increase in crankcase.
1800
p [Pa]
5378 km
1600 100128 km
204864 km
1400
1200
1000
800
600
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
n [m in -1]
Fig. 1. Dependence of the course of exhaust gas pressure in crankcase of the 359 engine in the function of rotational
speed for different operational runs
Figure 2 presents a dependence of crankcase exhaust gas pressure increase for a warm 359
engine (lubricating oil temperature of 333K) in the function of operational run expressed in
kilometres. It can be seen that exhaust gas pressure in crankcase grows with increase of run.
9
800
p [Pa]
700
y = 1E-08x 2 - 0,0003x + 382,62
R2 = 0,8663
600
500
400
300
200
0 50000 100000 150000 200000
s [k m ]
Fig. 2. Increase of exhaust gas pressure in crankcase for a warm 359 engine in the function of operational run
Figure 3 presents a dependence of exhaust gas pressure variations in crankcase in the function
of 359 engine run for lubricating oil temperature of 285K.
800
p [Pa]
700
y = 1E-08x2 - 0,0002x + 378,6
R2 = 0,8032
600
500
400
300
200
0 50000 100000 150000 s [km] 200000
Fig. 3. Increase of exhaust gas pressure in crankcase for a cold 359 engine in the function of operational run
10
For a closed crankcase air vent, an increase of exhaust gas pressure presented in Fig. 4 was
obtained.
3700
p [Pa]
3200
2700
y = -1E-08x2 + 0,0145x + 639,94
R2 = 0,9951
2200
1700
1200
700
200
0 50000 100000 150000 s [km] 200000
Fig. 4. Increase of exhaust gas pressure in crankcase of the 369 engine for closed air vent in the function of
operational run
On the other hand, average tear values for respective cylinders of the 359 engine after a run of
204864 km amounted to:
- for first cylinder – 0,032 mm,
- for second cylinder – 0,041 mm,
- for third cylinder – 0,066 mm,
- for fourth cylinder – 0,081 mm,
- for fifth cylinder – 0,074 mm,
- for sixth cylinder – 0,065 mm,
whereas maxmimum wear values were as follows:
- for first cylinder – 0,120 mm,
- for second cylinder – 0,105 mm,
- for third cylinder – 0,118 mm,
- for fourth cylinder – 0,124 mm,
- for fifth cylinder – 0,122 mm,
- for sixth cylinder – 0,129 mm.
In order to determine a maximum oval, largest differences were calculated in planes A-A and
B-B as well as C-C and D-D at one level l1 = 20 mm from the top edge. The oval sizes were as
follows:
- first cylinder maximum 0.122 mm minimum 0.012 mm
- second cylinder maximum 0.140 mm minimum 0.024 mm
- third cylinder maximum 0.131 mm minimum 0.016 mm
- fourth cylinder maximum 0.099 mm minimum 0.018 mm
- fifth cylinder maximum 0.108 mm minimum 0.014 mm
11
- sixth cylinder maximum 0.127 mm minimum 0.022 mm
In order to analyse the conicity, differences in dimensions were calculated in respective planes,
i.e. A-A, B-B, C-C and D-D at levels l1 = 20 mm and l7 = 245 mm. The results point to negative
taper (taper towards a lower part of cylinder should be considered to be a negative one). The
conicity values were on average as follows:
- for first cylinder 0.028 mm negative
- for second cylinder 0.025 mm negative
- for third cylinder 0.028 mm negative
- for fourth cylinder 0.023 mm negative
- for fifth cylinder 0.021 mm negative
- for sixth cylinder 0.019 mm negative
Maximum piston wear values in the plane perpendicular to piston pin axis were as follows:
- for first cylinder 0.12 mm
- for second cylinder 0.13 mm
- for third cylinder 0.09 mm
- for fourth cylinder 0.11 mm
- for fifth cylinder 0.12 mm
- for sixth cylinder 0.11 mm
Mean wear values for the height of respective rings were as follows:
- for first packing rings – 0.019 mm,
- for second packing rings – 0.012 mm, and
- for third packing rings – 0.009 mm.
Mean values from maximum wear values for the breadth of respective rings were as follows:
Mean wear values for the breadth of respective rings were as follows:
The size of piston-ring joint clearance in all packing rings after their insertion into a cylinder
hole was larger that of entrance clearances by:
- 1.44 mm for first packing rings,
- 1.06 mm for second packing rings, and
- 0.93 mm for third packing rings.
In order to analyse a decrease in ring elasticity, crank pin effort values were measured at ring
closure to piston-ring joint sizes measured after insertion into cylinder liner and comparison with
initial values. The elasticity decrease was on average as follows:
- for first packing rings – 7.1 N,
- for second packing rings – 5.2 N, and
- for third packing rings – 2.3 N.
12
5. Conclusions
When choosing a regression model, the following criterion was taken into consideration:
r2 o 1 (5)
Fcr d F o maximum (6)
where F is a Snedecor’s statistics testing significance of regression. The critical value Fcr read from
tables for a confidence interval E = 0.95 and a number of degrees of freedom n2 = 12 and n1 = k - 1
= 1 (k is a number of parameters of the regression equation) amounts to Fcr = 4,75. Correlation
coefficient for the increase of pressure in crankcase in the function of operational run for a warm
359 engine amounts to r2 = 0,86, whereas that for a cold engine is r2 = 0,80. On the other hand, the
best diagnostic measurement (in relation to pressure measurements) determining the engine run in
kilometres is crankcase pressure measurement for closed air vent. Correlation coefficient in that
case is r2 = 0,99.
The determined signal change amounted for a warm engine to dp = (750-380)/380 = 0,97, while
for a cold engine it was dp = (740-370)/370 = 1,00 at open air vent. On the other hand, the
dynamics index dp at closed air vent amounted to (3200-600)/600 = 4,33 and was the largest.
When evaluating the usefulness of maximum crankcase pressure measurement, it should be
concluded that measurements ought to be made for closed air vent (largest correlation coefficients
and largest signal dynamics change were obtained) and it is possible to clearly state that
measurement of exhaust gas pressure in crankcase is closely correlated with operational wear in
the PRC group.
References
[1] Abramek, K. F., Effect of phenomenon of piston sealing rings vibrations on tightness of PRC
unit, Journal of Polish CIMAC, Vol. 2, No 1. pp. 9-13, 2007.
[2] Bobrowski, D., - K., Wybrane metody wnioskowania statystycznego, Wyd.
" !X} " # Z, " #.
[3] Bobrowski, D., Probabilistyka w zastosowaniach technicznych, Wyd. Naukowo-Techniczne,
Warszawa 1980.
[4] Iskra A., Studium konstrukcji i fun

-cylindrowej,
>[X " !X} " # Z
" #
[5] Niewczas A., -

-cylinder silnika spalinowego, Wyd. Naukowo-
Techniczne, Warszawa 1998.
[6] =#
#
Nieza

– wybrane zagadnienia, Wyd.
Politechniki Lubelskiej, Lublin 2003.
[7] Serdecki W.,

tulei cylindrowej silnika spalinowego, >[" !X} " # Z
" #
13
14
SELECTED POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF NANOMATERIALS IN
AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY

!"
#$ %

Poznan University of Technology

ul. Piotrowo 3, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
tel.:+48 61 6652705, fax: +48 61 6652204
e-mail: jaroslaw.kaluzny@put.poznan.pl
Abstract
The nanotubes and nanotechnologies are relatively new areas of science and engineering practice. This article should
be concerned as a review of the selected nanotechnology applications in the automotive industry. The applications
were divided into groups in respect of implementation advance level. Special attention was devoted to innovative
nanomaterials application in areas where taking advantage of their unique features is possible. Authors presented
the catalytic converter for combustion engine exhaust system application in which the nanotubes were used in order to
increase the contact area of exhaust gases with catalytic layer. In the paper preliminary results of proposed catalytic
reactor conversion ratio were presented and future directions of development were discussed.
&'(

The automotive industry has its own specificity due to which it can be distinguished on the
background of other branches of industry. The cars are characterized by a fact that for more than
one hundred years a process of their improvement takes place on a way of evolution and during
this period the detailed design solutions are developed while their general design characteristics
and functionality are kept unchanged. In fact a modern car is not so different from its prototype as,
for instance, modern TV or telephone sets in comparison with their prototypes developed a few
dozen years ago. In case of domestic appliances their design improvement process causes that
though their original functions are maintained the construction and the way of operation of the
former and current versions in some cases are different. However, paradoxically, basing on the
above it should not be concluded that the motor industry is characterized by a certain conservatism
which provides an artificial barrier for modern technologies and solutions. Though such a barrier
really exists, however, it results from the specification of a final product – which due to that
improvement process lasting for more than one hundred years – is difficult to be improved in a
simple way, and due to large serial production where each modification must be well ransomed by
a large investment. At the same time it is worth notifying that large serial production of cars does
not only create a certain barrier for the application of new materials, but it is also a driving force
which gives bonuses to more effective solutions which are cheaper than the previous ones being
used so far.
Nanomaterials are characterized by some especially advantageous mechanical properties
unattainable for conventional materials, however, their scale of applications in the motor industry
15
is limited by their high prices, availability in industrial amounts and instability of properties of the
individual lots of products.
2. )*(+ ,/*7** /:( //*

7 ,
*
,
("
The motor industry applies the profitable features of the polymer-nanomaterial composites to a
relatively large extent. Such plastics are already in current production on an industrial scale, and
their advantages are as follows:
x increased rigidity free of loss in impact strength;
x dimensional stability;
x barrier effect improvement;
x increased thermal stability and fire resistance;
x good optical properties (filler particles with a diameter size smaller than visible light wave
length make no barrier for them);
x limitations of the surface defects of products,
x increased crystallization ratio in relation to the original polymer [4].
The dashboards and body panels made of polymer composite materials have a higher
resistance for scratching and surface damaging. A possibility of using the barrier properties of the
nano-composites for building the fuel tanks is especially profitable. The nano-composites on a PA
base are used as an inner layer in the multilayer blowing of fuel tanks while their outer layers are
made of PE-HD.
Montmorylonit (MMT), which ensures good barrier properties, is used in another form for
improving the characteristics of varnish coating being used for cars especially in order to increase
their mechanical resistance [4].
The next group of nanomaterial applications, especially interesting one, has been found in the
tribology field, in main nodes of friction of the piston engine. The Schaeffler Company developed
a new technological line making possible the use of nanomaterial top layers in cylinder bearings
and highly loaded elements of the driving gear systems. [9]
In the project presented in [10] a top layer of the engine cylinder surface, deposited by plasma
spraying, in the AL-cylinder block engine was used. The obtained nanomaterial cylinder bearing
surface gives a profitable alternative for a standard solution with a cast iron sleeve insert and
makes reduction in friction losses and mass of the engine possible. Some examples of tribologic
applications of the thermoplastics strengthened by nanomaterials are presented in [1].
Only the most significant domains of applications of nanomaterials in the motor industry with
regards to the production scale were presented above. In a wider context those domains could be
divided in a following way:
x bodies and elements of the load carrying structure if vehicles;
x engines and power transmission systems;
x varnish coating and other;
x chassis mechanism and brakes;
x tyres;
x lubricants and operation media;
x electric and electronic equipment elements;
x engine exhaust system and exhaust gas cleaning systems [8].
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Nanotechnology is commonly considered as a one of the key technologies of the 21st century
and its special role results from some exceptional – mechanical, electric, thermal, and optical
16
properties of nanomaterials – completely different from the properties of the conventional
construction materials. Carbon nanomaterials form crystal lattices with an extremely limited
concentration of defects. The crystal structure give them very high hardness and mechanical
strength values which are at least by one order of magnitude higher than those in case of steel, at
very high elasticity values. Such materials conduct electricity very well, they become
superconductors in low temperature and they are resistant to high temperatures and due to their
dimensions smaller than the light wave length forming the transparent surfaces is possible. The
organized crystal structure created by carbon atoms arranged in a plane forming a side cylinder
surface is a form of fullerenes called a nanotube. Organized crystalline structure made by carbon
atoms at surface forming graphen is show on fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Schematic structure of graphen
Nanotubes present a piezoelectric effect even after applying a relatively low voltage and the
observed elongation is several times higher than in case of the quartz crystal pile supplied with a
high voltage. Such a characteristic is especially desirable in case of building an actuator for
controlling the nozzle needle. Moreover, nanotubes placed in vacuum can act as actuators
(Young’s modulus 1800 GPa) even under the conditions of very high temperature ranging up to
2800 °C [2, 6, 7]. The peculiar optical properties of nanotubes cause that their use in the car
windscreen production, where they could play a role of the electric heating and windscreen
deeming depending on the intensity of light, enters the car manufacturers’ field of interests.
Some interesting examples of application of nanotubes for building the catalyst converters
making the conversion of gases possible can be fund in the bibliography [3]. The authors of this
paper think that it is advisable to test the usefulness of carbon nanotubes applied as a catalytic
converter carrier in the engine exhaust systems. Ratio of solid area to solid volume increases as the
solid size decreases. A nanotube considered as a cylinder with a diameter measured in nanometers
is characterized by an especially advantageous solid area to solid volume ratio value and by the
same it can be considered as a very attractive carrier of the catalytic layer of the converter by
increasing its area of contact with the exhaust gases.
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A standard design of the catalytic converter for clearing the exhaust gas from a car engine uses
a ceramic carrier coated with an intermediate layer increasing its roughness and contacting with
17
exhaust gas area. In case of the oxidation converter used in Diesel engines platinum is deposited
on the intermediate layer which is the proper catalyst in a chemical meaning. The authors have
built a test converter which is based on a standard ceramic carrier, on which nanotubes functioning
as an intermediate layer are deposited and finally pointwisely platinum coated. Due to a limited
diameter of 84 mm of the test converter, its carrier length of 20 mm and the density of ducts of 400
cpsi, only a fragment of exhaust gas stream is directed into the test converter. The nanotube test
catalytic converter is developed by the Chair of Thermal Engineering of the Poznan University of
Technology (PUT) within the international co-operation with Boston College in the United States
of America and the Hahn-Meitner-Institut in Berlin in Germany. The typical view of our catalytic
converter prototype is shown on fig. 2. The accurate information about carbon tubes growing
process can be found in the K. Kempa’s publication [5].
Fig. 2. Picture of carbon tubes (CNT) on the ceramic face and platinum nanoparticles placed
on its surface taken with scanning microscope
Examinations of the conversion rate for selected toxic exhaust elements were carried out at the
laboratory of the Institute of Combustion Engines and Transport of PUT. Volkswagen TDI engine
of AXE code was used during the tests. It is a modern 5-cylinder, supercharged Diesel engine
being currently mounted in Volkswagen Tranporter and Touareg cars, its swept volume is 2,5 dm3,
maximum output power is 96 KW and it fulfils the requirements of the Euro 4 exhaust emission
standard.
The analysis of the exhaust gas components was carried out by the TESTO 360 exhaust-gas
analyser. The concentration of toxic exhaust gas elements is measured by the NDIR method and
electrochemical cells, and exhaust gas is delivered to the device via a heated gas line. The engine
test stand with the Volkswagen TDI engine, TESTO exhaust – gas analyzer and test converter is
showed on fig 3.
Obviously the developed test catalytic converter with the intermediate nanotube layer is not
allowed to be considered as a completely functional device with characteristics which could enable
it to be mounted in its present form in cars being currently produced. The exhaust gas conversion
ratio and resistance of flow would have unacceptable values even if taking into consideration the
limited dimensions of the carrier. However, it was the authors intention to find out whether the
converter developed by them can work and to obtain the first conclusions.
18
Fig. 3. The engine test stand for examinations of the catalytic converter conversion ratio
The preliminary tests, the results of which are presented in Table 1, were performed for several
engine operating points in the range of loads most often experienced in real operation. According
to the assumed concept of examinations the exhaust gas stream after leaving the engine was
separated into the fragments flowing through the test converter and the standard oxidation
converter used by the engine manufacturer. The exhaust gas emission measurements concerning
the CO and HC concentrations were taken before converters and at the same time behind the test
converter and the standard one.
Tab. 1. Results of the preliminary engine tests
Engine Engine Fuel dose Exhaust gas CO before CO after HC before HC after
operating rotational temperature converter test/standard converter test/standard
point speed after turbine converter converter
P
- [rev/min] [mg/cycle] [°C] [ppm] [ppm] [%] [%]
1 1800 25 467 135 56/7 0,053 0,040/0,041
2 2500 15 387 160 51/7 0,072 0,057/0,038
3 2500 10 282 333 183/6 0,102 0,081/0,039
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The unique properties of nanomaterials suggest that these materials are, at last potentially, able
to revolutionize the technical solutions being in use so far, the motorization field including. It can
be assumed that at the moment we are at the beginning of the process of the implementation of
19
nanomaterials in the industrial automotive applications. In the aspect of the automotive design
solutions nanotubes possess especially advantageous properties, and one of their possible
application is an intermediate layer of the catalytic converter in the engine exhaust system. This
paper presents some results of the preliminary measurements of the conversion ratio of the
oxidation converter which was obtained by coating a ceramic standard carrier with a layer of
nanotubes on which platinum particles X}[<X <X <were pointwisely
deposited. Thereby some characteristic of nanotubes was used, namely, their especially
advantageous area/volume ratio allowing to enlarge an area of the contact of the catalyst, which is
platinum, with exhaust gas. According to the authors’ opinion the obtained results theoretically
confirm the possible profits resulting from the described nanomaterial application and they present
the first stage in the optimization process. The industrial use of the nanomaterial converter with the
proposed construction solution is conditioned by a cost-and-profit calculation in comparison with
costs of the conventional converters. However, in the presence of the observed intensive process of
the reduction in nanomaterial production costs it is worth continuing studies on new fields of their
applications.
=7
[1] Gebhard, A., Knör, N., Haupert, F., Schlarb, A., Nanopartikelverstärkte Hochleistunsthermoplaste
für extreme tribologische Belastungen im Automobilbau, Tribologie und Schmierungstechnik 4/2008
[2] Haque M.H., Application of the month: Carbon Nanotubes Sensors, NanoSprint Carbon
Nanotubes 6/2006, Grenoble 2006.
[3] Jing Li, Cinke, M., Wignarajah, K., Fisher, J., Partridge, H., Impregnation of Catalytic Metals in
Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes for Toxic Gas Conversion in Life Support System, SAE, 2004-01-
2492
[4] Jurkowski, B., Nanotechnologia i Na
! www.put.poznan.pl.
[5] Kempa, K., Photonic crystals based on periodic arrays of aligned carbon nanotubes, NANO
LETTERS 3 1, pp. 13-18, 2003
[6] Kolaric, I., Nemec, D., Weis, D.G., Kohlenstoffnanoröhrchen für Scheibenheizung und
Karosserie, ATZ 8/2008
[7] Mazurkiewicz, A., Nanonauki i nanotechnologie stan i perspektywy rozwoju, Wydawnictwo
instytutu Technologii Eksploatacji – PIB w Radomiu, Radom 2007.
[8] Multi-author Work, Analysis Concerning the Use of Nanomaterials in the Automotive Sector,
6th Frame Programe of the EU; SWOT, http://www.nanoroad.net/download/swot_ai.pdf.
[9] Reichenbach, M., : ATZ Nachrichten 26.04.2007; www.atzonline.de.
[10] Verpoort, C., Schlaefer, T., Thermal Spraying of Nano-Crystalline Coatings for Al-Cylinder
Bores; SAE 2008-01-1050.
20
PROPOSITION OF METHODOLOGY FOR ENGINE LUBRICANTS
RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES ESTIMATION
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Tribological properties of engine lubricants have been defined, both in the scope of test
methods and requirements, in SAE J 300 viscosity classification [1].
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SAE Low temperature Low temperature Kinematic viscosity HT/HS viscosity in

Visco- viscosity (starting), viscosity in temperature 1500C temperature,
mPas, in (pumping), mPas, 1000C, mm2/s mPas
sity
temperature, 0C
grade in temperature, 0C
max. min. min. max. min.
0W 6200 w -35 60000 w -40 3.8 - -
5W 6600 w -30 60000 w -35 3.8 - -
10W 7000 w -25 60000 w -30 4.1 - -
15W 7000 w -20 60000 w -25 5.6 - -
20W 9500 w -15 60000 w -20 5.6 - -
25W 13000 w -10 60000 w -15 9.3 - -
20 - - 5.6 <9.3 2.6
21
SAE Low temperature Low temperature Kinematic viscosity HT/HS viscosity in
viscosity (starting), viscosity in temperature 1500C temperature,
Visco-
sity mPas, in (pumping), mPas, 1000C, mm2/s mPas
grade temperature, 0C in temperature, 0C
max. min. min. max. min.
30 - - 9.3 <12.5 2.9
40 - - 12.5 <16.3 2.9 (for 0W-40,
5W-40
and 10W-40)
40 - - 12.5 <16.3 3.7 (dla 15W-40,
20W-40, 25W-40
and 40)
50 - - 16.3 <21.9 3.7
60 - - 21.9 <26.1 3.7
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Rheological properties test methods differ from one another in the scope of:
x test tempetrature,
x shear stress,
x cooling or heating time,
x viscosimeters construction.
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Parameter Test Shear Temperature of testing Cooling/ Viscosity

method stress heating time measure-
ment
Low temperature ASTM D high -10, -15, 240 s pointwise
viscosity (starting) 5293 -20, -25, -30 and
–350C
Low temperature ASTM D low -15, -20, -25, from 45 to pointwise
viscosity (pumping) 4684 -30, -35 and 51 h
-400C
Kinematic viscosity ASTM D low 1000C 900 s pointwise
445
HT/HS viscosity ASTM D high 1500C 120 s pointwise
4741
ASTM D
4683
The main advantage of SAE J 300 viscosity classification is that it reflects the operating
conditions of lubricant in an engine:
22
x During start-up,
x Immidiately after start-up, during lubricant pumping into tribological system,
x In connecting-rod bearings.
The main advantages of SAE J 300 viscosity classification are:
x Pointwise measurements of viscosity,
x Not reflecting the process of engine lubricant mechanical degradation during normal
operation.
The attempt has been made to implement to SAE J 300 viscosity classification a low
temperature method, that to complete measurements of dynamic viscosity (pumping), based on
continuous measurement of lubricant dynamic viscosity during long-term cooling. It is
a Brookfield scanning test performed according to ASTM D 5133 standard.
In the scope of taking into consideration the process of lubricant viscosity decrease due to
mechanical degradation of viscosity improvers, no requirements have been implemented. The only
test method is testing the decrease of viscosity after 30 shear cycles in „pump-injector” rig, which
was implemented in different specifications for engine oils.
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Some percentage of engine lubricants offered on the market do not conform to requirements of
SAE J 300 viscosity classification in the scope of rheological properties.
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Parameter, unit of Requirement Results of tests

measurement according to Oil no. 1 Oil no. 2 Oil no. 3 Oil no. 4 Oil no. 5
SAE J 300
Kinematic viscosity
in 1000C, mm2/s 12,5-16,3 13.33 11.96 14.87 16.54 14.39
Kinematic viscosity
in 400C, mm2/s - 97.23 89.34 104.5 154.5 118.7
CCS viscosity
in –200C, mPas max. 7000 6700 6500 6200 9700 7200
MRV viscosity
in –250C, mPas max. 60000 23800 22600 19400 56900 35600
HTHS viscosity
in 1500C, mPas min. 3.7 3.7 3.3 4.1 4.7 3.7
23
Next problem is that engine lubricants, even conforming to requirements of SAE J 300
classification In scope of rheological properties, sometimes are a reason of engines failures.
So the authors of this paper propose the wider consideration of engine lubricants reological
properties testing.
Proposed methodology of rheological properties testing extends requirements of SAE J 300
viscosity classification by the following elements:
x Drawing a trapezoid of viscosity decrease with talking into consideration decrease of
engine lubricant dynamic viscosity decrease after 150 shear cycles In :pump-injector” rig
for tests with both low and high shear stress (testing the resistance against mechanical
degradation). This testing enables determination of hysteresis of lubricant viscosity change
caused by mechanical degradation [3] [4] (trapezoid area),
6,2
temperature 150 oC
shear 150 cycles
5,7
Dynamic viscosity, mPas
5,2
4,7
4,2
3,7
3,2
10 -2 106
Shear stress, s -1

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x Drawing the curves of dynamic viscosity (pumping) change and dynamic viscosity
(starting) for a few measurements performed for different testing temperatures, which
enables determination of viscosity change during cooling (still not continuous but also not
a pointwise) both for low and high shear stress,
x testing dynamic viscosity with Brookfield scanning viscosimeter (dynamic viscosity
continous measurements during long-term cooling with low shear stress).
In the future, the next element of this methodology should be testing the influence of time on
viscosity change (in this case its progressive increase) after mechanical degradation, due to
polymer chains reconstruction in viscosity improvers.
24

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Proposed methodology of engine lubricants rheological properties testing may be applied in:
x testing of engine lubricants offered commercially on the market i.e. to assess the reason of
engine failure,
x creating new technolgies for engine lubricants production (viscosity and depressants
quality assesment).
This may influence the quality improvement of commercially available engine lubricants in the
future.
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26
THE USE OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION FOR ASSESSMENT OF THE OIL
LUBRICITY IN A FOUR-BALL TESTER
Piotr Bzura
Gdansk Uniwersity of Technology

ul. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-952 Gdansk, Poland
tel. +48583472573
Abstract
In view of the increased dynamic and temperature load in the compression-ignition engine tribological systems,
particular attention is drawn to the problem of such lubrication of the friction nodes that after breaking the boundary
layer it could be restored without any wear occurring. Therefore, an idea has been devised of introducing to friction
nodes, with the lubrication oils, of new substances (operational preparations) modifying the surface layer of friction
elements, creating the so called servo-films as an effect of selective transfer at the extreme loads.
The paper presents a method of evaluation, by means of the acoustic emission (AE) symptom, of a lubricating oil,
without operational preparations, through creation of the servo-film.
Keywords: acoustic emission, servo-film, friction node
1. Introduction
An ideal situation in the compression-ignition engine operation would be if tribological

systems could work in wear-free friction conditions in the extreme working states.
The lubricating oils used today, in spite of their indispensable advantages (e.g. heat abstraction,
friction coefficient reduction etc.), still do not solve the problems of under-lubrication in the
extreme load conditions. Therefore, research work is being carried out on the operational
preparations [6] facilitating the servo-layer creation in the under-lubricated tribological systems.
The paper draws attention to the fact that compounds with similar properties as the operational
preparations are spontaneously created in the lubricating oil during normal work and they can be
identified by the acoustic emission parameters. Therefore, an analysis and evaluation of the
boundary layer "reconstruction" (i.e. servo-film creation) process was performed based on
measurements of the T-02 four-ball tester friction node with piezoelectric gauges connected to it.
2. The selective transfer phenomenon
In the development of knowledge on tribological phenomena, worthy of attention is the

selective transfer effect creating on the friction faces a thin plastic non-oxidizable film of a specific
structure. The selective transfer phenomenon consists in using the electric charge generated in the
lubricating oil by friction of displacing surfaces for transporting the particles torn out of those
surfaces.
27
The literature studies [4, 6, 7, 8] indicate two dominating hypotheses explaining the selective
transfer mechanism:
1. Mechanism based on microadhesive joining the soft metal particles with the hard metal
friction face. In the first stage the created protective film is composed of the soft metal
particles. That composition can change when conditions favourable to the selective transfer
process occur.
2. Mechanism based on the electro-chemical process of protective film creation. The film
contains only one metal added to the lubricating oil in the form of a metallizing admixture.
In the case of copper alloys - copper is transferred.
The selective transfer effect in a friction node requires the use of lubricating materials allowing
to generate oxide films on the friction faces and also capable of electro-chemical copper
decomposition. The copper release and transfer process is an outcome of the reaction of lubricating
agent with the friction node surface. The copper and iron ions are then generated "reconstructing"
the friction node boundary layer.
The ionic bond is a non-directional bond where electrostatic attraction occurs between ions
generated in the total transfer of valence electrons from a less electronegative atom to a more
electronegative atom. In effect of the electron transfer, the first atom becomes a positive ion
(cation) and the second one a negative ion (anion). The ion generating is connected with the
ionization energy, i.e. the energy needed for abstraction of the most loosely bound electron from a
single atom. The ionization energy is usually expressed in electron volts (l eV = 1.60210 • 10 -19
J)[1].
The boundary layer "reconstructing" servo-film is created when a sufficient number of copper
ions is generated for the selective transfer process to be started. Therefore, the time needed for
generating the sufficient number of copper ions is also a meaningful parameter of the servo-film
creation process. Creation process of the servo-film in a friction node may be identified [5] with
slide bearing operation and expressed in joule-seconds [Js].
3. Research methodology
The investigations with T-02 four-ball tester were carried out in three variants with the Marinol
RG1240 lubricating oil and 8S20UD-H.Cegielski-Sulzer engine, namely:
ವ fresh oil (not used for lubrication before),
ವ used oil,
ವ used oil with 5% content of MDO fuel the engine is fed with.
The investigation parameters were the following:
ವ spindle rotational speed: 1000 rpm
ವ load increase rate: 409 N/s
ವ initial load: 0N
ವ maximum load: 7400 N
The friction node consisted of bearing balls, 12.7 mm diameter, made from the H15 steel
(ferrous alloy with average content of 1% C, 0.02% S, 0.3% Ni, 0.3% Cu), in the accuracy class 16
according to the PN-83/M-86452 standard, submerged in the lubricating oil tested.
Each test in the T-02 four-ball tester was additionally analysed by the acoustic emission gauges
of a Vallen AMSY-5 apparatus set (Fig. 1 and 2) [2].
The increased content of copper in the investigated lubricating oil sample of the friction node
was measured with a Philips X-Met 920 spectrometer [3].
28
Detail "A"
piezoelectric gauges
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Schematic diagram of the Vallen-Systeme GmbH Schematic diagram of the T-02 four-ball tester
Fig.1. Test stand diagram [2]
The acoustic emission phenomenon demonstrates itself by generation and propagation of

elastic waves originated in the T-02 four-ball tester friction node during the dynamic processes
proceeding in it. The propagating elastic wave is recorded by piezoelectric gauges mounted on the
friction node as an acoustic signal (pulse), as shown in the Fig. 2 diagram.
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The investigations performed with the T-02 four-ball tester connected with piezoelectric
gauges, where the friction node consisited of a set of four steel balls submerged in the tested oil,
are aimed at monitoring the boundary layer "reconstruction" process (Fig.3).
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Fig. 3. Destruction and possible reconstruction of boundary layer

where: - destruction and non-reconstructing of boundary layer (friction coefficient signal),
x x x - destruction and non-reconstructing of boundary layer (acoustic emission signal energy),
- destruction and reconstruction of boundary layer (friction coefficient signal),
x x x - destruction and reconstruction of boundary layer (acoustic emission signal energy).
4. Analysis of test results

Results of the investigations of physical and chemical properties during the boundary layer
"reconstruction" are presented in graphical figures 4 to 7 and in Table 1.
1,4 1000
Friction ceofficient [-]
1,2
800
1
Energy [eU]
0,8 600
0,6 400
0,4
200
0,2
0 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Time tests [s]

T-02_clear oil
AE_clear oil
Fig. 4. Destruction and non-reconstructing of boundary layer in the friction node with fresh Marinol RG1240
lubricating oil
0,7 250
0,6
Friction coefficient [-]
200
0,5
Energy [eU]
0,4 150
0,3
100
0,2
50
0,1
0 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Time tests [s]
T-02_used oil
AE_used oil
Fig. 5. Destruction and reconstruction of boundary layer in the friction node with used Marinol RG1240 lubricating
oil
30
0,7
140
0,6
Friction coefficient[-]
120
0,5
100
Energy [eU]
0,4
80
0,3 60
0,2 40
0,1 20
0 0
2 6 10 14 18
Time tests [s]
T-02_ used oil with a 5% content of the MDO fuel that the engine is fed with
AE_ used oil with a 5% content of the MDO fuel that the engine is fed with
Fig. 5. Destruction and reconstruction of boundary layer in the friction node with used Marinol RG1240 lubricating
oil with 5% MDO
Table 1. Results of the investigations of physical and chemical properties during the boundary layer "reconstruction"
Marinol RG1240
E1[eU] E2[eU] E[%] Cu1[ppm] Cu2[ppm] 'Cu[ppm]
lubricating oil
clear oil 900 450 50 112,44±1,23 121,06±1,237 8,62
used oil 200 12 94 122,44±1,297 143,11±1,27 20,67
used oil with 5% MDO 120 12 90 122,44±1,297 133,00±1,252 10,56
where:
E1 – acoustic emission signal energy for the boundary layer destruction,
E2 – acoustic emission signal energy for the boundary layer "reconstruction",
E1 E 2
E 100 – loss of the acoustic emission signal as a fitness for use measure,
E1
Cu1 – copper content in an oil sample before the friction node test,
Cu2 – copper content in an oil sample taken after the friction node test.
Small acoustic emission signal loss (E = 50%) shows "non-reconstructing" of the friction node
boundary layer, i.e. selective transfer did not occur. Therefore, this acoustic emission signal may
be considered a symptom of not full friction node fitness with respect to the extreme loads.
5. Acoustic emission as a diagnostic signal

Lubricating oil is a significant element of the compression-ignition engine tribological systems
as it contains necessary information for determining diagnostic relations of such systems. Those
relations are needed for building a tribological system diagnostic model. Development of such
model, useful in practical engine operation, requires reliability of the diagnostics.
The measurement results are a signal, in the form of acoustic emission, containing the status
information. It has been demonstrated that there is a possibility of increasing the reliability of
diagnostics by using the acoustic emission parameters for determining the servo-film effect.
In the proposed procedure, the servo-film effect is understood as transfer of ionization energy,
in the form of work, coming from an extreme load of the friction node in a specified time t and
causing "reconstruction" of the boundary layer.
The servo-film effect in the proposed version may be investigated by carrying out precise
measurements and then expressed in the form of a number with joule-second as the measurement
unit.
6. Final remarks and conclusions

The main objective of the work was to present the possibilities of using the acoustic emission
31
as a diagnostic parameter in the friction node condition determining laboratory test. Generating the
copper ions is worthy of attention. Investigating of samples with the
X-Met920 spectrometer allowed to conclude that the increase of copper content in the used
Marinol RG1240 oil had a positive impact on the servo-film effect. In the copper ion generating
process ionization energy is emitted - a component of the acoustic emission energy defining the
servo-film effect.
Additionally it was found that during operation some compounds were spontaneously created
in the Marinol RG1240 lubricating oil improving its physical and chemical properties. However,
the performed measurements did not provide quantitative conclusions on the friction node effects
of that phenomenon (equivalent to introducing operational preparations) as no comparative tests
were carried out.
References
[1] Astachow A.W., Szirow Ju.M.: Quantum physics. (in Polish) Wydawnictwo Naukowo-
Techniczne, Warszawa 1990
[2] Bugacki H., Bzura P., Eichert P.: Analysis and evaluation of wear changes in T-02 apparatus
friction node revealed by acoustic parameters, (in Polish) Project financed by the Ministry of
Science and Higher Education, No. 08/08 PB
[3] Bzura P.: The use of spectrometric diagnostics in identification of the Technical condition of
tribological systems. Journal of Polish CIMAC (vol.3, No.2), Gdask 2008
[4] Garkunov D.N.: Effect der Verschleiblosgkeit – eine neue Etapie bei der Verbesserung des
Verschleiblosigkeit von Maschinenelement. Schmierungstechnik, nr 3/87
[5] Girtler J.: Concept for interpretation and assessment of slide bearing operation in diesel
engines in probabilistic approach. Journal of KONES , Warszawa 2007
[6] Laber St.: Investigation of the operational and lubricating properties of a metal refining agent.
(in Polish) Uniwersytet Zielonogórski - 2003
[7] Marczak R., Burakowski T.: Operational top layer and its testing. (in Polish) Zagadnienia
Eksploatacyjne Maszyn, z.3 (103) 1995;
[8] Marczak R.: Progress in the Perkunov effect investigations. (in Polish) Materiay konferencji
"Problemu bezzuyciowego tarcia w maszynach”. Wydaw. WSI Radom, Maj 1993
32
ANALYSIS OF SHIP SHAFT LINE COUPLING BOLTS FAILURE
> X",
Gdansk University of Technology

Ul. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-952 Gdansk, Poland
tel.: +48 58 34716 08, fax: +48 58 3414712
e-mail: cpdymars@pg.gda.pl

!' [

Polski Rejestr Statków SA

Al. gen. J. Hallera 126, 80-;}!&
tel.: +48 58 3461700, fax : +48 58 3460392
e-mail: m.narewski@prs.pl

Abstract
The ship propulsion shaft line is one of the most critical ship components having big influence on a ship safety.
Because of that, there is well known need for proper shaft line survey either by ship crew, ship owner technical
services as well as by classification society surveyors. One of the most dangerous and frequent kind of shaft line
failures, especially on old ships, is a fatigue break of the collar coupling bolts. It usually causes the loss of the
possibility to use the main propulsion system. In case of the bad weather and severe sea conditions it can lead even
to the ship loss. The paper presents some data on failure statistics that was observed to shaft lines and propulsion
system machinery. Furthermore, analyses of causes and generation mechanism of the mentioned fatigue breaks of
the collar coupling bolts is presented.
Keywords : ship propulsion system, shaft line, alignment, failure
&' [)=\X])\[
Ship machinery equipment failures and in particular propulsion systems are quite frequent
cases during ship operation. Failures in shafting are also important figure in all machinery
failures. An example of specific failure is breaking of coupling bolts in main propulsion shaft
collars.
However, that type of machinery damage is not very frequent, the failure itself is potentially
very dangerous as it could lead to the loss of control over propulsion and manoeuvrability of the
ship. That situation could result further in severe losses like the ship and cargo and possibly
environmental disaster. A severe see conditions can multiply potential damages and turn them
from local to global scale that could finally be very costly and ship operator or owner could be
taken to court.
33
The risk of ship failures is much higher in worse sea conditions due to dynamic nature of
propulsion system with diesel engine as it operates with shaft overloading by torque and
bending moments and resultant load pulsation.
Underneath, there are given some examples of the above mentioned failures and related
discussion of damages in the analysed shaft joints for the two specific types of propulsion
systems.
a)
^
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3% _ 21% 20% 31% ` 10%
b)

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,%"
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43% 10% 20% & 23% 2%
Fig. 1 Failure statistics in shipping according to data collected by insurance companies:

a) Failure Statistics for 1996-200, b) (Machinery claims by cost 1998-2004) [1].
)"/7
/ [,%7 7 *
,7
*
Bulk carrier 3
Chemical carrier 1
Container carrier 1
General cargo carrier 3
Offshore supply vessel 43
Oil carrier 7
Passenger vessel 1
Special purpose vessel 15
Tug 32
Yacht 7
Source: ABS
Fig. 2 Alignment related failure statistics [2].
34
q'),
"/7* (

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#

In a typical ship propulsion system, there are the following types of load that are generated
during the propulsion system operation:
- Torque moment;
- Bending moment
- Axial thrust force
- transverse loads that consists of gravity force of the shaft line system components and
inertial and centrifugal forces.
The influence of the listed above loads on the strength and durability of the shaft line joints
depends on the type of the main propulsion diesel engine and the shaft line construction. We
analyse two the most popular types of the ship propulsion systems.
q'&' :
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+(
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In the conventional propulsion system the dominating load is torque moment. Due to the
shaft connection of the diesel engine with shafts and propeller without highly elastic couplings
and due to the low engine diesel speed (even for steady sailing conditions – ahead) there are
pulsations of the load. The reason for this is a limited number of propeller blades as well as the
number of engine heads. The amplitude of pulsation values depends mainly on actual sea
conditions and changes of ship hull resistance and propeller submersion that results from action
of waves. It must be pointed out, that maximal load due to torque occurs in case of the
requirement to stop ship instantly. The change of the engine rotation direction, which takes
relatively short time, leads to substantial increase of the nominal torque (could be even doubled)
during the procedure of the engine reverse manoeuvre.It could be clearly observed in the Fig 3
presenting characteristic curves of the propulsion system during this maneuver.
Fig. 3 Characteristic curves of major parameters of a propulsion system composed of diesel engine – constant
pitch propeller during “crash stop” of the sea ferry at speed V=15 knots (7,7 m/s).
Legend: n – propeller rpm; s – breaking distance; Q – torque moment at propeller shaft; T – thrust; V – vessel
speed; t – time. [3]
35
The change of rotation direction of the shaft is accompanied not only by torque moment
overloading and moment direction change but also by change of the thrust force direction.
As a consequence, the force that pressed shaft collars by means of coupling bolts is
decreasing. The frictional moment that takes vital part of maximal torque moment decreases
accordingly.
Other important issue is the increase of possibility of mutual displacement of the shaft collar
joints. The same risk could appear during main engine reverse on shallow water or in the area of
floating ice when the propeller blade could hit bottom or other obstacle. The probability of the
discussed displacement of collars and the relative sag and gap are dependant on the initial
tension force of coupling bolts and the fit force of the bolts
In case there will appear displacement of the shaft collars under load than the new position of
collars will have no advantages for normal working conditions and sailing with “ahead speed”.
The reason is the decrease or even disappearance of participation of the cylindrical surfaces of
fitted bolts in bearing of the torque moment. Appearance of overloading by torque or presence
of bending moment could lead to additional movement of coupled collars in the direction of
original position. Taking into consideration of the dynamics of that displacement and resulting
micro-deformations and wearing of contacting surfaces we can assume that new position is not
to be exactly the same.
Having in mind longer operational time, we can observe repeating action as previously
described.
It is for sure, that with each displacement of shafts collars the probability of next
displacements grows and grows also the value of movements and wearing rate of the contacting
surfaces.
The presented wearing process that exists where micro displacements of adjacent surfaces
are known as fretting. As a result of fretting the creation of micro notches that further could
develop into fatigue cracking. With the increase of wearing area and value of collars
displacements, the bolts linking the collars are subjected more to bending, that also accelerates
fatigue up to final breaking. The breaking of one bolt, leads to the increase of loading of the
remaining bolts and further breaks of collar bolts up to total lost of the shaft integrity. The view
of shaft collar where fitted bolts were broken is presented in Fig 4.
Fig.4. An example of failure of the shaft collars and fitted bolt holes in the propulsion shaft [4].
36
The case of coupling bolts, failure in the propulsion shaft line has been described in paper [1].
It took place on the small tanker during engine reversing and ship moving astern. The all, eight
bolts coupling bolts linking collars of intermediate and propeller shaft were broken and
consequently it resulted in the lost of ship propulsion and manoeuvring abilities. Fig. 5a and b
presents more details of that case with indication of the bolts cross-sections and their position in
the shaft collar.
a)
b)
Fig. 5. a) Bolted connection of the shaft collars and collar with broken bolt, b) View of the fatigue cross-section
with original position of the broken bolts in the shaft collar [5].
The specific feature of the presented cross sections is direction of failure growth, that
according to the authors of the reference [5] is angled 35q to 60q from the action line of the
shear force. The publication do not contain the explanation of the phenomena.
We must point out the one more important issue of the discussed failure - the plane of
fracture is not lying in the shear plane of the bolt but is located in the fitted area of shaft collar
holes. It means that creation of fatigue fracture is result of variable bending stresses in coupling
bolts. The hypothesis was further proofed by experimental research and calculation with using
of numerical methods as is presented in Fig 6.
Fig. 6. The view of the bolt used for experimental testing and position of the strain gauges in the tested bolt [5]
37
The experiment included the measurement of stresses in the fitted area of the bolt using strain
gauges technique. Strain gauges were placed in two shallow grooves cut along the bolt and
located at 180 arc in the plane of the load action. The gauges were fitted in pairs – one opposite
another in six cross-sectional planes as it is presented in the Fig. 6. The final testing was carried
out for five different values of pretension ranging from 0 to 0,55 Re of the bolt material and for
three different clearance values of the bolt: 0,16 mm clearance, 0,007 interference and 0,013
interference. Tensioning force has been varied in the range of 150 – 250 kN.
The results of the research, showed that highest bending stress exists in the long fitted area of
the bolt outside of the shear plane. The lowest value that stress was found to be in case of
highest bolt tensioning and tight interference. On the other hand, there is no evidence that the
experiments has not been carried out to initiate fatigue breaking of the bolts. Lack of that testing
did not allow to check, whether direction of the fatigue fracture growth rate is in agreement with
the shear load acting on the bolt.
It could be stated, that the directional deflection of the fracture growth direction and shear
load direction is also result of the bending moment of the shaft. The reason for that is that
described failure took place in the joint of propeller and intermediate shaft, where bending
moment are taking highest values, even in a correctly assemblies and aligned shaft line. The
explanation is in a fact of substantial loading of the shaft line tail by dynamically rotating ship
propeller and typical plain bearing solutions.
Due to the necessary radial clearance, plain bearings do not protect the shaft against
deflection and deviation from the theoretical shaft line axis. It means, that bolts joining and
fixing shaft collars will be loaded additionally by axial force, variable in value. The variation of
that force results not only from loading by the propeller mass but also from non uniform
hydrodynamic pressure field that is passed by the propeller blades during every rotation.
Moreover, in case of big ships or hulls having low stiffness, substantial shaft line bending load
may appear as a result of ship hull deformation on waves, particularly important in high sea
states, when displacement of the bearing axis takes place, as it is presented in Fig. 7.
Fig.7. Positioning the Bearings to Actual Design Values [2].
It can be assumed, that the listed above factors were reasons for the change of the resultant
bearing load plane acting on the bolts in the shaft coupling and the observed deflection of the
fatigue facture growth up direction.
38
q'q';/*
",
*/((
*
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//**;;
Propulsion systems with CPP experience much better conditions of loading of the collar
coupling bolts by torque. The torque keeps constant direction and overloads (if exist) are lower
and are not so frequent, practically only during instant stopping manoeuvre or in case the
propeller blade hits an obstacle. On the other hand, the loading of the shafts and their joints by
the bending moment grows up. There are two reasons for that. First, the mass of the propeller is
higher comparing fixed pitch propeller. Secondly, the intermediate shaft coupled with the
propeller shaft named camshaft do not have bearing in the hull but is hanging on the propeller
shaft and a intermediate shaft. Moreover, it is loaded additionally by oil distribution box, which
is used to introduce oil from the fixed hydraulic supply unit to the servo-motor located usually
inside the propeller hub. Consequently, the mass of shaft assembly and hydraulic components
for pitch control are also additional source of the bending moments. It must be pointed out, that
the loads in such case are relatively simple for numerical calculations and propulsion system
designers are able to provide suitable strength to the shaft line.
The worse situation exists with accidental and non predictable loads that originates during
ship operation. Some possible sources that we can list are: deflections of ship hull due to action
of waves, bending of the shaft or loss of bearings alignment that possibly could be result of
repair, maintenance services done for machinery or machinery equipment replacement that
could took place on every ship.
As an example, the shaft bending or bearing that is not aligned correctly with the shaft line
axis could generate shaft bending loads leading to the permanent change of shaft geometry and
in a consequence it will result in variable loading of the coupling bolts in shaft line collars. In
the worse case, the coupling bolts could be broken by the fatigue. A characteristic feature of that
type of failure is that it could have place during normal sailing conditions and quite probably not
all the bolts could fail at once. Most frequent situation will be the case where the highest loaded
bolt could break first or failure will happen to two neighbouring bolts. Consequently, the
stiffness of the shafts joint will be decreased and bending stresses in other bolts will be lowered
due to bending. An example of bolts destruction due to that type of failure a partly presented in
the Fig 8. The contact area of the collars as well as fitted bolts and their holes were worn
substantially. It is non disputable in that case, that failure was accompanied by mutual
displacements of mating parts as well as by fretting.
Fig. 8. The view intermediate shaft collar with broken bolts and fractures cross-section of the failed bolts with
nuts. [4]
39
'*

The problem of fitted bolts failure in coupling collars of the main propulsion shaft line
originates in a complex stress condition during the real ship drive system operation. The
possible failure of that type is more probable in case of older ships, that are in operation for
more than 15-20 years. Breaking of the fitted bolts in the shaft line collars is potentially very
dangerous event and its avoidance is possible due to proper control over propulsion system in
ship operation. Suitable control of the shaft line alignment using the proper tools should be used
as obligatory diagnostic procedure in case of detection certain abnormal behavior of shaft line
i.e. excessive wearing of intermediate bearings, accelerated stern bearing clearance growth,
bearings foundation structure or its weld cracks or shaft vibrations that were not observed
during earlier ship operation. The cost of potential failure of that type could be very high and
resultant repair could take several weeks.
Due to the fact, that providing the continuity of survey over ship machinery requires
repeatable observations and follow on analysis of the observed events during the propulsion
system operation. It is very important to note and record all that events as they may have
possible influence on abnormal behavior of the shaft line. The biggest number of observations
can be done by the machinery crew, providing they have suitable training and basic knowledge
regarding shaft line problems during operation. The instrumentation for propulsion system or
shaft monitoring is almost not available for majority of ships that are currently in operation. Due
to financial reasons it will be probably very rarely used in case of older ships. The availability
of the dedicated propulsion monitoring systems in future may be much wider and we can expect
that there will be more data collected regarding the shafting behavior or failures and the data
collected could be suitable for propulsion shaft line failure analysis, if such will be required.
In case of shaft line failure of the similar type as the cases described above, we recommend
to gather sufficient details (including broken bolts and nuts) and also all other evidence
immediately after failure as that could be very helpful for determination of the optimal repair
technology and for taking corrective measures for ship safety due to elimination of the failure
source.

=7
[1]. Lars A. Malm, Mechanical Failure – the facts, Marine Claims Conference, 2007
[2]. Chris Leontopoulos, Shaft alignment and powertrain vibration, ABS
[3]. Brownlie K.: Controllable Pitch Propellers. The Institute of Marine Engineers. London,
1998.
§ X" ! ego Rejestru Statków
[5]. V.Song, H.Shiihara, d.Shiraki, Y.Nagayama, Failure Analysis of propulsion shafting
coupling bolts, Class NK, World Maritime Technology Conference, London 6-10 March
2006

40
THE LIMITATION OF USE OF BIOCOMPONENTS IN THE FORM OF
FATTY ACID METHYL ESTERS BASED ON ANALYSIS OF
SELECTED TURBINE FUEL PROPERTIES
Wojciech Dzigielewski
The Technology Institute of Air Force

Petroleum Oils and Lubricants Division
13 Kolska str., 01-045 Warsaw, Poland
tel./fax: +48 22 6852088
e-mail: wojciech.dziegielewski@itwl.pl
Abstract
This paper describes part of results of research work consisting in testing the possibility to use
biocomponents in fuels for turbine engines. Because of some similarity and availability as well as that this is the
first stage of work, the fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) (from rapeseed oils) were used as the basis
biocomponent. Up till now, this ester was used as component of fuel for compression engines. There is no proved
information on other use of FAME. The aim of research work is to show possibilities or rather restrictions and
risk in case of new application. Some behaviour of biofuels or biocomponents are known. The common virtue is
perfect lubricity, and the flaw is chemical and thermal stability. But, these are not only parameters we should
notice analysing the applicability. This paper also tries to show other properties, that could restrict the use. It
presents biofuels laboratory test results and points the expected problems in case of practical use of such
mixtures. The results would be base to engine bench testing.
Keywords: transport, turbine engines, fuel, biocomponents, properties
1. Introduction
There is no need to prove anybody that in recent times one of the most important, and
publicized definitely thing is emission of various contaminants created during majority of
fuels combustion process. Traditional source of energy necessary to power engines, to heat
generation etc. are fossil fuels, mostly coal, crude oil and natural gas. Crude oil particularly is
very troublesome raw material. Beside future problems regarding deposits mining and
continuous rise of extracting cost, harmful effect of crude oil-based combustion products on
environment is the second, very important aspect. Though more and more modern engine
designs with better efficiency and restricted emissions, the range of engines use is so huge
that they are one of the primary causes of environment pollution. The intensive work on
developing and extense use of so called alternate fuels from other than crude oil sources has
been undertaken. Currently, the biofuels and biocomponents are of most interest. There is
some diversity resulting mostly from requirements set by various appliances - engines. In case
of spark engines the biocomponents with low boiling points, mostly alcohols and their
41
derivatives - ethers are in use. In case of compression ingnition (CI) engines mostly fatty acid
esters are employed. It is also possible to power CI engines with specially modified ethyl
alcohol-based fuel. Also there is one more very large group of engines - the turbine ones.
They use very large quantities of fuel, so they have much more emissions in relation to piston
engines. Moreover, its more difficult to employ equipment for exhaust gases purifying or
emissions restricting. It is important to replace oil-based fuel with alternate one that is less
harmful to environment, even in the smallest extent. Of course there are also limitations,
probably even more important than in case of fuels for piston engine. The primary limitation
is engine purpose. The purpose determines engine operation conditions which in turn
determine requirements regarding fuel characteristics. Though the rule of operation is similar,
requirements regarding aviation engine fuels and fuels used in engines used at less severe
conditions are quite different.
This paper covers fragment of the work regarding the possible use of fatty acid methyl
esters (FAME) as component of hydrocarbon fuel. Selection of such biocomponent was
conditioned by big similarity to base fuel (in the extent of essential physical and chemical
properties) as well as availability. There is extended research work on various biocomponents
in recent years however, FAME is the best recognized one so far. Besides, there are many
manufacturers producing high quality products. This is very important since low quality
would cause distortion of the results. Biocomponent was introduced into aviation kerosene
(trade name Jet A-1). Intention of such selection was to check the application in as most
severe as possible conditions. In such case every other application could be easier to fulfill
requirements.
2. Description of selected physical and chemical properties
There are some stereotypes used as base to evaluate biocomponents usefulness. Main
reason for their use is lubricity. This parameter is the best known and the most frequently
mentioned as biocomponents advantage. Actually, presence of even small FAME amount
results in significant decrease of wear of mating elements. But, it should be noted that
lubricity is not everything. The second parameter “improving” fuel properties is flash point.
After introducing biocomponent of lower volatility into kerosene, the flash point of such
biofuel increases resulting in better safety of fuel use. Unfortunately, besides these two
advantages we can yet add only one - less harmful effect on environment. Rest of properties
doesn’t change with biocomponent content or become worse. It is not tantamount to
elimination components of vegetable origin. It’s important to not to allow to worsen
parameters that influence on later use. Parameters that can change after biocomponent
introduction are the following:
+ lubricity improvement,
+ flash point increase,
+ lower emission of most of toxic and undesirable exhaust components,
¨ density change,
¨ kinematic viscosity increase, and greater vulnerability to temperature lowering,
¨ freezing point increase,
¨ possible acid number increase (particularly in case of poor FAME quality or ageing
process starting),
¨ thermal stability worsening,
¨ boiling range increase (influence on distillation),
¨ existent gum content increase,
¨ sudden decrease of water separation index and water reaction index,
42
¨ possible corrosivity increase,
¨ net heat of combustion decrease,
¨ possible water conten increase,
¨ better conditions for microbial contamination.
Above mentioned are only some - the most important - changes caused by
biocomponent presence in hydrocarbon fuel. As mentioned earlier, not all the changes can
disqualify biofuel from use. Moreover, not all the mentioned changes can appear together at
the same moment. This relates such properties that depend practically on manufacturing
process parameters as water content, acid number, corrosivity, sulphur content etc. When
components quality is appropriate, the quality and properties of finished biofuel (in above
mentionet extent) don’t change.
The characteristics of selected parameters regarding potential influence on fuel use in
turbine engine are presented below.
3. Thermal stability
Thermal stability is recognized as fundamental reason for biofuels use restriction,

especially in turbine engines. Performed tests confirm such thesis not entirely. Modern
biocomponents are more often manufactured using technologies that allow to obtain stable
product resistant to elevated temperatures. Antioxidants inserting is additional advantage.
Thermal stability testing in dynamic conditions (JFTOT) was performet according to
modified technique consisting in repeated testing without change of fuel, test tube, and filter,
until total disqualification of fuel. The results are presented on Fig. 1. From plots of upstream
and downstream pressure it can be read that though cycle multiple repetitions there was no
pressure increase showing building up of deposits - thermal decomposition products.
Figure 1. Example reports of thermal stability testing cycle course (cycle I and VI)
Spectra of tube deposits are displayed on fig. 2. It can be seen that coloured deposits
were created after every 150-min cycles. Presence of such deposits formally disqualifies the
fuel as usable. Test results of fuel with 10 % (V/V) biocomponent content showed that it
behaves not worse than neat aviation fuel, so it’s impossible to explicitly assess fuel
applicability basing on this parameter.
43
Rys. 2. Example spectrum of tube deposit rating after thermal stability testing cycle course (cycle I and VI)
4. Rheological and low temperature properties
Flaw of biofuels is restricted use connected with effect of low temperatures having
much stronger influence on biofuels rheological properties than on hydrocarbon ones. The
most evident symptom is internal friction resistance. It has decisive influence on resistance to
fuel flow in fuel lines, and on quality of fuel spraying. Preparation of fuel-air mixture has an
effect on ignition and combustion process.
Too low viscosity causes at particular injection pressure that fuel atomisation is not
complete. Such conditions create small droplets that slow down quickly in thickened air, so
the combustion process takes place in the vicinity of injectors. This causes local fuel excess
resulting in incomplete combustion.
Too high viscosity also disrupts air-fuel mixture preparation process. It’s because of too
large fuel droplets that evaporate to slow causing incomplete combustion as well. Unburned
fuel can build up on injectors causing injection characteristics change, and on other
components of combustion chamber causing change of thermal properties of structural
components. Moreover, range of the droplets is prolate causing combustion zone shifting. It
can lead to shift flame front to inlet guide zone. This can cause excessive thermal effect on
such components of engine. Moreover, too large droplets (coarse mixture) can have bigger
range, so they can fall on vanes of inlet guide and on I-stage turbine causing mechanical
degradation of their surface. Such phenomenon can, in the long range, lead to impairing
external coating strength, and fatigue-based mechanical damages.
44
Too high viscosity also means pressure increase inside fuel system. This causes
excessive forces generation in fuel system, especially in appliances generating high pressures
leading to damages and leaking.
Introduction of FAME into traditional aviation turbine fuel means kinematic viscosity
raise. So it is possible to meet problems caused by appearance of bigger particles and elevated
pressures in supply system. According this we can assume that this parameter can restrict use
of biocomponents.
There is another problem regarding kinematic viscosity. Viscosity depends on
temperature and pressure, so environment conditions change influence on rheological
parameters. Since the changes nature and course depend on substance construction, it is
possible that course of viscosity changes can change according to particular mixture
components. In case of aviation engine fuels such changes are very important (fig. 3).
Figure 3. Viscosity change vs. temperature of aviation fuel, FAME and their mixtures
Decreasing ambient temperature causes product temperature lowering. At the beginning

it causes mostly viscosity and density change, but beyond limit characteristics, the phase
transition starts for every substance. The crystallisation starts. Since crystallisation
temperature of individual components is different, there is no exact freezing point of the
mixture.
Crystals start to appear in liquid phase. Their amount, or rather volume rise with
temperature decrease. The fuel becomes cloudy though is still fluid that means it can be used
safely. Further temperature decrease, however, leads to fluidity loss. Such situation is
unacceptable, because it leads to fuel feeding continuity disturbance at the beginning (mostly
due to filter sticking by crystals), and total breaking of fuel flow through the supply system.
In case of use of biocomponent that is vulnerable to low temperatures, there is serious
threat and restriction regarding its use. First phase transitions of aviation fuels take place only
under temperature of -50 °C, while in case of FAME first signs of crystallisation process
beginning are visible at temperature under 0 °C a bit. So the discrepancy is huge. This can
significantly restrict use of biocomponent in fuel.
45
5. Water separation tendency during filtration process
Hindered filtration at low temperatures due to filtration materials sticking can be

intensified by water presence. In case of traditional turbine fuels, water presence is restricted
using coalescence-separation filters during fuelling. Basic property used during use of these
appliances is surface tension. Since the surface tension of fuel and water is different, the fuel
passes through the filter gauze covered with surface-active material (i.e.
polytetraflouoroethylene - PTFE), and small water droplets are trapped on filter gauze, and
then they combine together, and flow to sediment trap as bigger drops. The FAME disturbs
coalescence process, so the water removal is not sufficient. Such phenomenon is not
connected with surface tension since its values for petroleum fuel and FAME are similar
(accordingly 25.36 and 28.27). In comparison to surface tension for water (72.75) it shouldn’t
be a problem. The reason is different. At this stage of testing it can be supposed that FAME
particles stick to coalescer surface and block its operation. Such hypothesis needs to be
confirmed.
As a consequence of dewatering lack during fuel cooling down, water separation from
fuel will take place at first (due to water solubility in fuel reducing with temperature
decrease), and then the water can crystallize and can disturb engine fuelling process.
Tab. 1. Effect of biocomponent on properties connected with ability to fuel dewatering at

coalescers
Pos. Property Biocomponent (FAME) content in

aviation fuel
% (V/V)
2 5 10 15 20
1 Water reaction:
interface rating 2 3 >3 >3 -
2 Water reaction:
interface separation rating 3 4 4 >4 -
3 Water reaction:
water phase volume change, cm3 1 1 1 - -
4 Water separation index 39 0 0 0 0
6. Tendency to microbial contamination
In some cases, especially at positive temperatures, presence of small water content

doesn’t constitute problem for combustion process. In case of non aviation engines, water
contained in fuel has, among others, even positive effect on harmful exhaust gases emission.
However, it cannot be recognised that fuel dewatering is unnecessary. Every fuel is exposed
to microbial contamination in presence of separated water. Due to perfect biodegradability,
and hygroscopicity, biocomponents are very prone to microbial growth. Because it’s
impossible to maintain anhydrous fuel, the only way to prevent such infection is biocides use.
However, it should be noted that biocides are mostly chemicals of relatively high
aggressiveness, so they can have harmful effect on distribution and storage facilities, and on
construction materials of involved engine components as well.
46
7. Summary
Basing on above test results and preliminary conclusions it can be found that there are
some restrictions regarding use of biocomponents as ingredients of aviation turbine fuels.
Obviously, such restrictions are more extensive in case of use in aviation, and less extensive
for marine and land transport applications. According to performed testing, problems appear
not only where they are obviously expected. The issues not fully recognized theoretically yet,
and yet less utility experience can be the reason for that. Moreover, it’s possible that because
of chemical diversity of petroleum fuels and biocomponents, analytic methods developed for
the first ones, in some cases are unsuitable for the latter ones. As a consequence some test
results distortion is possible, and in turn, false interpretation.
Results obtained by laboratory test methods should be verified by engine bench testing.
This is the subject of the next stage of the research work.
47
48
ELEMENTS OF THE UML MODEL OF THE RAIL VEHICLE
MAINTENANCE SYSTEM
Andrzej Erd
Politechnika Radomska
Ul. Malczewskiego 29, 26-600 Radom, Poland
Tel. 483617723
e-mail:andrzej.erd@gmail.com
Abstract
The paper accounts for the construction of the rail vehicle maintenance model. It points to selected, possible to
use, software tools applied for modelling in the Unified Modelling Language. Commonly accepted solutions are
presented aiming to represent the maintenance system in UML. Such a model can be an input datum for the
application generator in order to generate a code automatically. A more general application of this model is to create
a design pattern to construct other maintenance assistance system of, e.g. ships or power station equipment.
Keywords: system modelling, Unified Modelling Language, design pattern, maintenance, diagnostics systems,
Maintenance systems
1. Introduction – purpose of system modelling
Looking at the development of computer systems from the historical perspective one can
notice a significantly delayed development of software in comparison to hardware. Hardware
development was often accomplished abruptly. New series of microprocessors were introduced,
new computer architectures appeared which led to significantly improved results. New memory
types were constructed expanding the data storage capacity and decreasing the time of access to
them.
Simultaneously, the progress of less spectacular nature, within the framework of existing
technology, occurred. The path width within integrated circuits was reduced, which allowed for
more data packing. The rotational speed of hard discs was increased, the transfer speed within
network interfaces was accelerated.
Looking in the same way at the development of software it is much more difficult to see such
breakthroughs. Undoubtedly the subsequent steps which affected the way in which software was
created were the stages in the development of methodology, first – structural one and then –
object-oriented one. Although the foundations of the latter were presented in the 1980s, object-
oriented programming is still the dominating way of presenting reality in the information systems.
The reason for such a state of affairs is the immense complexity of systems [2].
The sources of system complexity are rooted in:
The problem domain – a great number of interdependent factors occurring in the real world.
Design technologies – necessity to reproduce the real world in the virtual world
49
Design team - a group of people of limited abilities of perception, information transfer and
information throughput.
Programming technologies – a vast number of standards to be observed, a wide range of required
skills
Users – necessity of transition from the virtual world to the real world and interpretation problems
related to this. Limited abilities and limited knowledge of the system.
The ways to limit the problems of complexity are as follows:

1. Wider usage of computers in system design and creation.
2. Development of new methodologies of analysis and development.
3. Data and system modelling.
4. Creating new generations of programming languages
5. Construction of tools automatically generating the object code on the basis of the model.
6. Creating model patterns.
This paper is a contribution to points 3 and 6, i.e. with the help of modelling tools an attempt was
undertaken to reproduce the maintenance system elements of the rail track vehicles, especially
those with the combustion engine. Similar problems appear in the maintenance of other complex
objects, such as ships or power stations.
2. Applied tools
In the simplest case it is enough to have paper and a pencil to create a concept of the system
model. However, relatively early the programming tools were developed to enable simplification
of editing activities by means of objects inserted into text editors. A particularly convenient and
popular tool is provided by the universal VISIO package (Microsoft) which in its menu has the
Software option and within it, among other techniques of data representation, the sub-option UML
system. It contains symbols typical for the most important types of diagrams, i.e.:
UML Static Structure
UML Collaboration
UML Deployment
UML Statechart
UML Sequence
UML Use case
Some programmes for system modelling allow for automatic generation of the software code. One
can mention here Visual Paradigm UML (Visual Paradigm). A possibility of importing diagrams
coming from VISIO is its interesting feature. Contrary to VISIO, this system can check
automatically the object code integrity and generation on the basis of created diagrams.
This system is a transitory product for a typical CASE (Computer Aided Software Engineering)
software, i.e. sets of tools for analysis, design, modelling and programming.
Such packages are most often paid and the best known among them include:
IBM Rational Rose is one of the oldest CASE solutions taken over by IBM. Apart from the tools
for visual modelling, it contains the functions of code generation in languages such as Ada, ANSI
C++, C++, CORBA, Java/J2EE, Visual C++ and Visual Basic.
Enterprise Architect – a tool running under the control of Windows and Linux systems.
Sybase Power Designer – a solution of the leading manufacturer of the systems of database
management
Visual Paradigm SDE – an UML modelling tool and which later transfers the model into a code in
the C# or Java languages to the Eclipse platform.
Apart from paid tools there is also a great number of programmes based on the GNU licence:
50
Argo UML – enables generation of the code based on the Eclipse platform.
Atlas Transformation Language – allows for a transformation of the UML model to Java code
ESS-Mode – a tool for reverse engineering of the UML model from Delhi or Java code
Star UML – a simple UML diagram editor (at the moment one must pay for it, but there is a
possibility of obtaining of a full value, time restricted trial version after registration on the
producer’s home page).
3. System modelling
The system construction consists of the determination of:

x information elements allowing for a full description, also static one (database construction)
x outcome information expected by the user (User’s interface)
x the way of input data processing into output data (application logic)
Thus the problems are naturally divided into 3 layers, i.e. data access, logic and presentation.
It is reflected in the latest design trends as the so called three-layer architecture. The essence of
layer structure consists in such a construction of applications as to make the functions of
individual layers independent from one another and to prevent the changes within each of them
from affecting the remaining ones.
Tab. 1: Layers of system architecture
Layer of Function
Receiving user’s commands, Entering data,

Presentation (User’s interface)
deriving outcomes
Logic Correct application logic
Maintaining source data, communication

Data access with external bases, reception of external
communiqués
Principally, the basic element of a model are classes representing its components. The class
possesses attributes (parameter values) and methods, which operate on these attributes. An
example of attributes of the class of locomotive data is shown in Table 2..
Tab. 2. Attributes of the Locomotive Class
Class _ Locomotive Data
Series : SeriesType;
LocomotiveNumber : LocomotiveTypeNumber;
LocomotiveAcceptanceDate : word;
AcceptanceOrderNumber : string20;
AcceptanceOrderDate : word;
ConstructionYear : word;
IntroInServiceDate : word; Warranty : Word;
LastPeriodicRepairSymbol : string3; ZNTKCode : Word;
LastRepairCourse : longint; CurrentState : string[3];
LastInspectionSymbol : string3; SBData : word;
LastInspectionDate : word; SBChange : word
LastInspectionCourse : longint;
51
Component assemblies are described in a similar way although in their case there are more
attributes used to describe the measured values. The assemblies are aggregated and belong to the
locomotive, which is illustrated in Figure 1.
Locomotive
IC engine. Undercarriage Exciter Woodward Generator

regulator
Carriage 1..2
Wheel unit 1..6 Traction motor 1..4
Fig. 1. Aggregation of component classes into the Locomotive class
Classes can describe physical elements but also can constitute a description of measurement
results, e.g. the class of oil-water analyses presented in Table 3 below.
Tab.3 Attributes of the Oil-Water Analyses Class
Class_ OilWaterAnalysesData
Series : SeriesType;
LocomotiveNumber : LocomotiveNumberType;
InspectionRepairDate : word;
InspectionRepairType : string3;
OilContamination : real;
OilViscosity : real;
WaterContent : real;
AlkalineReserve : real;
OilAssessment : char;
OilContent : real;
OilToWaterRatio : real;
OilType : string10;
WaterAssessment : char;
IntroCode : word;
Comment : string20;
NotifyingPerson : string20
52
The range of data indispensable to describe the system is very broad and Table 4 below
presents only examples of further elements of this type without a detailed description of attributes.
Table 4: Range of static data of the diagnostic system and vehicle maintenance(examples)
Constant data
Data of the railway rolling stock dispatching unit
Data of the repair plants (address , repair plant Number)
Number of a vehicles in stock
Configuration data of the vehicle series ( assembly types and their numbers)
Configuration data of vehicles (what types of assemblies are components)
Configuration data of assembly types (description of parameters – name, number, unit)
Configuration data of analysis ( what is included in analysis – parameter, scope)
Model characteristics of engine and power transmission system measured at the test stand
Measurement data
Measured characteristic of the power transmission systems
Measurement results of oil consumption
Measurement values of wheel sets
Measurement values of traction motors
Measurement values of the main generator
Analyses results
Table 4: Range of static data of the diagnostic system and vehicle maintenance(cont.)
Variables
Register of vehicles within the railway rolling stock in the plant
Composition of a vehicle unit – configuration of elements – actual specimens identified by
registration numbers
Principally, these data can be divided into 3 groups:

x Non-changeable (constant) data – dictionary-wise, they are characterised by stability or
the changes are very rare.
x Measurement data – results of diagnostic inspections; their registration and analysis is
the basis of making decisions about replacements and qualifying vehicles for repair.
Individual results can be in the form of single numbers but they can also be records of
more complexity, e.g. sets of data from the measurements of wheel sets or
characteristics of a power transmission system measured at the test stand.
x Changeable data (variables) – illustrating the turnover of vehicles in the register and
also, which is even more intense, the turnover of assemblies within vehicles
(replacements)
53
Report Reading
CM
SQL Enqiry
CM1
Enter vehicle allocatin decision
CME1 Enter handover decision
Enter assembly data Enter manufacturers
Application administrator Right users giving

Enter technical/maintenance data
Enter the vehicle into register Enter/ register assemblies

Assembly updating
Enter acceptance protocol

Enter register of services
MT employee
Enter removal from register command
Fig. 2 Use case diagram (limited)

CM- Directors. CME- Departament of Traction and rolling railway stock maintenance;
MT- Railway Rolling Stock Plant (used StarUML)
The scope and degree of data processing depends on the information recipient and its intended use.
In order to facilitate a further analysis of the real system, the diagrams of use cases are created. A
fragment of such a diagram is shown in Figure 2. The use case diagrams are particularly useful
when it comes to specifications of the system element behaviour as seen from outside. Owing to
them the sub-systems and classes become easier to understand. They allow to grasp who the
information producers and recipients are and which thematic ranges of the information take part in
individual actions. They facilitate testing of a ready system in the start-up phase.
A subsequent stage of system modelling is representation by means of change diagrams in the
course of the individual actions implementation. While creating them, a lot of attention is given to
the place and manner of data taking and the algorithm for data processing. Thus, it can be assumed
that these charts are included in the second layer of application, i.e. the layer of logic.
54
Taking vehicle identification data
Taking railway plant measured data
Taking boundary values for sets and a carriage
Count how many sets are replaced?
Is there a unit for rolling?

Comparision with a model
Are all sets fit for use? Yes

Yes
Rolling order
To calculate the life cycle forecast
Qualifying for next inspection?
Replacement of a unit from reserve

Yes
All sets ?
Sufficient lifecycle - end of replacement
Yes
Replacement incomplete - inspection suspended
Fig. 3 Change diagram for replacement of wheel sets – parts of use case –
Updating of sub-assemblies.
Basically, the state chart (change diagram) is so detailed that by following it, one can create the
processing procedures implementing specific tasks. If manual coding is forecast, individual SA
blocks are usually implemented in the language of the third generation. In the case of automatic
generation it is necessary to write out further algorithm blocks up to the level of single variables.
4. Effects
The model developed is the starting point for creating a model design of the maintenance
assistance system. Having it will allow for significant shortening of the period of creating
computer systems meant for diagnosis and maintenance.
The essence of a design pattern (model) is the existence of an application skeleton which could
be used in a possibly broad range of applications. The role of analysts, designers and programmers
is to adjust the model to user’s needs. The UML model is a tool to show the interdependencies
between the system elements (static part) and its operations (dynamics). In the traditional approach
55
the „manual coding” of the entire designed system is necessary. It is then followed by mundane
testing. A tremendous amount of work from programmers is required to re-build the existing
solution, if there is one. Technology of the 4th-generation languages, which is supposed to reduce
the coding process, may turn out to be extremely useful provided one has suitable models. In
general, the human work outlays are shifted from coding to a better reproduction of reality.
References
[1] Boch Grady, Rumbaugh James, Jacobson Ivar, 4&\# [ X >=+
Warszawa 2002
[2] Subieta Kazimierz. % X « projektowaniu systemów bazach danych.
Akademicka Oficyna Wydawnicza PLJ. Warszawa1998
[3] IBM developerWorks Live – IBM materials. Warszawa. 2004.
[4] IBM Software Evaluation Kit – IBM electronic materials Warszawa 2004.
[5] Rational Software Atlantic Launch IBM materials, Warszawa 2006.
56
THE USE OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION TO IDENTIFICATION
DAMAGES BEARINGS THE MAIN AND CRANK ENGINES
ABOUT THE AUTOMATIC IGNITION
Jerzy Girtler, Wojciech Darski, Gdansk University of Technology,
Artur Olszewski, Gdansk University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Ireneusz Baran, Marek Nowak, Cracov University of Technology, Department of
Mechanical, Institute M6
Faculty of Ocean Engineering & Ship Technology
Department of Ship Power Plants
Ph. (=48 58) 347 – 24 – 30
FAX (+48 58) 347 – 19 – 81
e-mail: jgirtl@pg.gda.pl
Abstract
The article describes the laboratory tests, which make the first stage of the study concerning the use of the
AE method to determine the technical state of the slide bearings in engines with self-ignition. The aim of the
present tests was to compare the recorded signals in relation to the technical state of the material of the bearing
bush and to check the possibility of using the AE method in determining the transition moment from the fluid
friction into the semi-dry friction in the bearing and signaling the first micro-defects of the material of the
bearing bush. The experiment has not solved the problem, but they are of a development character and will be
continued in the nearest future.
Keywords: Frequency analysis, slide bearing, friction factor, bearing bush.
1. INTRODUCTION
Their bearings frequent damages undergo in the exploitation of engines about the automatic
ignition [13, 15]. Prevention the damages of these bearings requires the uses of the
diagnostics [9, 12, 15]. In the diagnostics of the bearings of combustion engines, especially
shipping, the credibility of the diagnosis essential is. He from introduced in publications [5, 7,
8, 9] conditions of functioning every system diagnosing (SDG) of the any engine about the
automatic ignition results, that the credibility of the diagnosis depends from:
x the condition technical SDG, and now from the possibility of his damage,
x possibility of appearing the conditions of the engine about the automatic ignition as
the system diagnosed (SDN) not considered in the diagnostic task (ZD),
x the possibility of changes (especially random) the vector of the power supply (Z) and
the vector of steering (E) and the property of random disturbances (N), as a result of
what remembers Z, E, N can be known while diagnosing the condition SDN,
x the sensibility SDG on the change Z and E and the existence N.
57
The credibility of the diagnosis about the state has the technical or energetistic engines about
the ignition automatic principal influence on the undertaking rational decisions, and the same
on the efficient working of this kind of engines who the assurance makes possible of the
desirable course of the process them the exploitation. This results from this that the diagnosis
makes up the basic component of any working, not only exploatational, but also projects (in
this constructional), technological etc. [6, 7]. The study of the credible diagnosis marks
unambiguous identifying the condition of the given engine of the combustion system
diagnosed (SDN), and the same recognition potential his property. Because of this, that the
guilds SDN are changing random, so the identification of the condition of this system is only
approximate which means that diagnosis about this will stand up he is credible, but in the
definite degree.
You should now, as the attribute of the diagnosis, estimate this degree of credibility and
aim to enlargement of her value near this [3, 4, 8]. The selection of diagnostic parameters is
one of the possibilities of enlarging the diagnosis about the condition of these engines to
credibility about the possibly largest diagnostic usefulness. You should doubtless seek such
parameters among parameters acoustic vibration and the parameters of the acoustic emission.
He marks these parameters as the carriers of information about the technical condition of
combustion engines, in the comparison with different diagnostic parameters, about many
larger informative capacity and the speed of passing on the information about this state.
Preliminary investigations showed that the acoustic emission was however more useful,
because he discloses the changes of the condition of the structure of the materials of which the
elements of remembered engines are made. This results from this that the acoustic emission
(EA) is the result of appearing the springy wave of generated by sudden liberation
accumulation energy in the material of the elements of engines. They cause such liberation of
energy, e.g.:
x micro slips setting on the border of grains being in micro domain about large
tensions reaching the border of the plasticity of the given material,
x the movement of vacancies and dislocation, especially joining oneself and the
moving the dislocation,
x formation of micro slots and their propagation in the materials of the elements of
engines.
This last cause is the strong source generating EA particularly. He results from this that
use in the diagnostics of engines about the automatic ignition of the acoustic emission as the
diagnostic signal is necessary. In essential relationship with this become investigations aiming
to identification and the opinion of the usefulness of the parameters of acoustic emission in
the diagnostics of engines about the automatic ignition. This problem was undertaken in
article this in the reference to the main and connecting-rods bearings of this kind of engines.
2. THE CONCEPTION OF THE INVESTIGATION USEFULNESS OF DIAGNOSTIC
PARAMETERS EMISSION OF THE ACOUSTIC
In the diagnostics top layer of elements bush of the bearings of sliding engines about the
automatic ignition, he can be applied the method of analysis and the opinion of their technical
state, in the result of the use of acoustic emission (AE) as diagnostic signal according to
pattern introduced on fig. 1.
58
Fig.1. The pattern of spreading springy waves in the solid body [16]
Method this consists in the registration of the course of springy waves (rys.1), being the
effect of the liberation of internal springy energy accumulations in material and suitable
statistical processing the measured values of the parameters of these waves [1, 2, 10, 15, 17].
The acoustic emission (AE) comes into being in the bearings of combustion engines both
in the result of existence micro processes (micro cracks, slides on borders, the movement of
vacancies and dislocation) how and in as a result of macro phenomenon (macro cracks,
considerable slackness), the connected with the superficial and volumetric waste elements
(bearing bush and shaft neck) of these bearings.
The advantage of the method of AE in the use to the diagnostics this first of all the
possibility of the registration of signals low energy - consuming coming into being beyond the
transducer, what he first of all allows to detect the infringement of the cohesion of the layers
of top materials, from which the elements of the bearings of combustion engines are made.
The possibility the registration parameters AE generates by he depends sliding bearings
remembered engines on tenderness, resolution and the capacity of the measuring apparatus.
You should also have this on the attention that the method of EA requires the not only suitable
apparatus, but and applications can process and analyses the huge quantity of data got during
the registration of signals [2, 14]. The temporary difference of the attainment of the signal
from the source AE to individual sensors makes possible situating this source. In the analysis
AE as the change of amplitude and energy in the course among individual sensors the
diagnostic signal essential is [10, 15].
They infringement of the cohesion of the top layer of the elements of bearings in the scale
micro are detected on long before extensive infringement of this cohesion (damage, in this
destruction). Should affirm near this, that deforms (deforming) and they are the cracking the
material be sure basic sources AE, but also the processes of corrosion, erosion, frictions and
different, causing waste (both superficial as and volumetric) they the elements of sliding
bearings also give the perceptible and characteristic growth of this kind of signals [1, 11, 15].
The comparison of recorded signals AE was the aim of the investigations whose results
are put in this article dependent on the condition of the technical bearing alloy and proof the
method AE of to usefulness to:
x the qualification of the moment he in the bearing crosses in the mixed friction in
whose smooth friction,
x disclosing the (signaling) of appearing first micro of the damages of the materials of
the elements of the bearing.
The position whose pattern was introduced on fig. 2 was applied to the achievement of
remembered investigative aims. Position this made possible [14]:
x the change of the value of the rotary speed,
x measurement and the registration of the value of the moment of appearing the mixed
friction in the bearing,
x the measurement of the temperature of bearing studied and lubricate oil,
x the obtainment of the repeatability led tests through the use of automatic steering
and the acquisition of results,
59
x the change of the value of the burden transverse strength according to the plan of the
experiment.
Fig. 2 The investigative position - PG2-1 the suitable parameters of smearing the bearing studied the position
were equipped [14]
In the aim of the assurance in independent external current arrangement of smearing
with possibility of heating up oil (fig. 3). The ultra thermostat of the type U15C was applied
in the arrangement about the capacity 15 l and power 1.75 kW [14, 15]. Heated up to the set
temperature oil was pressed to the bearing studied the decentralizing pump plunged in the
reservoir ultra thermostat. Oil this flowed down to the reservoir gravitations. Contact
thermometer installed in the arrangement of power supply heaters assured the maintenance set
value of the temperature of oil.
Fig. 3 The view of the external arrangement of smearing the bearing studied [14]
The investigations AE were led with the use of the system Vallen AMSY-5 (the firm
Vallen - Systeme GmbH), and various types of sensors AE (table 1), assuring the registration
of signals in the wide strand frequencies [1, 14]. The system Vallen made possible the
registration of parameters AE (the moment of appearing the mixed friction, rotary speed,
strength burdening bearing, the temperature of oil) simultaneously and the correlation of
registered values of remembered parameters. Such sensors AE were applied in investigations
how: PAC, PAC + wave-guide, VS 30-V, VS 75-V, VS 150-RIC, VS 150-RIC + wave-guide,
VS 375-RIC, SE 45-H. These sensors were fixed on the measuring head of the investigative
position and the side surfaces of hydrostatical bearings.
The measurement of the acoustic background was first stage of investigations and the
disturbances of generated by the work devices on the investigative position. The schedule of
the strands of the frequency of signals registered during these investigations was introduced
on fig. 4.
60
a) b)
Fig. 4 The schedule of the strands of the frequency of signals registered for broad – gauge sensors: a) the range
100 – 300 kHz, b) the range 20-850 kHz [14]
The conducted frequencies analysis of registered signals AE allowed to the qualification

the main strands of disturbances and choice of the frequency of filters the high pass and the
low pass to next measurements in the aim of elimination of disturbances coming from the
work of the position of investigative and inside and outside the laboratory [14].
The results of the investigations of bearings with the new pans of the type MB10 (two-
ply, overflow 212 -CuPb22Sn) and MB35 (four layers, overflow 331- PbSn10Cu2), with use
of the filters of the frequency, near the received conditions of the burden and the rotary speed
becomes them left, according to next tests, put in the table 1. The solid rotary speed of the
rampart was accepted as exit sizes 1700 rot. /min. the faces and two sizes of the burden of the
transverse bearing -1 kN and 2 kN. The settled parameters of acquisition for these conditions
of the work of the new bearing made up later the base for the comparison in remaining tests.
In the aim of the comparison of signals AE recorded near the investigation of the new
bearing with signals coming from the bearing with simulated damage, measurements of three
sliding bearings of the type MB10 were conducted [1, 14]:
x the new bearing bush,
x bearing with openings simulating the local damages of the material bearings bush
e.g.: superficial crack or the plucked out particles of the bearing alloy causing
disorders of the flow of oil smearing (fig.5),
x the bearing with cut longitudinal and district grooves, simulating the damage of the
surface bearings bush in result of transfusion of strange bodies among pan and
suppository (fig. 6 and 7).
On the fig.5 was introduced the fatigues damage of the bearing alloy (a) and simulated
damage (b). On the fig.6 was introduced in the turn the damage of the surface of the bearing
in the result of the transfusion of strange bodies among pan and suppository, and on fig. 7
executed simulated damage similarly as on fig. 5.
a) b)
Fig. 5 View bush with the fatigues damages of the bearing alloy: a) the propagation of the cracks of hard basis
and crumbling up the particles of the bearing alloy, b) simulated damages in the figure 6-ciu the openings about
the diameter Ø = 4 mm, what 15O [14]
61
(a) (b)
Fig. 6 The pattern of the damages of the sliding surface bearings caused through strange bodies: (a) pumps
through grains and the rifling of the sliding surface, (b) polishing shaft neck through grains fixed in the
sliding layer [14]
Fig. 7 The view realization of the damages of the surface bearings which can come into being in the result of the
transfusion after them of strange bodies [14]
The reports were established in investigations between damages bearings bush of the
bearings bush of sliding engines about the automatic ignition, introduced on fig. 5 y 7, and the
measures parameters of the acoustic emission (AE).
3. THE RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS PARAMETERS EMISSION OF
ACOUSTIC
During investigations were recorded:
x the counting the events (hits) - the basic parameter of the activity of the source AE,
x quantity exceeds of the level of discrimination (counts),
x the value of the energy of the signal,
x the amplitude of signals,
x RMS - the average square intensity of the signals of the continuous emission -
parameter to defining the value of the continuous emission below the threshold of
detect ability,
x the burden,
x the moment of the rise of the mixed friction,
x the rotary speed,
x the temperature of bearing and lubricate oil.
Exchanged parameters AE were used to monitoring the technical condition of sliding
bearings [11, 15, 16].
Results of registration of value RMS for new bearing and bearings with simulated
damages (fig. 5, 6, 7) were introduced on fig. 8, 9 and 10.
62
Fig. 8 RMS for the various compartments of the filters of the frequency - the sliding bearing new [14]
The stability of the value (fig.8) steps out for RMS about the high frequency (orange
line). You can see the growth of the value RMS AE in all channels for the except of the
frequency low from the analysis of the data generally low* and high*. The value of
measurements puts in the table 1 got in channels from low, the central (medium) and high the
frequency answering state (generic) the damages of the bearing was introduced on fig. 9 and
10.
Tab.1. RMS in the function of time for the various strands of the frequency [14]
Condition of Low Low* Medium High High*
the bearing [V] [V] [V] [V] [V]
New 10 4 46 13 27
Holes 27 3 67 27 23
Grooves 34 8 105 0 47
Fig. 9 RMS for the various compartments of the filters of the frequency - the damage of the type of the fatigues
bearing alloy [14]
63
Fig. 10 RMS for the various compartments of the filters of the frequency - damage in the figure furrows of the
bearing alloy [14] was introduced
On the fig.11 was introduced the activity of the emission for new bearing and bearing
simulating wrench of the particles of the alloy near these alone parameters of the acquisition,
near the use of resonance sensors VS75-V and VS150-RIC and frequency filters on measuring
channels.
a) b)
Fig. 11 The parameters AE the activity of the acoustic emission in dependence from the time for the bearing: a)
new, b) with opening simulating wrench of the particles of the alloy were recorded [14]
After the serial changes of the rotary speed during the work of the bearing near the solid
settled rotary speed 1700 rot./min. the faces and settled burden 2 kN. The example of the
single temporary range signals AE were recorded in which, was introduced on fig. 12.
The time of the registration

of signals AE in individual
loadings cycles subjected
the analysis with utilization
of the application Visual
Class
Fig. 12 The example single loading cycle of bearing with the marked range of the time of the registration of
signals AE subjected the more far analysis [14] was introduced
64
On the fig. 13 the sum of registered signals during the work settled. The visible change of
the activity of recorded signals on the sensor VS150-RIC, she signaled the change in the work
of the bearing. First traces were the cause of the sudden growth of the activity AE (hits) the
waste oneself the bearing layer of the bearing.
a) b)
Fig. 13 The results of investigations: a) - the sum of registered events (hits) in the time of the settled work of the
bearing, b) - the sum of the schedule of events (hits) in the strands of the frequency [14]
For the example on fig. 14 the condition of the surface of the sliding layer of pans after
investigations was introduced
Fig. 14 The view split bearing bushings of the type MB10 and MB35 after investigations visible first traces the
waste of the sliding layer [14]
The measurement AE was one of the essential aims of investigations while the
disappearance of smooth friction and passage in the mixed friction, that is in the moment of
the appearing first contact micro roughness shaft neck from the micro roughness of the pans
of the bearing. The methodology of investigations enabling decrease of the coefficient of the
friction was worked out in this aim as much as to appearing the contact metallic shaft neck
with pans. The value of the rotary speed was reduced during the test near the behaviors of the
solid value of pressures gradually. Reducing the value of the rotary speed results in decrease
of the thickness of the oil film, what he leads fall of moment of friction generated in bearing
(fig. 15, 16) in the consequence. The moreover decrease of the rotary speed results in
appearing the contact metallic shaft neck from bearing bush. He appears then the mixed
friction, which causes enlargement the value of the moment of the friction in the bearing. The
minimum value of the moment of the take measurements friction in the bearing studied
answers the moment in which first contact turning shaft neck appears from motionless bearing
bush bearing bush and cutting first tops of unevenness in the face of this exactly. The value of
this moment grows since this moment.
65
Fig. 15 Result of test in the conditions of the interruption of the smooth friction. Solid nominal pressures [14]
After stopping shaft neck in the bearing the moment of the friction in the bearing bush.
Together with from the growth the district speed u the hydrokinetic pressure begins gradually
to appear raise the suppository and reducing the number of cut uneven nesses. The coefficient
of the friction μ achieving the minimum value in the moment of the achievement of the
smooth friction he undergoes the decrease. More far enlarging the rotary speed results in
enlargement of the speed of the flow of oil in the crack and enlarging the coefficient of the
friction.
time
Fig. 16 The graphs = f (t) and u = fu(t) and the dealt out areas of the coefficient frictions observed during the
movement [13]: μ the coefficient of the static friction, u - the speed district shaft neck of the bearing
Analyzing the shape of the course of the value of the coefficient of the friction μ one can
distinguish four characteristic areas as the function of the time (fig.17):
x the area I, II and III in which the growth of the value of the coefficient of friction in
the consequence of the worsening conditions of smearing as a result of diminishing
the rotary speed follows as much as to the stop of the suppository of the bearing
x area IV, in which in the consequence of the starting and the fall of the value of the
coefficient of the friction called out the improvement of the conditions of smearing
gradual enlarging the rotary speed follows.
The coefficient of the friction begins his value to grow up together with the growth of
the speed rotary shaft neck after the crossing the minimum value. The dependence of the
coefficient of the friction represents the profile of the sliding bearing from value forced
(rotary speed, nominal pressures) and the stickiness of lubricate oil. Recorded in this time
activity AE introduced on rys.17, she signaled getting smaller the coefficient of the friction
through the atrophy of the activity of signals AE. Meanwhile the increase coefficient of the
66
friction between the surface shaft neck and pans, the sudden growth of the value of the
parameters of signals AE accompanied.
a) b)
Fig. 17 Turns and the moment of the friction and the activity of signals AE
during the change of the kind of the friction in the bearing [1]
On fig.18 the course of parameters as: were introduced additionally the course of the
changes of the activity AE - the quantity of events (hits) for the various strands of the
frequency. The value of the rotary speed of the rampart is even to null, when the friction
achieves the largest value. The activity AE was not recorded in the period, until the rotary
speed of the rampart did not reach the value ~ 700 rot./min. faces (fig. 18b).
a) b)
Fig. 18 The change of parameters and activity AE as: a) - the moment of the friction (from the left side) and
RPM (from right), b) - RPM (from the left side) and the quantity of events (hits) (from right), during
the change of the kind of the friction in the bearing [1]
For the classic hydrokinetic bearing transverse, dependence this illustrates the graph
Hersey’a. Example graph such was introduced on fig.19.
Three areas distinguish themselves on graph this:
x the area I - of the smooth friction, area laid on the right from the minimum value of
the coefficient of the friction Kas appointed by Oa. Area this answers range full
smearing of hydrokinetic, in which surfaces sliding shaft neck and bearings bush are
separated the comparatively fat layer of grease. Accident from pressures in this layer
balances the burden external bearings,
x the area II - on trick from the minimum of the friction (Ke Kas; Oa) he answers the
range mixed friction. The value of the coefficient of the friction together with the
diminishing value of the number Hersey’a O grows in the result of the growing of
the friction border part in area this and the diminishing part of the smooth friction in
the bearing,
67
Fig.19 The graph Hersey’a [13]
x the area III he answers the range border friction, placed on graphs Stribecka-
Hersey’a, he is in experimental investigations very difficult to the achievement.
Such state to appear can in the bearing, in the whole area of the friction the very thin
lubricate film would have to step out about the thickness of line a dozen or so to tens
molecules of grease
ATTENTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
From conducted research. The qualification of disturbances necessary is during the work
of the tested combustion engine in more far investigations. Introduced examples from
investigations illustrate that the use of the acoustic emission (AE) possible is to the
qualification of the technical condition (damage) of sliding bearings. The tenderness of the
method AE allows to record in the conditions of laboratory signals AE testifying about the
passage from the smooth friction in mixed.
The study should be the next stage of investigations and the construction of the
classifiers with utilization of the application Visual Class, being based on the spacious library
of measuring data got during executed investigations on the investigative position of the type
PG2-1. The classifiers will make possible the identification the signals AE come from
damages near the analysis of the phantom of signals AE, received during the investigations of
the engine about the automatic ignition in laboratory conditions.
He was notified at the Office Patent Polish Republics in the result of conducted
investigations, by the authors of the article, invention pt. Way and position to construction of
the classifiers to the identification of the accident condition of bearings, especially engines
about automatic ignition near the use of the acoustic emission as the diagnostic signal.
REFERENCES
1. Baran I., Nowak M., Darski W.: Application of acoustic emission in monitoring of failure
in slide bearings. Proceedings of the International Conference on Acoustic Emission.
Advances in Acoustic Emission – 2007. The Sixth International Conference on Acoustic
Emission ICAE-6, Nevada. U S A, October, pp.155-160.
2. Gill J.D., Rauben R.L., Scaife M., Bron E.R., Steel J.A.: Detection of Diesel Engine
Faults using Acoustic Emission., Proc. 2 Conference. Planned Maintenances, Reliability
and Quality, 2-3 April, Oxford 1998, pp. 57-61.
3. Girtler J.: Statistic and probabilistic measures of diagnosis likelihood on the state of self-
ignition combustion engines, Journal of Polish CIMAC. Vol. 2, No 2(2007), pp.57-63.
4. Girtler J.: Probability measures of likelihood of diagnosis of the technical state of main
combustion engines of sea-going ships. Journal of KONES. Vol. 16, No 2(2009), pp.125-
132.
68
5. Girtler J., Kuszmider S., Plewiski L.: Wybrane zagadnienia eksploatacji statków
morskich w aspekcie bezpieczestwa eglugi. Monografia. Wysza Szkoa Morska w
Szczecinie, Szczecin 2003.
6. Girtler J.: Zastosowanie bayesowskiej statystycznej teorii decyzji do sterowania procesem
eksploatacji urzdze. Materiay XXII Zimowej Szkoy Niezawodno«ci nt.
Warto«ciowanie niezawodno«ciowe w procesach realizacji zada technologicznych w
uj?ciu logistycznym. SPE KBM PAN, Szczyrk 1994, s.5562.
7. Girtler J.: Wiarygodno diagnozy a podejmowanie decyzji eksploatacyjnych. Materiay
Kongresu Diagnostyki Technicznej KDT’96 TII. Zespó Diagnostyki SPE KBM PAN,
PTDT, IMP PAN w Gdasku, Politechnika ®lska w Gliwicach, Politechnika Poznaska,
Gdask 1996, s.271276.
8. Girtler J.: Probabilistic measures of a diagnosis’ likelihood about the technical state of
transport means. Archives of Transport, vol. 11, iss. 3-4. Polish Academy of Sciences.
Committee of Transport, pp.3342.
9. Girtler J.: Diagnostyka jako warunek sterowania eksploatacj okr?towych silników
spalinowych. Monografia, Studia Nr 28. Wysza Szkoa Morska w Szczecinie, Szczecin
1997.
10. Malecki I., Ranachowski J.: Emisja akustyczna, róda, metody, zastosowanie. KBN,
Warszawa 1994.
11. Ono K.: Fundamentals of acoustic Emission. University of California, Los Angeles 1976.
12. Wodarski J. K., Makowski L.: Sposób i ukad do sygnalizacji stanów zagroenia
awaryjnego oysk silników spalinowych. Patent nr 112916, 1982.
13. Wodarski J. K.: Uszkodzenia oysk okr'towych silników spalinowych. Wydawnictwo
Akademii Morskiej w Gdyni, Gdynia 2003.
14. Darski W., Girtler J.: Pomiary parametrów emisji akustycznej generowanej przez
zm'czeniowe uszkodzenia panwi oysk MB50, MB02 na stanowisku badawczym SMOK
Cz' VIII (wykonanie pomiarów na stanowisku, opracowanie wyników, wnioski z
bada)”. Sprawozdanie z wykonania bada w ramach realizacji projektu badawczego
Ministerstwa Nauki i Informatyzacji (nr. 3480/TO2/2006/31) pt.: „Identyfikacja stanu
technicznego ukadów korbowo-tokowych silników o zaponie samoczynnym ze
szczególnym uwzgl'dnieniem emisji akustycznej jako sygnau diagnostycznego”. Prace
badawcze Wydziau Oceanotechniki i Okr?townictwa Politechniki Gdaskiej nr
05/2009/PB, Gdask 2008.
15. Girtler J.: Sprawozdanie z realizacji projektu badawczego wasnego, Grant Nr N504 043
31/3480 pt. „Identyfikacja stanu technicznego ukadów korbowo tokowych silników o
zaponie samoczynnym ze szczególnym uwzgl'dnieniem emisji akustycznej jako sygnau
diagnostycznego”, kierownik projektu: prof. Jerzy Girtler.
16. ASME, Acceptance Test Procedure for Lass II Vessels, Article RT – 6, Section X, Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code (December 1988 Addendum and latter editions).
17. Instrukcja: Course Handbook for SNT-TC-1A Qualification/Certification Course for
Acoustic Emission Personal, Level II, Physical Acoustic Corporation 1991.
69
70
NOWDAYS ASPECTS OF THE SELECTION OF THE PARAMETRS OF
THE INJECTION OF THE FUEL IN DIESEL ENGINES
Marek Idzior
Pozna University of Technology

ul. Piotrowo 3, 60-965 Pozna, Poland,
tel. +48 61 6652350, fax . (+48 61) 6652402
e-mail: Marek.Idzior@put.poznan.pl
Abstract
In the article one introduced the problems of the selection of diesel engines injector nozzles parameters and limitations
of the pressure of the fuel injection. One talked over conditioning being with the stimulator of their systematical height.
The methods of the selection guilty so to embrace, except the selection of constructional parameters , also the selection
taking into account concurrent occurrences , for example the pressure and the speed of injected fuel or the stress
distribution. One executed analyses of restrictive factors of the endeavour to the further lifting of maximum values of the
pressure of the fuel injection. In the recapitulation one underlined important of the problem and his participation on the
future development diesel engines.
Key words: diesel engine, development, new technologies, fuel equipment
1. The introduction
Is difficulty univocally to give methods of principle of the selection of parameters of injector

nozzles, considering additionally their influence on impurities of combustion gases of the diesel
engine. The methods of the selection, taking into account the environment protection, cannot assemble
exclusively on parameters of the part executive, is what just the injector nozzle. It should make
allowance for also the construction and parameters of co-operative parley and reasons and
consequences of concurrent occurrences to the injection and the atomization of the fuel in the cylinder
of the diesel engine.
The methods of the selection guilty so to embrace, except the selection of constructional
parameters , also the selection taking into account concurrent occurrences , for example the pressure
and the speed of injected fuel or the stress distribution.
Considering placings requirements and occurrences happening {reaching} in the correctly working
nozzle, methods of the selection of parameters of constructional injector nozzles one can divide on
two core groups:
a) methods of the selection:
methods optimization, leaning on the theory of the optimization of the construction,
71
methods simulatory, leaning on findings with the use of specialized computer programmes (for
example the stress distribution and thermal charges);
b) empirical methods of the selection:
methods visualization leaning on the investigation (for example by means the instrument AVL
Engine Video System) of the construction {the build} and the shape sprayed fuel,
motor leaning methods on the practical investigation of sets of injector nozzles about accepted
parameters with the regard of measurement of concerning issues of toxic relationships.
2. The selection of parameters of injector nozzles by means mathematical optimization methods
These methods consist in finding of best solution (in relation to the settled criterion) from the set of
possibly (admissible) solutions. The conduct relies so on the research of the value of parameters for
which is the realizing condition determining recorded mathematically the criterion of the examined
occurrence, at the realization of recorded mathematically limitations.
The course of optimization problem one can divide on three stages:
the acceptance of the criterion function and suitable groups of independent variables,
the elaboration of the set of limitations,
solution of optimization problem.
As the criterion function one can accept one from parameters of the work of the engine, for
example the effective power Ne or the moment torque Mo. Answering to them independent variables
will be each parameters of injector nozzles.
These parameters are treated independently, in the reality however the influence on the issue of
impurities of combustion gases and the power or the moment generated by the engine have all
combinations of occurrent sizes in at present the investigated injector. The only individual approach to
every size gives the full possibility of the use of worked out technics and optimization algorithms.
The most of performance characteristics of the diesel engine can be approximated with the
polynomial quadratic. Solution of the assignment must contain himself in the set of solutions
admissible, appointed in our chance by admissible values of the issue of toxic relationships in
combustion gases. This postulate assure only restrictive non-linear conditions, irregularity, for
example HCtot (parameters of the nozzle)d HCtotDOP.
Solution of optimization problem consists in the effective research the minimum of the criterion
function in the admissible area traced by limitations - for example on the delimitation of the direction
research of the point the minimum and on his qualification.
This type the approach to the theme of the selection of parameters of injector nozzles is, thanks to
the quick development of computers and their possibilities counting, more and more often practical,
from the regard even if on low costs of working out of optimum- solutions.
One cannot here however forget that is this typical theoretical approach and not always finding of
best theoretical solution ties in with his immediate use in effect, because the progress in the
development of computational methods considerably outdistances possibilities of their utilization in
real model solutions.
Heaps of times on the hindrance to these best mathematical solutions stand up technological
limitations or rememberings strength of materials limitations.
72
Optimization
Optimization Polyoptimization
of selection nozzles parameters of selection nozzles parameters
with research Ne max with research minimum:
with limitations: eHC , PM , NOx ,CO hi , Ld , ld , l , b, D , d cr
e HC , PM , NOx ,CO hi , L d , l d , l , b , D , d cr d e HCdop
for Neo 0,95 Ne
Optimization
With method multicriterial analysis
Determine optimum solution of injector
nozzles types
Fig. 1. Methods of the optimization of the selection of parameters of injector nozzles [2]
3. The selection of parameters of injector nozzles with the regard of the shape and the
construction of the stream
The spray pattern of the fuel, his construction, the quality of spraying - the drop diameter and their
schedule chiefly decide about the degree of the entire and complete combustion in the cylinder of the
diesel engine, and what himself with this binds and emissivities of this engine.
For the purpose of the graphic performance of the quality of spraying one prepares the
characterization of the proportional participation drops of the fuel in the dependence from their
diameter. These characterizations are often called in the literature unjustly a phantom of spraying; in
reality are a thickness of the probability of drop diameters and can be prepared for different of their
decisive sizes about spraying.
In at present produced engines self-igniting more and more are more often practical injectors with
two spring which make possible the realization of the two-grade injection. How show research, the
use of the two-grade injection and injector nozzles VCO lowers the issue of nitrous oxides and
hydrocarbons in combustion gases [1].
Simultaneously research showed that such fuel injection conjointly with injector nozzles VCO
unfavourably bore on the smokiness of combustion gases. Enlarging smokiness is especially visible at
low engine loads.
4. The selection of parameters of injector nozzles with the regard of limitations of the height of
the pressure of the injection
Introduced to production engines are already provided into container parley Common Rail of the
second generation, with enlarged pressure of the injection (160-180 MPa), in nearest years one
foresees the enlargement of the pressure even to 220 MPa.
Nascent tensions at pressures 200 MPa are already too large for the persistence of some elements,
first of all talked over injector nozzles. In spite that trunks of injector nozzles are executed steel
73
chromic-nickel-tungstenic, about the large endurance on the extension, this however due tensions with
high pressures of the injection can reach the border of the plasticity of given material. Such state of
the load can as result of of the fatigue of material bring to the damage of the sprayer.
Calculations of the nozzle with eight holes [2] whose the section one showed on the fig. 2, laden
with the pressure 200 MPa and with the pressure 300 MPa, so such, what appears at the destruction of
the sprayer in some parley of the power supply, showed that greatest tensions came into being on the
passage of the nest of the cone-shaped trunk into the well. They carry out for the first chance 710
MPa, while for second 1065 MPa. Large tensions come into being also at edges of intake- injection²s
openings and carry out properly 510 MPa and about 947 MPa. Itself bottom of the well is not strongly
laden, because prevalent there tensions in the dependence from the pressure of the fuel hesitate from
80 to 125 MPa. From these calculations it results that the pressure of the injection carrying out 300
MPa seems greatest, possibly to the usage for the fuel injection in the diesel engine for the endurance
and the persistence of injector nozzles. So high pressures demand usages of materials about greater
than till now endurances on the extension, what doubtless increases costs of the realization of injector
nozzles. Practical until quite lately universally to this end chromic-nickel-aluminium steels, chromic-
nickel- tungstenic and similar, are taken place steels about the greater endurance, for example steels
nickel- and other modern materials. Such are carbide-steels in which the participation of carbides,
mostly TiC, carries out to 50%. Constantly these, after the heat-treatment, attain the hardness about 70
HRC, even in elevated operating temperatures and the large resistance on the erosion and cavitation,
are however difficult in the tooling and expensive.
On injector nozzles of greater engines it begins to comply stellites. This are very hard alloys (What
- 65%, Cr - 25%, In - 5%, C - 2% and V, Fe and other) about the very small linear expansion, what
causes the very good dimension- stability in elevated temperatures, the high abrasion resistance and
the resistance on aggressive fuels, the corrosion and the oxygenation.
Fig.2. Injector nozzle with eight holes [2]
Stellites have the high price, but are not as usual permanent and make possible the diminution of
the mass of the nozzle, what for greater injector nozzles begins to be profitable economically.
74
The height of the pressure of the injection can be also limited by the compressibility and the
stickiness of the fuel, and also rectifier valves master with the flow of the fuel which will have to
quickly and unfailingly to work conditioned of enlarged loads.
The diesel fuel under the pressure 300 MPa diminishes her own volume about 15-20%. Such his
wring at small doses of injected fuel can cause disturbances of the injection. Higher pressures cause
also the height of the stickiness of oil, what favours to the formation large, badly burning up drops of
the fuel.
5. Conclusion
Introduced problems of the selection of parameters of injector nozzles show as not as usual
difficult is optimum- synchronizing of all parameters, so that they realize requirements placed to the
present diesel engine, inclusive of with more and more sharper ecological requirements.
Perfecting of the injection²s apparatus in today²s engines of this type, with taking into account of
norms of concerning issues of impurities, is one from most important criteria of the choice of best
solutions of these decisive engines about the success of chosen constructions.
References
[1] Idzior M.: Nowe metody rozwizywania problemów wspóczesnych silników o zaponie
samoczynnym. Zeszyty Naukowe Instytutu Pojazdów Politechniki Warszawskiej nr 3(66)/2007
[2] Idzior M.: Studium optymalizacji doboru parametrów rozpylaczy wtryskiwaczy silników o
zaponie samoczynnym w aspekcie wa«ciwo«ci uytkowych silnika. Wydawnictwo Politechniki
Poznaskiej, Pozna 2004.
[3] Meyer S., Krause A., Krome D., Merker G.: Flexible Piezo Common-Rail-System with 3.
Direct Needle Control. Motortechnische Zeitschrift nr 2, 2002.
[4] Zbierski K.: Ukady wtryskowe Common Rail. ód£ 2001.
[5] Materiay firm: BMW, Honda, Mercedes, Toyota, Volkswagen
75
76
THE IMPACT OF PLATINUM-RHODIUM ACTIVE COATING
INSIDE A COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE ON VOLATILE
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS EMISSION
Anna Janicka, Wojciech Walkowiak, (>

,
><>>/

Wroclaw University of Technology

Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27
50-370 Wroclaw
tel./fax. +48 71 3477918
e-mail: anna,janicka@pwr.wroc.pl
Abstract
This paper presents the results of the researches on platinum-rhodium inner catalyst application in self-ignition
engine (SB 3.1). A main aim of this study was volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) marking in exhaust gases.
Platinum and rhodium was used as an active coating. The catalyst was put onto the engine valves surface. As a
catalyst support a zirconium ceramic was used. The ceramic layer was also used as a local thermal barrier. The
results of the experiment was VOC’s quantity-quantitative analysis in function of chosen points of the engine work.
The results shows that platinum-rhodium active coating inside of the diesel engine caused about tenfold total
VOC’s concentration decrease. Because of significant toxicity of benzene and formaldehyde, for those compounds
separate comparison analysis was done. Decrease of benzene concentration was also observed but catalyst
effectiveness was lower than for total VOC’s concentration. The results of analysis of the catalyst influence on
formaldehyde concentration in exhaust are ambiguous.
Keywords: combustion engines, inner catalyst, volatile organic compounds, exhaust toxicity
1. (

Several anthropogenic activities lead to volatile organic compounds emission into the
atmosphere. One of the most important is motorization. VOC’s emitted from combustion
engines are vey often hazardous compounds for human and environment [1, 3-5]. In the
atmosphere, VOC’s contribute to tropospherical ozone formation, stratospheric ozone layer
depletion and to the greenhouse effect [3]. Inside the human body this organic compositions are
able resolve in fat and to cumulate in tissues.
Volatile organic compounds are significant group amid 200 identified compounds in diesel
engine exhaust (mainly aldehydes but also alcohols, ketons, esters, paraffin and aromatic
hydrocarbons). In group of VOC’s the most toxic and common in human environment are
particularly: benzene, formaldehyde (methanal) and acrolein [5].
2. +/
,
A modified SB3.1. compression ignition engine (diesel engine) was employed as a research
engine. An engine modification was application of platinum-rhodium coating on engine valves.
Conventional fuel (commercial diesel oil) was used as engine fuel. SB3.1 engine was loaded
77
with Hennan-Froude engine break. The most characteristic points of functional engine work
(rotation speeds and loads) was chosen in experiment: 1200 r.p.m., engine loads: 5 Nm, 10 Nm,
20 Nm, 30 Nm and 1600 r.p.m., engine loads: 10 Nm, 20 Nm, 30 Nm (it was not possible to
stabilize engine work for 5 and 30 Nm in initial conditions and 5 Nm when engine working with
catalyst on the engine valves).
An engine modification was based on application of platinum-rhodium active coating on
surface of the engine valves. Zirconium ceramic was used as a catalyst support.
A scheme of research work stand – engine test house – is presented in the figure 1.
Fig. 1. Research workstand: engine test house. 1 – engine with a break, 2 – fuel reservoir, 3 – NO, CO and
smoke level analyzers, 4 –formaldehyde absorber, 5 – tube with active coal, 6 – exhaust gases uptake system, 7
– engine control system
VOC’s samples were up-taken by tubes with active coal (ex. prepared). Formaldehyde was
up-taken by special absorption bulb with distilled water. The analysis was done according to
polish standard: PN – EN ISO 16017-1: 2006. The laboratory analysis contains two analytic
methods: colorimethry (formaldehyde marking according to directive PN-71/C-04539) and
chromatography. Carbone disulfide (CS2) was used for VOC’s extraction from active coal. Gas
chromatograph Hewlett-Packard 5890 with FID detector and capillary column (HP-5, 30 m,
0,53 mm) was used for quantity and quality analysis. The chromatography conditions were:
column temperature (110 ºC), dozers (150 ºC) and detectors (250 ºC).
'=* ((

The results of the experiment was VOC’s quantity-quantitative analysis in function of

chosen points of the engine work.
The VOC’s concentration, mg/dm3, during engine work without catalytic coating application
on engine valves is presented in table 1.
Tab. 1. Volatile Organic Compounds concentration in SB 3.1 engine gases. Initial conditions (engine without
catalyst). Benzene and formaldehyde concentration is presented also separately because of its separate analysis in
function of chosen points of engine work
Engine speed 1200 , r.p.m. 1600 , r.p.m.

Engine load, Nm 5 10 20 30 10 20
VOC’s groupe name Concentration , mg/dm3*
Aldehydes 0,042 0,059 0,061 0,061 0,059 0,086
78
Alcoholes 0,0066 0,0064 0,0054 0,0051 0,0066 0,0058
Ketons n.d.** n.d.** 0,0075 0,0009 0,015 n.d.**
Aromatic hydrocarbons 0,0027 0,0034 0,0052 0,010 0,0060 0,0064
Praffin hydrocarbons n.d**. n.d.** 0,00028 0,0045 0,0049 0,0044
Total VOC’s 0,051 0,069 0,080 0,081 0,091 0,10
Benzene 0,0014 0,0022 0,0015 0,0028 0,0012 0,0018
Formaldehyde 0,0032 0,0039 0,0043 0,0044 0,0040 0,010
* the total method relative error is estimated on 20 % level
** non detected
Total VOC’s concentration is presented on figure 2. It is shown that with engine speed and
engine load also volatile compounds emission is rising.
Fig. 2. Total VOC’s concentration in SB 3.1 engine gases (initial conditions – engine without catalyst)
On following figures benzene (figure 3) and formaldehyde (figure 4) concentrations in

function of engine work is shown.
Fig. 3. Benzene concentration in SB 3.1 exhausts (initial conditions – engine without catalyst)
The lowest benzene concentration (0,0016 mg/dm3) was observed when engine was working
with 10 Nm load and higher rotational speed and the highest concentration (0,0028 mg/dm3)
79
was detected for lower rotational speed and engine load 30 Nm. Benzene emission seems to rise
proportional to engine load for both engine speeds but the results are ambiguous.
Fig. 4. Formaldehyde concentration in SB 3.1 exhausts (initial conditions – engine without catalyst)
In case of formaldehyde, insignificant concentration increase with engine load was observed
when engine was working with lower engine speed. When engine was working with 1600 r.p.m.
concentration of this compound rise rapidly (over 250 %) when engine load increase from 10
Nm to 20 Nm.
The results of VOC’s analysis for the engine with platinum-rhodium active coaling on the
engine valves are presented in table 2.
Tab. 2. Volatile Organic Compounds concentration in SB 3.1 engine . Engine without catalyst (Pt/Rh active coating
on the engine valves surface). Benzene and formaldehyde concentration is presented also separately because of its
separate analysis in function of chosen points of engine work
Engine speed 1200 , r.p.m. 1600 , r.p.m.

Engine load, Nm 5 10 20 30 10 20 30
VOC’s groupe name Concentration , mg/dm3*
Aldehydes 0,00058 0,00202 0,00535 0,07085 0,00579 0,02904 0,01888
Alcoholes 0,00346 0,00153 0,00175 0,00089 0,00102 0,00142 0,00061
Ketons n.d.** 0,00086 0,00048 0,00068 n.d.** n.d.** n.d.**
Aromatic hydrocarbons 0,00127 0,00292 0,00137 0,00198 0,00208 0,00662 0,00114
Praffin hydrocarbons 0,00028 0,00067 0,00031 0,00079 n.d.** 0,00025 0,00021
Total VOC’s 0,006 0,008 0,009 0,075 0,009 0,037 0,021
Benzene 0,00095 0,00208 0,00096 0,00150 0,00085 0,00110 0,00114
Formaldehyde n.d.** 0,00060 0,00500 0,00934 0,00320 0,02540 0,01660
* the total method relative error is estimated on 20 % level
** non detected
Total volatile organic compounds concentration in this condition of engine work (figure 5)
seems to be on similar level (about 0,007 mg/dm3) for first three engine loads (engine speed
1200 r.p.m.). When engine worked with load 30 Nm total VOC’s concentration increased
tenfold. It is correlated with tenfold increase of aldehydes concentration in exhausts.
80
Fig. 5. Total VOC’s concentration in SB 3.1 exhaust gases (engine with catalyst)
Benzene concentration in exhausts in engine load function is presented on figure 6.
Fig. 6. Benzene concentration in SB 3.1 exhausts (engine with catalyst)

Lower benzene concentration was observed when engine was working with higher engine
speed. Despite the fact that benzene concentration for 1600 r.p.m. was lower than for 1200
r.p.m. it was increasing with engine load. When engine was working with 1200 r.p.m. benzene
concentration was changing rapidly and without unambiguous trend.
On figure 7 formaldehyde concentration in engine load function is presented.
Fig. 7. Formaldehyde concentration in SB 3.1 exhausts (engine with catalyst)
81
For engine speed 1200 r.p.m. formaldehyde concentration was significant increasing with
engine load. When engine was working with higher rotational speed concentration increasing in
engine load function was also observed but the highest concentration was detected when engine
worked with 20 Nm load.
For effectiveness estimation of active coating application inside diesel engine a comparison
total VOC’s concentration in engine exhaust gases in both conditions (engine with and without
catalyst) was done (figure 8).
Fig. 8. Comparison of total VOC’s concentration in exhausts for both condition: engine with and without catalyst
in function of engine work
Platinum-rhodium active coating inside of the diesel engine caused about tenfold total
VOC’s concentration decrease. Because of significant toxicity of benzene and formaldehyde for
those compounds separate comparison analysis was done.
On figure 8 benzene concentration for both conditions of engine work in function of engine
work is presented. Decrease of benzene concentration when engine was working with catalyst is
observed in every point of engine work but catalyst effectiveness is lower than for total VOC’s
concentration (figure 9).
Fig. 9. Comparison of benzene concentration in exhausts for both condition: engine with and without catalyst in
function of engine work
82
For formaldehyde decrease of concentration level when engine was working with catalyst
was also observed (except two points of engine work: 1200 r.p.m./30 Nm and 1600 r.p.m./20
Nm) (figure 10).
Fig. 10. Comparison of formaldehyde concentration in exhausts for both condition: engine with and without
catalyst in function of engine work
Those two points of engine work are maximum engine load in case of both engine speeds. In
this points the highest temperature of exhausts was observed. For catalytic process the
temperature level is very important (it influence on effectiveness of the process) that’s why a
complete analysis of VOC’s concentration in function of various values in needed.
'*

1. Platinum-rhodium active coating inside of the diesel engine (on the engine valves surface)
caused about tenfold total VOC’s concentration decrease and significant decrease of the
most toxic substances (from VOC’s identified in the engine exhaust gases): benzene and
formaldehyde.
2. Because of ambiguous results of some stages of the experiment complete analysis of VOC’s
concentration in function of various values in needed.
=7
[1] Czarny A, Zacz '

[

Influence of biodiesel exhaust on NF-kB
activation and TNF- production in.human lung and peripheral blood leukocytes, in vitro.
X Z _ Z = -# ! ¢<< < [!Z³
[[ «[czalne i kliniczne”. X
" !
-26.05 2007.
[2] Fishader G., roder-stolinski C., Wihmann G., Nieber K., Lehmann I., Release of MCP-1 and
IL-8 from lung epithelial cells exposed to volatile organic compounds. Toxicology in Vitro
22 (2008) 359-366.
[3] A., Walkowiak W, Szczepaniak W., Inert catalyst in compression ignition engine.
VOC’s emission, ! %='" X[+\ X´ !§
=
µ¶.
[4]
>! >
Emisja
zków organicznych

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Y

. Silniki Spalinowe. 2007 R.
46, nr SC3.
[5] Lebrecht G., Czerczak S., Szymczak W., Benzen – dokumentacja" [XX [%
® [ "acy Numer 1 (35) 2003.
83
84
THE EFFECT OF PLATINUM-RHODIUM INNER CATALYST
APPLICATION IN A COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE ON
TOXICITY EQUIVALENT FACTOR OF VOLATILE ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS IN EXHAUST GASES
Anna Janicka, Wojciech Walkowiak, Agnieszka Sobianowska-)= ( %*
Wroclaw University of Technology

Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27
50-370 Wroclaw
tel./fax. +48 71 3477918
e-mail: anna,janicka@pwr.wroc.pl
Abstract
Emission from mobile sources causes human and environment exposure to hazardous, toxic substances.
Because of civilization diseases expansion it is very important to estimate a toxic influence of emitted by
combustion engine substances on human health. This paper presents the results of analysis of platinum-rhodium
active coating application in diesel engine on toxicity of volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) in exhaust gases..
The catalyst was applied on SB.3.1 compression ignition engine valves surface. A special methodology of engine
exhaust toxicity was applied: calculation of Toxic Equivalent Factor (TEF). For estimation of volatile organic
compounds toxicity in the engine exhaust gases as a indicator benzene was chosen. The calculation of TEFs was
base don Recommended Maximum Concentration Limits (RMCL), for one year period, according to polish Minister
of Environment Directive (Dz.U.2003 nr 1 poz. 12). Toxicity Equivalent Factor was calculated for total volatile
organic compounds identified in every chosen point of SB3.1 engine work and toxic. A comparison analysis of
VOC’s toxicity in the engine exhausts in both conditions (with and without platinum rhodium active coating on the
engine valve surface) was done. The analysis results show that inner catalyst application causes significant toxicity
decrease for lower engine loads for both chosen rotational speeds.
Keywords: engine exhaust toxicity, volatile organic compounds, Toxicity Equivalent Factor
1. Introduction
The ability of organic chemicals to cause health effects varies greatly from those that are
highly toxic, to those with no known health effect. As with other pollutants, the extent and
nature of the health effect will depend on many factors including level of exposure and length of
time exposed. Eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders, and
memory impairment are among the immediate symptoms that some people have experienced
soon after exposure to some organics. Many organic compounds are known to cause cancer in
animals; some are suspected of causing, or are known to cause, cancer in humans. [4]
Volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) effects on human health range from odour problems to
toxic or carcinogenic effects. As a consequence, more stringent legislation on VOC emission
has been implemented worldwide. To comply with this legislation, the use of processes which
inherently cause little or no VOC’s emission is preferable [4].
85
A motorization is one of the most important anthropogenic source of VOC’s emission.
Combustion engines are responsible for benzene, formaldehyde or acriolein emission – those
substances belong to VOC’s group and there are known from theirs mutagenic and carcinogenic
properties. Because a fact that most of volatile organic compounds are listed as being toxic not
only a problem their concentration in exhausts is considered necessary to be solved but also it is
very important to monitor their toxic influence on human health. The second problem is very
complicated and it strongly depends of the VOC’s group composition in emitted exhaust gases.
Estimation of toxic influence of particular compounds in VOC’s group is also very problematic
because not for many substances their toxic properties are unknown. For some substances
Recommended Maximum Concentration Limit (RMCL) is settled in governmental directives
what constitute a base for VOC’s mixture toxicity estimation by using Toxicity Equivalent
Factors (TEF) [1-3].
2. Experiment
A modified SB3.1. compression ignition engine (diesel engine) was employed as a research
engine. An engine modification was application of platinum-rhodium coating on engine valves.
Conventional fuel (commercial diesel oil) was used as engine fuel. SB3.1 engine was loaded
with Hennan-Froude engine dyno. The most characteristic points of functional engine work
(engine speeds and loads) was chosen in experiment: 1200 r.p.m., engine loads: 5 Nm, 10 Nm,
20 Nm, 30 Nm and 1600 r.p.m., engine loads: 10 Nm, 20 Nm, 30 Nm (it was not possible to
stabilize engine work for 5 and 30 Nm in initial conditions and 5 Nm when engine working with
catalyst on the engine valves).
An engine modification was based on application of platinum-rhodium active coating on
surface of the engine valves. Zirconium ceramic was used as a catalyst support.
A scheme of research work stand – engine test house – is presented in simultaneously
printed paper [2].
VOC’s samples were up-taken by tubes with active coal (ex. prepared). Formaldehyde was
up-taken by special absorption bulb with distilled water. The analysis was done according to
polish standard: PN – EN ISO 16017-1: 2006. The laboratory analysis contains two analytic
methods: colorimethry (formaldehyde marking according to directive PN-71/C-04539) and
chromatography. Carbone disulfide (CS2) was used for VOC’s extraction from active coal. Gas
chromatograph Hewlett-Packard 5890 with FID detector and capillary column (HP-5, 30 m,
0,53 mm) was used for quantity and quality analysis. The chromatography conditions were:
column temperature (110 ºC), dozers (150 ºC) and detectors (250 ºC).
3. Methodology of VOC’s toxicity estimation in engine exhaust
For estimation of volatile organic compounds toxicity in the engine exhausts as a indicator
benzene was chosen because of its well known mutagenic and carcinogenic properties. Benzene
is absorbed mainly from respiratory system and alimentary canal. Benzene and its metabolites
(i.e. phenol) are able to fixation with liver proteins, bone marrow, kidney, blood, muscles and
lien proteins. It cause devastation of nervous system and bone marrow (causes leukemia).
Allowable benzene concentration in atmospheric air in Poland amount to 5 μg/m3.
For the diesel engine exhaust toxicity estimation Toxicity Equivalent Factors (TEF) related
to benzene was applied. Benzene was identified in the engine exhaust in every chosen point of
its work. The analysis of VOC’s toxicity in exhaust was based on Recommended Maximum
Concentration Limits (RMCL), for one year period, according to polish Minister of
Environment Directive (Dz.U.2003 nr 1 poz. 12).
TEF for total volatile organic compounds in exhaust was determinate as follow:
86
x Coefficient R was determinate as a benzene RMCL ratio to RMCL of particulate
compound from VOC’s group (table 1),
x TEF for single VOC was calculated by multiplication its coefficient R and its
concentration in exhausts,
x TEFs determinate for single VOC’s detected in exhausts was tot up. The result was TEF
for total VOC’s.
For some identified in exhaust gases compounds (isovaleric aldehyde, isobutyl aldehyde and
ethanol) was not possible to TEF calculated because for those substances RMCL was not
determinate. Those substances was not taken into consideration in TEF for total VOC’s
calculation.
Recommended Maximum Concentration Limit (RMCL), μg/m3 , for year period, for VOC’s
identified in the engine (SB3.1) exhaust and R coefficient are presented in table 1.
Tab. 1. Recommended Maximum Concentration Limit (RMCL), μg/m3 , for year period, for VOC’s identified in the
engine (SB3.1) exhaust
R coefficient:
Compound Chemical RMCL,μg/m3
formula RMCLbenzene
R=
RMCL x
Akrolein C3H4O 0,9 5,556
Acetic aldehyde C2H4O 2,5 2,00
MIBK (metylisobutylketone) C6H12O 3,8 1,316
Formaldehyde CH2O 4 1,250
Benzene C6H6 5 1,00
Toluene C7H8 10 0,500
Xylene C8H10 10 0,500
Butyl alcohol C4H10O 26 0,192
Acetone C3H6O 30 0,167
Ethylbenzene C8H10 38 0,132
Heptane C7H16 1000 0,005
Hexane C2H14 1000 0,005
Octane C8H18 1000 0,005
Nonane C9H20 1000 0,005
Isovaleric aldehyde C4H9O No data ---
Ethanol C2H6O No data ---
Propionate aldehyde C3H6O No data ---
Isobutyl aldehyde C4H8O No data ---
Based of quantity-quantitative analysis [2] Toxicity Equivalent Factor was calculated for
total volatile organic compounds identified in every chosen point of SB3.1 engine work.
Toxicity Equivalent Factors (TEFs) for total volatile organic compounds emitted by the self-
ignition engine are presented in table 2.
87
Tab 2. Toxicity Equivalent Factors (TEFs) for total volatile organic compounds emitted by the compression
ignition engine
Engine work phase

Engine work 1200 r.p.m. 1600 r.p.m.
conditions 5 Nm 10 Nm 20 Nm 30 Nm 10 Nm 20 Nm 30 Nm
Toxicity Equivalent Factor (TEF)
Initial conditions
(engine without
catalyst) 0,00605 0,00775 0,01003 0,01322 0,02434 0,01572 --
Engine with
Pt/Rh catalyst 0,00125 0,00627 0,00805 0,01431 0,00546 0,03561 0,02189
A variability of Toxicity Equivalent Factor if function of engine speed and engine load for
initial conditions (engine without catalyst) is presented on figure 1.
Fig.1. Volatile organic compounds toxicity emitted by SB3.1 diesel engine (initial conditions – engine without
catalyst)
When engine was working with lower engine speed (1200 r.p.m.) increase of VOC’s toxicity
with engine load was observed – this trend was compatible with VOC’s concentration and it is
also correlated with formaldehyde concentration increase in exhausts [2].
When engine was working with higher engine speed (1600 r.p.m) and inverse trend was
observed – the highest TEF characterized VOC’s emitted when engine was working with lower
load (10 Nm) and for lower load (20 Nm) 30 % TEF reduction was observed.
After platinum-rhodium inner catalyst application similar situation was noticed for engine
speed 1200 r.p.m. (figure 2). When engine was working on 1600 r.p.m. engine speed level the
highest value of TEF was observed for middle engine load (20 Nm). The tendency of TEF
variability is very similar to formaldehyde concentration in this conditions of engine work
(engine with catalyst) [2].
88
Fig.2. Volatile organic compounds toxicity emitted by SB3.1 diesel engine (initial conditions – engine without
catalyst)
A comparison analysis of VOC’s toxicity in the engine exhaust gases in both conditions
(with and without platinum rhodium active coating on the engine valve surface) was done. The
analysis results show that inner catalyst application causes significant toxicity decrease for
lower engine loads for both chosen engine speeds (figure 3).
Fig.3. A comparison of VOC’s toxicity emitted with SB3.1 diesel engine exhaust
When engine was working whit higher load decrease of catalyst effectiveness was observed.
For the highest engine loads (for both engine speeds) catalyst application caused the aggravation
of exhaust quantity in their toxicity aspect.
89
4. Conclusions
1. The platinum-rhodium active coating application causes significant toxicity decrease for
lower engine loads, but the catalyst effectiveness was decreasing rapidly with engine load
rising.
2. Engine exhausts toxicity strongly depends on exhaust composition (participation of the most
toxic compounds).
3. Toxicity Equivalent Factor, because of specific calculation method, is correlated with law
regulation (is based on current regulations e.g. Recommended Maximum Concentration
Limit), so its value can be changeable.
References:
[1] Fishader G., roder-stolinski C., Wihmann G., Nieber K., Lehmann I., Release of MCP-1 and
IL-8 from lung epithelial cells exposed to volatile organic compounds. Toxicology in Vitro
22 (2008) 359-366.
[2] Janicka A, Walkowiak W., Szczepaniak W.,The impact of platinum-rhodium active coating
inside a self-ignition engine on Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s) emission, paper
simultaneously printed.
[3] Janicka A., Walkowiak W.,_

'

Y

. Silniki Spalinowe. 2007 R.
46, nr SC3.
[4] United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Organic Gases (Volatile Organic
Compounds – VOC’s), http://www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html#Health%20Effects (January 15
2008).
$ #\ #[# X ® [ # [ [ \ X «
odniesienia dla niektórych substancji w powietrzu (Dz.U.2003 nr 1 poz. 12).
90
EFFECT OF FATTY ACID METHYL ESTERS (FAME) ON PHYSICAL
AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AVIATION TURBINE FUELS
!" /
The Technology Institute of Air Force

13 Kolska street
01-494 Warsaw, Poland
phone/fax: +48 22 685 30 84\e-mail: grazyna.karp@itwl.pl
Abstract
In recent years there is tendency to adjust domestic petroleum products to meet world and European standards that
establish high requirements regarding environment protection. At the same time, it is tendency to introducing wider
spectrum of biocomponents that in turn enables to reduce harmful influence on environment. The work described in
this paper, among others, consists in evaluation of effect of various concentration of FAME in aviation turbine fuel on
its physical and chemical properties. The research work includes effect of FAME on fuel properties regarding the
refinery process (density, distillation, flash point, composition, and the like) but also on properties important in regard
to engine operation (kinematic viscosity, acid number, oxidation stability, gum content, freezing point, and the like).
The work covers also the effect of selected antioxidants and depressants on FAME containing fuels on turbine engines
operation. Considering the environment protection, the work includes evaluation of FAME presence on sulphur
content, carbon and ash content. In order to establish stability - resistance to different ambient conditions - such
blends undergo cyclic temperature changes. Results will be used to evaluate the possible use of biofuels in turbine
engines.
Keywords: environment protection, biocomponents, biofuels- alternate fuels, greenhouse effect, emissiongases
In recent years there is tendency to adjust domestic petroleum products to meet world and
European standards that establish high requirements regarding environment protection. At the
same time, it is tendency to introducing wider spectrum of biocomponents that in turn enables to
reduce harmful influence on environment [1, 3, 4,5].
Climate change is one of the biggest challenges that mankind is facing. There is necessity to
prepare relevant steps aiming at carbon dioxide emission reduction. Both air and sea transport have
similar share in CO2 emission. This is because the motive technology and employed fuels are not
covered by ecological standards. The transport sector has growing share in European and global
carbon dioxide emission. One of the ways to reduce this emission is usage of biofuels as
components of typical fuels (biofuels of first generation). Growing transportation means emission
of harmful exhaust gas components, not only the carbon dioxide and water, but also the nitrogen
oxides, particles as well as hydrocarbons. Such emissions cause lowering air quality and contribute
to anthropogenic increase of greenhouse effect [2,4]. So as to the transport would be neutral to
environment regarding the emission of greenhouse gases, the work is conducted with aim to use
91
alternate fuels. In short time we need the fuel that could partially substitute for currently used
aviation fuel.
The work described in this paper consists in evaluation of effect of various concentration of
FAME in aviation turbine fuel on its physical and chemical properties. The research work includes
effect of FAME on fuel properties regarding the refinery process (density, distillation, flash point,
composition, and the like), but also on properties important in regard to engine operation
(kinematic viscosity, acid number, oxidation stability, gum content, freezing point, and the like).
The work covers also the effect of selected antioxidants and depressants on FAME containing
fuels on turbine engines operation. Considering the environment protection, the work includes
evaluation of FAME presence on sulphur content, carbon and ash content. In order to establish
stability - resistance to different ambient conditions - such blends undergo cyclic temperature
changes. Results will be used to evaluate possible use of biofuels in turbine engines.
This work covers analysis of change in physical and chemical parameters of aviation fuel Jet
A-1 containing various amounts of FAME: 2 %, 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and 20 %. The Jet A-1 fuel
from different plants and FAME from different manufacturers were used in the work. Blends of
fuel with FAME were tested in regard to physical and chemical properties. The effect of FAME
content on such properties is evaluated basing on plots picturing changes of relevant properties of
tested blends.
0,825
0,820
0,815
0,810

0,805
0,800
0,795
0,790
0,785
0,780
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Fig. 1 Density vs. FAME content
More esters content in mixtures means relevant density increase. Blend density mostly depends
on FAME density. Densities of blends of two different Jet A-1 fuels with the same FAME, and the
same FAME content are very similar. All obtained densities fall into the specification
requirements 0.775 - 0.840 g/ml.
92
0,40
"!#
"!"
$&'(
)

*;< 0,25
0,20
0,15
0,10
0,05
0,00
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Fig. 2 Acid number vs. FAME content
Despite the used fuel it is difficult to find any dependence on FAME content. Blends of PL1
fuel with esters demonstrated the best behaviour where there was continuous increase of acid
number with amount of added FAME. As to PL2+F3 blend, there was sudden increase of acid
number for FAME content above 10 % (v/v). As to PL2+F2 blend, after sudden decrease for 5 %
(v/v) FAME content, consequent increasing FAME content results in small acid number increase.
The acid number value exceeds the specification requirement max. 0.015 mg KOH/g only in case
of PL2+F3 blend.
7,000
6,000
>B)
)$J>Q&'J
2
5,000
4,000
!"""
2,000
1,000
0,000
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Fig. 3 Kinematic viscosity vs. FAME content
Viscosity of all kind of blends gets higher with ester content increase. For two different Jet A-1
fuels and the same FAME blend viscosity depends mostly on FAME viscosity. Viscosities of
blend containing the same amount of FAME are very similar. Viscosities of blend fall into the fuel
specification requirement max. 8.0 mm2/s for FAME content up to the 20 % (v/v).
93
0,60
0,55
0,50

,
0,45

o
J
r
a

S
0,40
"!#
"!"
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Fig. 4 Lubricity vs. FAME content
It is impossible to explicitly describe the effect of FAME content on BOCLE lubricity. For
every mixture lubricity increases with FAME content initially that is indicated by decreasing scar
diameter. Then, for different blends, lubricity starts to decrease, but at different FAME content. It
should be accepted that such fluctuation are caused by “randomness” which is acceptable by test
method precision and at the same time it is possible to eliminate it by performing more repetitions
and making statistical evaluation. Blend of PL2 and FAME F2 demonstrated the best lubricity
which shows increase up to 15 % (v/v) FAME content.
44,00
X!#"
Z
B\
^)
X!""
42,50
42,00
41,50
41,00
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Fig. 5 Net heat of combustion vs. FAME content
Blend containing PL2 fuel and FAME F2 demonstrated the best combustion properties at the
initial stage. But the smallest difference in combustion properties was demonstrated by blend of
PL2 fuel and FAME F3. Net heat of combustion is stable up to 10 % (v/v) FAME content only for
blend of PL1 fuel and FAME F3. As it can be seen at the plot, the change of net heat of
combustion of the blend depends greatly on properties of employed FAME.
94
15,00
14,50

`j

14,00
!#"
!""
12,50
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Fig. 6 Hydrogen content vs. FAME content
Generally it can be said that hydrogen content decreases with increase of FAME concentration
in fuel. Though, the obtained values comply with minimum requirements for aviation turbine
fuels.
26
26
ZQ)
J$>)B&q&>
B\$>J$

25
25
24
24
!
!
22
22
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Fig. 7 Smoke point vs. FAME content
It is difficult to explicitly describe obtained values of smoke point and their dependence on
FAME content for all samples. The best behaviour was demonstrated by blend of PL1 fuel and
esters F2 which achieved minimum requirements for fuel at whole range. So it can be assumed that
esters presence have little effect on value of this parameter.
175,0
{>B>j
B&'q)j
`>Q&|$
;C
170,0
165,0
160,0
155,0
150,0
145,0
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Fig. 8 Initial boiling point vs. FAME content
In case of presented blends the initial boiling point demonstrates slight uptrend. At the same
time the used FAME has an effect on initial boiling point. In case of the same ester and different
95
fuels, temperatures for individual FAME concentrations demonstrate considerable differences.
This is because FAME presence doesn’t contribute to distillation run these temperature ranges.
190,0
185,0
180,0
{>B>j
;C
175,0
170,0
165,0
160,0
155,0
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Fig. 9 Temperature of 10 % (v/v) evaporation vs. FAME content
This parameter demonstrates slight uptrend for presented blends. Esters have small effect on
this parameter, whereas the properties of aviation fuel have decisive influence on it.
195,0
190,0
185,0
{>B>j
;C
180,0
175,0
170,0
165,0
160,0
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !

In case of this parameter it also demonstrates slight uptrend. At the same time, effect of used
FAME is more noticeable. The temperatures of 20 % evaporation are considerably different at
various content of the same FAME in different fuels.
210,0
205,0
200,0
{>B>j
;C
195,0
190,0
185,0
180,0
175,0
170,0
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
According to tendency shown in fig. 9 and 10 we can see bigger effect of FAME presence on
test results, though the petroleum fuel properties are still the most important.
96
400,0
!#""
!"""
{>B>j
;C
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
0,0
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Presented blends demonstrated significant uptrend regarding the 90 % (v/v) evaporation

temperature. The FAME effect on blend distillation run at this final fragment of distillation curve
is already distinctly visible. It means that more intensive distillation of heavier fractions of
biocomponents.
400,0
!#""
{>B>j
;C
!"""
250,0
200,0
150,0
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Fig. 13 Final boiling point vs. FAME content
In case of presented blends there is sudden increase of FBP values for FAME content up to 10
% (v/v), and then the increase of FBP is minimal for all blends.
400
!#"

}Q$&
""

!""
250
200
150
100
50
0
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Fig. 14 Existent gum vs. FAME content
There was large uptrend of existent gum for almost every blend. Such trend is not confirmed
by thermal stability (JFTOT) results for the blends. Though the existent gum exceeded acceptable
97
values for aviation turbine fuels it should be noticed that such considerable quality deterioration
wasn’t observed in case of oxidation stability. Probably, it’s because the test method is suited
especially to petroleum aviation fuels. This method may be not suitable to biocomponents with
quite different chemical structure (for instance, because of too low temperature of evaporating
medium - superheated steam).
!""
250
'>`J
B~
200
150
100
50
0
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

! !
Fig. 15 Conductivity vs. FAME content
Conductivity demonstrates uptrend with FAME content increase in blends. There is no

relationship between kind of fuel and FAME. Probably it is because of too large surface tension of
esters in relation to petroleum fuels [6].
50
45
40
Z)J$)
Q`'$>J$
`Q
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25
20
15
10
0
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

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Fig. 16 Water separation index vs. FAME content
The index decreases suddenly after addition of 5 % (v/v) of esters, and reaches zero for every
blend. This can disturb operation of coalescing - separating filters. Influence of FAME on water
separation index can arise due to high surface tension of esters.
98
70,0
65,0
60,0
{>B>j
'B\Jj
;C
55,0
50,0
45,0
40,0
!#"
!""
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

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Fig. 17 Flash point vs. FAME content
The flash point increases with FAME content for every blend. Blend’s flash point depends
mostly on flash point of FAME. In case of two different Jet A-1 fuels and the same FAME, flash
points of individual blends with equal FAME content are very similar. The reason is that flash
point of FAME is considerably higher than aviation fuel, and has decisive influence on vale of this
parameter for blends.
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%
0
-5
-10
{>B>j
J$>J$
;C
-15
-20
-25
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-40
-45
-50

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Fig. 18 Cloud point vs. FAME content
It is difficult to evaluate relationship between cloud pint and FAME content. Every blend
behaves slightly in different way. Different chemical character of both components can be the
reason.
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%
0
-5
-10
{>B>j
J$>J$
;C
-15
-20
-25
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-45
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Fig. 19 Pour point vs. FAME content
99
Pour points are practically unchanged. The differences depend mostly on type of used ester,
and not on fuel type.
160,00
140,00
120,00

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100,00
80,00
60,00
40,00
20,00
0,00
2% 5% 10% 15% 20%

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Fig. 20 Water content vs. FAME content
Water content increases with FAME concentration increase. The increase is considerably
higher for FAME concentration more than 5 % (v/v). Blends containing the same ester
demonstrate similar water content uptrend. It means that ester, as hygroscopic product, contain
more water. Furthermore, solubility of water in ester is higher than in petroleum fuel, so ester is
the source of water in blend.
SUMMARY
Basing on presented results it can be assumed that all blends of fuel containing FAME meet
requirements of specification NO-91-A258-4 for aviation turbine fuels, excluding such parameters
as water separation index and existent gum.
Lowered smoke point may cause slight problem with slight increase of carbon deposits in
system, what can cause damage of system components.
Existent gum considerably exceeds aviation turbine fuel specification requirements. This can
deteriorate air-fuel mixture combustion and lead to carbon deposits.
Due to different chemical character of FAME, and used test methods suitable for petroleum
fuels, above conclusions should be verified by performing engine tests.
Depending employed fuel, fuel blends containing FAME up to 5 % (v/v) demonstrate the
lowest tendency to form crystals at low temperatures
According to knowledge basing on the research work, it seems that use of FAME in aviation
will be considerably limited. However, it doesn’t exclude use some different biocomponents or use
biofuels in engines employed for other than airborne purposes.
=7
[1] Wrota Podlasia – Ekologiczny transport.

}XX\³µµ X\ [!\!µ\!µ[ < «µ#¸ !µ ! #¹X\ X}X<.
+X!
Latanie na cenzurowanym, onet.pl Tygodnik Powszechny, 23.09.2008.
100
[3] J. Ostaszewicz, ki dla redukcji emisji szkodliwych substancji w transporcie lotniczym,
Start-Biuletyn-Nr 1/2003-Trans. Lotniczy.
[4] Alternatywne paliwa lotnicze –

.
http://www.postcarbon.pl/2008/01/23/alternatywne -paliwa-lotnicze.
[5] &Y !*

2 w sektorze transportu.
Biblioteka Komunikacyjna.
Z[
+ >«

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' . PROBLEMY EKSPLOATACJI, nr 1, 2003.
101
102
ORGANIZATION PRINCIPLES OF THE OPERATING PROCESS OF THE
CASCADE COMPRESSION UNITS AND SOME DIRECTIONS OF THEIR
APPLICATION
Aleksandr Krainyuk
The Vladimir Dal East Ukrainian National University
Molodejny 20a, Luhansk, 91034, Ukraine
Tel.: +38 642 413 160
e-mail: Ljangar@rambler.ru
Oleh Klyus
Maritime University of Szczecin
ul.Waly Chrobrego ½, 70-500 Szczecin, Poland
tel.: +48 91 4809425, fax: +48 91 4809575
e-mail: olegklus@o2.pl
Abstract
In the paper was presented new trend of thermal-power units - operation principle of the cascade thermal
compression units of different purposes. In this equipments a working medium compression is carried out owing to
supplied heat as a result of internal redistribution of expansion indicator work in the process of cascade mass
interchange without the use of mechanical displacers which remove some part of mechanical energy from the power
take off shaft. The most important characteristics of cascade thermal-power units was presented.
Keywords: cascade thermal-power units, cascade pressure interchangers, diesel engine, gas-turbine units, exchange
processes
I. Introduction
A new improvement trend of thermal- power units of wide purpose is connected with creation
of cascade compression units of gas- air mediums. The units of cascade- thermal compression
(CTC) and cascade pressure interchangers (CPI) are variety of such units.
In CTC units a working medium compression is carried out owing to supplied heat as a result
of internal redistribution of expansion indicator work in the process of cascade mass interchange
without the use of mechanical displacers which remove some part of mechanical energy from the
power take off shaft.
In addition to simplicity and high reliability of the structure, because of absence of mechanical
displaces and mobile gas distributed elements discretely controlled, the CTC units are
characterized by high efficiency, even while using heat resources with relatively low temperature
potential and it stipulates their application attraction as a recovery systems included as components
of traditional thermal power plants.
103
2. Principle of the operating process of the cascade compression units
The operation principle and description of the first CTC units are given in the papers [1-3]. At
present serviceable samples of CTC compressor are created, and the diagram is shown in fig.1.
In the process of rotor rotation (fig.1 clockwise rotation), each rotor cell is connected in
sequence with a stator head interchange channel through which a working medium enters from
contiguous cell of the expansion area. De to cascade compression the pressure in the cell steadily
increases up to definite value which depends on thermo-dynamical parameters of the working
medium in the beginning of the expansion process. While communicating the cells with the
windows of high pressure (HPV) of displacing section under the action of centrifugal forces or
forced circulation the displacement of preliminarily compressed in the cell of air charge is replaced
by heated air or gases (in the case of use of internal combustion chamber). Due to this fact
maximum cycle pressure is fixed in the displaced path and in the cells communicated with it. That
pressure exceeds the pressure of cascade compression.
Part of compressed air is removed from the displaced path to the consumer through a branch
pipe placed in front of heat source.
In the period of further cell communication with head exchange channels part of the working
medium is removed to the contiguous cells of the compression section. And it is accompanied by
pressure drop in the considered cells. Thus, the expansion work is spent for air charge compression
in the process of cascade mass interchange.
Residual pressure at the end of expansion process, as an indicator of working process
perfection, depends on the quaintly of head interchanged channels towards atmospheric one
increasing quaintly of channels.
Fig.1. Fundamental diagram of cascade thermal compression compressor. 1 - rotor; 2- stator; 3- head interchange
channels; 4, 5- supply window (SLP) and removal low pressure air [KLP]; 6, 7- supply window of high pressure air
[SHP] and removal window of high pressure air [RHP]; 8- displayed path; 9- recover heat interchange; 10- brauch
pipe of compressed air removal to the consumer.
104
Blow through the cells by means of air charge, which is implemented in the period of cell
connection to the windows of low pressure [SLP] and [RLP], closes a working cycle of the
cascade thermal compression unit (CTC).
This compressor arrangement is easily transformed into gas or hot air generator by means of
branch pipe placement for take off working medium along displacement path near heat source in
the direction of gaseous atmosphere motion.
Concerning railway transport, the use of hot air generator in the heating systems of rolling
stock is of great interest. The evident advantage of the CTC heater is its independence in
maintaining service ability when de- energizing power network. It gives the possibility to apply it
with different types of fuel and any heat source. Thanks to hot air blow by means of CTC unit
heat- transfer agent transportation into local zones of the heated object is carried out without the
use of drive compressor or fan.
Another direction of the cascade compression unit development is connected with development
of pressure change used , for example, for supercharging of internal combustion engines.
In cascade pressure changer (CPC) air pressure as well as in the wave pressure changer (WPC)
is carried out as a result of close contact with compressing gas but with quite different working
process in the cycle.
Cascade pressure exchanger action is easily determined from the diagram 2. which represents
the developed views of rotor with longitudinal cells relatively gas distributed windows. General
view of the unit is shown in the fig. 3. Compressing gas supplied through the window of high
pressure completely compress already compressed air in the cascade process and displace it to the
consumer through the high pressure window. The energy of redundant pressure which is left in the
cell of compressing gas after disconnections with the high pressure windows is spent for main
compression of fresh charge having analogy with considered cycle of cascade thermal
compression.
Fig. 2. Unrolling a rotor for windows stator
105
Fig. 3. General type of cascade exchanger of pressure
The advantages of the cascade pressure exchange (CPE) relatively wave pressure exchanger
are stipulated by the following.
Wave nature of energy exchange and supercharging of compressed air pre- determines high
sensitivity of the working process of wave pressure exchange to the nature of interaction of
primary waves with leading edges of gas distributed windows which are easily destroyed when
frequency departure of rotor rotation or parameters of compressing gas from calculated values.
Impulse charge compression is accompanied by losses which are connected with energy dispersal
of formed waves in the result of their interaction and reflection in boundary sections of the cell.
A great influence on wave pressure exchange efficiency is produced by imperfection of
displacing compressed air through a window of high pressure .Increase of compressed air which is
left in the cell after its separation with high pressure windows causes almost proportional
efficiency decrease, which is analogous to negative influence so called “dead” volume in piston
compressor.
Taking into consideration the presence of stirring zone of compressing and compressed gases
in the cell it is problematic to realize full displacement of compressed air charge, excluding
throwing of compressing gas in the low pressure window. These factors are especially displayed
when increasing exchange head with frequency change of rotor rotation.
In cascade pressure exchanger in comparison with wave one, air compression is realized in
more rational quazi- stationary processes with insignificant amplitude of formed waves.
In this case dissipation phenomena of wave interaction of gas mediums not only do eveling
but there considerably reduce negative influence of displacement imperfection of compressed air
(“dead” volume) on efficiency action of the changer.
Indeed, compressed air energy left in the cell after separation with air of high pressure window
participates in the process of cascade mass changer and together with the energy of compressing
gas in the cell is spent for further pressure of fresh charge.
Higher effectiveness of exchange processes of cascade pressure exchange is confirmed by
comparison of gas medium rates in the windows of high pressure. As insignificant part of
compressing gas is used for complete compressing of preliminarily compressed in the process of
mass exchange air in cascade pressure exchange, practical equality of volume costs of pressed and
pressing medium takes place. In this case the ratio of mass costs at slight pressure excess of
pressing gas »1, relatively pressure of supercharged air roughly corresponds to inverse ratio of
temperatures of these mediums.
106
G k Tg1
| (1)
G g1 Tk
Pay attention to the fact that wave pressure exchange, which operates in the system of internal
combustion engine, realized the balance of mass costs of compressed and compressing mediums
(Gk=Gg1) and in the modes of maximum effectiveness provides some excess of pressure Pk
relatively Pg1. However, the factor of considerably high relative productivity cascade pressure
exchange prevails and reflects higher effectiveness of exchange processes. The efficiency of
pressure exchanger without the costs for a drive is expressed by the expression
Gk Í g1
Kcpe , (2)
G g1 Í k
where:
Hk, Hg1- correspondingly situated heat overfall of the blowed air compressing gas.
For a ideal cascade pressure exchange cycle taking into consideration the equality of volume
costs and leakage absence of compressed and compressing mediums and after some simplification
we receive:
§ ¼ 1
» ¼ ¼ ·¸

¨
k kg 1 1 ( )
¨ ½0
»
¸ ¼
Kid © ¹ , (3)
cpe ¼ g 1 ·
§
¨ » g1 ¼ g ¸

k g k 1 ¨1 ( ) ¸» g1
¨ B0 ¸
© ¹
where:
K, Kg- indicators of adiabat for air and gas; B0- atmospheric pressure.
This expression shows independence of efficiency of the idealized cascade pressure exchange
cycle from the temperature of compressing gas Tg1, different from wave pressure exchange cycle
where increase Tg1 is accompanied by some decrease of use effectiveness of heat difference of
compressing gas.
Physical nature of the regularity is connected with the fact that in the working cycle cascade
pressure exchange dominating role is given to exchange of potential energy in the processes of
cascade mass exchange. Thus the increase of potential energy of compressing gas caused by its
temperature is transformed to a great extent into increase of potential energy of the pressing gas
pressure.
In the wave pressure exchange considerable part of energy exchange is carried out by
transference of the quantity of front motion spreading along the wave cell. Quantity of motion
transferred by wave disturbance to compressed air depends on the ratio of densities of interacting
mediums. That is why the density decrease of comprising gas while increasing its temperature
under other equal conditions is accompanied by wave pressure exchange productivity. Due to this
wave pressure exchange is inferior to cascade as for effectiveness of use of heat component of the
heat difference Hg1.
Thus from the point of view of recovery of heat release of heat power units and the ability of
transformation of heat energy into mechanical working cycle cascade pressure exchange is more
perfect.
Fig 4 shows that with ratio increase Pk/Pg1 efficiency cascade pressure exchange steadily
grows, aiming at unit at Pk/Pg1=0,9…0,85. Lower values of effective efficiency cascade pressure
exchange, obtained on the basis of experimental data, reflect real leakage of working mediums
through incompact of movable matings and also costs of mechanical energy for rotor drive. In
107
addition to that obtained efficiency values and pressure indicators of samples of cascade pressure
exchanges are the best samples of wave pressure exchange [4]. It should be noted that there are no
fundamental limitations for ratio increase Pk/Pg1 to the values close to the unit. The exception is
increase of mass sizes of the exchanger because of decrease of average speed flows in the
windows of light pressure.
.
Fig.4. Efficiency dependency cascade pressure exchange on the

ratio of pressure Pk/Pg1
1 – idealized cycle; 2 – test specimen allowing for the costs of power drive.
3. Directions of application the cascade compression units
Considerable compressed air discharge permits to use cascade pressure exchange as main unit
of the system two-stage supercharging of internal combustion engine with insignificant increase of
supercharging in the second stage necessary for realization blow of cylinders of piston part of
internal combustion engine. To the opinions of the authors, the use of cascade pressure exchange
as heat amplifier of the flow which performs the functions of a multiplier of air discharge is rather
perspective
The possibility of cascade pressure exchange as the unit of air compression in gas-turbine units
deserves definite attention (fig. 5).
108
Fig.5. Diagram of gas- turbine unit with cascade pressure exchange
1- cascade pressure exchange; 2- scavenger fan; 3 - positive-displacement fan;
4 - combustion chamber; 5 - injector; 6 - power turbine; 7 - generator
High thermo-dynamical efficiency of gas- turbine units of cascade pressure exchange is based
on higher efficiency of transformation given off in the combustion chamber, heat into the energy
of compressed air relatively working process in classical system of gas- turbine units where air
compression is carried out in the turbocompressor which includes vane compressor and part of
working steps of turbine.
In gas-turbine units about 50…60% power developed by a turbine for drive of vane
compressor is spent. For rotor drive cascade pressure exchange insignificant power of external
source is spent – the work of air compression is carried out due to internal energy redistribution of
gas flows in running cascade pressure exchange elements. Only part of gas from the combustion
chamber is directed into power turbine which has smaller sizes and power. All together at
practically non-inertia work cascade pressure exchange the smallest inertia moment turbine
stipulates higher quality of transition processes of gas-turbine units.
The above insensibility of the working cycle cascade pressure exchange to non-completeness
of compressed air displacement from the rotor at frequency deviation of its rotation or thermo-
dynamical parameters of working mediums stipulates satisfactory effective indicators with gas-
turbine unit, with cascade pressure exchange.
References
[1] Krainyuk, A.I., Storcheus, Yu.V., Danileychenko A.A.,. Application of heat compression effect
for improvement of power use in heat-power units. East-4 =X !4´X
¾

pp. 182-189.2000.
[2] Krainyuk, A.I., Danileychenko, A.A., Bryantsev M.A., Working process and perspectives of
creation of heat contraction compresso. Aviation-cosmic technology: Collection of scientific
works. Thermal engines and power plants. – } ´³ XX < ´X ¿/À¢

pp. 141-145, 2000.
[3] Krainyuk, A.I., Bogoslovsky, A.E., Storcheus, Yu.V., Danileychenko, A.A., Vasiliev, I.P.,
Krainyuk, A.A., Heat compression compressor, "XX$*¾§¶
ÁÂÃ¶§µ§µ
¾§§
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[4] Krainyuk, A.I., Storcheus, Yu.V., Systems of gas dynamical supercharge, Lugansk: Pub.
VUJU, 224 p, 2000.
109
110
ENDOSKOPIC EXAMINATIONS OF MARINE DIESEL
ENGINES’ TURBOCHARGING SYSTEMS
Zbigniew Korczewski
The Polish Naval Academy

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1. Introduction
Maintenance of marine diesel engine's turbocharging system in a state of full technical ability
represents the basic condition for achievement of high efficiency of the working processes worked
out in the whole range of possible operation load, especially within the range of dynamic loads of
a ship motion system. In such a situation the optimum associating the engine's characteristics (as
the flow machine of periodical action) with the turbine and compressor of turbocharging system
(which are characterised with a continuity of thermodynamical medium flow) represents the basic
energetic problem. Additionally, during unsteady processes, these machines differ essentially with
inertia of thermal and flow processes what may cause undesirable thermal and mechanical over-
loads of the engine's constructional elements when the flow passages' technical state gets worse.
There is also possible the compressor's entrance in the area of unstable working and as a conse-
quence - serious damages within the turbocharger's rotor and disturbances in the engine function-
ing [1].
Accordingly, there is the key operation question: the systematic supervision and reproduction of
the technical shape of turbocharging system's flow passages (interblades channels of turbocharg-
er's rotor, guide vanes of a turbine, filter as well as diffuser of a compressor, cooler of supercharg-
ing air, the channels of air and exhaust gases), and also technical shape of the engine's fuel fed
system, as the activities permanently adapting conditions of gasdynamical coupling of the co-
operating flow machines.
111
2. Operational unserviceable states of the turbocharger
During engine operation on a ship, the gas passages of turbocharging system is penetrated with
different substances contained , on the one side - in sucking inlet air, on the other - in exhaust gas-
es leaving cylinders of the engine. They create the hard deposable settlings on flow channels’ sur-
faces as well as on surfaces of interblades channels of the turbocharger's rotor. The registered re-
sults of endoscopy investigations confirm this phenomenon - fig.1 [2]. The mass of turbocharger's
rotor grows up and its rotational speed gets smaller in the result of forming deposits. Moreover,
active flow fields of sections in the interblades channels of the compressor and turbine get smaller.
The compressor's efficiency, mass flow rate and compression ratio falls as well as a stability mar-
gin of the compressor working (particularly during transient processes). Such the compressor’s
behavior has also negative impact on a quality of the loads exchange process in cylinders as well
as the burning process, in this case - incomplete and imperfect.

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As an effect, the process of carbon deposit formation on passages' surfaces of the turbine part
intensifies. This concerns especially stator blades and rotor blades of the turbine as well as laby-
rinth seals. It deepens the unfavourable phenomena that concurrent a dirt process of the sucking air
channel. Additionally, as a consequence of deposits creation on the turbocharger's rotor the loss of
stability of turbocharger mechanical system may occur. It also leads to the vibration resonance
phenomenon causing in turn the accelerated waste of shaft bearings, and also fatigue cracks of the
rotor blades - fig. 2.
From the operational experiences results, that the thickness of deposits layer on the compres-
sor's blades can reach tens micrometers, meanwhile on the turbines blades - even a few hundred
micrometers [2]. It makes the significant influence on the turbocharger's performance and efficien-
cy (and obviously a performance and efficiency of the engine) taking into consideration small
mass and size of the turbocharger's rotor working at very large rotational speeds
(up to 100 000 min-1).
A different operational factor that has very destructive effect on constructional structure of the
112

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turbocharger is the phenomenon of erosion caused by the presence of hard particles of mineral
origin in flowed working medium - in case of air, and the carbon deposit and the pitch substances
in exhaust gases, as products of incomplete and improper fuel burning in cylinders as well as the
remainders of lubricating oil - fig. 3.
Both the unfavourable phenomena might cause the intensive wearing of gas passages surfaces,
alterations of the geometry and shape of interblades channels of the compressor and turbine, and
also the enlargement (even the several times) of the surface roughness. As the consequence, the
hydraulic losses of working medium flowed in the turbocharging system grow up, at the consider-
able deterioration of dynamic features. Moreover, inertias in mechanical and gasdynamical system
grow up, along with all the consequences for the engine’s performance [1].
3. Endoscopy investigation of the turbocharging system
The turbocharging system of a standard (serial) marine diesel engine is usually characterized by
the low supervision susceptibility, in an aspect of possibilities of an endoscopy application. An
access to the interior of air and exhaust flow passages (cooled with water) is limited, and also an
access to the rotor unit of the turbocharger. In such a situation there is necessary applying blank
technological openings assigned for physical quantities' transducers. The quantities are observed
only during an engine running in conditions of factory tests. Thus, a minimum diameter of the
optical probe which is to be introduced to the channel's interior, and adjusted to the diameter of
technological openings represents an essential limitation of performing endoscopy examinations.
Making additional inspection openings on your own, enabling the introducing an endoscopy probe
in the most vulnerable parts of gas passages of the turbocharging system stands for a different,
commonly applied solution in such limitations. This especially concerns the following parts:
¾ rotor blade system of the compressor and turbine,
¾ stator blades of the compressor’s diffuser,
¾ guide vane of the turbine,
¾ air channels in the vicinity of the inlet valves,
¾ exhaust channels in the vicinity of outlet valves.
With regard to complexity of a constructional form of turbocharging system as well as a consi-
derable, sometimes, distance among the inspection openings and the observed surface of gas pas-
sages there is often necessary to apply a flexible fiberscope during endoscopic investigations. The
elastic fiberoscope possesses the ability of controlling a sector of the deviation of the inspected
ending. Because there is often necessary to lead elastic optical parts in horizontal position through
the gas passage different inspection leadings of different shape have got very practical utilization –
fig. 4. Plastic pipes are perfectly useful to this aim (e.g. the pipes of central heating systems), hav-
ing the possibility of a plastic deformation and memorization the given
113

. 4. The

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shape, that is best adapted to the constructional form of observed internal spaces. The way of per-
forming the endoscopic examinations of the marine diesel engines’ turbocharging systems by
means of the boroscope and fiberoscope is presented in fig. 5.
In which way the access to internal spaces of a turbocharger could be achieved during endos-
copic investigations of marine engines Zvezda M401A-1(2) type and Detroit Diesel 16V149TI
type is schematically presented in figure 6. Especially elaborated diagnostic methodical guides
contain the detailed description of successive procedures of endoscopic examinations, taking into
account the specification of diagnostic apparatus as well as the supervisory susceptibility of the
engines installed inside the marine power plant [2].
The fiberoscope (more seldom the boroscope), after filter's disassembling in the suction channel
as well as the blanks' disassembling of technological openings in the air and exhaust channels
gives the operator possibility to carry out technical state's evaluation of a blade system of the tur-
bocharger's rotor and also blade-rings of the turbine's guide vanes and the compressor's diffuser
(fig. 6). The largest difficulty during endoscopic investigations of a turbocharger's system
represent the proper recognition of surface defects in exhaust channels and turbine's rotor which
are usually intensively dirtied with the carbon deposits. There is almost impossible to detect ero-
sion and corrosion pits in due time, while they are concealed under a thick layer of the carbon de-
posit (fig. 8b). The pits appeared on the turbine's rotor might represent en essential threat for the
engine's reliability.
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As the result of perennial endoscopic investigations of marine diesel engines there have been
entered several cases of so intensive dirt of the turbine's rotor that even its manual (hand) turning
makes the operator gigantic difficulties. There were cases when there was totally impossible. It
meant practically that the engine worked without supercharging. Because it concerned the engines
which were not equipped with turbines' washing (cleaning) installation in standard, there was ne-
cessary (in every case) to perform the disassembling of the turbocharger from the engine and then,
hand removing the carbon deposit from the interblades channels of the rotor.
4. Endoscopic images of turbochargers’ failures
The chosen failures of turbocharger systems of marine diesel engines identified during opera-
tional endoscopic investigations are presented in figures 7, 8 and 9 [1,2]. It is highly surprising,
that many dangerously looking defects were not effective with noticeable alterations of values of
115
the observed control parameters of the engine. For example, metallic fragment, introduced in fig.
8a, imprisoned in an interblade channel of the turbine's guide vanes was detected during routine
diagnostic investigations of the engine in current operation. As a result of optical inspection of the
whole system of exhaust gases (the engine at the configuration of a star - 7 blocks of 6 cylinder
liners), the extensive damages of the channel off taking gases from cylinder block number 6 were
confirmed. The character of detected cracks and decrements of the constructional material
showed, that a low-cycle fatigue of the welded joint, which had been working in the chemical ac-
tive (aggressive) corossive environment, represented the primary reason of their appearances.
The application of endoscopies allows the user also to detect damages of the compressor's
blading that could be dangerous for the engine reliability. Very often there have been found differ-
ent kind of deformations (fig. 8d , fig. 9d,e), cracks (fig. 7f, fig. 8e,f , fig. 9f) as well as dirt (fig.
7b,c,d,e, fig. 9a,c) of the interblade channels of the compressor's rotor which do not generate the
clear diagnostic symptoms that could be identified with the vibration measurements, indicating
cylinders or gasdynamical measurements of the working medium in the suction and discharge
channels of turbocompressor's system. Taking into consideration, that a rotational speed of the
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turbocompressor's rotor unit of a medium- or high- speed marine diesel engine achieve tens thou-
sand of rev/min, it is quite clear that the cracks of the compressor's constructional material not
detected in time may cause the extensive secondary damages of cylindrical systems, excluding the
possibility of the repair execution in shipping conditions.
It is worth pointing out that there is another, very important aspect resulting from the endoscop-
ic examinations of turbocharging systems. Namely, in exhaust channels thermocouples for temper-
ature measurements of exhaust leaving individual cylinders. The measurement likelihood (authen-
ticity) of such parameters decides about the correctness of exploational decisions undertaken dur-
ing an engine operation. Whether it is possible to confirm an authenticity of the exhaust tempera-
ture's measurement worked out by means of the thermocouple in such a technical state as shown in
fig. 7c - or not?
$| %</{^ ;-

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Y $| %;/}^-} ;-

Y

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Y
Z
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Y | Y
117

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¨
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5. Conclusion
Endoscopic reviews have been led systematically by the author, on the population of 50 marine
engines covered with a diagnostic supervision. Gathered results show that numerous material de-
fects was identified in due time, what means that in case of their father development the engine's
reliability would be significantly threatened. In many cases the engines did not generate the ob-
served symptoms of the failures' existence, for example the engine's running with mechanical
damages of blading within turbocompressor's rotor (fig. 8 and fig. 9). In author's opinion such cir-
cumstances unlock the new investigative perspectives, because the usage of endoscopic methods
gives the possibility of the primary damages' detection of constructional elements in early
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118
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-
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stages of their development, while measured diagnostic parameters of diagnosing systems are not
sufficiently sensitive to the changes in surface layers limiting the engine's working spaces.
References
[1] Korczewski Z.: _

', Wydawnictwo AMW, Gdynia 2008.
[2] *
Y

'%& – Prace badawcze AMW, Gdynia 2000-2008.
119
120
THE ANGLE MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY EVALUATION BY
MEANS OF INCREMENTAL ENCODER
;>," *
Maritime University of Szczecin – Department of Engineering

70-<//*
!y Chrobrego 1-2
tel: +48 91 4809 400, fax: +48 91 4809575
e-mail: pkowalak@am.szczecin.pl
Abstract
The application of incremental encoders in the marine engines field was briefly described. The problem of the
angle measurement uncertainty evaluation by means of an incremental encoder was presented. A theoretical
assumption of experiment was discussed and a project of an experimental test allowing statistical evaluation of angle
measurement uncertainty was proposed. The uncertainty estimation of a type A as well as the type B according to ISO
standards was carried out. The numerical values of the results were presented. The proposition of improvement of test
bed for encoders examination was proposed.
Keywords: marine engines, measurements, angle measurements, measurement uncertainty, incremental encoders,
1. (

The incremental encoders have a practical application in automation since years. Last years one
can meet them in a measurement technology. The modern marine engines manufacturers take
advantage of them as a crankshaft angle position transmitter for electronically controlled engines
[4,5]. The constructions of a measurement instruments utilizing signals from incremental encoders
are in use today as well [2-7].
In the Laboratory of the Marine Engines in Maritime University of Szczecin there are two
control and measurement systems utilizing incremental encoders. A problem of an angle
measurement precision arose consequently.
No one of the manufacturers of the possessed encoders provided a calibration certificate. No
one could specify the precision class of the instrument either. The necessity of an angle
measurement uncertainty evaluation by means of an experiment arose subsequently.
In the experiment planning phase a suitable angle measurement standard had to be chosen. The
encoders used in the laboratory are of the 3600 and 720 pulses per resolution. The most adequate
standard should be of a high precision at a very small nominal value of the angle. Acquiring of
such a standard and comparing with every position of the encoder might be as difficult as costly.
Finally it was decided to utilize a direct measurement and a statistical work out of the
measurement uncertainty. For a recognize experiment the 720 pulses per resolution encoder was
chosen. The frequency of generated pulses should be lower and the experiment easier
consequently.
At the beginning the assumption was made, that the manufacturer has made every effort to
produce the instrument with the highest accuracy. Such an assumption seems to be burden with a
121
minima uncertainty and is essentials for further discussion. It was also assumed that the
technology of the encoder production (which is not known to the author) consists in marking of the
rotating disk circumference and subsequently filling in with equal marks in a nominal amount. For
a tested encoder the nominal amount of marks is 720. Based on those two assumptions it can be
assured that the encoder’s shaft will rotate exactly 2Æ angle after nominal amount of pulses will be
counted. Then the mean value of a measured angle will be equal to:
2
= (1)

If the encoder’s shaft rotates uniformly with constant angular speed , the angle scale can be
transformed into time scale. The advantage of this is that the time scale is much easier to measure
than angle scale. In such a case, the angle of the shaft rotation by i pulses might be expressed as:
=

(2)
Then the mean value of an angle can be determined by means of equation:
=

=
= (3)

=1
The difference between the value of a singular angle i, and the mean value , can be
recognized as the unknown value of the error:
= | | (4)
If the set of values i is treated as n independent observations of the expected value , the
experimental standard deviation of singular measurement can be determined:

1
( ) =
( )2 (5)
1
=1
And the experimental standard deviation of a mean value can be expressed as:
2 ( )
() = (6)

Those two quantities carry direct information about uncertainty of the angle i measurement.
2. )+/
,
The incremental encoders, manufactured in TTL standard, generate voltage pulses of 0 and
5VDC alternatively. Those two voltage levels refer to the logic states of 0 and 1 respectively.
When the signal, measured at the output of the encoder, is presented on the diagram it forms a
square waveform pattern. In the presented experiment the time between the consecutive rising
edges of the square waveform was adopted as a period Ti which reflects the angle i. (Fig. 1).
122
Fig. 1. The priod Ti determination methodology
The encoder was mounted on a driving assembly which consists of a squirrel-cage motor and a
synchronous generator. The motor was supplied from a voltage inverter. The angular speed of the
rotating masses is controlled by a variable supply voltage frequency acquired from the inverter
(Fig. 2). For the tests a stand for a synchronous generators testing was utilized and the use of the
generator is actually not essential for the experiment.
Fig. 2. The diagram of the encoder’s drive; 1 – squirrel-cage motor, 2 – synchronous generator, 3 – tested
encoder, 4 – inverter
In order to provide suitable accuracy of the period measurement it was necessary to reduce the
angle speed of the rotating masses and/or increasing the sampling frequency. In the first case the
increased influence of the unbalance of the masses has to be taken into account. The unbalance
may cause increased irregularity of the angular speed. In order to determine the critical speed
below the influence of the unbalance is essential that experiment was carried out at different
speeds. The acquired signals were compared with the timer/counter of 80MHz frequency installed
on board acquisition card (Fig. 3). In the table 1 the details of the measuring instruments were
presented.
Fig. 3. Measurement diagram; 1 – Encoder’s TTL signal filtered by a Schmitt trigger, , 2 – on board 80MHz
timer/counter, 3 – comparator module, 4 – pulses counter, 5 – period calculation, 6 – recording module (PC).
123
In the measurement circuit a Schmitt trigger was engaged as a first filtering element. The
Schmitt trigger is a semiconductor comparator circuit which generates logical 0 or 1 dependent on
the input signal value. The applied Schmitt trigger has a very short latency of 20ns. The shortest
recorded period Ti was 200 , which is 10000 times longer than the trigger latency. Assuming that
the latency is constant, it has no significant influence on the results of experiment.
Tab. 1. Measurement instrumentation data

Instrument Type
Measurement board NI USB-6221, National
Instruments, with 80MHz
counter input gate
Encoder PFI 60A0720TPT, Intron
3. U
"(,

The measurements were conducted for 12 different mean angular speeds of the driving motor.
For every mean angular speed at least 5 full revolutions was recorded. The recorded data contains
79 sets of 720 values of the period Ti. For every set the average was determined:
=
1
= (7)

=1
As well as average angular speed:
2

= (8)

Consequently, from equations (2) and (3) the values of the angles i and could be determined
as well as the standard deviation of singular measurement and standard deviation of a mean value
from (5) i (6). The calculated values of : ,
, ( ) and (), averaged for every angular speed,
are presented in the table 2.
Tab. 2. Determined values averaged for every angular speed
[/] [] ( ) [] () []

n [rpm]
7,82 1246,2E-6 46,6E-6 74,7
11,73 709,0E-6 26,6E-6 112,0
12,54 668,0E-6 25,1E-6 119,8
15,70 153,9E-6 5,76E-6 149,9
19,62 28,7E-6 1,07E-6 187,3
23,54 0,00872665 16,5E-6 0,63E-6 224,8
27,47 17,2E-6 0,65E-6 262,3
28,25 10,4E-6 0,39E-6 269,8
31,39 9,6E-6 0,36E-6 299,8
35,32 13,1E-6 0,49E-6 337,3
39,25 11,9E-6 0,44E-6 374,8
43,17 11,8E-6 0,44E-6 412,3
The above determined values of ( ) and () presented in the function of average angular
speed are shown on the graphs (fig. 4. and fig. 5.). One can learn that the values of ( ) and ()
rapidly decrease until the speed of about 20 rad/s is reached. Above that speed the variation of the
values is not so high. It can be noticed that the influence of the angular speed has no significant
124
effect. High values of ( ) and () at low angular speed are most probably the consequences of
the rotary speed irregularities. The irregularities come from the rotating masses unbalance and low
power of the driving motor supplied from the inverter at low frequency. Only the values of ( )
and () determined for the speeds above the critical 20 rad/s can be considered for evaluation of
the encoder’s angle measurement uncertainty.
Based on the ISO recommendations [1], the problem of the uncertainty evaluation was
identified as a standard uncertainty type A. In such a case, the value of experimental standard
deviation of the measurand’s average ()determines directly the uncertainty of the angle .
Finally the highest value of the standard deviation from the speed range above 20 rad/s was
chosen as the value of standard uncertainty type A:
( ) = 17,2
10 6 []
() = 0,65
10 6 []
After the results were rounded off to two significant digits one can express that the tested
encoder was generating pulses of the rising edge corresponding to the angle of:
= 0,00872665 ± 0,00000065 []
= 0,008727 ± 0,000018 []
Fig. 4. The standard deviation of singular measurement –mean angular speed characteristic
Fig. 5. The standard deviation of average –mean angular speed characteristic
125
In order to get the full view of the measurement uncertainty, the systematic uncertainty of the
measurement should be evaluated. The ISO recommendations regarding determination of
uncertainty Type B were applied.
The only physical quantity measured directly was period of singular pulse. That period was
compared with the 80 MHz clock/timer. Consequently the scale interval of time measurement was:
1
=
8
107
According to propagation of uncertainty low the same scale interval refers to both, singular
value measurement Ti and to the average . That enables the equation (3) to be differentiated with
respect to Ti and :
2 2

=
+
(9)

For every one of 79 sets of n values of Ti, the type B uncertainty was determined (fig 6.).
Out of them the highest one was chosen as the value of final uncertainty:
= 0,77
10 6 []
Fig. 6. The type B uncertainty –mean angular speed characteristic
The combined standard uncertainty of average was determined according to the formula:
2
= ()2 +
3
= 0,79
10 6 []
= 0,00872665 ± 0,00000079 []
= 0,00872665 [] ± 0,01 %
And the combined standard uncertainty of singular measurement was adequately:
126
2
= ( )2 +
3
= 17,21
10 6 []
= 0,008727 ± 0,000018 []
= 0,008727 [] ± 0,2 %
The above shown uncertainty is specified for the level of confidence p=68%. For level of
confidence of p=99%, a coverage factor k=3 was set. The expanded uncertainty of average then is
equal to:
=99% = 0,00872665 ±
= 0,0087267 ± 0,0000024 []
=99% = 0,0087267 ± 0,03 % []
And the expanded uncertainty of singular measurement:
=99% = 0,008727 ±
= 0,008727 ± 0,000054 []
=99% = 0,0087267 ± 0,6 % []
4. C*

It is essential to understand that the above determined uncertainty describes not the encoder
alone but the en tire measurement chain. In that chain one can distinguish the following elements
with the greatest influence on the uncertainty:
x The encoder accuracy itself,
x The unbalance of the rotating masses and the speed irregularity as consequence,
x Frequency of the clock/timer utilized for time domain measurement,
x Possible delays in the electric circuit caused by Schmitt trigger or other element.
Consequently the uncertainty of the angle measurement by an encoder itself can be determined
as no lower than presented above. However in the scientific or engineering applications the overall
uncertainty of the measurement chain is searched usually. So taking into account the entire
measurement chain is justified. In order to limit the problem to the encoder only, the test bed has
to be modified and the driving unit with better unbalance should be applied.
The systematic uncertainty of type B (Fig. 6.) depends linearly on the angular speed. This is the
result of constant scale interval of time measurement at decreasing period Ti. During
experiments it is important to take into account the systematic uncertainty at the angular speed
corresponding to the speed in specific application.
[,*
Ti – period of the singular pulse

– average period of pulse Ti at one revolution
– average angular speed of the encoder’s shaft
i – angle of the shaft rotation during the period Ti
127
– mean value of a measured angle for one revolution,
n – nominal number of encoder pulses per revolution.
( ) – experimental standard deviation of singular measurement
() – experimental standard deviation of a mean value
– unknown value of the error
© – scale interval of time measurement
– uncertainty Type B – systematic uncertainty
– combined standard uncertainty of average
– combined standard uncertainty of singular measurement
=99% - expanded uncertainty of average at level of confidence p=99%
=99% - expanded uncertainty of singular measurement at level of confidence p=99%
=7
[1] 4#[Miar,
¥

&
?&
??Warszawa, 1999.
[2] GmbH, Maridis, Complex Diagnostic System Brochure. [Online] [Cited: 20 June 2007.]
http://www.maridis.de/Products/file_store/catalog/CDS_brochure.pdf.
[3] MAN B&W Diesel A/S, PMI System Pressure Analyser. [Online] czerwiec 2000. [Cited: 3
July 2007.] http://www.manbw.com/files/news/filesof2051/pmi.pdf.
[4] MAN B&W Diesel A/S, 50-108 ME Engines. Operation Manual, Edition 01, January 2006
[5] !
"#< Speed Irregularity Characteristic of Low Speed, Two-Stroke
Marine Diesel Engine Applied as Vessel's Main Propulsion. ` ¥_*? Warsaw 2008,
Tom IV, 15.
[6] Wimmer Andreas, Glaser Josef, Indykowanie silnika. Warszawa ³ XXX X
Techniki, 2004. ISBN 83-88691-20-1.
[7] >X# i Krzysztof, &'
Y!

stanie silnika spalinowego. Lubelskie Towarzystwo Naukowe, Lublin 1996, ISBN 83-85491-62-7
128
CAPACITY FORCES IN SLIDE JOURNAL BEARING
LUBRICATED OIL WITH MICROPOLAR STRUCTURE
;
Gdynia Maritime University

ul. Morska 81-87,81-225 Gdynia, Poland
tel.:+48 58 6901331, fax:+48 58 6901399
e-mail:pawkras@am.gdynia.pl
Abstract
Present paper shows the results of numerical solution Reynolds equation for laminar, steady oil flow in slide
cylindrical bearing gap. Lubrication oil is fluid with micropolar structure. Properties of oil lubrication as of liquid
with micropolar structure in comparison with Newtonian liquid, characterized are in respect of dynamic viscosity
additionally dynamic couple viscosity and three dynamic rotation viscosity. Under regard of build structural element
of liquid characterized is additionally microinertia coefficient. In modeling properties and structures of micropolar
liquid one introduced dimensionless parameter with in terminal chance conversion micropolar liquid to Newtonian
liquid. The results shown on diagrams of capacity forces in dimensionless form in dependence on coupling number N2
and characteristic dimensionless length of micropolar fluid «1. Presented calculations are limited to isothermal
models of bearing with infinite length.
Keywords: micropolar lubrication, cylindrical journal bearing, capacity force
1. (

Presented article take into consideration the laminar, steady flow in the crosswise cylindrical
slide bearing gap. Non-Newtonian fluid with the micropolar structure is a lubricating factor.
Materials engineering and tribology development helps to introduce oils with the compound
structure (together with micropolar structure) as a lubricating factors. Exploitation requirements
incline designers to use special oil refining additives, to change viscosity properties. As a
experimental studies shows, most of the refining lubricating fluids, can be included as fluids of
non-Newtonian properties with microstructure [4,5,7,8]. They belong to a class of fluids with
symmetric stress tensor that we shall call polar fluids, and include, as a special case, the well
known Navier-Stokes model. Physically, the micropolar fluids may represent fluids consisting
rigid randomly orientated spherical particles suspended in a viscous medium, where the
deformation of fluid particles is neglected [3,4]. Presented work dynamic viscosity of isotropic
micropolar fluid is characterized by five viscosities: shearing viscosity È` known at the Newtonian
fluids ), micropolar coupling viscosity Éand by three rotational viscosities bounded with rotation
around the coordinate axes. This kind of micropolar fluid viscosity characteristic is a result of
essential compounds discussed in works [4,5]. Regarding of limited article capacity please read
above works. In difference to classical oil with Newtonian properties, micropolar fluid is
characterized by microinertia of the fluid part and by microrotation velocity field. This fact
129
determine the additional system of equation development describing micropolar fluid flow which
is described by moment of momentum equation. In result of the above, the conjugation between
fluid flow field and the microrotation velocity field. In presented flow, the influence of lubricating
fluid inertia force and the external elementary body force field were omit [4,5,6].
2. ="*(

Basic equation set defining isotropic micropolar fluid flow are describe following equations
[2,4,5,6]: momentum equation, moment of momentum equation, energy equation, equation of flow
continuity. Incompressible fluid flow is taken into consideration with constant density skipping
the body force. We assume also, that dynamic viscosity coefficients which characterize micropolar
fluid are constant. According to above velocity flow field is independent from temperature field
and the momentum equation, moment of momentum equation and equation of flow continuity are
part of closed system of motion equations. The constant viscosity of micropolar oil, independent
from thermal and pressure condition in the bearing. Quantity of viscosity coefficient depend on
shearing dynamic viscosity È, which is decisive viscosity in case of Newtonian fluids. Reference
pressure p0 is also described with this viscosity, in order to compare micropolar oils results with
Newtonian oil results. In micropolar oils decisive impact has quantity of dynamic coupling
viscosity É [1,3]. In some works concerning bearing lubrication with micropolar oil, it’s possible
to find the sum of the viscosities as a micropolar dynamic viscosity efficiency. In presented article
coupling viscosity was characterized with coupling number N2, which is equal to zero for
Newtonian oil:
N
N 0 d N 1 (1)
K N
Quantity N2 in case of micropolar fluid, define a dynamic viscosity of coupling share in the oil
dynamic viscosity efficiency. From the coupling number N2 we can determine both dynamic
viscosity ratio, which is dimensionless micropolar coupling viscosity:
N N2
N1 N1 t 0 (2)
K 1 N2
From the dynamic rotational viscosities at the laminar lubrication, individual viscosities are
compared to viscosity Ê, which is known as the most important and it ratio to shearing viscosity È
is bounded to characXX ! !X} Ë
}} =X ! < X} #
quanXX;< !ÌXX < \ !!X}Ë1 [< \ !!X}Ë[fined:
J
/ ; //1 H (3)
K
Dimensionless micropolar length Ë1 in case of Newtonian oil approach infinity. Momentum

equation, moment of momentum equation and equation of flow continuity writing out in
cylindrical coordinates ÎÏ Ï # are presented in article [2,3] where individual phases leading to
Reynolds equation for laminar, stationary lubricating process in dimensionless form are
mentioned. Reynolds equation for stationary flow of laminar micropolar fluid in the crosswise,
cylindrical, slide bearing gap can be present [1,2,7] in dimensional form:
w §¨ h 3 wp · w § h 3 wp · dh
) ( /, N, h ) ¸ ¨ ) ( / , N, h ) ¸ 6 (4)
wM ¨© K wM ¸¹ wz ¨© K wz ¸¹ dM
130
where: p – hydrodynamic pressure,
h – gap height of bearing
Ð(Ë,N,h) function in form (5) when in case of the Newtonian fluid it has a value 1 and the
Reynolds equation (4) change into a non-Newtonian fluid equation.
/2 N/ § Nh ·
) (/, N, h ) 1 12 6 coth¨ ¸ (5)
h2 h © 2/ ¹
Reynolds equation (4) can be presented in dimensionless form [1,7] using the method of changing
into this values:
w § wp · 1 w § wp · dh1
¨ )1 (/1 , N, h1 ) 1 ¸¸ ¨ )1 (/1 , N, h1 ) 1 ¸¸ 6 (6)
wM ¨© wM ¹ L21 wz1 ¨© wz1 ¹ dM
for 0 d M d M k ; 0 d r1 d h1; - 1 d z1 d 1
h1 Nh12 § h N/ ·
where: )1 h13 12 6 coth¨ 1 1 ¸ (7)
/21 /1 © 2 ¹
Reference pressure po caused by journal rotation with the angular velocity Ñ was assumed in (8)
taking into consideration dynamic viscosity of shearing È and the lubricating gap height h1 at the
wrapping angle Î was taken in relative eccentricity function Ò :
ZK H
p0 ; h1 M, O 1 O cos M ; \ (8)
\2 R
where: Ñ – angular journal velocity,

Ó– dimensionless radial clearance ( 104 d \ d 103 ) ,
Ô – radial clearance,
R – radius of the journal,
b – length of the journal
H b
\ ; L1 (9)
R R
Dimensionless values in equation (6) : hydrodynamic pressure p1, radial coordinate r1 , length
coordinate of the journal z1, longitudinal gap height h1, bearing length L1 are in form:
p p 0 p1 ; r R (1 \r1 ) ;
z bz1 ; h Hh1 ; b L1R (10)
Ð1(Ë1,N,h1) function in form (7) when in case of the Newtonian fluid it has a value h13 .
3. H"((" ,
/ (

%

Below solutions (6) for infinity length bearing is presented. In this solution the Reynolds
boundary conditions, applying to zeroing of pressure at the beginning (Î=0) and at the end (Î=Îk)
of the oil film and zeroing of the pressure derivative on the wrapping angle at the end of the film
131
where fulfill. The pressure distribution function in case of the micropolar lubrication p1`Î{
X}
Newtonian lubrication p1N`Î{has a form:
M M
h1 h1k h1 h1k
p1 (M) 6³ dM ; p1N (M) 6³ dM (11)
0 1 /1 , N, h1
) 0 h13
where: h1k= h1(Îk) lubricating gap height at the end of the oil film.
In the boundary case of lubricating Newtonian fluid, pressure distribution function is a pressure
p1N(Î). Example numerical calculation were made for the infinity length bearing with the relative
eccentricity Ò=0,6.
10
2
p1 N =0,9
9
/ 1 = 20 N2 =0,7
8
N2 =0,5 N2 =0,3
7
2
N =0,1
6
5
2
N =0
4
0
0 45 90 135 180 I>@
o 225
Fig.1 The dimensionless pressure distributions p1 in direction M in dependence on coupling number

N2 by micropolar (N2>0) and Newtonian (N2=0) lubrication for dimensionless eccentricity ratio
=0,6 and characteristic dimensionless length of micropolar fluid «1=20
Analyzing the influence of coupling number N2 and the influence of dimensionless micropolar
length Ë1 on hydrodynamic pressure distribution in the bearing liner circuital direction. At the
Fig.1 pressure distribution for individual coupling numbers at constant micropolar length Ë1 =20.
The pressure increase effect is caused by oil dynamic viscosity efficiency increase as a result of
coupling viscosity É. At N2= 0,5, coupling viscosity is equal to shearing viscosity. Pressure graph
in the Fig.1 for micropolar oil lubrication (N2>0) find themselves above the pressure graph at the
9
p1 4 5
8
N2 = 0,4 3
7
2
6
5
1
4
0
0 45 90 135 180 I>@
o 225
Fig.2 The dimensionless pressure distributions p1 in direction M in dependence on characteristic

dimensionless length of micropolar fluid «1: 1) Newtonian oil, 2) «1=40, 3) «1=30, 4) «1=20,
5) «1=10, for dimensionless eccentricity ratio =0,6 and coupling number N2=0,4
132
Newtonian oil lubrication (N2=0). Pressure distribution is higher for higher coupling number. It is
caused by oil viscosity dynamic efficiency. In the Fig.2 the course of dimensionless pressure p1 for
few micropolar length quantity Ë1 is shown. Decrease of this parameter determine the increase of
micropolar oil rotational dynamic viscosity. Pressure distribution are presented at the constant
coupling number N2=0,4. Rotational viscosity increase determine the pressure distribution increase
and is caused, because both the oil flow and microratation velocities are coupled. Quantities of
coupling number N2 and dimensionless micropolar length where taken from works [1,2,3].
4' /
"7
Capacity force W for cylindrical slide journal bearing has following components Wx and Wy to
be determined [2,5] in the local co-ordinate systems in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 Capacity force W and components Wx and Wy in the local co-ordinate system
Thus dimensionless components W1x and W1y of capacity forces W1 are as follows [2]:
Mk Mk
Wx Wy
W1x ³ p1 cos MdM , W1 y ³ p1 sin MdM , (12)
W0 0
W0 0
W
W1 Õo W12x W12y
W0
where: W0 - characteristic value of capacity force W0 { 2Rbp0 ,

So – Sommerfeld Number for slide journal bearing.
Capacity force is situated in the co-ordinate Î!ÎW1:
W1y
Mw SE S arctg (13)
W1x
133
Quantities capacity forces W1 are presented in the Fig.4 in the coupling Number N2 function for
chosen micropolar length Ë1. All lines are coming out from the maximal pressure point in case of
Newtonian fluid flow. We observe maximal capacity force increase when the coupling number N2
increases ( coupling viscosity increases É) and the micropolar length decreases Ë1 ( rotational
viscosity increases Ê) . Full range of coupling number change, that covers the range [0;1), apply to
coupling viscosity É change from small to very high quantities. In most of the works, the
17
W1
16
15
14
3 4
13
1 2
12
11
10
8
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 N2 0,9
2
Fig.4 The dimensionless capacity force W1 in dependence on coupling number N for
characteristic dimensionless length of micropolar fluid «1:1) «1=10, 2) «1=20, 3) «1=30, 4) «1=40
hydrodynamic parameters of the bearing graphs are given in the function, which is Capacity forces
courses presented in the Fig.4, can be more suitable for small quantities for parameter É1. In the
17
W1
16
15
14
1
13
2 3 4
12
11
10
8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N1 9
Fig.5 The dimensionless capacity force W1 in dependence on dimensionless coupling viscosity ®1

for characteristic dimensionless length of micropolar fluid «1:1) «1=10, 2) «1=20, 3) «1=30, 4) «1=40
Fig.5 presented capacity forces W1 courses in the dimensionless micropolar length function Ë1 for
a few coupling number N quantities. Broken line show the capacity force in case of Newtonian oil
134
lubrication. All lines approach asymptoticly to the broken line when the micropolar length
increases (rotational viscosity decreases Ê). Together with coupling number increase, maximal
17
W1
16
6
15
5 4
14
3
13
2 1
12
11
10
8
10 15 20 25 30 35 /1 40
Fig.6 The dimensionless capacity force W1 in dependence on characteristic dimensionless length

of micropolar fluid «1 for coupling number N2 (---- Newtonian oil)
pressure increases (coupling viscosity increases). Angular coordinate ÎW1 of capacity force
position W1 in thesquare function of coupling number N2 for chosen micropolar length Ë1 were
show in the Fig.6. All lines come out from the capacity force position point in case of Newtonian
131,5
I w [ o]
131 i
130,5
4
130
129,5
3
129
2
128,5
1
128
127,5
127
126,5
126
125,5
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 N2 0,9
2
Fig.7 Angle ¯w situated capacity force W1 in dependence on coupling number N for characteristic
dimensionless length of micropolar fluid «1: 1) «1=10, 2) «1=20, 3) «1=30, 4) «1=40
fluid flow. Increase of capacity force position angle ÎW is observed while the coupling number
increases N2 (coupling viscosity increases É) and the micropolar length decreases Ë1 ( rotational
viscosity increases Ê). Graphs in the Fig.6 are described with nonlinear scale of dimensionless
coupling viscosity É1 change.
135
5. *

Presented example of the Reynolds equation solutions for steady laminar non-Newtonian
lubricating oil flow with micropolar structure, enable the hydrodynamic pressure distribution
introductory estimation as a basic exploitation parameter of slide bearing. Comparing Newtonian
oil to oils with micropolar structure, can be used in order to increase hydrodynamic pressure and
also to increase capacity load of bearing friction centre. Micropolar fluid usage has two sources of
pressure increase in view of viscosity properties: increase of fluid efficient viscosity (coupling
viscosity increase) and the rotational viscosity increase (characteristic length parameter Ë).
Author realize that he made few simplified assumptions in the above bearing centre model and in
the constant parameter characterizing oil viscosity properties. Despite this calculation example
apply to bearing with infinity length, received results can be usable in estimation of pressure
distribution and of capacity force at laminar, steady lubrication of cylindrical slide bearing with
infinity length. Presented results can be usable as a comparison quantities in case of numerical
model laminar, unsteady flow Non-Newtonian fluids in the lubricating gaps of crosswise
cylindrical slide bearings.
=7
[1] Das S., Guha S.K., Chattopadhyay A.K.- Linear stability analysis of hydrodynamic jour
nal bear ings under micropolar lubrication - Tribology International 38 (2005), pp.500-507
[2] Krasowski P. – Sta!

cego

- Zeszyty Naukowe nr 49, pp. 72-
90 , Akademia Morska, Gdynia 2003
[3] Krasowski P. – Pressure in slide journal bearing lubricated oil with micropolar structure –
Journal of POLISH CIMAC Vol. 3, No. 2, Gdansk 2008, pp. 99-108
[4 ##– Micropolar Fluids. Theory and Aplications – Birkhäuser Boston 1999
[5] Walicka A.– $ [< \#\\X } }\ X}
zakrzywionych – 4XX!
!
[6] Walicka A. - Inertia effects in the flow of a micropolar fluid in a slot between rotating
sufrages of revolution – International Journal of Mechanics and Engineering, 2001,vol.6,
No. 3, pp. 731-790
[7] Wierzcholski K.- Mathematical methods in hydrodynamic theory of lubrication- Technical
University Press, Szczecin 1993.
[8] Xiao-Li Wang, Ke-Qin Zhu – A study of the lubricating effectiveness of micropolar fluids
in a dynamically loaded journal bearing – Tribology International 37 (2004), pp.481-490
136
PRESSURE IN SLIDE JOURNAL PLANE BEARING
LUBRICATED OIL WITH MICROPOLAR STRUCTURE
;

tel.:+48 58 6901331, fax:+48 58 6901399
e-mail:pawkras@am.gdynia.pl
Abstract
Present paper shows the results of numerical solution Reynolds equation for laminar, steady oil flow in slide
plane bearing gap. Lubrication oil is fluid with micropolar structure. Properties of oil lubrication as of liquid with
micropolar structure in comparison with Newtonian liquid, characterized are in respect of dynamic viscosity
additionally dynamic couple viscosity and three dynamic rotation viscosity. Under regard of build structural element
of liquid characterized is additionally microinertia coefficient. In modeling properties and structures of micropolar
liquid one introduced dimensionless parameter with in terminal chance conversion micropolar liquid to Newtonian
liquid. The results shown on diagrams of hydrodynamic pressure in dimensionless form in dependence on coupling
number N2 and characteristic dimensionless length of micropolar fluid «1. Presented calculations are limited to
isothermal models of bearing with infinite breadth.
Keywords: micropolar lubrication, journal plane bearing, hydrodynamic pressure
1. (

Presented article take into consideration the laminar, steady flow in the crosswise cylindrical
slide plane bearing gap. Non-Newtonian fluid with the micropolar structure is a lubricating factor.
Materials engineering and tribology development helps to introduce oils with the compound
structure (together with micropolar structure) as a lubricating factors. Exploitation requirements
incline designers to use special oil refining additives, to change viscosity properties. As a
experimental studies shows, most of the refining lubricating fluids, can be included as fluids of
non-Newtonian properties with microstructure [4-7]. They belong to a class of fluids with
symmetric stress tensor that we shall call polar fluids, and include, as a special case, the well
known Navier-Stokes model. Physically, the micropolar fluids may represent fluids consisting
rigid randomly orientated spherical particles suspended in a viscous medium, where the
deformation of fluid particles is neglected [4]. Presented work dynamic viscosity of isotropic
micropolar fluid is characterized by five viscosities: shearing viscosity È` known at the Newtonian
fluids ), micropolar coupling viscosity Éand by three rotational viscosities bounded with rotation
around the coordinate axes. This kind of micropolar fluid viscosity characteristic is a result of
essential compounds discussed in works [4-6]. Regarding of limited article capacity please read
137
above works. In presented flow, the influence of lubricating fluid inertia force and the external
elementary body force field were omit [3-6].
2. ="*(

Basic equation set defining isotropic micropolar fluid flow are describe following equations
[2-6]: momentum equation, moment of momentum equation, energy equation, equation of flow
continuity. Incompressible fluid flow is taken into consideration with constant density skipping
the body force. We assume also, that dynamic viscosity coefficients which characterize micropolar
fluid are constant. According to above velocity flow field is independent from temperature field
and the momentum equation, moment of momentum equation and equation of flow continuity are
part of closed system of motion equations.
Lubricating gap is characterize by following geometric parameters: maximal gap height ho ,
minimal gap height he , gap length L and gap breadth b (Fig. 1) model the following assumption
were made: lubricating gap dimensions along it’s width of mating surfaces remain
Fig.1. Geometry schema of the slide journal plane bearing gap
identical. Lubricating gap height after gap length was described in cartesian co-ordinate system by
the following dimensionless form:
h1 x1 H H 1x1 for 0 d x1 d 1 (1)
Dimensionless values [2, 3] that characterize lubricating gap are: length coordinate x1 , gap height
coordinate h1 and gap convergence coefficient Ô :
x h he
x1 ; h1 ; H (2)
L hm hm
The constant viscosity of micropolar oil, independent from thermal and pressure condition in the
bearing. Quantity of viscosity coefficient depend on shearing dynamic viscosity È, which is
decisive viscosity in case of Newtonian fluids. Reference pressure p0 is also described with this
viscosity, in order to compare micropolar oils results with Newtonian oil results. In micropolar oils
decisive impact has quantity of dynamic coupling viscosity É [1,4]. In some works concerning
bearing lubrication with micropolar oil, it’s possible to find the sum of the viscosities as a
micropolar dynamic viscosity efficiency. In presented article coupling viscosity was characterized
with coupling number N2, which is equal to zero for Newtonian oil:
138
N
N 0 d N 1 (3)
K N
Quantity N2 in case of micropolar fluid, define a dynamic viscosity of coupling share in the oil
dynamic viscosity efficiency. From the coupling number N2 we can determine both dynamic
viscosity ratio, which is dimensionless micropolar coupling viscosity:
N N2
N1 N1 t 0 (4)
K 1 N2
From the dynamic rotational viscosities at the laminar lubrication, individual viscosities are
compared to viscosity Ê, which is known as the most important and it ratio to shearing viscosity È
is bounded to characXX ! !X} Ë
}} =X ! < X} #
quantity [8];< !ÌXX < \ !!X}Ë1 [< \ !!X}Ëe defined:
J
/ ; //1 H (5)
K
Dimensionless micropolar length Ë1 in case of Newtonian oil approach infinity.

Reynolds equation for stationary flow of laminar micropolar fluid in the lengthwise, plane
slide bearing gap can be present [1,2,7,8] in dimensional form:
w §¨ h 3 wp · w § h 3 wp · dh
) ( / , N, h ) ¸ ¨ ) ( / , N, h ) ¸ 6 (6)
wx ¨© K wx ¸¹ wz ¨© K wz ¸¹ dx
Ð(Ë,N,h) function in form (7) when in case of the Newtonian fluid it has a value 1 and the
Reynolds equation (6) change into a non-Newtonian fluid equation.
/2 N/ § Nh ·
) (/, N, h ) 1 12 6 coth¨ ¸ (7)
h 2 h © 2/ ¹
Reynolds equation (6) can be presented in dimensionless form [1,7] using the method of changing
into this values:
w § wp · 1 w § wp · dh1
¨ )1 (/1 , N, h1 ) 1 ¸¸ ¨ )1 (/1 , N, h1 ) 1 ¸¸ 6 (8)
wx1 ¨© wx1 ¹ L21 wz1 ¨© wz1 ¹ dx1
for 0 d x1 d 1; 0 d y1 d h1 ; - 1 d z1 d 1
h1 Nh12 § h N/ ·
where: )1 h13 12 6 coth¨ 1 1 ¸ (9)
/21 /1 © 2 ¹
The dimensionless values for pressure p1 , bearing breadth L1 and remaining coordinates y1 and z1
are described as follows:
b
p p 0 p1 , L1 , z b z1 , y h e y1 , (10)
L
Reference pressure po caused by linear velocity U of slide bearing was assumed in (11) taking
into consideration dynamic viscosity of shearing È and the lubricating gap height he in form :
139
UK he
p0 , \ (11)
\L L
where:
Ó– relative clearance ( 10 4 d \ d 10 3 )
3. H"((" ,
/ (

%

Below solutions (8) for infinity breadth bearing is presented. In this solution the Reynolds
boundary conditions, applying to zeroing of pressure at the beginning (x1=0) and at the end (x1=1)
of the oil film ended. The pressure distribution function in case of the micropolar lubrication has a
form:
1h1
x1 ³ dx1
h1 C1 )
0 1
p1 ( x1 ) 6³ dx1 ; C1 (12)
0 )1 /1 , N, h1 1 1
³ dx1
0 )1
In the boundary case of lubricating Newtonian fluid, pressure distribution function is a pressure
p1N(x1) and is in form:
x1
h1 1
lim )1 h13 lim C1 1 p1N ( x1 ) 6³ dx1 (13)
N o0 N o0 0 h13
/1 o f /1 o f
where: p1N(x1) - pressure distribution for Newtonian oil
6(H 1)(1 x1 ) x1
p1N (14)
(H 1)(H Hx1 x1 ) 2
Example numerical calculation were made for the infinity breadth bearing with convergence
coefficient Ô³Ôopt = 1+ 2 end Ô=1,4 marked continuous and discontinuous lines.
0,35
2
N =0,5
p1 /1 N2 =0,9 2
N =0,7
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
2 2
N =0 N =0,1
0,1
N2=0,3
0,05
Hopt H
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 x1 1
Fig.2 The pressure distributions p1 in direction x1 in dependence on coupling number N by micropolar (N2>0) and 2
Newtonian (N2=0) lubrication |

°opt and °±}!; characteristic length of micropolar
fluid «1=20
140
Analyzing the influence of coupling number N2 and the influence of dimensionless micropolar
length Ë1 on hydrodynamic pressure distribution in the bearing liner circuital direction. At the
Fig.2 pressure distribution for individual coupling numbers at constant micropolar length Ë1 =20.
The pressure increase effect is caused by oil dynamic viscosity efficiency increase as a result of
coupling viscosity É. At N2= 0,5, coupling viscosity is equal to shearing viscosity. Pressure graph
in the Fig.2 for micropolar oil lubrication (N2>0) find themselves above the pressure graph at the
0,35
p1 2 4 5
N =0,4
0,3
3
0,25
0,2
0,15
1 2
0,1
0,05
H opt H
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 x1 1
Fig.3 The pressure distributions p1 in direction x1 in dependence on characteristic length of micropolar

fluid «1: 1) Newtonian oil, 2) «1=40, 3) «1=30, 4) «1=20, 5) «1=10, for |

°opt
and °±}!; from coupling number N2=0,4
Newtonian oil lubrication (N2=0). Pressure distribution is higher for higher coupling number. It is
caused by oil viscosity dynamic efficiency. In the Fig.3 the course of dimensionless pressure p1 for
few micropolar length quantity Ë1 is shown. Decrease of this parameter determine the increase of
micropolar oil rotational dynamic viscosity. Pressure distribution are presented at the constant
coupling number N2=0,4. Rotational viscosity increase determine the pressure distribution increase
and is caused, because both the oil flow and microratation velocities are coupled. Quantities of
coupling number N2 and dimensionless micropolar length where taken from works [1,2].
0,4
p1m H opt H
0,375
2 1
0,35
3
0,325
4
0,3
0,275
0,25
0,225
0,2
0,175
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 N2 0,9
2
Fig.4 The maximal pressure p1m in dependence on coupling number N for characteristic length of micropolar fluid
«1:1) «1=10, 2) «1=20, 3) «1=30, 4) «1=40 from convergence

°opt and °±}!;
141
Based on given hydrodynamic pressure distribution p1 on longitudinal of the bearing x1, the
numerical quantities of maximal pressure p1m and the lengthwise coordinate x1pm (at the maximal
position) were obtain. Quantities p1m are presented in the Fig.4 in the coupling Number N2
function for chosen micropolar length Ë1. All lines are coming out from the maximal pressure
point in case of Newtonian fluid flow. We observe maximal pressure increase when the coupling
number N2 increases ( coupling viscosity increases É) and the micropolar length decreases Ë1
(rotational viscosity increases Ê) . Full range of coupling number change, that covers the range
[0;1), apply to coupling viscosity É change from small to very high quantities. In most of the
works, the hydrodynamic parameters of the bearing graphs are given in the function, which is
0,4
p 1m H opt H
0,375
1
0,35
2 3 4
0,325
0,3
0,275
0,25
0,225
0,2
0,175
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N1 9
Fig.5 The maximal pressure p1m in dependence on coupling viscosity ®1 for characteristic length
of micropolar fluid «1:1) «1=10, 2) «1=20, 3) «1=30, 4) «1=40 from convergence coefficient
°opt and °±}!;
nonlinear scale for coupling viscosity É1. In the Fig.5. the same graph is given in the dimensionless
viscosity É1 function. Change range N2 from the Fig.4 comply to É1 changes in the Fig.5. Maximal
pressure courses presented in the Fig.4, can be more suitable for small quantities for parameter É1.
In the Fig.6 presented maximal pressure p1m courses in the dimensionless micropolar length
function Ë1 for a few coupling number N quantities.
0,4
p 1m H opt H
0,375
N 2 =0,3 N2=0,5
0,35 2 2
N =0,7 N =0,9
0,325
0,3
0,275
0,25 2 2
N =0 N =0,1
0,225
0,2
0,175
0,15
10 15 20 25 30 35 /1 40
Fig.6 The maximal pressure p1m in dependence on characteristic length of micropolar fluid «1
for coupling number N2 (---- Newtonian oil) |

°opt °±}!;
142
Broken line show the maximal pressure in case of Newtonian oil lubrication. All lines approach
asymptoticly to the broken line when the micropolar length increases (rotational viscosity
decreases Ê). Together with coupling number increase, maximal pressure increases (coupling
viscosity increases). Change [< ! [X Ö×1p of maximal pressure position p1m in
thesquare function of coupling number N2 for chosen micropolar length Ë1 were show in the Fig.7.
and calculated in formula:
'x1 p x1 pm x1 pmN (14)

where:
x1pm - dimensionless coordinate x1 maximal pressure p1m
x1pmN - dimensionless coordinate x1 maximal pressure p1m for Newtonian oil flow
0,025
'x 1p H opt H
0,0225
0,02
4
0,0175
1 2 3
0,015
0,0125
0,01
0,0075
0,005
0,0025
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 N2 0,9
Fig.7 Change coordinate ©\1p situated maximal pressure p1m in dependence on coupling number N2
for dimensionless length of micropolar fluid «1: 1) «1=10, 2) «1=20, 3) «1=30, 4) «1=40
All lines come out from the maximal pressure position point in case of Newtonian fluid flow.
Increase of maximal pressure change dimensionless coordinate position Ö×1p is observed while the
coupling number increases N2 (coupling viscosity increases É) and the micropolar length decreases
Ë1 ( rotational viscosity increases Ê). Graphs in the Fig.7 are described with nonlinear scale of
dimensionless coupling viscosity É1 change.
4. *

Presented example of the Reynolds equation solutions for steady laminar non-Newtonian
lubricating oil flow with micropolar structure, enable the hydrodynamic pressure distribution
introductory estimation as a basic exploitation parameter of slide plane bearing. Comparing
Newtonian oil to oils with micropolar structure, can be used in order to increase hydrodynamic
pressure and also to increase capacity load of bearing friction centre. Micropolar fluid usage has
two sources of pressure increase in view of viscosity properties: increase of fluid efficient
viscosity (coupling viscosity increase) and the rotational viscosity increase (characteristic length
parameter Ë). Author realize that he made few simplified assumptions in the above bearing centre
model and in the constant parameter characterizing oil viscosity properties. Despite this
calculation example apply to bearing with infinity breadth, received results can be usable in
estimation of pressure distribution and of capacity force at laminar, steady lubrication of slide
plane bearing with infinity breadth. Presented results can be usable as a comparison quantities in
143
case of numerical model laminar, unsteady flow Non-Newtonian fluids in the lubricating gaps of
lengthwise slide plane bearings.
=7
[1] Das S., Guha S.K., Chattopadhyay A.K.- Linear stability analysis of hydrodynamic jour
nal bear ings under micropolar lubrication - Tribology International 38 (2005), pp.500-507
[2] Krasowski P. – *!

cego

- Zeszyty Naukowe nr 49, pp. 72-
90 , Akademia Morska, Gdynia 2003
[3] Krasowski P. – Pressure in slide journal bearing lubricated oil with micropolar structure –
Journal of POLISH CIMAC Vol. 3, No. 2, Gdansk 2008, pp. 99-108
[4 ##– Micropolar Fluids. Theory and Aplications – Birkhäuser Boston 1999
[5] Walicka A.– $ [< \#\\X } }\ X}
zakrzywionych – 4XX!
!
[6] Walicka A. - Inertia effects in the flow of a micropolar fluid in a slot between rotating
sufrages of revolution – International Journal of Mechanics and Engineering, 2001,vol.6,
No. 3, pp. 731-790
[7] Wierzcholski K.- Mathematical methods in hydrodynamic theory of lubrication- Technical
University Press, Szczecin 1993.
[8] Xiao-Li Wang, Ke-Qin Zhu – A study of the lubricating effectiveness of micropolar fluids
in a dynamically loaded journal bearing – Tribology International 37 (2004), pp.481-490
144
Erosion problems in pneumatic transport installations
on the example of fan rotor blades
Bazyli Krupicz
Bialystok Technical University

ul. Wiejska 45C, 15-351 Bialystok, Poland
tel.: +48 85 7469305, fax: +48 85 7469210
e-mail: bazek@pb.edu.pl
Abstract
In the paper, the analysis of erosion of a fan blade was conducted. Erosion is recorded into two zones on the
blade. In the first zone, erosion occurs at the front of the blade and it is caused by particle’s impacts during first
contact. This is “impact erosion” zone. Second “friction erosion” zone is formed in the place of the next contact,
determined by the angle rotation of the rotor ' M and the path of rebound s. The impact takes place at the angle
with participation of friction forces. Dependences of particle’s velocities on stress, which cause plastic strains on
surface layer, were presented. Coefficient of velocity restitution in the stream ks=²k was calculated. Restitution
coefficient of particle’s velocity in a stream always amounts to ² ³}?"| Y
Y? ?>
particle’s, their diameter, stream velocity. Time ´ between successive impacts is the function of rotor angular velocity
and restitution coefficient k. Angle of rotation ©¯ is only depends on coefficient k. The equation describing
dependence of angle rotation ©¯ on coefficient ks is as follows: ©¯(1+k) = tg(©¯). The solution of the equation was
presented in a graphical way.
Keywords: stream erosion, restitution coefficient, fan blades
1. Introduction
Pneumatic transport of fine-grained materials is the element of many technological processes.

It includes: removal of solid fuel combustion products in energy installations, removal of fine-
grained waste being the by-product during cutting and grinding, relocation of powder and
granulated products. Convection of material solid particles together with the air or gas stream is
the basis of the process. Machine and installation elements (fan blades, cyclones, pipe bends) are
in a constant contact with the elevating particles and thus they are subject to erosion. Following
zones [1] are distinguished (Fig. 1): 1) “impact erosion” zone being the effect of particles’ impact,
2) “friction erosion” zone being the effect of sliding of particles on the surface. In the case of fan
blades, zone 1) is formed on the edge of the blade from the side of incoming particles, zone 2) is
formed at the end of the blade.
145
a)
b)
Fig.1. The view of fan blades exploited in erosion conditions:

a) impact erosion zone(1), b) friction erosion zone (2)
Working time of fan blades is mainly determined by the loss of material in the zone (2) (fig. 1b).
Working time of rotor mill blade (Fig 2) is determined by zone (1) [2].
2
1
Örs
Fig.2. The view of a rotor mill blade: 1 – impact erosion zone, 2 – friction erosion zone
In this paper, the analysis will be conducted what is the effect of the contact of the particle with
a fan blade and a pipe bend in impact conditions.
146
2. First impact of the particle on a fan blade
It was assumed for analysis, that the impacting particle has spherical shape with half space. In
reality, particles in the stream have different shapes [3]. Calculation results are subject to given
error, but it does not depreciate recorded phenomena. The velocity of particle’s impact amounts to
vector sum of particle entry velocity Vw and peripheral velocity of contact point of a fan blade V =
¶r. As velocity ratio Vw/ V < 0,05, it can be assumed that the particle impacts perpendicularly to
its surface. In this case, contact stresses can be calculated [4] using following equation:
VH 0,837 U 1 / 5V 2 / 5 E 4 / 5 , (1)
1 1 Q 12 1 Q 22
where: , Q 1 , Q 2 , E1, E2 – Poisson’s ratios, Young’s modulus of particle and fan
E E1 E2
material.
The equation (1) shows that, as far as elastic strains are concerned, contact stresses do not
depend on particle’s radius, but they are a function of modulus of elasticity of contacting bodies
and impact velocity. At the given critical velocity of the particle impacting the material, contact
stress reaches dangerous value, which corresponds to resistance or yield point. First plastic strain
is formed in the place of maximum shearing stress, i.e. on the depth similar to the radius of
circular surface of the contact point (Fig. 3a, point B). At Q = 0,3, W 1 max = 0,31 V H [5]. Material
plastic flow appears in this point, when a following condition is fulfilled:
V pl
VH 1,61V pl , (2)
0,62
which is met at the critical velocity

(V H1 ) 5 / 2
X1 . (3)
(0,837) 5 / 2 E 2 U 1 / 2
a) b)
Fig. 3. The scheme of half space strains caused by particle’s impact

a) elastic strain ( X < X1 ) , b) plastic strain ( X > X 2 )
When the impact velocity increases, the area of plastified material extends [6] and it reaches the
surface (Fig. 3b).
Shearing stresses amount to W 2 max = 0,133 V H at the circular edge of contact area on the
blade’s surface (fig. 3a, point A) at Q = 0,3. In this point, radial stresses V r spread out and amount
147
to circumferential compressive stresses V 4 . Thus, pure shear amounting to V H (1 2Q ) / 3 occurs
along the edge of contact area, where particle’s pressure on the blade’s surface amount to zero [6].
The output of area of plastic strains on the surface occurs at
V pl
V H2 3,7V pl , (4)
2
0.266
caused by particle’s velocity during impact.
(V H 2 ) 5 / 2
X2 . (5)
(0,837) 5 / 2 E 2 U 1 / 2
Further increase in particles’ velocity causes extending of the plasticization area by particle’s
sinking (Fig. 3b) – similar phenomena occurs in Brinell’s studies [6]. Surface condition of the
blade’s impact erosion zone is presented in Fig. 4. Critical velocities X1 i X 2 of selected materials
from equations (3) i (5) are presented in table 1.
Fig.4. Microphoto of the blade’s surface in the area of first impacts of particles.
Table 1. Values of critical velocities for selected materials during dynamic contact of the sphere with half space
Critical velocity
Material
Young module Poisson’s Yield point Tensile strength m/su10-2
E, MPa coefficientQ MPa Rm, MPa
X1 X2
5
Steel 35 2.10 0,3 270 550 0,9 47,3
Steel 40 H 2.105 0,3 750 900 12,4 162,5
Hatfid’s steel 2.105 03 800 1000 14,57 190,95
Polyamide 1,1.103 0,38 43 50 72,1 593,4
Radiuses determining location of the blade (in an industrial fan used in pneumatic transport)
amount to: inner radius rw = 1,4 m and outer radius rz = 1,8 m. At the angular velocity of the rotor
Z =146,5 s-1, the velocity of the first impact reaches the value of V Ø <µ X X} ´!
exceeding (by two grades) values X1 i X 2 presented in Table 1. In these conditions, reciprocal
148
interaction of hard particles with blades is elastic-plastic. During this process part of kinetic energy
of particles is used for local plastic strain (Fig. 4) and microcutting.
3. Second impact of the particle on a fan blade
After the particle impacts elastic-plastically in the zone (1) it rebounds. [7]. Paper [8] presents how
to calculate the point of the next impact basing on the scheme shown in Fig. 5. The first impact
takes place in the point A2 perpendicularly to the blade and the next impacts take place in the point
A3 at the angle (¸/2- Ö¯). Point A3 is determined by the angle rotation ©¯ and the path of rebound
s . The analysis [8] of the particle’s motion in the space between the blades brings the following
dependence
'M (1 k ) tg 'M , (1)
where: ¶ – angular velocity of a rotor, ´ – time of rebound between the first and the second
impact. Time ´ is not depends on the blade’s location, but it is the function of the angular velocity
¶ of the rotor and the restitution coefficient k. Angle rotation Ö¯ is only determined by the
restitution coefficient k [9]. The solution of equation (1) in a graphic-analytical way is presented in
Fig. 6.
Coefficient k is calculated using the method of a free drop of the steel globule – aerodynamic
air resistance is not taken into consideration [10]. After the globule impacts elastic-plasticly the
material, it rebounds with the velocity of ¹’’, which is lower than the impact velocity ¹’, i.e.:
¹’’= k ¹’ . (2)
Authors of the paper [8] proposed that coefficient ², amounting to ² Ù } ![ ![[ X
calculate the influence of real conditions on velocity restitution. These conditions are as follows:
the particle is generally not made of steel, it is not spherical and a free drop does not takes place in
a stream. Thus,
k ’
¹’’ = ¹ = ks ¹’. (3)
E
Fig. 5. Calculation diagram for assessing the point and velocity of the second impact of the particle on a fan
blade: a)

§
|
!Y ¹ n ¹ ´ of the particle’s velocity
in the point A 3
149
The value of coefficient ² can be calculated by comparing value Ör (Fig .5), which is
calculated by using data in Fig. 6, with value Örs determined by the material loss on the blade (Fig.
2). Fig. 3 shows that r0 Ú`Ör + r0 { Ö¯. Thus,
§ 1 ·
Ör = r0 ¨¨ 1¸¸ . (4)
© cos 'M ¹
Angle Ö¯ can be set using the diagram in Fig 6. It is the coordinate of the point, which is the
solution of equation (1) for a given value of coefficient k. Intersection of straight lines f1 =
Ö¯(k+1) and curve f2 = tgÖ¯ gives the location of the point. In paper [13] it was pointed out that
coefficient k has values 0,35 – 0,45. k = 0,4 was assumed for calculations. At this value, the point
of the second impact is determined by the angle Ö¯ = 1,11 and s/r0 = 1,99 (Fig. 6). Radius r0
amounts to 190 mm in the blade in Fig. 2. Using these values, Ör amounts to 241 mm basing on
the equation (4).
4,5
k=1.0
4
k=0.9
3,5 k=0.8
k=0.7
3 k=0.6
k=0.5
2,5 k=0.4
s/r0
k=0.3
2 k=0.2
k=0.1
1,5
k=0
1
0,5
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
, rad
Fig. 6. Diagram of equation’s solution (13)
Fig. 2 shows that erosion losses are visible at the middle of the blade’s length after rebound in
the zone (1), i.e. in a distance Örs Ø mm (zone.2). This value is possible when Ö¯ = 0,53 and ks
= 0,05 (restitution coefficient of the particles in a stream), which is calculated using the equation
(1). The value of the coefficient ² derives from the following equation (3):
k 0,40
E 8. (5)
ks 0,05
The analysis of traces of wear in different blades (Fig. 1b, Fig. 2) shows that coefficient ² is
included in a given interval, because traces of wear are present on a given length. In the examined
case, this is the beginning of wear “path” and ² = 8. Kinetic energy of the particles in a stream is
diversified, thus coefficient ² and the path of rebound Örs is characteristic for each diversified
group of the particles in a stream.
The question arises, what is the further motion of the particle after the second impact in the
zone (2). While the first impact was directed perpendicularly to the blade, the second impact
occurred at the angle . This angle is set between the velocity of the next impact and the direction
tangent to the blade (Fig. 5). The angle can be calculated using following equation:
150
Table 2. Values of parameters of skew impact of the particle on a fan blade
ks
Parameter
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0.9 1,0
'M , rad 28,66 40,1 47,58 50,4 55,0 58,47 60,76 63,1 64,20 65,92
'r
1+ 1,139 1,326 1,498 1,608 1,740 1,910 2,040 2,200 2,340 3,440
r0
Xn
0,174 0,408 0,621 0,716 0,880 1,070 1,210 1,390 1,510 2,620
Yr0
XW
0,528 0,773 0,960 1,080 1,128 1,364 1,480 1,605 1,710 1,826
Yr0
D 18,24 27,83 32,9 33,54 37,96 38,1 39,27 40,89 41,44 55,12
'r
1 (1 k s ) cos 'M
Xn r0
tgD (6)
XW (1 k s ) sin 'M
Values D , X n , XW i X s are presented in Table 2 taking into consideration value of restitution

coefficient in a stream. Analysis of values included in Table 2 shows that velocity of the second
skew impact depends on ks. – restitution coefficient in a stream. The higher value ks is, the higher
impact velocity and the higher erosion losses are, which are located at the end of the blade (Fig. 2).
Microphoto of blade’s surface in the zone of skew impact (Fig. 7) confirms this type of impact.
Traces of plastic lengthwise strains lead to the conclusion that velocity component XW is
dominant.[11,12]. It is possible at the low value of the coefficient ks.
Fig. 7. Microphoto of the surface in the zone of a skew impact
151
4. Conclusions
Erosion of pneumatic transport installations occurs due to successive impacts of the stream of
solid particles. They cause elastic-plastic strain of the surface layer of the element, until the border
of plastic strain is reached. Then, the surface layer cracks (Fig. 7).
Coefficient of particle’s velocity restitution in a stream ks. determines the location of next
impacts, i.e. the location of erosion in blades.
References
[1] Chmielniak, T., _ ? &
? Zag.
Eksp. Maszyn, Vol. 76, No. 4, 1988, pp. 339-458.
[2] Krupicz, B., Liszewski M.: }#< #Z\ [# #[< <,
Tribologia t. 37, nr 2, 2007, pp. 123-132.
[3] Lou, H.Q., Erosion of materials by alumina slurry – Part 1, Wear 134, 1989, pp. 253 –269,
Part 2, Wear 134, 1989, pp. 271 – 281.
[4] Bitter, J. G. A., A study of erosion phenomena , Wear No. 6, 1962, Part 1, pp. 5-21, Part 2,
pp.169-190.
[5] Timoshenko, S., Goodier, J.N.,
'
. Wyd. Arkady, Warszawa 1951.
ÁÛÜ¼ÝÞ
ßÃ
Âàáâã¼ãåàæ
Áç
º»¼¾¿À¿Á¼Â? Ã»¼ÄÅ¼ÆÇ ¼ Æ»¼À¿ÈÉÄ¼Â
çÁÁè
ßÀßê
ëãìàíî
¶ êïâðñ¼ãå
½ë
ÃâñòÝô
ê
èåÝâÝõàÞã¼
Àç
ÊË¿¾ÉÄÄ¿ËÌ¼ ÍÎÏ»Ä¿Á¿ ÐÑÏ¼Ò¿ÎÉÓËÌÐ¼Â
ÌÐÉ»ÎÇÔÕÏËÌ¼Å ËÀ¿ÆÏËÌÖ×ÐÉÄÌ¼ÀÂÌ¿»¿Ð
÷âàÞÝàÝÝøÞãð
vol. 25, nr 1, 2004, pp. 41-
47.
[8] Krupicz, B.,

'

wentylatorów, Zeszyty Naukowe Nr 10 (82) Akademii Morskiej w Szczecinie, 2006, pp. 299-
307.
êïâðñ¼ãå
½ë
ÃâñòÝô
ê
º»¼¾¿ÒÉÔÏÄ¼ÙÏ Î¼ËÆÉ»ËÄÇÔ ÒÏÌÉ»¼ÏÀ¿Ð! ºÉÔÄ¿À¿Á¼ÕÉËÙ¼É
Æ»¼À¿ÈÉÄ¼Â, GGU, Grodno 2004.
ÃâñòÝô
ê
ÁñùïìàáåïíÝàå
»ú
êïâðñ¼ãå
½ë
ÚËÆÇÌÏÄ¼Â ÒÏÌÉ»¼ÏÀ¿Ð ÄÏ ÍÎÏ» Æ¿
ÒÉÌ¿ÎÍ ÆÏÎÏ×ÛÉÁ¿ ÜÏ»¼ÙÏ Ë ÍÕ¿Ì¿Ò ÏÝ»¿Î¼ÄÏÒ¼ÕÉËÙ¿Á¿ Ë¿Æ»¿Ì¼ÐÀÉÄ¼Â, Materiay
konferencyjne II Sympozjum Mechaniki Zniszczenia Materiaw i Konstrukcji Augustw
2003, pp. 175-178.
[11]Fukahori, Y., Yamazaki, H., Mechanism of rubber abrasion. Part 3: how is friction linked to
fracture in rubber abrasion?, Wear 188, 1995, 19-26.
[12]Fukahori,Y., Liang, H., Busfield, J.J.C., Criteria for crack initiation during rubber abrasion,
Wear 265, 2008, 387–395.
Ãíàûð
ß
Âïòòàíî
÷
üñðïûÞãåï
ç
ýàþíãå
ç
ÚËËÀÉÎ¿ÐÏÄ¼É Æ»¿ÅÉËËÏ ÍÎÏ»ÄÇÔ
ÐÑÏ¼Ò¿ÎÉÓËÌ¼ÓÕÏËÌ¼Å!÷âàÞÝà ÝÝøÞãðvol. 18, nr 6, 1997, pp. 730-735.
Paper was written as a part of the Rector's project W/WM/4/07.
152
TYPES OF DAMAGES TO TURBINES OF AIRCRAFT TURBINE
ENGINES; DIAGNOSING CAPABILITIES
Artur K > , *

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Air Force Institute of Technology

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From the moment of development of the first aircraft jet engine by English designer Frank
Whittle in the 1930s, as in the case of other machines, we observe persistent technological
progress in the field of new designs as well as materials which they are made from. This is the
result of increasing efficiency and effectiveness of operation of new designs, and consequently
increase in their performance, optimisation of weight, dimensions, etc. The gas turbine being a part
of a turbine jet engine is a rotor machine transforming the enthalpy of the working medium (called
also the thermodynamic medium) into the mechanical work causing rotation of the rotor. The
increase in efficiency of the turbine results in the increase in thrust (power) and reduction in
specific fuel consumption, and vice versa. The efficiency of gas turbines in aircraft engines (lying
usually 30% - 45%) depends essentially on the temperature of exhaust gas, which has grown in the
course of a few recent years by 280 K, what caused the improvement in general efficiency of the
turbine and increased the power ratio. The barrier to temperature increase are material problems,
i.e. creep resistance, thermal fatigue, high-temperature sulphur corrosion, and erosion. For this
reason necessary is application of expensive creep-resistant alloys, complicated geometrical shapes
of blades, complicating technological processes of their production and various kinds of treatment,
such as the cooling of blades. At present, depending on blade material and cooling intensity, the
working temperature of blades lies within the range of 1120-1170 K (without special cooling),
1200-1300 K (with cooling), 1300-1500 K (high-intensity cooling). Unfortunately, operation of
turbine blades under complex thermal and mechanical loads (overload and aggressive
environment) is only possible at the temperature of blade material lower even by 350 K than the
combustion temperature. Therefore, further development and improvement in turbine blade design
has been aimed at applying the heat-resistant coatings of good resistance to high-temperature
corrosion, low thermal conductivity and high stability of the structure.
153
2. )"/7
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In the process of operation of aircraft turbine engines various types of damages to turbine
components occur, especially to their blades. Analysis of current cases suggests that all types of
damages can be rated – depending on used classification – in one or a few causal groups, which
are often closely related. Thus, we can differentiate damage being the result of production faults,
improper repair or operational errors.
Experience gained in the course of implementing and performing prophylactic programs in the
Polish Air Force, aimed at securing high safety degree in the military aviation, has proved that in
spite of employing huge forces and means it is impossible to completely avoid various kinds of
damages while operating so great population of turbine engines. The most frequent damages –
except foreign-matter ingestion – are damages to turbines resulting from disadvantageous changes
in blade material structure caused by excessive temperature and time over which it affects the
blade and aggressiveness of exhaust gas (overheating of material, thermal fatigue of blades).
Therefore, it is important to detect and explain as early as possible the symptoms of possible
hazards with available diagnostic methods and knowledge.
The structure and the principle of operation of a turbine jet engine is closely related with the
high-intensity air flux flowing through its gas path – the intake, compressor, combustion chamber,
turbine, exhaust nozzle. The air taken through the intake is not always free from impurities, which
penetrate into the engine. This depends on the location of the engine in the airframe (Fig. 1),
condition of airfield pavement (Fig. 2), errors made while operating the aircraft.
a) b)
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Impurities ingested by air vortex cause mechanical damages to individual components of gas
path – in particular, to compressor rotor blades (Fig. 3). The result of such damages is disturbance
of engine performance parameters, what has also adverse influence on working temperature of the
gas turbine. On account of the complicated nature of thermal and mechanical loads on turbine
blades inadmissible are any mechanical and thermal damages to blades, because it may lead to the
break-off of a blade, and consequently to the engine damage, and hence, hazard to flight safety.
Some types of mechanical damages resulting from the foreign-matter ingestion are detected after
finding damages to the compressor’s first-stage components during pre- or after-flight
maintenance, or in the course of the first borescope examination after the event, carried out during
periodical maintenance of the engine (Fig. 4).
a) b)
Fig. 4. _\ s to> Y !YY

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Small spot damages or small abrasions of blade surface are often invisible during first hours
of engine operation after the damage has occurred, and they are not detected by a diagnostician in
the course of diagnostic examination. A damage to blade protective coating together with high
temperature and exhaust-gas induced aggressive environment may result in the overheating and
burnout of the native material of the blade (Fig. 5).
155
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Manufacturing and repair-effected defects are another group of damages detected within the
hot section of the engine during preventive diagnostic tests. These are damages beyond the user’s
reach and can reveal throughout the entire period of engine operation.
The break-off of a turbine rotor blade caused by spreading a new type of a protective coating
applied with diffusion method onto the blade material is one of the most interesting and at the
same time the most dangerous events. In the course of turbine operation a fragile coating suffered
cracking; the crack propagated into the native material of the blade and finally resulted in the
break-off of the blade (Fig. 6).
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to the Y §
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The hitherto experience gained in the course of research work at the Air Force Institute
of Technology shows also that the majority of turbine defects are directly related with incorrect
adjustments of the engine and poor quality of aviation fuel.
Incorrect fuel pressure, its physical and chemical properties deteriorated by various kinds
of impurities, and misalignment of the flame tube injector prove conducive to the formation of
carbon deposit on the injectors (Fig. 7) and other sub-assemblies, what results in faulty fuel
spraying. This, in turn, results in disturbance of the combustion-process organisation, and
consequently of temperature distribution and cooling of individual components of the hot section
of the engine. What results is overheating of material of combustion chamber and turbine blades
(Fig. 8).
156
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The process of degradation of components in replaced sub-assemblies is specific to every

engine type and is related with its structure, operating conditions, depends also on the repair
process engineering. Therefore, the process of preventive diagnostic in-service testing of engines
is extremely significant from the user’s point of view.
Diagnostic methods can be divided into two groups:
- in-service (non-destructive) methods,
- in the process of repair (not-destructive or/and destructive).
Health of turbine blades while in service is mainly examined during borescope inspections.
Detected are defects of the following types: cracks, deformations and erosion from foreign bodies,
corrosion, burnout of protective coating or native material of the blade. This is exclusively visual,
remote inspection by means of a videoscope. The reliability of such assessment depends mainly on
the experience of the diagnostician and quality of available equipment.
The second method of assessing condition of turbine blades is the measurement of oscillation,
e.g. measurement of oscillation using microwave sensors. This method makes use of the
phenomenon of the reception of a homodyne signal reflected from the turbine blade. On the other
hand, while measuring blade vibrations with inductive sensors, use is made of the phenomenon of
changes in the magnetic field caused by rotating turbine blades that cross this field. The eddy
current inspection is a direct method for checking condition of blade edges built in the airframe.
During any repair we have better access to turbine blades. Thus, more accurate, direct
assessment of their health is possible. Among non-destructive methods widely used are:
- visual,
- penetrative,
- ultrasonic, and
- radiographic inspections.
Until now, all these methods do not allow of explicit assessment of changes in the structure of
a blade resulting from the material overheating. The diagnostician makes the assessment of the
level of the blade overheating with a visual method; his decision is verified with metallographic
examination. Conducted are works on the development of a new computer-aided visual method to
obtain more objective and reliable results [4].
The assessment of the level of blade-material overheating with a visual method can be verified
with eddy-current inspection method. This is a comparative method that makes use of
the phenomenon of eddy current generation in the (electrically conductive) material under the
alternating magnetic field. Eddy currents generate, in turn, magnetic field opposite to the field that
157
has initiated them. The eddy-current measuring technique is based on the electromagnetic
induction.
In our work we have used the Wirotest 302 with the SNC/04/012 probe, with alternating
magnetic field of 1.2 MHz frequency applied. The object under examination were blades made of
the EI-867WD alloy with protective coatings made of aluminium alloy. Measurements were taken
on a new blade (marked A), a blade withdrawn from service but not overheated (marked B) and an
overheated, burnt-out blade (marked C). Results are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
Ye 1. TurY
Y
Marking Measured value Blade description

A 12 New blade
B 35 Used, not overheated blade
C 70 Overheated blade
Ye 2. TY
Y
Marking Measured value Blade description

A 1 Used, non-overheated blade
B 30 Used blade with burnouts
Measured values are very much diversified, what is advantageous from the point of view of the
method’s sensitivity and proves that possible is the assessment of the level of blade overheating
with eddy current inspection method. The overheating is caused by excessive temperature of the
exhaust gas, time of affecting the material, and aggressiveness of the exhaust gas. The overheating
causes some change to the microstructure, which consists – among other things – in modification
of strengthening intercrystalline phase Ni3(Al,Ti) called the â§phase. This phase proves decisive to
heat resistance and high-temperature creep resistance of an alloy. In special cases, growth of the
â§ phase results in the coagulation of precipitations, and then dissipation thereof in the solid
solution. What results is reduction in heat resistance and high-temperature creep resistance of the
alloy.
However, it is necessary to emphasise that results obtained with the eddy-current inspection
method depend on many factors, i.e. the kind of blade material and protective coating, the eddy-
current testing apparatus, the range of pre-set parameters, etc. To get more complete image of
capabilities offered by this method it is necessary to carry out tests on much wider population of
objects under examination (blades made of different materials). However, preliminary results of
initial tests are promising.
4. )7,/*"7 (

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Diagnostic visual inspection being an element of preventive treatment to assure high safety
level of operating aeronautical equipment has been from the very beginning closely connected
with two elements - technical capabilities of available testing-and-measuring apparatus and
the professionalism (knowledge, experience) of the diagnostician who carries out inspection.
Introduction of a "human factor" and relying on his subjective assessment of the existing
diagnostic reality was and still is the reason for many expensive errors resulting from the decisions
taken. It often happens that, due to the application of outdated equipment and/or lack of suitable
knowledge, engines are withdrawn from service and transferred for expensive overhaul, although
their safe use is still possible. Taking into consideration the above-mentioned fact, the
development of diagnostic apparatus has been aimed at the improvement of quality of vision by
158
application of more perfect visual paths and elimination of the diagnostician from the laborious
measuring activities and interpretation of observed images. Videoscopes facilitate measurements
of: length, area, depth/height, distance from the straight line with accuracy of 0.01 mm, and at the
same time they give the value of error that burdens the resulting measurement, depending on the
distance of the measuring probe from the examined object. Special software enables measurements
either directly during the inspection or later on, with computers of the PC class. At present, there
are a few companies offering instruments/systems of similar capabilities and working parameters;
however, differing in the method of calculating certain quantities. The Olympus company uses the
stereoscopic method in their videoscopes, GE - the method of "shadow", and KARL STORZ - the
most recent laser method. All these methods use mathematical relations between two images
obtained with two lenses, properties of the shadow or laser markers thrown on examined
object/defect, and hence, provide high-accuracy measurements of the above-mentioned quantities.
They also allow to explicitly determine whether there is concavity or convexity of the material.
In [4] presented are methods of measurements of surface defects, which are based on digital
recording of the videoscope image with the "Stereo" method ("Stereo Probe") and with the
"Shadow" method ("Shadow Probe") - Fig. 9.
a) b)
Fig. 9. % | \

s ß;à: ã*å!Y ã* å
The next method developed as a diagnostic tool is the RGB method. In the RGB model
identified are three component colours: Red, Green, Blue. The method employs relations between
wave properties of light and physical-and-chemical properties of the examined surfaces, which
affect angular relations between the falling and the from the surface reflected light and elimination
of individual wave lengths in the spectrum of radiation that lights a given object [5]. Images
recorded with the CCD matrix in the course of diagnostic tests are analysed with special computer
software using complicated algorithms of image processing and earlier developed patterns that
allow qualitative assessment of the condition of the examined surface. The RGB model is
a theoretical model, the mapping of which depends on the device, which means that in every
instrument/system a particular RGB component can show slightly different spectral characteristics.
Therefore, every instrument/system can offer a slightly different range of colours. Thus, it is
necessary to develop algorithms for a given type of an instrument/system as well as patterns for
every individual type of examined surface, e.g. for turbine blades of particular turbine types.
The method more and more widely used in the technical diagnostics and based on the computer
analysis is the recognition of images. Optical methods of image recognition can be classified into
correlative and non-correlative. The correlative methods are based on visual comparison between
a recognised and a pattern object, and then on the analysis of obtained correlative signal. The non-
correlative methods consist in the analysis of characteristic features that describe the object and are
applied – among other things - when it is difficult to explicitly determine the target pattern, which
159
should be compared with the object. Until now, these methods have found their applications in the
industry, mainly in the production inspection, for the recognition of face features and fingerprints,
land relief, and building development on the basis of air photographs. Continued are also works on
the development of methods of image recognition as a commonly used diagnostic tool to be
applied in the process of operation/maintenance of aeronautical equipment – including the
diagnosing of condition of gas turbine blades.
Implementation of modern computer-based diagnostic tools provides noticeable increase in
reliability of the assessment of condition of gas turbine blades. This will also allow to gradually
eliminate the adverse effect of the so-called "human factor" on investigation results, and thus to
increase flight safety and reduce in-service cost of aircraft turbine engines.
5. *

In the process of operating aircraft turbine engines it may happen that turbine blades heat up to
temperature exceeding normal working temperature. The process of he gas turbine blade getting
damaged starts with destruction of the protective coating, which in turn results in that the blade
native material is directly exposed to aggressive influence of exhaust gas. This causes the
overheating of the material, which manifests itself with disadvantageous changes in the
microstructure.
The reliable assessment of these changes with non-destructive inspection methods allows in
some cases to prolong the period of engine operational use (the so-called controlled service) even
after detection of a damage, or withdraw the engine from use before dramatic effects of turbine
damage occur. However, any wrong decision of the diagnostician generates huge costs related with
hazards to flight safety, or may result in unnecessary engine overhaul, the cost of which may reach
even a few million PLZ.
Taking the above-mentioned facts into account it becomes evident that there is a real need to
apply – on much wider scale – the non-destructive inspection methods for current assessment of
the level of overheating of aircraft turbine engine blades.
R7
} , J.: The effect of high temperature on the degradation of heat-resistant and high-
temperature alloys. Solid State Phenomena, Vols. 147-149, pp. 744-752, 2009.
[2] Lewitowicz, J., Basics of use of airships. T.4, ITWL, Warszawa 2008.
#

}!<

Research reports. ITWL, Warszawa 2000-2008
(niepublikowane).
[4] Karczewski Z.: Endoscopic diagnostics of marine engines. Diagnostyka, 3(47)/2008, ss. 65-69.
[5] }
Bogdan M.: Diagnostic of condition of used gas turbine blades. Diagnostyka. Nr. 1
(45), 2008, pp. 91-96.
[6] Fotografie - portal FODNews.com
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160
SEMI-MARKOV MODEL OF MAINTENANCE
OF URBAN TRANSPORT BUSES
Bogdan Landowski
University of Technology and Life Sciences, Machine Maintenance Department

al. Kaliskiego 7, 85-789 Bydgoszcz, Poland
tel.:+48 52 3408495, fax: +48 52 3408495
email: lbogdan@atr.bydgoszcz.pl
Abstract
The object of the investigations is maintenance system of urban transport buses. The subject of the investigations
is a determined set of the maintenance states of means of transport and their maintenance processes, as well as the
relations occurring between the aforementioned elements, and between them and the maintenance process
effectiveness. The paper deals with the selected issues related to modelling, forecasting and controlling the
maintenance process of a certain class of technical objects being carried out in a complex maintenance system.
Supporting a decision maker in the decisions making process concerning the maintenance system under analysis is to
forecast the maintenance system behaviour and evaluate the influence of the selected decision making variants on the
course of the maintenance process. The purpose of the work is to present a possibility to use a semi-Markov model of
maintenance process of technical objects to preliminarily forecast the state of the maintenance system after changing
the values of the model input parameters. Changing the value of the input parameters may simulate an impact of
various factors on the system behaviour. The paper presents the assumptions to build a model of the process being
performed within the investigation object and the method of analysing it. The values of the model parameters were
assessed on the basis of the results of the preliminary test carried out in a real means of transport maintenance
system. All the considerations have been illustrated by a computational example. Due to the assumed generalization
degree of the description, the method to model and forecast the maintenance process presented herein may be used to
other maintenance systems than the urban bus transport system.
Keywords: operation and maintenance, maintenance process, modelling, semi-Markov process, urban public
transport
1. Introduction
When utilising vehicles, various events occur the results of which affect the courses of their
usage and service processes, as well as the economic effect generated by the transport system. The
vehicles in the maintenance process may be found in many different maintenance states that create
the state space S.
Evaluating, analysing and forecasting the effectiveness of work, as well as reliability and
readiness in the transport systems, are connected with the problems of mathematical modelling
maintenance processes of technical objects. Therefore, it is necessary to create a formalised
description of the processes performed in the means of transport maintenance system. The most
important processes are those of changing the technical states of the objects, and those of using
and servicing them. Those processes are random ones and depend on one another. The
161
mathematical models of those processes, by their very nature, shall be simplified. The practical
conclusions resulting from studying those models should be formulated carefully.
The selected maintenance states of vehicles, described in the models of their maintenance
processes, may change in various sequences, the order of which depends, to the great extent, on
the method of carrying out transportation and the vehicle service processes, type and technical
condition of the technical objects (including the means of transport), environmental conditions and
the decisions made by the operators and the authorities who manage the system.
Due to analysing the results of the investigations performed in a real vehicle maintenance
system, it has been found that there are no grounds to accept a hypothesis about the conformity of
empiric distributions of times of duration of the analysed maintenance states with the exponential
distribution. Therefore, the random process describing the changes of the maintenance states of the
vehicles used in the investigation object is not the Markov process used frequently to model the
problems of that type. Thus, the development method and possibilities of using the semi-Markov
model of maintenance process of technical objects for preliminary forecasting the state of the
maintenance system after changing the values of the model input parameters haven been presented
herein.
The values of the model parameters have been assessed on the basis of the results of the
preliminary tests carried out in a real means of transport maintenance system.
2. Model of maintenance process of a vehicle
The natural model of a bus maintenance process is a random process with a finite space of
states S and a set of the parameters R + . This process is denoted with the symbol {X(t) : t R + }. It
has been assumed that the semi-Markov process is a model which describes the real process of the
maintenance state changes relatively well. In the practical applications it is needed to verify, if
there are no grounds to reject the assumptions resulting from the mathematical apparatus applied.
The semi-Markov process {X(t) : t t 0} is defined by a homogeneous, two-dimensional
Markov chain:
{[ n ,- n : n N 0 } [ n S k , - n [0,f). (1)
such one, that the probabilities of transitions depend on the discrete coordinate:
P{[ n+1 = j, - n+1 d t / [ n =i, - n =t n } = P{[ n+1 = j, - n+1 d t / [ n =i} (2)
and
P{[ 0 = i, - 0 d 0}= P{[ 0 = i}. (3)
The two-dimensional Markov chain defined that way is called the Markov renewal process,
and the matrix:
Q(t ) : [Qij (t ) : i, j S ], t t 0 (4)
where:
Qij (t ) : P{[ n 1 j ,-n 1 d t / [ n i} (5)
is called the renewal kernel.
Let W 0 0, W n : -1 ... -n1 , k N oraz Q (t ) : max{n : W n d t} . The random process
{X k (t) : t t 0} defined by the formula:
X(t)=[ Q(t) (6)
is called the semi-Markov process generated by the renewal kernel Q(t).
As it results from this definition, the semi-Markov process takes constant values in the random
ranges:
X (t ) [ n for t >W n ,W n1 , n N 0 , (7)
Moreover, the sequence of random variables {X k (W n ) = [ n : n N 0 } is a homogeneous chain
with the transition probability matrix P:
162
P=[p ij ] = Q ij (f) : i, j S, (8)
which is called the Markov chain embedded in the semi-Markov process.
The symbol T ij is used to denote the time which is elapsing from the moment of the process
entering {X(t) : t R + } the state i S until the first change of that state into the state j S. For
the distribution F ij of the random variable T ij there are the following relations:
Qij (t )
Fij (t ) P{Tij t} P{W n1 W n d t X (W n1 ) j , X (W n ) i} when p ij > 0. (9)
pij
If p ij = 0 it is assumed that:
0 for t 1
Fij (t ) ® . (10)
¯1 for t t 1
The symbol T i is used to denote the time which is elapsing from the moment of entering the
state i S until the moment of the first change of that state:
Gi (t ) P{Ti t} P{W n 1 W n d t X (W n ) i} ¦ Qij (t ) . (11)
jS
Let P j (t) = P{X(t) = j}; j S stands for a one-dimensional distribution of the semi-Markov
process. If the analysed process {X(t), i t 0} is an ergodic one, then [4]:
g jmj
Pij lim Pij (t ) Pj lim Pj (t ) , i, j S, (12)
t of t of
¦ g i miiS
where:
g i - ergodic probabilities of the Markov chain,
and:
f
mi ³ 0
[1 Gi (t )]dt (13)
is a stationary distribution of the embedded Markov chain {X(W n ) : n N 0 }. The stationary
probabilities are the only solutions of the system of equations:
¦ g i pij g j , j S , ¦ g j 1 .
iS jS
(14)
3. Essential assumptions for the model of maintenance process of a bus
It has been assumed that the general mathematical model of the bus maintenance process
(maintenance state change process) is a stochastic process {X(t), t t 0}. The analysed stochastic
process {X(t), t t 0} has a finite phase space S, S={S 1 , S 2 , ..., S n }.
As a result of identification of the bus maintenance system in an urban transport system and the
maintenance process being performed therein, the following bus maintenance states significant for
the analysis of the investigated system operation have been selected:
x the state in which a technical object is used (realization of a transport task),
x the state in which a technical object waits for a corrective service to be performed in the
maintenance system environment (waiting for so called technical emergency service units),
x the state in which a service is performed in the maintenance system environment – the state in
which a bus is a subject to corrective service processes performed by so called technical
emergency service units due to occurrence of a vehicle damage when realizing the transport
tasks,
x the state in which a technical object waits for a corrective service to be performed in the
maintenance system,
x the state in which a corrective service is performed on a technical object in the maintenance
system,
163
x the state in which a technical object waits for pre-repair diagnosis,
x the state in which pre-repair diagnoses are performed on a technical object,
x the state in which a technical object waits for post-repair diagnosis,
x the state in which post-repair diagnoses are performed on a technical object,
x the state in which a service is performed on the day on which a technical object is used (so
called daily service),
x the state in which a technical object waits to undertake realization of a transport task (after
bringing back the task serviceability state a technical object does not perform the scheduled
transport task due to the method of organizing the transport tasks, e.g. in an urban bus transport
maintenance system determined by the existing transport task schedule, so called “timetable”),
x the state in which a technical object waits due to unserviceability of the environment,
x the state of a scheduled standstill of a technical object (no transport tasks e.g. in an urban bus
transport maintenance system resulting from the schedule of the transport tasks, including a
night transport break).
In order to illustrate the considerations, the following bus maintenance states, out of the
aforementioned ones, have been analysed:
S 1 - the state of a scheduled standstill of a bus,
S 2 - the state in which a vehicle is used (realization of a transport task),
S 3 - the state in which a bus is serviced in the system environment,
S 4 - the state in which a corrective service is performed on a vehicle in the maintenance system,
S 5 - the state of a corrective service performed during a scheduled standstill of a bus (at so
called bus depot)
It has been assumed that the set T is a sum of intervals of the bus maintenance time. It has been
assumed that the codes of the selected vehicle maintenance states correspond to the codes of the
states of the analysed stochastic process ^X t , t T `. The possible transitions between the selected
bus maintenance states have been determined. A matrix of the process state change intensity has
been assessed for the selected maintenance states.
The random variable expressing the duration of the state i S of the process, when the next
state is j S with the distribution determined by the distribution function Fij t , is denoted with
the symbol T ij .
Due to the structure of the data achieved on the basis of the results of investigations of a real
system, being indispensable to determine the semi-Markov process ^X t , t T `, it is convenient to
define such a process by determining the following three ( p, P, F (t )) elements:
- p > pi : i S @ - stochastic vector of the initial distribution process ^X t , t T `,
- P [ p ij : i, j S ] - matrix of transition probabilities of the Markov chain embedded in the
process ^X t , t T `,
- F t [ Fij t : i, j S ] - matrix of distribution functions of the conditional distributions of the
random variables T ij , i,j S of the times remaining in the states.
To simplify further investigations it has been assumed that F ij (t) = G i (t), i, j S. The function
G i (t) is a distribution function of distribution of the duration time of the state i S . This
assumption means that the duration of the current state does not depend on the next process state.
The state space S consists of five states S = {S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , S 4 , S 5 } in the considered example. The
possible transitions between the selected bus maintenance states, presented by the relation (15),
were determined on the basis of identification of a real investigation object (a maintenance system
of an urban bus transport system) and the maintenance processes performed therein.
164
ª 0 p12 0 p14 p15 º
«p »
« 21 0 p 23 p 24 0 »
P « p 31 p 32 0 p 34 0 » (15)
« »
«p 41 0 0 0 0»
«¬ p 51 0 0 p 54 0 »¼
The transition matrix of the embedded Markov chain estimated on the basis of the results from
the performed preliminary maintenance investigations is formulated as follows:
ª 0 0,9998 0 0,0001 0,0001º
« 0,986
« 0 0,013 0,001 0 »»
P « 0,11 0,84 0 0,05 0 » (16)
« »
« 1 0 0 0 0 »
«¬0,9999 0 0 0,0001 0 »¼
The values of the estimators of the maximum credibility, formulated as stated below, have been
adopted as statistical estimations of the transition probabilities of the embedded Markov chain:
nij
pij (17)
¦ nij jS
where:
n ij - the number of the direct chain state changes, from the state i into the state j in its finite
process realization.
The determined limiting distribution of the Markov chain embedded in the considered semi-
Markov process is presented in the Table 1.
Table 1. Limiting distribution of the embedded Markov chain
g1 g2 g3 g4 g5
0,49362066 0,49897069 0,00648662 0,00087267 0,00004936
The expected values E(T i ), i S of the distributions determined by the empiric distribution
function are the estimations 3 i of the expected value of the time T i of duration of the state i S:
1 ni ( m )
3i ¦ (ti )
ni m 1
(18)
where:
n i ¦ n ij ,
jS
(1) (ni )
- independent realizations of the random variable T i which stands for the
t i ,..., t i
duration of the state i.
The expected times of duration 3 i of the considered maintenance states (expressed in hours)
estimated on the basis of the preliminary data are presented in the Table 2.
Table 2. Expected values of times of duration of the analysed maintenance states
3 3 3 3 3
6 15,7608 0,0456 2,16 0,0336
165
The determined limiting distribution of the semi-Markov process constituting the model of the
maintenance process of a single bus is presented in the Table 3.
Table 3. Limiting distribution of the analysed process
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
0,27352245 0,72627600 0,00002732 0,00017408 0,00000015
4. Model of maintenance process of a set of vehicles
Assuming that n of homogenous vehicles with the codes k N, forming the set Z of vehicles,
are used in the maintenance system, a simplified model of the state change process of the elements
in this set has been developed.
It has been assumed that the independent semi-Markov processes {X k (t) : t t 0},
k N = {l, ..., n} determined by identical kernels Q(t) described with the relation (4) are the model
of the bus maintenance process. The assumption that the processes are independent is just an
approximation of the real maintenance processes. In fact, some bus states may have influence over
the maintenance states of other buses.
The random vector:
X(t) = [X 1 (t), X 2 (t), ..., X n (t)] (19)
describes the process of changes of maintenance states of the set of buses of the considered vehicle
maintenance system. With such an assumption it is possible to determine the total distribution of
this random vector, that is:
P{X 1 (t) = i 1 , X 2 (t) = i 2 , ..., X n (t) = i n } = P i1 (t) P i2 (t) ... P in (t), (20)
where: i 1 , i 2 ..., i n S.
The random variable:
N i (t) = #{k N : X k (t) = i}, t t 0, i S (21)
stands for the number of buses in the state i at the moment t.
The random vector {(N 1 (t), N 2 (t), ... , N 8 (t)) : t t 0} has multinomial distribution, which
means:
n!
P{N1 (t ) i1 , N1 (t ) i2 , ... , N 5 (t ) i5 } [ P1 (t )]i1 [ P2 (t )]i2 ,...,[ P5 (t )]i5 (22)
i1!i2 !...i5 !
where: i 1 + i 2 + ... + i 5 = n.
The equation [7] results from the limit theorem for the semi-Markov processes:
lim P{N1 (t ) i1 , N1 (t ) i2 , ... , N 5 (t ) i5 }

t of
n! n! i i i
lim [ P1 (t )]i1 [ P2 (t )]i2 ,..., [ P5 (t )]i5 P1 1 P2 2 ,..., P5 5
i1!i2 !...i5 ! t of i1!i2 !...i5 !
n!S 1 1 m1 1S 2 2 m2 2 ... S 5 5 m5 5
i i i i i i
(23)
§ ·
i1!i2 !...i5 !¨ ¦ S i mi ¸
© iS ¹
The expected value of the considered random vector is formulated as:
E[(N 1 (t), N 2 (t),..., N 5 (t))] = (nP 1 (t), nP 2 (t),..., nP 5 (t)). (24)
The coordinates of this vector stand for the expected number of buses in the analysed
maintenance states i, i = 1, 2, ..., 5, at the moment t. Therefore, the value: E[(N i (t)] = nP i (t),
i S, t t 0 stands for the expected number of buses in the state i at the moment t.
166
The variance of the random variables N i takes the form:
V[(N i (t)] = nP i (t)(1- P i (t)) , iS,tt0, (25)
while the covariance is expressed with the relation:
Cov[(N i (t), (N j (t)] = - nP i (t)(1- P j (t)) , i,j S , i z j, t t 0 . (26)
The expected value of the random variable N i which stands for the number of buses in the state
i in a system working for a long time may be determined using the relation:
E[ N i ] lim E[( N i (t ))] nPi , i S . (27)
t of
The expected value of the random vector [N 1 , N 2 , ..., N 5 ] in the considered model is:
E[(N 1 , N 2 ,..., N 5 )] = (nP 1 , nP 2 ,..., nP 5 ). (28)
The coordinates of this vector stand for the expected number of buses in the determined states
in a system working for a long time. The statistical estimation of the elements of this vector is:
E(N i ) = n P i , i S. (29)
The limiting variance for the state i S is:
V[N i ] = n P i (1 – P i ), i S, (30)
while the limiting covariance of the state pairs is expressed with the relation:
Cov[(N i (t), (N j (t)] = - nP i (1- P j ), i,j S, i z j . (31)
The determined expected numbers of buses in the specified states in a system working for a
long time for the investigated bus maintenance system and the adopted data and n = 203 are
presented in the Table 4.
Table 4. Statistical estimation of the expected number of buses in the specified states in a system working for a long
time (n = 203)
E(N1) E(N2) E(N3) E(N4) E(N5)

55,53 147,43 0,01 0,04 0,00
It is possible to simulate such an event that the scope of the transport service realization is
reduced. Such a situation may take place when it is not profitable to realize transportation by
means of specific bus lines or in case of a failure to win another tender for the transportation tasks
performed before. If it is decided not to handle one of the bus lines, the number of the necessary
vehicles would be reduced by 17 vehicles. For such a variant, the determined expected values of
the number of buses in the specified states in a system working for a long time are presented in the
Table 5. The calculation results may serve to preliminarily forecast the demand for the corrective
service realization both in the system (service station) and in its environment (technical emergency
service units), as well as the system operation costs and the number of vehicles necessary to
provide continuous transportation.
Tab. 5. Statistical estimation of the number of buses in the specified states in a system working for a long time
(n = 186)
E(N1) E(N2) E(N3) E(N4) E(N5)

50,88 135,09 0,01 0,03 0,00
5. Summary
The purpose of the investigations presented herein was, among others, to show a possibility to
use selected stochastic processes for mathematical modelling the system and the process of vehicle
maintenance.
167
The considered example of the model of maintenance process of urban transport buses is
characterised by a considerable simplification (due to the nature of the work). However, the
presented way to create models of that type and analyse them indicates that they may be used to
preliminarily forecast the system state, and to simulate changes of the internal and external
interactions affecting the system and to support the decision makers in the decision making
process concerning control of the maintenance process and the system in which it is performed.
The analysis of results of the investigations performed shows that the developed model is
susceptible to a change of the input parameter values.
The mathematical models of the maintenance processes, performed in complex systems, are by
their very nature a considerable simplification of the real processes. The consequence of this is a
necessity to carefully formulate practical conclusions resulting from investigating those models.
However, in the opinion of the author, it does not limit the purposefulness of developing and
analysing models of that type. The analysis of the results of investigating those models, for the
model parameter values, determined on the basis of the results of maintenance tests performed in a
real transport system, makes it possible to formulate conclusions and opinions both of a qualitative
and (to the limited extent) quantitative nature.
Appropriate formulation of the investigation goals, expected results and variants of simulation
of behaviour of the analysed system makes it possible, due to analysing the models of that type, to
perform, among other things, preliminary evaluation of influence of the considered decision
variants (concerning such things as the number of vehicles required to assure effective realization
of the transport tasks, frequency and scope of the technical services performed, etc.) on the course
and effectiveness of the investigated maintenance process.
The presented method to build models of changes of vehicle maintenance states and the semi-
Markov process used to model the maintenance process of urban transport buses may be, in a
relatively simple way, applied for other maintenance systems than the considered one.
References
[1] Bobrowski D.: Mathematical models and methods of reliability theory in examples and
exercises. WNT, Warsaw 1985.
[2] Bobrowski, D., Probabilistics in technical applications. WNT, Warsaw 1986.
[3] Buslenko, =
#
W., Kowalenko, I., Theory of complex systems. PWN, Warsaw
1979.
[4] Koroluk, W.S., Turbin, A.F., &

o
? Naukowa Dumka,
Kijów 1976.
[5] Landowski, B., Maintenance model of a certain class of technical objects. Scientific
Journals No. 229. Mechanics 48. University Publishing House ATR, Bydgoszcz 2000.
[6] Mine, H., Osaki, S., Markowskije processy priniatija reszenij. Science, Moscow 1977.
[7] Woropay, M., Grabski, F., Landowski, B., Semi-Markov model of the vehicle operation
and maintenance processes within an urban transportation system. Scientific Publishers
PTNM, the Archives of Automotive Engineering Vol. 7, No. 3, 2004.
[8] Woropay, M., Knopik, L., Landowski B., Modelling the maintenance and operation
processes in a transport system. Library of Maintenance Problems. ITE, Bydgoszcz - Radom
2001.
[9] Woropay, M., Landowski, B., Neubauer, A., Controlling reliability in transport systems.
Library of Maintenance Problems. ITE, Radom 2004.
[10] Woropay, M., Landowski, B., Simulation analysis of the maintenance and operation
processes in an urban transport system. Scientific Journals No. 212. Mechanics 42. University
Publishing House ATR, Bydgoszcz 1998.
168
EFFECT OF SUPPLY VOLTAGE ON THE DOSAGE OF FUEL
IN INJECTION SYSTEM THE COMMON RAIL TYPE
Kazimierz Lejda, Adam Ustrzycki
Rzeszow University of Technology

Al. Powstaców Warszawy 8, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland
tel.: +48 17 8651597, +48 17 8651531
fax: +48 17 8543112
e-mail: klejda@prz.edu.pl, austrzyc@prz.edu.pl
Summary
Common Rail systems are most frequently used solution to the fuel supply system of Diesel engines. This is due to
due to their high potential to shape the characteristics of fuel injection. One of the important requirements for each
injection system is precision dose control and its onset, that is, as a consequence of the start of the combustion
process. The most important parameters affecting the accuracy of dosing injection systems are, of course injection
time, pressure of fuel in the rail and the fuel temperature. Influence on the size of the dose but also other factors,
which include the supply voltage, which may be subject to significant change during the start-up of engine. The issue
of start-up is becoming of interest to EURO standards, as the processes occurring in the course have
a significant impact on the level of pollutants in the exhaust of internal combustion engine. Increased in this period,
emissions of toxic compounds results from the unstable processes in the engine cylinder, as well as dynamic changes
in the parameters of injection and in the start-up system, in particular, changes in voltage resulting from a large
collection of current from the battery. Thus, the article attempted to determine the impact of voltage supply on the
dosage of fuel in different operation conditions of the injection system. In particular attention was paid to the size of
the dose and the actual changes at the beginning of fuel injection voltage changes. The study was conducted on a test
stand, which were the main components of the test bench Bosch EPS-815 with electronic measurement of fuel dose
and the visualization system AVL Visioscope. Control of the injector was performed using the self-developed
controller.
Key words: Common rail, fuel injection, control injection, precision dosing of fuel
1. Introduction
Common Rail fuel supply systems have high potential in shaping the fuel injection
characteristics. For that reason, they are now widely used systems of fuel injection for diesel
engines [3, 7, 8]. Diesel injection system is expected to provide a high precision metering of fuel
amount injected into the cylinder, accuracy in injection start timing control and repeatability of
that. Many factors contribute to above capacities including, inter alia, accurate control of injection
duration and timing, which depends on the electronic control unit design and the kind of input
signals that it uses, the injection pressure, the fuel parameters [4, 5, 10, 11], and the power supply
voltage. On the accuracy of injected fuel amount, the factors related to the injection process
progressing have also a significant impact, especially when multi-split injection is implemented.
Pressure pulsations triggered by pilot injection, the amplitude of which may reach even 60 MPa,
change the fuel quantity of main injection and its start angle position as well [9]. The changes in
voltage, especially during the engine start-up, can be so considerable, that in effect they may cause
169
the changes of the injector coil current value and emerged magnetic stream. Fluctuations of this
stream will affect the magnetic force lifting the injector control valve, so the entire range of
injector operation.
In this article the impact of supply voltage on the injected fuel quantity and the actual start of
fuel injection are studied.
2. Test stand and measurement methodology
To determine the effect of voltage variations on the dosage of fuel, the test stand was built,
which consist of a few key devices like: the test bench Bosch EPS-815 joined to the fuel delivery
electronic measurement device Bosch KMA-822 with heat exchanger, and the module for testing
the Common Rail system CRS-845. The fuel was injected into the special transparent chamber
filled with the fuel, that enables the observation of injected fuel sprays. Fuel propagation inside the
measuring chamber was recorded with use of visualization system AVL Visioscope. It was
captured at every 0.1q of pump shaft angle. The layout of the test stand is shown on Fig. 1.
29 30
21
28
19 20
15 17 18
16
22 11
12 13 14
3
27 6 7
5
2 4
8
9
10
23 24 25 26
Fig. 1. The test stand layout: 1-test bench Bosch EPS 815, 2-high pressure rail, 3-fuel delivery measurement device
Bosch KMA 822, 4-control module of high-pressure pump, 5,15- piezoresistive pressure sensors, Kistler 4067A2000,
6- rail pressure sensor, 7- rail pressure regulators, 8-fuel temperature sensor, 9-high pressure pump 10-pump shaft
position and rotational speed optical sensor of AVL 365C, 11-light pipe, 12-digital camera PixelFly VGA,
13-endoscope, 14-visualization chamber, 16-tested injector, 17-measurement connector of injector control voltage,
18-injector current sensor PA-55, 19- microprocessor controller of injector, 20, 21-charge amplifiers Kistler 4618A0,
22-light unit, 23-computer with control software of injector,24-visualisation system AVL Visioscope, 25-computer with
software for test bench controlling and for measuring of fuel delivery, 26-computer with data acquisition devices for
high-speed parameters recording, 27,28-temperature sensors, 29,30-termometers EMT 101
170
Research in each measurement series were carried out at a fixed temperature of the injected
fuel, which was measured in outlet pipe of the measuring chamber. The temperature of the fuel in
the tank was stabilized at around 40 ± 1ºC. As the testing device the Bosch injector from the
engine Fiat Multijet 1.3 (marked 445 010 083) was used. For injector operation control the
electronic unit developed in Department of Automotive Vehicles and Internal Combustion Engines
of Rzeszów University of Technology was used. Detailed description of the controller is presented
in the work [1].
The primary purpose of the study was to determine the injected fuel amount and actual start of
fuel injection depending on supplying voltage. The study was conducted for single injection
strategy in order to avoid the changes in injection delivery that may arise from variations of
pressure due to implementation of multi-split injection [2,6]. In order to determine precisely the
actual start of injection, the progress of fuel spray was recorded by visualization system AVL
Visioscope with an angular resolution of 0.1° of pump shaft revolution. That accuracy level was
possible to obtain owing to use of pulse angle encoder AVL 365C mounted on the shaft of test
bench. Pulses generated by the transmitter were also used as the input signal for the electronic
injector controller. In this case, the angular resolution of 720 pulses per revolution was available,
what gives a very high precision of controlling the start of fuel injection.
For recording the progress of injection process a digital VGA camera and the endoscope of
AVL Visioscope system were used. Figure 2 presents the photographs of fuel sprays in the
measuring chamber that were captured in the same angle position of pump shaft but for different
values of supply voltage.
Supply voltage U=9 V Supply voltage U=11 V
Fig. 2. Progressing frames of fuel spray flowing out the

tip of Fiat Multijet injector recorded at the same angle
position of pump shaft for different values of supply
Supply voltage U=13 V
voltage (pressure in the rail prail = 125 MPa,
injection time tinj = 1 ms, n = 1000 rpm)
171
As can be noticed, at the supply voltage of 9 V the fuel sprays there are at the initial phase of
their progress, while at the supply voltage of 13 V they are already in mid-expanded stage.
The injector control system was powered from a battery, which was also connected to the
charger with a free and precise adjustment of supplying voltage and current feature. It allows for
the voltage power supply to stay highly stable and reliable. The research were conducted for the
voltage varied from 9 to 13 V, beginning from lower value. In order to perform it, the battery was
partially discharged and loaded by an additional resistance increasing current consumption. Since
the study was conducted at different durations of the injection, which causes the changes in the
injector input current, each time after changing the injection time the supply voltage was re-
adjusted. The tests were made for injection durations changed in the range of 1 to 3 ms, for three
values of fuel pressure in the whole system equals 75, 100, and 125 MPa and at rotational speed of
1,000 rpm. In addition, for specific values of injection time and pressure some studies on the
impact of supply voltage on the fuel injected quantity at different pump shaft speeds changed from
600 to 2000 rpm have been carried out.
3. Test results
Fig. 3 presents the volume of fuel injected versus the time of injection for different values of
voltage U and fixed rotational speed n = 1000 rpm and pressure in the rail 75 MPa. For the voltage
below 11 V this relationship ceases to be linear, and further, for the voltage below 9.5 V, the
amount of fuel injected becomes a random, and increasing the time of injection does not make it
higher. Thus, these results are not included in the figure. Reducing supply voltage results in a
delay in opening the electromagnetic valve and thereby the start of injection delays also (Fig. 4).
For the change in supply voltage from 13 V to 9.5 V, the delay at this rotational speed is exceeds
1ºof pump shaft angle.
100
Pump speed, n=1000 rpm
90 Voltage U=9,5 V
Voltage U=10,0 V
80
Voltage U=11,0 V
Fuel dose, Q [mm3/stroke]
70 Voltage U=12 V
Voltage U=13 V
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Injection time, tinj [ms]
Fig. 3. The fuel dose quantity Q versus the injection time tinj at different values of voltage U
(the pressure in the rail prail = 75 MPa, n = 1000 rpm)
Fig. 5 presents the changes of the value of fuel dose quantity Q depending on the supply
voltage for different values of fuel pressure in the rail and for fixed injection time of 1 ms. The
temperature of the fuel flowing out the chamber was 90ºC for the injection pressure of 100 and
172
125 MPa, but 75ºC for the injection pressure of 75 MPa due to the fact, that attainment 90ºC of
fuel temperature at this value of injection pressure was not possible.
As can be seen, the variation range of injected fuel quantity is very wide; it changes about
5 mm3/stroke per each 1 V of drop, where at the voltage less than 10 V this value still increases.
For longer injection time of 3 ms, these changes fit in the exponential curve; in this case a
significant reduction in the injected fuel amount is already noticed at a voltage of 11 V (Fig. 6).
Minor changes of fuel amount at shorter injection time can be explained by the influence of
capacitor, whose stabilizing action becomes little at increasing injection time.
-50,0
-50,5
Injection start angle, D [deg]
-51,0
-51,5
Pump speed, n=1000 rpm

-52,0 Voltage U=9,5 V
Voltage U=10,0 V
Voltage U=11,0 V
-52,5 Voltage U=12 V
Voltage U=13 V
-53,0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Injection time, tinj [ms]
Fig. 4. Changes in the actual start of injection versus the injection time tinj for different values
of voltage U (the pressure in the rail prail = 75 MPa, n = 1000 rpm)
70
Injection time, tinj=1 ms

60 Pressure, prail=75 MPa
Pressure, prail=100 MPa
50
40
30
20
10
0
8,00 9,00 10,00 11,00 12,00 13,00 14,00
Voltage, U [V]
Fig. 5. Effect of supply voltage U on the fuel injected quantityQ for different values of pressure in the rail prail
(injection time tinj = 1 ms, n = 1000 rpm)
173
In Fig. 7 the relationship between injected fuel amount Q and pump shaft speed n for three
different values of supply voltage of 9, 11, and 13 V, injection time of 3 ms and the fuel pressure
of 75 MPa is presented. At 9 V, the injected fuel amount corresponds to only about 15% of the
amount at higher voltage values. In principle, the injected fuel quantity does not dependent on the
speed, although for larger values of supply voltage a slight increase of injected fuel volume at
higher rotational speeds can be observed.
140
Injection time, tinj=3 ms
120 Pressure, prail=100 MPa
100
80
60
40
20
0
8,00 9,00 10,00 11,00 12,00 13,00 14,00
Voltage, U [V]
Fig. 6. Effect of supply voltage U on the injected fuel amount Q for different values of pressure in the rail prail
(injection time tinj = 3 ms, n = 1000 rpm)
100
90
80
70 Injection time tinj=3 ms

Voltage U=9 V
60 Voltage U=11 V
Voltage U=13 V
50
40
30
20
10
0
500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100
Pump speed, n [rpm]
Fig. 7. The injected fuel amount Q versus the pump shaft speed n for different values of voltage U
(injection time tinj = 3.0 ms, the pressure in the rail prail = 75 MPa)
Figure 8 presents the changes in the start of injection angle position depending on the pump
shaft speed. As can be seen, the time delay of needle lift associated with a reduction of voltage
value is constant, what results in increasing the value of changes in injection beginning angle
174
position at increasing pump shaft speed. However, throughout the whole analysis range the change
of voltage from 11 V to 9 V causes greater differences in the injection beginning angle position
than as for the change from 13 to 11 V. In the same conditions of system operation, similar
changes occur for a longer injection time.
-45
Injection time tinj=1 ms

-46
Voltage U=9 V
-47 Voltage U=11 V
Injection start angle, D [deg]
Voltage U=13 V
-48
-49
-50
-51
-52
-53
-54
-55
500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100
Pump speed, n [rpm]
Fig. 8. Changes of the injection start angle position depending on the pump shaft speed n for different values of the
voltage U (injection time tinj = 1 ms, n = 1000 rpm)
4. Conclusions
Analyzing the results obtained, it should be noted that the change in supply voltage
significantly affects the injected fuel quantity. The lower injection pressure, the more significant
the relative changes of that are. It may further affect the injected fuel amount, especially at low
engine speeds. Changes in the angle position of the injection start for low speeds are negligible,
and taking into account that at high speeds and alternator order working, the voltage fluctuations
are smooth and should not be large, so their impact on this parameter can be neglected..
However, the injector may not open at all, if the voltage would be to low, especially at low fuel
temperature. The injector operation principle at low values of voltage depends to a large extent on
the kind of capacitor used in the controller. The boundary values of voltage, at which the injector
will still work, also depend on the parameters of the injector coil, and so, also on the coil
temperature, that may change due to the temperature of the fuel, as well as working time of the
injector.
In conclusion, the voltage fluctuations can significantly affect the value of fuel quantity
injected by the Common Rail system into the engine cylinders, which may adversely affect the
emissions of pollutants in the engine exhaust. The elimination of these changes can be obtained by
applying an additional electricity storage device e.g. by placing the suitably selected capacitor in
the controller or by the use of a separate power source for the injectors, so that the change of the
battery voltage during engine start-up and immediately after does not affect the accuracy and
quality of injection control in the meaning of fuel dosing in these phases of Diesel engine work.
175
References
[1] Balawender K., Wpyw wybranych parametrów regulacyjnych procesu wtrysku na emisj'
czstek staych w silniku wysokopr'nym typu DI. Rozprawa doktorska. Rzeszów 2007.
[2] Balawender K., Kuszewski H., Lejda K, Ustrzycki A., The influence of mutual angle position
of main, pilot and preinjection dose on fuel dosing in common rail system. Journal of POLISH
CIMAC - Energetic Aspects, Vol. 3, No. 1, Gdansk 2008.
[3] Kuszewski H., Lejda K., Wybrane metody ograniczania toksyczno ci spalin silnika ZS
w aspekcie limitów emisyjnych. Journal of KONES „Powertrain and Transport”, Vol. 13,
No.1, Warszawa 2006.
[4] Kuszewski H., Ustrzycki A., Badania procesu dawkowania paliwa w zasobnikowym
ukadzie wtryskowym. ½ðÞÝ¼ ßïæãÞïíîÞãþã áâïÞðòãâáÞãþã ñÞåàâðÝáàáñ, No 14/2007,
ÃÝå 2007.
[5] Kuszewski H., Ustrzycki A., Wpyw parametrów pracy zasobnikowego ukadu wtryskowego
na rzeczywisty pocztek wtrysku paliwa. Polskie Towarzystwo Naukowe Silników
Spalinowych, Silniki Spalinowe, „Mixture Formation, Ignition & Combustion”, 2007-SC2,
2007.
[6] Kuszewski, H., Ustrzycki, A., Balawender, K., Lejda, K., The effect of multi-phasing injection
on selected parameters of high-pressure fuel system Common Rail. Polskie Towarzystwo
Naukowe Silników Spalinowych, Silniki Spalinowe, Nr 4/2008.
[7] Lejda K, Selected problems of fuel supply in high-speed Diesel engines. Publishers “Meta”,
Lwów 2004.
[8] Praca zbiorowa, Zasobnikowe ukady wtryskowe Common Rail. Informatory techniczne
Bosch. WKi, Warszawa 2005.
[9] Ustrzycki A., Wpyw zjawisk falowych na proces dawkowania paliwa w ukadzie wtryskowym
typu Common Rail silnika wysokopr'nego. Prace Zachodniego Centrum Akademii
Transportu Ukrainy, Lwów 2009.
[10] Ustrzycki A, Kuszewski H., Badania pocztku wtrysku paliwa w ukadzie wtryskowym typu
Common Rail. Mat. XVII Konferencji Mi?dzynarodowej SAKON’06 nt. „Metody
Obliczeniowe i Badawcze w Rozwoju Pojazdów Samochodowych i Maszyn Roboczych
Samojezdnych. Zarzdzanie i Marketing w Motoryzacji”, Rzeszów 2006.
[11] Ustrzycki A., Kuszewski H., Wpyw temperatury wtryskiwanego paliwa na wielko dawki w
zasobnikowym ukadzie wtryskowym typu Common Rail. Mat. XVIII Mi?dzynarodowej
Konferencji Naukowej SAKON’07 nt. ”Metody obliczeniowe i badawcze w rozwoju
pojazdów samochodowych i maszyn roboczych samojezdnych. Zarzdzanie i marketing
w motoryzacji”, Rzeszów 2007.
176
GAS TURBINE ENGINES – THROUGH IMPROVED
MAINTAINABILITY TO IMPROVED OPERATIONAL READINESS
IN NAVY HELICOPTERS
Olgierd Wieczorek* J>"Q

>(>#"*
*Inspectorate for Armed Forces Suport
85-915 Bydgoszcz ul. Dwernickiego1
e-mail: stolo@wp.pl
**Air Force Institute of Technology
01-494 Warszawa ul.
'
`
e-mail: jerzy.lewitowicz@itwl.pl andrzej.zyluk@itwl.pl
Abstract
Reliability needs of the military focus primarily on operational readiness, longevity, supportability,
robustness. That means product performance on demand, long useful life, repair ability and satisfactory performance
over environmental extremes. Availability requirements of modern systems and equipment demand that designing for
maintainability must be as important as designing for other performance characteristics.
Keywords: helicopter, exploatation, gas turbine engine
Customer needs are always very high. The challenge to the manufacturer or service provider is
how to assess and define true customer expectations and then how to design, manufacture and sell
the product to best meet those expectations. Military customer is specific. The air force is very
specific but navy aviation is extremely specific. There are numerous differences between the needs
of a typical customer and a navy aviation customer. Reliability needs of the military focus
primarily on operational readiness, longevity, supportability, robustness. That means product
performance on demand, long useful life, repair ability and satisfactory performance over
environmental extremes [1]. A thorough understanding of the environment in which the product is
intended to operate is the major consideration in determining the ability of a product to meet the
operational reliability needs of the military. The environment is a critical factor in determining the
suitability of the equipment for military use, especially in the navy aviation. Each product must
provide operational capabilities which allow military forces to maintain technological and logistics
superiority over a potential adversary even if it is just natural or induced environment which can
be expected over the operational and maintenance portions of life cycle. Degradation or loss of
these operational capabilities typically can result in immediate loss of human life and equipment
(Fig. 1, 2) [2].
177
Fig. 1
Availability requirements of modern systems and equipment demand that designing for
maintainability must be as important as designing for other performance characteristics. According
to military definition, maintainability is a measure of the ability of an item to be retained in or
restored to a specified condition when maintenance is performed by personnel having specified
skill levels, using prescribed procedures and resources, at each prescribed level of maintenance or
repair. You can find some other definitions connecting effectiveness and economy and efficiency.
Fig.2
There are two examples of naval helicopter engines (Fig. 3):
Fig. 3
The T700-GE-401 engine is a front drive, turbo shaft engine featuring a single spool gas
generator section consisting of a five–stage axial, single stage centrifugal flow compressor, a
178
through–flow annular combustion chamber, a two–stage axial flow gas generator turbine, and a
free or independent two–stage axial flow power turbine. The power turbine shaft, which has a
rated speed of 20,900 rmp, is co–axial and extends to the front of the engine. The engine
incorporates an integral inlet particle separator, a top–mounted accessory package, an engine –
driven fuel boost pump, a self–contained lubrication system, condition monitoring, diagnostic
provisions, a hydro mechanical control system, and an electrical control system or digital
electronic control system (401C version) providing power turbine speed control, dual engine load
sharing, temperature limiting, and redundant power turbine over speed protection. The T700-GE-
401 engine also has a contingency power rating for use under one engine inoperative conditions.
Engine control system has all the components necessary for the proper and complete control of
the engine. This system provides for fuel handling, fuel computation, compressor bleed and
variable geometry control, PT over speed control protection, over temperature protection and
torque matching. This system is self–contained and does not require external electrical power for
any controlling functions. It also allows replacement of any weapon replaceable assembly (WRA)
without calibration. The following units make up the control system:
- Hydro mechanical control unit, The HMU schedules fuel for combustion. It contains a
high-pressure pump. The HMU has an actuator arm that positions the inlet guide vanes, the
variable compressor vanes, and the anti-icing bleed and start valve. The HMU responds to
engine inlet air temperature (T2), to compressor discharge air pressure (P3), and to a trim
signal from the ECU/DEC to set fuel flow and variable vane positioning. It is designed to
be adjusted at depot only. Adjustments to the HMU are safety wired to prevent adjustment
at intermediate maintenance level,
- Electrical control unit (ECU) /Digital electronic control (DEC), Used for diagnostic testing
of the engine electrical control system, interface with the test stand system and some
sensors,
- Fuel boost pump. The fuel boost pump is an engine-mounted suction-type pump. It is not
self priming.
- Fuel filter. The main parts of the fuel filter are: a disposable filter element, an impending
bypass indicator button, a bypass relief valve, and an actual filter bypass sensor.
- Overspeed and drain valve which has three functions. First, it sends fuel through the main
fuel manifold to the fuel injectors for starting, accelerating, and engine operation. Second,
it purges the fuel injectors of fuel when the engine is shut down. It does this by allowing
compressor discharge air (P3) to pass through the injectors. Third, it controls Np overspeed
by cutting off engine fuel flow.
- Anti-icing bleed and start valve
- Ignition exciter. The ignition system is a noncontiguous, ac-powered, capacitor discharge
type. It includes two igniter plugs, two electrical ignition leads, and an ignition exciter
assembly. Power is supplied to the ignition exciter assembly by the engine's alternator
during starting only.
- Np sensor: The power turbine rotor speed (Np) governing system compares the signal sent
from the Np sensor with the Np selected by the operator. It varies fuel flow by actuating
the torque motor in the Hydro mechanical control unit (HMU). Power turbine rotor speed
is governed with ±1% of required rotor speed.
There are some engine control components, test cell systems and diagnostic equipment.
Turbine gas temperature (TGT) limiting system. The TGT limiting system overrides the power
turbine rotor speed governing system and the load-sharing system when TGT reaches 1542ºF. It
limits fuel flow to hold a maximum 1542ºF TGT by actuating the torque motor in the HMU. The
TGT limiting system is accurate to within ±9ºF. Np over speed protection system. The Np over
speed protection system (fig. 12) receives a power turbine speed signal from the torque and over
179
speed sensor. When Np exceeds 25,000 ± 250 rpm, output from the protection system activates a
solenoid in the ODV. This shuts off fuel flow causing the engine to shut down. Load-sharing
system. In twin-engine installations, the digital electronic controls (DEC) compare torque signals,
for automatic load sharing. Hot Start Prevention (HSP). The HSP system prevents over
temperature during engine start. The HSP system receives power turbine speed signal, gas
generator speed signal, and turbine gas temperature (TGT). When Np and Ng are below their
respective hot start reference and turbine gas temperature (TGT) exceeds 1652°F and output from
the HSP system activates a solenoid in the ODV. This shuts off fuel flow and causes the engine to
shut down. Fault Indication. The DEC contains signal validation for selected input signals within
the electrical control system. Signals are continuously validated when the engine is operating at
flight idle and above. If a failure has occurred, the failed component or related circuit will be
identified by a pre-selected fault code. It is possible to have more than one fault detected. Each
code should be treated as an individual fault. It should be noted that the signal validation does not
recognize aircraft instrument related failure. Fault codes will be displayed on the engine torque
indicator.
Next the TW3-117M engine for the Mi-14 helicopters (Fig. 4) designed by S. Izotow team at
Klimow Company. The turbine converts the potential energy of gas to mechanical work of the
rotor that can be used by the consuming device. New materials have enforced some improvements
to increase the gas temperature before the turbine without changing the geometry of the flow
section, and the takeoff power. Further improvements are made to develop an advanced cooling
system, use new materials including cermets, and reduce the weight of the turbine.
Fig. 4
Each type of engine has its own manual containing introductory information necessary to
assure proper maintenance of the system. It includes all items having an approved mandatory
component replacement interval and those items requiring Conditional inspections that shall be
accomplished at the occurrence of an over limit situation. Conditional Inspection requirements
include a brief description of what is to be performed and a reference to the manual or directive
containing detailed requirements. Replacement items are indicated in unit hours, calendar time,
cycles or event and are arranged by engine systems. All T700 engine hardware is tracked with
Aeronautical Equipment Service Record. There are some cases like: salt water landing, hard
landing, over–water hoisting operation, over–torque, overspeed, sudden stoppage, over
temperature, oil pressure loss, engine operation limits exceeded, required conditional inspection in
compliance with technical manual cards. The Chief Engineer established maintenance program for
Naval Air Force which outlines the system of three levels of maintenance: organizational level (O-
level), Intermediate (I-level) and depot-level (D-level) maintenance. The most interesting is the I-
level maintenance. The objective of to enhance and to sustain the combat readiness and mission
capability of support at the nearest location with the lowest practical resource expenditure. It
consists of: maintenance on aeronautical components, calibration of designated equipment,
180
processing of components from non–mission capable planes, incorporation of technical directives,
age exploration of a plane.
Correct and very precise diagnose and troubleshooting need technicians with years of
experience on aircraft [2, 3]. Training is given with the emphasis on real–life incidents as a result
of a human error and structure fatigue. The key is our ability to manage the volume and diversity
of information required to keep engines running, and easy and fast access to that for those making
repairs.
References
[1] X
&X # ³ ¥

. #
=# [ «## (in Polish).
## ³& ^*&
Y

*ç-
2G. AIRDIAG’05, Warszawa 2005 (in Polish).
[3] &X # ³ &

? T. 4. Badanie
eksploatacyjne stat
? Wyd. ITWL, Warszawa 2007 (in Polish).
181
182
DAMAGES TO STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS AND UNITS
OF A GAS TURBINE ENGINE
J>"Q

>\*
(
>(>#"*
*Air Force Institute of Technology
01-494 Warszawa ul.
'
`
e-mail: jerzy.lewitowicz@itwl.pl andrzej.zyluk@itwl.pl
**Inspectorate for Armed Forces Suport
85-915 Bydgoszcz ul. Dwernickiego1
e-mail: stolo@wp.pl
Abstract
Safe operational use of an technical system, depends on properties and characteristics thereof, external
excitations, and the correctly performed process of operation/maintenance of this system. Unserviceability and
failures/damages to the system are the most essential problems, which – if not identified on time – can result in an
accident (a crash or failure). The issues of safety, unserviceability and failures/damages have been exemplified with
those occurring to gas turbine engines.
Keywords: exploatation, failures, gas turbine engine
1.(

Causes of damages are pretty well recognized owing to rich maintenance experience and
examination of engineering objects and units thereof. They are usually deeply rooted in physical
and chemical phenomena (effect of the process of the IV type, according to description in [6.13]),
but can also be effected by maintenance activities that may provoke the boundary limits, e.g. of
strength/resistance, wear-and-tear limits, etc. of particular components are exceeded. Causes of
damages/failures are grouped into four classes: direct, indirect, primary, and secondary ones.
Effects of damages have their impact on the performance of operational tasks, reliability,
safety, and economic effectiveness of operation/maintenance. The more important component of
an engineering object (from the point of view of its functionality), the more serious effects brought
about by a damage/failure to this component. Damages/failures may occur in the course of
operational use of the object as well as the maintenance thereof. It is obvious that damages to an
engine (its structural component or unit) while it is operated in the air are essentially different from
those occurring on the ground.
2. X , ~7
*

The term ‘engine damage’ comprises damages to the engine structure, units as well as
particular components (structural members and parts) that the units are composed of. Damages to
parts and structural members may bring about damages to the whole unit/assembly in the
composition of which they enter; also, to other units/assemblies of a given object.
183
Any damage is defined as the loss of physical properties and/or peculiar features by the
structural component, i.e. an event that results in the transition of the engineering structure from
the fit-for-service condition into the unfit-for-service condition.
The most essential criterion of rating an engineering event among damages/failures is a change
in a feature/a set of features or its/their deviation from those, on the grounds of which the
structural component/unit is claimed to be either ‘fit-for-use’ or ’unfit-for-use’.
From the standpoint of the engineering-object operation, damages/failures may be either
typical, i.e. well recognized and identified, described in operational/maintenance documentation,
or new ones, or those taking new forms. The latter compose a new set and occur in the course of
current operation/routine maintenance. These new forms of damages/failures or of the object’s
remaining unserviceable may prove single events or system-attributable ones. In operational and
maintenance practice they are responded to with suitable preventive actions.
Damages/failures occur due to the willfully or unwittingly exceeded permissible loads (e.g. by
the aircrew, operator, servicing staff), externally originated effects and disturbances, or natural
physical and chemical phenomena typical of the performed tasks (workload) or time. The
following events may be numbered among them: the wear-and-tear of tribological nodes,
corrosion, materials ageing, etc. [1, 9, 14].
The problem with damages to structural components/parts of an engineering object is typical
of the whole operational phase thereof, although different causes predominate at different
operational-phase stages.
Throughout the whole operational phase of an engineering object the structural members
thereof get degraded. Operating conditions (material effort, deformations, wear-and-tear, etc.), to
some extent unpredictable – extreme, conditions of externally induced actions/influences that are
able to change randomly all of them prove decisive in the reduction of the ultimate strength of the
structure(s) of the engineering object and parts/structural components in the object’s functional
units/assemblies.
Damages to an engineering object, in particular while in operation, considerably affect safety,
but also all rates of engineering availability that feature the operational readiness, i.e. readiness to
perform tasks. Damages attributable to many and various causes can be classified as a) predictable,
and b) unpredictable ones. Predictable damages develop at locations easy of access and subjected
to the diagnosing (with different methods out of a variety of diagnostic techniques).
Damages to turbine engines apllied in aircraft power plants comprise approximately 25% of
the total number of disadvantageous events of this kind.
Damages to engineering objects (such as turbine engines), units/assemblies and structural
members thereof are classified according to various criteria. From the point of view of damage
identification and preventive treatment, they are classified for what follows:
x type of an object (electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, etc. system),
x physical nature of the damage,
x causes of damages,
x ways of restoring the ‘fit-for-use’ state.
Damages/failures to engineering objects and structural components thereof may also be

divided into the following groups:
x primary (independent),
x secondary (dependant),
x natural, and
x forced damages.
Primary damages are usually effected by:
184
- natural ageing and wear-and-tear processes, fatigue, corrosion, etc.,
- failures after permissible regimes have been exceeded,
- structural, manufacturing, and material-inherent latent defects,
- faulty operational and/or servicing practices.
Primary damages give grounds for statistical inference on the components’ life and reliability
[6, 7, 8]. Secondary damages are recorded as effects of primary damages.
Fig. 1. Structure of turbine engine for maritime applications
Operational/maintenance practice proves that each and every structural member of a turbine
engine (Fig. 1) is susceptible to damages/failures which occur for various reasons. The most
essential causes comprise [2 - 7, 14]:
- variable aerodynamic loads,
- increase in loads (in particular, exceeding permissible values),
- impact loads,
- vibration of rotating components/parts and those exposed to cyclic changes of position,
e.g. in the to-and-fro motion,
- acoustic vibration,
- heat effects,
- out-of-standard actions by aircrew members and engineering staff responsible for
maintenance,
- weather effects (turbulence, corrosion) and nature-imposed ones (birds),
- effects of destructive warfare agents, foreign matter, etc.
185
8
Number of damage
Turbine
6 Compressor
4
Fuel control unit
2 Combustion chamber and exhaust system
Oil system
0
In total
1989
1994
1995
1996
1997
Fig. 2. Quantitative statement of damages/failures to systems and units/assemblies of turbine engines AI-25
Fig. 2 shows exemplary quantitative statements of damages to systems and units/assemblies of

the AI-25 turbine engines, recorded while operating a small fleet of aircraft in the five years’
period.
Damages to the engine due to the exceeding of specified values or symptoms of irregular
engine operation often compels adjustments of engine units, replacement of a damaged unit,
building the damaged/failed component/part or unit out of the engine. Such operations can be
carried out either on the engine test bench (for engines after overhaul or withdrawal from service)
or built in the object where it is operated (sea vessel or aircraft).
3. Mechanical damages
Damages of the mechanical type due to foreign-matter collisions contribute to the greatest
extent to failures to the structures of the engine block, air inlets, and compressor, the fact being
confirmed by the records. In aviation, they most often occur during the take-off and landing and
are usually effected by concrete and/or soil chips, and birds. Detection of such damages during
routine inspections/maintenance usually produces no difficulty, whereas any failure to detect them
can generate top hazards (Figs 3 and 4) [1 - 3, 9, 11, 13].
4.
( ,
%*
* (7
7
*
Primary causes of such damages/failures are physical and chemical phenomena, and exceeded
performance parameters (service loads). Theses are as follows: corrosion (Fig. 4), erosion,
cavitations, tribological wear, fatigue and brittle cracking. Detection of damages/failures effected
by such phenomena often proves very difficult. They are usually found in the form of the unit’s
failure to operate, pits that weaken the structure, etc. The engineering diagnosis [1 - 4, 10 -
11, 13, 15] offers tools and techniques to detect and identify them. Figs 5 – 8 show examples of
such damages/failures.
186
Number of damage
A B
C D
E F
Fig. 3. Exemplary mechanical and heat-induced damages in the form of cracks

and material defects in the turbine engine structure
A B
C D
E F
Fig. 4. Fatigue-corrosion-attributable damages to turbine-engine structural components
5. X
/
77( , ~7
* 7%
ngines
The occurrence of damages/failures to engineering systems (turbine engines included) that

belong to a homogeneous set is featured with the ‘unfit-for-use’ states of structural components or
units/(sub)assemblies. In the case of reparable systems (engines), any damages/failures are
removed by means of the restoration process.
187
Fig. 5. Types of corrosion – macroscopic image of the surface-layer cross-section
A B C
Fig. ? Operation-induced IIIo damage to the turbine of a jet engine [12]

A – blade ring of the turbine, one blade lacking; B – simulation of destruction of the blade locking piece;
C- simulation of vibration destructive to the blade locking piece; D – simulation of vibration
of turbine with one blade lacking
Fig. 7. Examples of fatigue failures to turbine engine’s compressor blade
188
C
Fig. 8. A damaged bearing of the turbine engine shaft
The stochastic occurrence of damages/failures to a set of engines can be described as soon as

probability distributions of emerging events (damages/failures) within a certain assumed time
interval of system’s operation.
Engines belong to the class of reparable engineering systems featured with that the reliability
R(t) after restoration should not change. Unfortunately, there are such engines for which both the
number of observed damages/failures and failure rates increase after the major repair/general
´}!+} ngine is a good example. This fact can be explained in the following way:
the design structure proves faulty, or incorrect general-overhaul procedures have been developed
and recommended by the manufacturer. For such systems, the probability PW of the random
variable of the number of defects/failures UW in time interval of the system’s operation [0 d W d t]
can be most often described with the following expression:
PW t
Ot n exp> Ot @ (1)
n!
where: O - operational failure rate,

n - the number of observed damages/failures.
The expected value of equation (1) is as follows:
E {U´} = t =Ë (2)
For any structural component/part, engine unit/assembly (N), the probability PN of the random
variable of the number of defects/failures UN in time interval of the system’s operation [0 d W d t]
can be described with the following expression:
§/·
PN t ¨¨ ¸¸ pNm 1 pN
/ m
(3)
© ¹
m
of the expected value:
E {UÉ} = Ë pÉ (4)
where: pN - conditional probability that a given component, assembly/unit of the N type

gets failed if the engine is damaged,
m – the number of observed damages/failures.
For the F set of structural components, units/assemblies in engines in service the expected
value takes the following form:
189
E {F UÉ} = F Ë pÉ (5)
All the above-mentioned values of parameters and conditional probabilities are arrived at by
means of suitable statistical surveys under real operating conditions.
References
[1] } ³

. [w]
" !<[' \! XZ+} & X#Z
$+>[X +>&
>#
(in Polish).
[2] Korczewski Z.: Contemporary diagnostic methods for ship engines: a report on scientific research
activity of Polish Naval Academy in his field. " !}X<$}
_ !`{
[3] Korczewski Z.: Failures’ identification of cylinder liners of marine diesel engines in operation. V
International Scientific – +}! '"&% – ;''& +4$='x¶

[ ¶
[4] X
&X # ³ ¥

#
=# [ «## (in Polish).
[5] &X # ³

? "#![ > Z
& X#}% " etrznej, Z. 2. 2002 (in Polish).
[6] &X #³ &

. T. 1. Statek powietrzny i elementy teorii.
>[+>&
># (in Polish).
[7] &X #³&

?T. 3. Systemy

powietrznych. >[+>&
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190
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS ABOUT RELIABILITY OF POWER SYSTEMS
FROM SMALL NUMBER OF STATISTICAL DATA
Roman Liberacki

ul. Narutowicza 11/12, 80- </!&
tel.: +48 58 3471850, fax: +48 58 3472430
e-mail: romanl@pg.gda.pl
Abstract

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that very often the statistical
sample we have to our disposal is small and non – homogenous. The goal of the author was to verify, if it is possible to
draw out useful in practice conclusions about reliability of technical items from small statistical sample and how to do
it. In the article two potential ways to deal with the problem of small reliability data sample have been presented. First
way is based on using mathematical statistics methods, the second way uses the fuzzy sets theorem methods.
Key words: power system, reliability data, statistics, fuzzy sets.
1. Introduction
The key problem in making reliability analysis of power systems, is getting credible reliability
data, which are the entrance data to created mathematical models. The probabilities of suitable
technical elements failures are on generality these data. Problem in this place appears - where from
to draw these data. The sources of reliability data for technical structures can be: reliability guides
and handbooks, data collecting during operation of technical devices, reliability tests, experts'
opinions. Practice shows that very often the statistical sample we have to our disposal is small and
non – homogenous.
The goal of the author was to verify, if it is possible to draw out useful in practice conclusions
about reliability of technical items from small statistical sample and how to do it.
At first some assumptions have been made: non repairable items have been considered, the
statistical distributions of time to failure of items and parameters of those distributions have been
objects of interest as well as probability of failure in given period of time.
The two potential ways to deal with the problem of small reliability data sample have been
considered. First way was to use mathematical statistics methods, the second way, to solve the
problem, was to use the fuzzy sets theorem methods.
2. Mathematical statistics methods
Mathematical statistics methods are based on statistical hypothesis testing. We need to

remember that there are two possible errors made in a statistical decision process. Error of the first
191
[ – which is the error of rejecting a hypothesis when it is actually true.
' X} [ [ – which is the error of failing to reject a hypothesis
when it is in fact false.
\X!\\!X X´}[X [X<X}\ !X´! X} X}
second kind. When the statistical sample is small and non – homogenous it is just impossible. That
is why our care is focused only on the error of the first kind. In advance we impose the probability
´! X}
}}!!X!\\!X < X!Ì![!![X}
level of significance.
First of all we have to state the relevant hypotheses to be tested. Than we carry out the test of
significance to reject our hypothesis, or to say that there is no reason to reject the hypothesis. The
very important thing is to remember that we cannot say the hypothesis is true, in the best case we
can only establish that there is no reason to reject the hypothesis.
2.1. Overview of parametric statistics models
+}X\!< [!
[[}[

}´X[[X ÌX ³
it is possible to draw out useful in practice conclusions about reliability of technical items from
small statistical sample using those models.
Model 1
Let’s make an assumption that our statistical parameter is time to failure of an item. The time to
! } X} <![XX =`
{X}X} < ´! [ X} X[[ [´X
Moreover the standard deviation value is known for the population of such items.
The hypothesis about the mean value (H0³Ú0{XX[XX}!XX´/\ X}/a
` 0{X}X}ignificance level of a test .
We can see at once, that such model is not useful for drowing conclusions about reliability of
technical items if the standard deviatin value for population is not known. At our considerations
the value is not known, so the model 1 is useles.
Model 2
! } X} <![XX =`
{X}X} < ´! [ X} X[[ [´X
´ X}³ X} < ´! [ X} X[[ [´X ´! re not known for the
population of such items. The hypothesis about the mean value (H0³Ú0{XX[XX}
alternative Hypothesis Ha ` 0{X}X}ignificance level of a test .
To verify the hypothesis H0 in such case, we can use the hypothesis testing model based on the
Student’s t distribution. The ´!X<XX} <X}<\!}´ [\ !
The model can be useful for us on one condition: we have to be convinced, that the time to
failure of technical items has a normal distribution.
Model 3
!}X} [[XXX![XX X}X}<´![X}X[[[´X
X}\<X[e not known. The hypothesis about the mean value (H0³Ú0{
tested against the alternative Hypothesis Ha ` 0{ X} X} ignificance level of a test . To
verify the hypothesis H0 in such case, we can use the hypothesis testing model based on the zero –
X[[ <![XX =`
{+}[´!X<X <X}<\!
have in our disposal.
The model can be used only when we have at our disposal a large statistical sample number.
The large sample number means at least 30 observations [2] . Some authors say 100 or more
192
observations [3]. Using this model we can estimate the mean value and standard deviation of time
to failure of item but we cannot to find out the time to failure distribution density function shape.
Similarly, like it was done in the above models for the mean value, we can also make statistical
significance tests, using the above models, for the standard deviation values. However there are
some conditions to choose the model [2]:
When we have the normal disXX =`
{ X<X !
[´! X
and sample number n
X}} < [!
>}}´X} <![XX =`
{ X<X !
[´! X
[<\!<X}} < del 2.
>}}´X} <![XX =`
{ X<X !
[´! X [
sample number n
X}} < [!
It’s worth to notice that we can use those three models for statistical significance tests only if we
are convinced, that the time to failure of the item has normal distribution.
2.2. Overview of nonparametric statistics models
Nonparametric hypothesis testing models are used when we do not know the random variable
probability density function shape as well as parameters of the function. We have face to such
situation very often in reliability analysis. However using data set, we have in our disposal, we are
! X ![ }X < X< X ! `}} [ < ´!{ X
[ X} <
density estimation based on the data to evaluate theoretical probability density function of time to
failure.
Statistical hypothesis testing in this case let us only to find out how much our theoretical model
`X} X! [X X { [ÌX X [X distribution in the sample we have.
4 XX!
´X}< [!!![ÌXX } !\ \!X X}!
items being the object of our interest.
The most popular nonparametric tests in statistics are: the Pearson’s chi - Ì Xest and the
Kolmogorov – < ´ XX
X}X [ \<X XX Ì!X -
dimensional probability distributions used to compare a sample with a reference probability
distribution.
The most suitable, to solve the problem given in this article, seems to be the Kolmogorov –
Smirnov test. The Pearson’s chi - Ì XX [ ! <\! `X !X X<{ * X}
Kolmogorov – < ´XX<}<!!<\!!! }% X}XX[ÌX
for different density functions of the random variable. Moreover the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test is
the only test usually used to test whether a given distribution function F(x{ X} [!
probability distribution of Fn(x{
X}\ [<´X[X ´ [limits on F(x{
itself. If one chooses a critical value of the test statistic D such that P(Dn > D{Ú, then a band of
width ±D around Fn(x{!!X! XF(x{X}\ !X ¨ [4].
The last feature is very important in reliability analysis, because if the random variable is time
to failure of the item, then the density function is just the unreliability function. So we are able not
only to estimate the unreliability function but also to find the confidence limits for estimated
unreliability function.
If the density function of time to failure of technical items is normal, then we can replace the
Kolmogorov – Smirnov test by the Lilliefors test (sample size n
{ X}}\ >! XX
(sample size n > { [ - Darling test. The last test is more powerful [4].
193
3. Methods based on fuzzy logic
At the beginning let’s make an assumption, that we have no statistical data of time to failure of
technical items. The only way to collect needed reliability data is to use experts judgments. It is
very difficult for experts to give answers in the form of numerical values, for example: the time to
! X}X<} X}!\ !X per year is 0,003. Much easier is to ask
them using linguistic values. The problem arise - how to converse the linguistic values into
numerical values. The fuzzy logic can be helpful to deal with the problem.
Assume that the object of our interest is the probability of failure of technical item during one year
period of time. The idea of the author is to test the truthfulness of the sentence given in such form:
“The item will fail in the one year period of time”. Experts give their opinions shown in Tab. 1.
Tab. 1. An example of using expert opinions in reliability analysis of technical items
Tested sentence: Possible experts opinions:

The item will fail during one year period of time. `{ Sentence is absolutely truth.
`{ Sentence is very truth.
`{ Sentence is truth.
`§{ Sentence is rather truth.
`{ Sentence is truth or false.
`{ Sentence is rather false.
`¶{ Sentence is false.
`{ Sentence is very false.
`{ Sentence is absolutely false.
Now we can transform expert opinions into fuzzy numbers according to so called “standard
degrees XX}¢\ \ [![ X}X}<<}\X `´{´*
194
`´{ `´{ `´{
1 1 1
`{ `{ `{
0 1 v 0 1 v 0 1 v
`´{ `´{ `´{
1 1 1
`§{ `{ `{
0 1 v 0 1 v 0 1 v
`´{ `´{ `´{
1 1 1
`¶{ `{ `{
0 1 v 0 1 v 0 1 v
Fig. 1. Standard degrees of truth by Baldwin given as the fuzzy numbers
As the result we receive unreliability value F, for given period of time, as a fuzzy number. For
instance:
`*{ `*{
1 1
1 F F
Unreliability of item for given period of time Unreliability of item for given period of time is
is equal “about 1”. “very close to 1”.
Fig. 2. Examples of unreliability values given in the form of fuzzy numbers
Fuzzy logic is a very good tool when we have in our disposal very imprecise data. In contrast
with binary logic, where the truth has only two values (1 – true, 0 – !{##! ´!
truth may vary form 0 to 1. It gives us possibility to deal with reasoning that is approximate rather
than precise. And such situation is very typical in reliability analysis of technical system.
195
Another interesting way to solve the problem of reliability data evaluation, in author’s opinion,
seems to be the possibility theory. The main idea of possibility theory is to replace probability
measure with possibility measure and necessity measure.
If we are not able to evaluate probability value of item failure, we can try to evaluate the
possibility measure and necessity measure – what is much easier. Let assume A – is event of item
! X \ !ty, possibility and necessity measure there is relationship given below
[1]:
=`{
"`{
Â`{ `{
where:
=`{– necessity measure of event A,
"`{ – probability measure of event A,
Â`{– possibility measure of event A.
Now let’s try to illustrate usage of the possibility and necessity measure in reliability analysis
on example. Given: A – ´X X}X<![ \ [ X<[XXX!
[X < X<X ! ´X<`

[
{\X[*
t0 ta tb tc t1 td te t
t0 – t1 – one year period of time,

t0 – ta – time to failure of item a,
t0 – tb – time to failure of item b,
t0 – tc – time to failure of item c,
t0 – td – time to failure of item d,
t0 – te – time to failure of item e,
Fig. 3. Time to failure of items
Given the above set of data we can evaluate:

Possibility measure of event A: `{Ú
Necessity measure of event A: =`{ÚµÚ

So we can give a statement 1: Probability of item failure during one year period of time can range
between (0,6 ; {
< X}X}´ <X X X}`{X<X<X !

First situation: the time to failure of a new item is less then one year – then a new necessity
<=x`{Ú§µÚ
¶ }´XX<X³" !X of item failure during
\ [ X<X`
¶Ï{ ! ³XX<X X X[X[
to statement 1. Statement 1 is still truth.
Second situation: the time to failure of a new item is more then one year – then a new necessity
<=xx`{ÚµÚ
}´XX<X³" !X X<![
\ [ X< X `
Ï { ! ³ XX<X X[X[ X
statement 1. Statement 1 is not truth, but statement 1 is more pessimistic than statement 3 what is
consistent with the rule of the worst case which is often used in reliability analysis. Statement 1
then is still worthy for us.
196
4. Final remarks
In the authors opinion, it is possible to draw out useful in practice conclusions about reliability
of technical items from small statistical sample, using statistical methods, fuzzy logic and
possibility theory.
We should always to remember, that received results in reliability analysis are never sure. We
have to deal with the problem of large uncertainty. Fuzzy logic and probability are the ways of
expressing uncertainty.
With the very small data set it is very hard to talk about probability in the classical sense, even
from statistical point of view. We should rather to use fuzzy numbers, fuzzy probability with the
help of experts judgments or the possibility theory, as it has been shown in the article.
References
[1] Dubois, D., Prade, H., &

Y

? ^ ^ Computerised &

Uncertainty, New York 1988.
[2]

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matematycznej
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[§

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Rachunek
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matematyczna
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[4] Stephens, M. A., EDF Statistics for Goodness of Fit and Some Comparisons ! X}
American Statistical Association 69, 1974.
197
198
ANALYSIS OF THE ACTUAL DAMAGES TO THE MARINE ENGINES
FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEMS’
CAPABILITIES
Zbigniew osiewicz
Zachodniopomorski Uniwersytet Technologiczny w Szczecinie
Al. Piastow 41, Szczecin, Poland
Tel.+48 600 275 871
e-mail: HORN.losiewicz@wp.pl
Abstract
In the article there are presented different operating events leading to the same consequences, i.e. permanent
engine damage. The analysis has been carried out of diagnostic actions performed by the operators, of the usefulness
of diagnostic systems existing on these ships as well as analysis of the operating values of the latest diagnostic systems
in respect of possibility to prevent the described consequences of operating events
Key words: piston engine of the main ship drive, technical state of engine, diagnostic parameters, diagnosing
system, operating events, efficient operation of ship engine
1. Introduction
Task of the diagnostic system (SDG) is to provide the diagnostic data concerning a ship engine
(diagnosed system - SDN). SDG and SDN form a diagnostic system. Efficiency of SD depends on
a possibility to obtain accurate and reliable diagnostic information, which enables a mechanic to
make accurate and reliable operating decisions.
In the presented operating events such information was missing, what resulted in considerable
damages and threat to the crew and ship safety.
In the article there are presented different operating events leading to the same consequences,
i.e. permanent engine damage. The analysis has been carried out of diagnostic actions performed
by the operators, of the usefulness of SD existing on these ships as well as analysis of the
operating values of the latest SDs in respect of possibility to prevent the described consequences of
operating events.
1. Examples of damage to marine engine identification
1st Example
In the four-stroke engine if the ship propulsion plant the crack and tear off of the connecting-
rod big end bottom cover took place.
After visual inspection of the engine it has been established that a cause of the failure was
damage to the bottom cover of a connecting-rod big end.
Results of the accident examining board inspection:
“Cause of a fatigue crack of the cover was repair by pad welding of discontinuity found in
manufacture process after forging and machining operation.
199
As it results from examination of the damaged part, a cause of failure was the faulty heat
treatment in manufacturing process. After pad welding no actions were performed in purpose to
eliminate thermal stresses. The fact was neglected that the above element was not among the
consumable elements and that it was supposed to serve through a whole period of the engine
operation, but it was damaged after 4 years despite it had certificates of two recognised
classification societies.
The engine elements getting out of the crankcase caused damage to the oil and fuel pipes.
Before black-out occurred in result of stoppage of the engine coupled with a shaft generator, the
fuel and oil had been sprinkled around the engine room in result of a pressure generated by the fuel
and oil pumps driven by electric motors. It should be admitted that there was an unbelievable luck
that the ignition did not occur and fire did not break out, which could have had disastrous
consequences”.
“Consequences.
In result of the occurred event a crack of piston no. 4 took place, a piston and crank system was
pushed outside (Fig.1), the crank bearing cracked, camshaft case was torn off the cylinder block
along 3000 mm length, camshaft was bended, material was torn out in the lower part of cylinder
sleeve guiding, the sleeve was planished and wedged up with a connecting rod, the crank-pin no. 4
was deeply damaged, the rotating masses of the system connecting rod were damaged, the fuel
pipe cracked and heavy fuel mixed with lube oil (loss of approx. 6.5 t of oil), crankcase base
fastening the fuel pumps no. 2, 3, 4 and 5 was torn out, the pistons, sleeves and connecting-rods of
a system no. 4 + 5 were crushed.
Explosion did not cause any victims. Despite the fuel fumes the fire did not break
out.”(Fig.2)[1]
2a
2
2b
Fig.1 Visible connecting rod – broken and pushed outside the crankcase (1) and broken piston (2): head (2a) and
fragments of piston skirt (2b) [1]
Indirect results in form of a cost of spare parts, the costs of withdrawing the ship from
operation, indirect costs related to lack of propulsion.
Applied diagnostic system has not raised a warning about exceeding of the limit values..
200
Fig.2 Fuel spilt around the engine causes fire risk; starboard [1]
nd
2 Example
The fuel piston ring was broken and after two days of voyage piston was seized and the
connecting rod was pushed outside of the crankcase.
Results of the accident examining board inspection.
Breaking up of the fuel piston ring resulted in deterioration of the process of lube oil collection
from the cylinder sleeve bearing surface and damaging of the sleeve bearing surface by the
damaged ring. Excess of lube oil caused origination of oil carbon deposit on the piston skirt, in the
ring grooves in the piston crown and, in consequence, the piston rings were stuck with carbon
deposit (Fig.3). Lockup of the broken oil ring caused spring crack, which was pushed into a space
between the piston skirt and cylinder sleeve. The spring damaged a hardened sleeve surface layer
and was pressed into the sleeve.
Fig.3 Origination of oil carbon deposit on the piston skirt, in the ring grooves in the piston crown [source: Ch.Eng.
Marceli Stelmaszczuk]
201
1
Fig.4. The spring set in the material of cylinder sleeve (1), oil ring spring lock with a fragment of broken spring (2)
[source: Ch.Eng.Marceli Stelmaszczuk]
In effect of friction forces and released heat the spring material was melted into the piston
material, what is shown in Fig. 4, 5. Piston seizing caused breaking off the pins fastening a bottom
cover of a connecting rod big end with the connecting rod and pushing the connecting-rod outside
the casing, causing the effects analogous to those caused by crack of the bottom cover of a
connecting rod big end presented in the 1st Example.
In the last phase of failure a noise could be heard when the connecting-rod with a piston were
being pushed outside the casing.
Pressure drop of the recycle stock and high temperature of cooling water at the outlet from
seized sleeve caused the emergency engine stoppage and ‘black-out’ (the main engine was driving
a shaft generator).
Fig.5. Spring from the piston ring pressed into the cylinder sleeve; visible black carbon deposit originated in
result of incomplete combustion of cylinder oil [source:Ch.Eng. Marceli Stelmaszczuk]
Applied diagnostic system has not raised a warning about exceeding of the limit values.
2. Diagnostic capabilities of the modern SDG
In recent years the possibilities of engine action monitoring by the technologically advanced
diagnosing systems have increased.
202
Electronic analyser of combustion process, which monitors the engine action periodically,
allows faster detecting of the changes in combustion process parameters
Temperature sensors detect lower rises of combustion gases temperature at the outlet of the
damaged system head,
Fig.6 Four-stroke engine section with the places marked, where the sensors are mounted – 1) combustion gases
temperature meter, 2) combustion process analyser, 3) detector of piston rings wear, 4) sensor of cylinder sleeve
metal temperature [3]
The systems like SIPWA-TP allow fast detection of temperature rise of the cylinder sleeves
metal (Fig.7)
Diagnosing systems like MAPEX – PR allow fact detection of piston rings wear (Fig.7)
Fig.7 Monitoring of the sleeve metal temperature, a temperature sensor is marked (1), MAPEX – PR system –
monitoring of the piston ring wear (2) [2]
Use of advanced electronics to monitoring of engine action. Data are sent to a ship owner and
engine manufacturer (Fig 8).
203
1
Fig.8. MAPEX – PR programme shows differences between actual measurement and the planned values, e.g.
measurement of piston rings wear (1), monitoring of diagnostic parameters by the manufacturer and ship owner office
(2) [2]
Increase of a number of the diagnostic data, development of a method of their analysing and
processing, are leading to multicriteriality of assessment of the engine technical condition [4,5,6].
In result, probability value of the relation between the diagnostic parameters and engine technical
conditions represented by them increases (Fig.9) [7]
Fig.9 Probabilities of relation occurrence between the diagnostic parameters and engine technical conditions
represented by them (1) [7]
Conclusions
1. During engine operation the events occur, which can not be detected in actual time and the
consequences of their occurrence can not be limited (E.1)
2. The event described as E.1 should be recognised as a human error, resulting from lack of
experience and knowledge, and lack of the basic safety principles.
3. Electronic combustion process analyser allows faster detecting of the change in engine
running parameters, forcing a mechanic to analyse the reasons of these changes.
4. Use of sensors of the sleeve metal temperature allows detecting the temperature rise faster
than with indirect method through measurement of temperature of the sleeves cooling water
204
5. Application of a system determining an extent of the piston rings wear would probably allow
early detection of the oil ring damage (E.2)
6. On basis of the quoted examples it is obvious how important it is to use safety procedures at
every stage of engine manufacturing and operating
7. Despite the development of diagnostic systems (SD), both SDG and SDN, a very important
factor in making operating decisions is an accurate and reliable diagnosis worked out by a
mechanic on basis of information from SD (as good as knowledge of a design engineer and
manufacturer) and resulting from his knowledge and experience
8. Development of both SDN and SDG (including application of the respective mathematical
models) increases probability value of relation between the diagnostic parameters and technical
engine conditions represented by them
References
[1] Owners Technical Documentation (cofidential).

[2] Publications and engine documentation of Wartsila Company’s.
[3] Publications and engine documentation of MAN&BW Company’s.
[4] Girtler J., Semi-Markovian model of the process of technical state changes of technical objects.
Polish Maritime Research Vol. 11, No 4(42), pp. 3-7, Gdask 2004.
[5] Girtler J., Physical aspects of application and usefulness of semi-Markovian processes for
modeling the processes occurring in operational phase of technical objects. Polish Maritime
Research Vol. 11, No 3(41), pp. 25-30, Gdask 2004.
[6] Pielka D., osiewicz Z.,: Moliwo ci zastosowanie metod sztucznej inteligencji do diagnostyki
okr'towego silnika spalinowego, XXVI Sympozjum Siowni Okr?towych SYMSO,
Akademia Marynarki Wojennej w Gdyni, Gdynia, 2005.
[7] osiewicz Z., Probabilistyczny model diagnostyczny okr'towego silnika nap'du gównego
statku, Praca doktorska, Politechnika Gdaska, Gdask 2008.
205
206
ASSESSMENT OF FAILURE DISTRIBUTIONS OF MARINE POWER
PLANTS FUEL OIL SYSTEMS GROUP
Zbigniew Matuszak, Grzegorz Nicewicz
Maritime Academy of Szczecin

ul. Yego 1-2, 70-500 Szczecin, Poland
tel.: +48 91 4809414, +48 91 4809442
e-mail: Y
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Abstract

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1. Introduction
There has been carried out a statistical analysis of the data concerning marine power plants
systems failures on ten ships owned by the Polish Steamship Company of Szczecin. The ships
were given symbols from S1 to S10. All the ships differed in respect to their place and time of
construction as well as their technical parameters. The data on failures cover the following six
marine power plant systems: lubricating oil system - LOS, sea water cooling system - SWCS,
fresh water cooling system - FWCS, fuel oil system - FOS, compressed air system - CAS and
steam system - SS [2, 3].
The data on marine power plants failures were collected in similar conditions, that is, they were
supplied by an engine crew member working in the marine power plant.
The data on the failures of particular marine power plant systems were obtained accordingly to
the test schedule [¥, W, ], which means that ¥ renewable objects were the subject of the test
within the time . Since the recovery time of the damaged system appeared negligibly short, when
207
compared to the time of the test, it was assumed that consecutive recoveries overlap the failure
moments.
The statistical analysis dealt with moments t1 d t 2 d ... d t n of the particular systems’
consecutive failures and the length of time intervals W n between the objects’ consecutive failures.
The following has been assumed [2, 3]:
1) on ships S1 - S5 time is measured from the moment of the first failure repair;
2) for ships S6 - S10 time intervals W n between the consecutive failures do not include the time
between the beginning of sea voyage and the first failure;
3) time between the last failure and the end of the observation, that is after 180 days, was taken
into consideration.
Total numbers of failures in particular systems of ten tested ships’ marine power plants have
been presented in table 1.
Y 1. Y

Name of the system Total number of failures

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 Sum
Lubricating oil system - LOS 3 1 5 6 2 3 21 8 8 9 66
Sea water cooling system - SWCS 7 3 4 4 2 11 5 8 8 5 57
Fresh water cooling system - FWCS 6 2 6 3 2 7 8 9 5 7 55
Fuel oil system - FOS 8 12 5 12 6 19 23 17 7 12 121
Compressed air system - CAS 2 1 2 2 2 5 5 8 3 6 36
Steam system - SS 4 6 3 2 3 10 4 9 3 6 50
Sum 30 25 25 29 17 55 66 59 34 45 385
On the basis of the table, most failures, that is 30% of all of them, can be pointed out in the fuel
oil system. It is to be noticed, that among all the tested ships, the prevailing number of failures
occurred in case of three of them, that is, S6, S7 and S8.
On the basis of the obtained field data on the system failures, for particular systems, there was
built a mathematical model of distribution of time to failure and time between failures.
Due to the type of the statistical data, the most favored distributions appeared relatively simple
ones, most frequently applied to the reliability theory. Thus, the possibility of building a model
based on the following distributions was sequentially examined:
- the exponential distribution, with probability density function
f (t ) Oe Ot dla t t 0 , (1)
- the Weibull distribution , with probability density function

t D
f (t ) DE D t D 1e E dla t ! 0 , (2)

- the log-normal distribution, with probability density function
ln t P 2
1
dla t ! 0 ,
2
f (t ) e 2V (3)
tV 2S
- the gamma distribution, with probability density function
E D t D 1 Et
f (t ) e dla t ! 0 . (4)
*D
The results of the Kruskal-Wallis test, aided by the program *^"*"^¡.0, for the statistical
data of fuel oil system failure moments t n concerning all the 10 tested ships, at the assumed
significance level =0,05, turn out to come from one general population (for space reasons the
analysis has not been enclosed). However, when considering the statistical data concerning the
time between the fuel oil system failures (´ n ) of the 10 analyzed transport ships at the significance
level =0,05, the hypothesis that they come from one general population needs to be rejected.
208
Thus, multiple comparisons of rank means (- tests) for the data of the time between failures
(´ n ) in reference to each pair of the 10 ships, using the program *^"*"^ ¡?/ have been
performed. For each comparison, there have been computed ‘z§ values and ‘’ values. On the basis
of the obtained results it has been concluded that data from ships S3, S5 and S7 are significantly
different from each other. Therefore, it was assumed that the data could belong to various
populations. However, to the data from S1, S2, S4, S6, S8, S9 and S10 there was applied the
Kruskal-Wallis test, whose results point out that there are no bases for rejecting the hypothesis that
they come from one general population at the significance level =0,05. A broader presentation of
the above analyses goes far beyond the frames of the paper and would require a separate
publication, what has initially been done in [1].
On the basis of the obtained results, data on fuel oil system failures of S1, S2, S4, S6, S8, S9,
S10 concerning both consecutive failure moments (t n ) and time between failures time (´ n, ) need to
be treated as coming from one general population. Therefore, an attempt of estimation of the
obtained empirical distributions by means of the relatively simple theoretical exponential, gamma,
log-normal and Weibull distributions, most frequently applied to the reliability theory. In case the
exponential, gamma, or log-normal distributions have been accepted as the models, the program
*^"*"^¡?/ enables adjustment and application of tests of goodness of fit. But in reference to
the Weibull distribution, it only allows for the estimation of the distribution parameters by the
Maximum Likelihood test. Such an analysis has been carried out by means of the statistical
package *^^&ç"*! enclosed in [2].
2. Tests of goodness of fit
Tests of goodness of fit allow for the verification of the null hypothesis that an analyzed
random variable has a distribution which belongs to the appropriate distribution group. The oldest
test of goodness of fit appears Pearson’s chi-square test, first presented in 1900 [4]. The test can
not be applied to small size samples (n<50) [4, 5]. In case of small size samples the Kolmogorov-
Smirnov test is used.
Program *^"*"^ [4, 5] performs the chi-square test by default on the basis of the number
of the observed and expected frequencies. Categories containing expected frequencies lower than 5
are grouped to make classes of higher frequency. The number of degrees of freedom for chi-square
test statistics is computed in the following way:
df = Y
- Y - 1,
where:
- Y
refers to the number of classes in the frequencies table, where the expected
frequencies are higher than 5;
- Y refers to the parameters of the appropriate theoretical distribution.
If the chi-square test outcome is marked with “df adjusted”, it means that to compute chi-
square test statistic, the program joined the categories with expected frequencies lower than 5. In
particular, the neighboring categories are joined until their frequency becomes higher than 5.
If the test demonstrates statistical significance (that is, -value is lower than the assumed
significance level, usually 0,05), the hypothesis, that the observed data are liable to a specific
distribution, is rejected [4, 5].
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test can be computed, or not, depending upon the settings on the
chart
. In case of two samples, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is the test of statistical
significance differences between them. Just like the test for one sample, the test statistic compares
cumulative distribution functions, in this case it deals with cumulative distribution functions of
two samples (e.g. the observed and the simulated values). Big difference between the cumulative
distribution functions shows that the data come from two different populations. The test may turn
out useful when building a model for assessment whether the expected results (based on the
209
simulation input data) differ from the observed ones. A significant difference between the
expected and observed outcomes usually reveals the model’s insufficiency for demonstrating
dependencies between the input and output data [4, 5].
In the |-*
| group there may be set options for Kolmogorov-Smirnov test.
Calculations can be done on the basis of categorized data by clicking the button è ~
) -
(computing is faster) or using raw data (the procedure is slower; button è ~
must be
pressed to make use of this method). In the first case the program calculates the value of D-max
statistic on the basis of grouped data, whereas in the second case, at every point it performs
calculations of cumulative expected frequencies based on the ordered data. Kolmogorov D-max
statistic is the biggest of the absolute differences between the observed and expected cumulative
values of the distribution. If the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test shows statistical significance (that is,
the –value appears lower than the assumed significance level), we may reject the hypothesis
assuming that the observed data are subject to the hypothetical distribution.
Using the *^"*"^ 8.0 program (chart ¨

Y
fitting), the verifications of null
hypothesis of fitting the distribution of the failure moments (t n ) and the time between failures (´ n )
in marine power plants fuel oil systems with the following theoretical distributions: exponential,
gamma and log-normal were carried out; for this purpose Kolmogorov-Smirnov (continuous) test
was applied. For reasons of space the *^"*"^ ¡?/ spreadsheets with the observed and
expected frequencies and the outcome of the tests of goodness of fit data with theoretical
distributions fit have not been included. The results of the tests of goodness of fit have been shown
on histograms and cumulative histograms of marine power plants fuel oil systems failure moments
(t n ) and the time between failures (´ n ) with probability density functions and cumulative
distribution functions of the discussed theoretical distributions.
3. Results of the tests of goodness of fit of the consecutive failure moments
The performance of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for the exponential distribution, has resulted
in its following parameters: number of categories: 17; lower limit: 0; upper limit: 170; lambda:
0,0139; observed mean: 71,7130; observed variance: 1907,3664.
Histogram and cumulative histogram of the consecutive marine power plants fuel oil systems
failure moments with the probability density function of the exponential distribution and the
cumulative distribution function of the exponential distribution and with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov
test results inserted have been shown in fig. 1.
variable:tn ; the exponential distribution variable: t n ; the exponential distribution
d Kolmogorov-Smirnov 0,18146, p < 0,01 d Kolmogorov-Smirnov 0,18146, p < 0,01
chi-square test = 39,71150, df = 9 (adjusted), p = 0,00001 chi-kwadrat test = 39,71150, df = 9 (adjusted), p = 0,00001
14
100
12 90
80
10
Relative frequency (%)
70
8 60
50
6
40
4 30
20
2
10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Time [24 h] Time [24 h]
a) Y
Fig. 1?ç
~
|
~Y
|

fuel oil
YY

\

Y
~
~
|

Y

\

Y
~
~Yand
|-*
|

210
There are no bases for accepting the null hypothesis that the empirical distribution of the
marine power plants fuel systems consecutive failure moments t n complies with the exponential
distribution.
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test applied to the gamma distribution has resulted in its following
parameters: number of categories: 17; lower limit: 0; upper limit: 170; scale parameter: 64,6862,
shape parameter: 3,2067; observed mean: 71,7130; observed variance – 1907,3664.
failure moments with the probability density function of the exponential distribution and the
test results, inserted, have been shown in fig. 2.
variable: tn ; the gamma distribution variable: tn ; the gamma distribution
chi-kwadrat test = 24,38039, df = 8 (adjusted), p = 0,00198 chi-kwadrat test = 24,38039, df = 8 (adjusted), p = 0,00198
14 100
90
12
80
10

70
60
8
50
6
40
30
4
20
2
10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Time [24 h]
Time [24 h]
a) Y
Fig. 2?ç
~
|
~Y
|

fuel oil

YY

Y
~
~
|

Y

Y
~
~Yand
|-*
|

There are no bases for accepting the null hypothesis assuming that the empirical distribution of
the marine power plants fuel oil systems consecutive failure moments t n complies with the gamma
distribution.
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test applied to the log-normal distribution has resulted in its
following parameters: number of categories:17; lower limit: 0; upper limit: 170; mean (M):
3,7573; variance: 3,20669; observed mean: 71,7130, observed variance: 1907,3664.
failure moments with the probability density function of the log-normal distribution and the
cumulative distribution function of the log-normal distribution and with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov
211
variable: tn ; the log-normal distribution variable: tn ; the log-normal distribution
14
100
90
12
80
10

70
8 60
50
6
40
4 30
20
2
10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
a) Y
Fig. 3?ç
~
|
~Y
|

fuel oil

YY

-nor

Y
~
~
|

Y

log-

Y
~
~Yand
Ko|-*
|

There are no bases for accepting the null hypothesis that the empirical distribution of the
marine power plants fuel systems consecutive failure moments t n complies with the log-normal
distribution.
To define the goodness of fit of the obtained empirical distribution of the marine power plants
fuel oil systems’ consecutive failure moments t n with the Weibull distribution, a graphical method
(the window ¨éç
¨ of the program *^"*"^ ¡?/) have been used.
Parameters of the Weibull distribution , ² have been estimated by the Maximum Likelihood test.
The obtained parameters for the distribution are as follows: number of categories: 17; lower limit:
0; upper limit: 170; =1,2665; ²=75,5095.
failure moments with the probability density function of the Weibull distribution and the
cumulative distribution function of the Weibull distribution have been shown in fig. 4.
variable: tn ; the Weibull distribution variable: tn ; the Weibull distribution

Ú1,2665, Ú75,5095 Ú1,2665, Ú75,5095
14%
100%
92%
11%
83%
75%
9%
67%
58%
7% 50%
42%
5% 33%
25%
2% 17%
8%
0% 0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
a) Y
Fig. 4. ç
~
|
~Y
|

fuel oil

YY

Y

Y
~
~
|

Y

Y

Y
~
~Y

Y
=1,2665, ²=75,5095
4. Results of the tests of goodness of fit of the time between failures
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test applied to the exponential distribution has resulted in its
following parameters: number of categories: 13; lower limit: 0; upper limit: 130; lambda: 0,0704;
observed mean: 14,1979, observed variance: 247,5795.
212
Histogram and cumulative histogram of the time between the failures of marine power plants
fuel oil systems with the probability density function of the exponential distribution and the
variable: Wn ; the exponential distribution variable: Wn ; the exponential distribution
d Kolmogorov-Smirnov 0,07620, p = n.i. d Kolmogorov-Smirnov 0,07620, p = n.i.
70
100
90
60
80
50

70
40 60
50
30
40
20 30
20
10
10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
a) Y
Fig. 5?ç
~
|
~Y
Y failure
fuel oil

YY

\

Y
~
~
|

Y

\

Y
~
~Yand
|-*
|

There are no bases for rejecting the null hypothesis that the empirical distribution of the time
between failures ´ n of the marine power plants fuel oil systems complies with the exponential
distribution.
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test applied to the gamma distribution has resulted in its following
parameters: number of categories: 13; lower limit: 0; upper limit: 130; scale parameter: 13,8525;
shape parameter: 1,6149; observed mean: 14,1979; observed variance: 247,5795.
fuel oil systems with the probability density function of the gamma distribution and the cumulative
distribution function of the gamma distribution and with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test results,
inserted, have been shown in fig. 6.
variable: Wn ; the gamma distribution variable: Wn ; the gamma distribution
d Kolmogorov-Smirnov 0,07907, p = n.i. d Kolmogorov-Smirnov 0,07907, p = n.i.
70
100
90
60
80
50
70
40 60
50
30
40
20 30
20
10
10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
a) Y
Fig. 6. ç
~
|
~Y
Y een failure
fuel oil

YY

Y
~
~
|

Y

Y
~
~Yand
|-*
|

between failures ´ n of the marine power plant fuel system complies with the gamma distribution.
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test applied to the log-normal distribution has resulted in its
following parameters: number of categories: 13; lower limit: 0; upper limit: 130; mean (M):
213
2,0908; variance: 1,6149; observed mean: 14,1979; observed variance: 247,5795.
fuel oil systems with the probability density function of the log-normal distribution and the
cumulative distribution function of the log-normal distribution and with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov
variable: Wn ; the log-normal distribution
d Kolmogorov-Smirnov 0,09969, p = n.i.
chi-kwadrat test = 7,82505, df = 2 (adjusted), p = 0,01999 variable: Wn ; the log-normal distribution
70 d Kolmogorov-Smirnov 0,09969, p = n.i.
chi-kwadrat test = 7,82505, df = 2 (adjusted), p = 0,01999
60 100
90
50
80

40 70
60
30
50
20 40
30
10
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 10
Time [24 h] 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Time [24 h]
a) Y
Fig. 7. ç
~
|
~Y
Y failure
fuel oil

YY

-

Y
~
~ and
|

Y

log-

Y
~
~Yand
|-*
|

between failures (´ n ) of the marine power plants fuel oil systems complies with the log-normal
distribution.
To define the goodness of fit of the obtained empirical distribution of the time between failures
in the marine power plants fuel oil systems (´ n ) with the Weibull distribution, a graphical method
(the window ¨éç
¨ of the program *^"*"^ ¡?/) have been used.
Parameters of the Weibull distribution , ² have been estimated by the Maximum Likelihood test.
The obtained parameters for the distribution are as follows: number of categories: 13; lower limit:
0; upper limit: 130; =0,9928; ²=14,1522.
Histogram and cumulative histogram of the time between failures (´ n ) of marine power plants
fuel oil systems and the probability density function of the Weibull distribution and the cumulative
distribution function of the Weibull distribution have been shown in fig. 8.
a) Y
variable: ń ; the Weibull distribution variable: ń ; the Weibulldistribution
Ú0,9928, Ú14,1522 Ú0,9928, Ú14,1522
77%
100%
66% 92%
84%
55% 75%
67%
44%
58%
50%
33%
42%
33%
22%
25%
11% 17%
8%
0% 0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Fig. 8. ç
~
|
~Y
Y

fuel oil

YY

Y

Y
~
~
|

Y

Y

Y
~
~Y

Y
> =0,9928, ²=14,1522
214
5. Final remarks
In case of the consecutive failure moments of the marine power plants fuel oil systems, non of
the discussed theoretical distributions turns out a sufficiently appropriate model for the obtained
empirical distribution.
However, for the time between failures of the marine power plants fuel oil systems, there are
no bases for rejecting the null hypothesis assuming the obtained empirical distribution comply
with each of the considered theoretical distributions, that is, the exponential, gamma, log-normal
and Weibull.
Program *^"*"^ ¡?/ enabled the fit of the theoretical distribution and carrying out the
tests of goodness of fit in case of the assumption that exponential, gamma and log-normal
distributions become the models. But in reference to the Weibull distribution, due to the Maximum
Likelihood test, only the distribution parameters could be estimated. The analysis carried out by
means of a statistical package *^^&ç"*, presented in [2], in reference to the Weibull
distribution, brought slightly different, more unique results; but it was made by a much older
statistical package than *^"*"^¡?/, and for the space reason it was not possible to discuss in
details the comparison of the test results obtained by means of both statistical packages.
References
[1] Chybowski L., Matuszak Z., &

? Sbornik naucznych trudow
<[ [ Z!XZ Z <# X Xelej BALTTECHMASZ -2006, Izdatelstwo
KGTU, Kaliningrad 2006, pp. 277-289.
[2] Matuszak Z., %

Y

? Kaliningradskij gosudarstwiennyj
techniczeskij uniwersytet, Kaliningrad 2002, Monografia.
[3] Matuszak Z.,

? Kaliningradskij gosudarstwiennyj techniczeskij
uniwersytet, Kaliningrad 2003, Monografia.
[4] Stanisz A., &'
?}>*
. StatSoft, Kraków 2006.
[5] StatSoft – Statistica 8.0, &'

*^"*I^.
215
216
HEAVY DUTY DIESEL EMISSION ROAD TESTS
Jerzy Merkisz, Jacek Pielecha
&
|

?&
{!/- <&
?>¢;¡}</á!\>¢;¡}</;
-
? ?
Q??! ?
Q??
Wojciech Gis
M"

?`
¡/!/{-{/}
?>¢;¡¡}}{{}ê}<
-
>
?
Q
??
Abstract

Y ~_<Y
_;|

!

Y

? | Y

|
¦

|

|

?

Keywords:

! !

!Y

|

1. Introduction
Contemporary vehicle manufacturers focus not only on the comfort and safety of their products
but also on the issues related to the fuel economy [3, 18] and the emission level [1]. Owing to a high
commitment of the vehicle manufacturers recent years saw a reduction of vehicle emission level
from Euro 1 to Euro 4, which reduces the pollution by more than 90% [1].
European emission regulations for heavy duty vehicles set forth in Directive 1999/96/WE are
commonly known as Euro 1...5 standards. Since October 2005 all newly homologated vehicles and
since October 2006 all newly registered commercial vehicles (ç |¨¨
, including buses)
have had to comply with the Euro 4 standard. More stringent standard - Euro 5 will come into
force in October 2008 (homologation) and October 2009 (registration) respectively. Additionally,
the Directive 2005/55/WE adopted in 2005 introduced the EEV standard (_ _|
n-

) for vehicles of particularly low emission level. The purpose of this directive
is to replace the previous directives 88/77/EWG, 96/1/WE, 1999/96/WE and 2001/27/WE through
a unification and consolidation of the regulations in a single act. Directive 2001/27/WE came into
force on 9.11.2006. As the Euro 4 standard was introduced, the manufacturers of all powertrains of
heavy duty vehicles including city buses had to fit them with OBD (On-¨

) emis-
sion monitoring system [2, 4, 10, 14]. The implementation of the Euro 4 and Euro 5 standards
217
forced the manufacturers to come up with new solutions such as EGR (exhaust gas recirculation)
or SCR (selective catalytic reduction), the latter requiring an on-board supply of a solution of car-
bamide (AdBlue).
Currently, more attention is drawn to the measurement of the emissions under variable operat-
ing conditions, particularly regarding heavy duty vehicles. Emission testing in road conditions is in
higher demand than stationary driving cycles. On-road emission testing became possible owing to
a rapid advancement of the measuring techniques that came in recent years [5, 6, 8, 13, 17]. The
said advancement also aimed at the measurement of extremely small pollutant concentration in the
exhaust gas [7, 9, 15]. The Institute of Combustion Engines and Transport with a portable emis-
sion testing system carried out a series of on-road emission tests of two city buses with two differ-
ent powertrains: hybrid and conventional diesel.
2. Emission testing methodology
The on-road emission tests were carried out in city traffic " #`*{+}XX
performed on the city main streets in the afternoon, when the traffic was moderate. Such condi-
tions were selected in order to ensure the highest possible use of the engine work field (regular bus
operation was simulated including 10 second stops at the bus stops). The object of the tests were
two buses manufactured by Solaris: one unit was fitted with a hybrid engine (Hybrid H18) and the
other one – with a conventional diesel engine (U18 Aarhus) – characteristics – Tab. 1. The buses
were selected based on the similarity of service routes (number of passengers) and at the same
time in such a way that there was a possibility of comparing their functionality and ecology under
real conditions.

?}?^
~ Y

|

Y?}?
Y
Parameter Conventional diesel bus Hybrid Bus (diesel + electric)

1 2 3
Engine type ;*"$ Cummins ISB 250
Displacement [cm3] 9200 6700
Emission standard Euro 4 Euro 5
Transmission VOITH DIWA 86 4.5 ALLISON Ep50
Vehicle weight [kg] 16,700 17,800
Vehicle weight full load [kg] 21,200 22,000
218
* X}<<X X}×}X< X}X} [\ X!'+'/;a-
lyzer [9, 16] '=%$ &+; `* { +} !# <[ X} ! <\X [ X}
exhaust emissions (Tab. 2) at the same time recording the exhaust mass flow. The exhaust gases
entering the analyzer through a sensor maintaining the temperature of 191o`*) were filtered
for particulate matter (diesel) and then the concentration of hydrocar <[*;
(flame ionization detector). Next, the exhaust gases were cooled down to a temperature of 4oC and
the measurement of the concentration of NOx took place (non-dispersive method with the use of
ultraviolet radiation that enabled the measurement of both nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide),
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide (non-dispersive method with the use of infrared radiation) and
oxygen (electrochemical analyzer). The data could be directly transferred to the analyzer central
unit from the vehicle diagnostic system and the GPS.

??

|
~* ¨* \

Y
Y??

Y \ *_%_ç¨*

Parameter Method of measurement Accuracy
1 2 3
1. Concentration of
CO NDIR – non-dispersive (infrared), range 0–10% ±3%
HC *;– flame ionization, range 0–10,000 ppm ±2.5%
NOx = (NO + NO2) NDUV – non-dispersive (ultraviolet), range 0–3000 ppm ±3%
CO2 NDIR – non-dispersive (infrared), range 0–20% ±3%
O2 electrochemical, range 0–20% ±1%
Sampling frequency 1–4 Hz
2. Exhaust gas flow Mass flow intensity ±2.5%
Tmax up to 700oC ±1%
of the range
3. Pre-heating time 15 min
4. Response time T90 < 1 s
5. Supported diagnostic systems SAE J1850/SAE J1979 (LDV)
SAE J1708/SAE J1587 (HDV)
CAN SAE J1939/J2284 (HDV)
219
191oC
Exhaust intake *;
*!X HC
chiller
4oC
NDIR NDUV
O2 CO, CO2 NOx = NO + NO2
Central unit
OBD GPS Wireless LAN

?{?*
Y *_%_ç¨*– \~ëë

~---

3. Tests results and analysis
With the use of the portable system the emissions of CO, HC, NOx, CO2 with 1 second interval
were measured as well as the changes in the engine speed and torque– the parameters taken from
the vehicle OBD (CAN SAE J1939) and used to calculate the emissions related to the unit energy
X}'×<\![X [[[X}} *§+}'4 X}}[
vehicle limited the torque of the diesel engine when the vehicle began to move – while accelerat-
ing up to the speed of 5 km/h the electric motor was used and the diesel engine remained idle
(lower toxic emissions).

?;?_\
~

|
|

The calculations of the time density characteristics for the engine parameters in the urban traf-
fic revealed certain dependencies that characterize the share of given parameters of engine opera-
220
X X} X X! X<`*{* r the hybrid bus a large share of the operating time falls
within the engine operation range of 700–900 rpm and engine load of approximate!* X}
bus with the conventional powertrain, over 2000 s (approx. 20% of the engine operating time, total
engine operating time amounts to 10,200 s) of the engine operating time was 600 rpm and the en-
gine load approximately 10%. The ranges of engine parameters used in the city traffic were: idle
speed (for both of the tested buses) and the external characteristics operating range (maximum
load for a given engine speed). At the same time, for the hybrid bus a higher share of part loads is
more visible.
a) b)
1400 2500
1200
2000
1000
800 1500
t [s] 100 t [s] 100
600 80 1000 80
400 60 60
40 500 40
200 M/Mz [%] M/Mz [%]
20 20
0 0 0 0
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
n [rpm] n [rpm]

?<?

>Y
!Y|

The highest intensity of the CO2 emission in the tested city traffic conditions we can observe
<[<\[[ X}<×<<X Ì`}[´}!
*{[ X}
conventional diesel engine the CO2 emission (fuel consumption) increases proportionally to the
\[[! [`*{+}%2 emissions for the hybrid vehicle are approximate-
ly 20–30% lower than the analogical values for a conventional diesel vehicle. This could indicate a
lower fuel consumption; the total fuel consumption is calculated with the use of this data as well as
the share of the engine operation in given engine speed ranges and loads.

a) b)
120 160
140
100
120
80
CO2 [mg/s]
CO2 [mg/s]
100
60 100 80 100
80 60 80
40 60 60
40
40 40
20 M/Mz [%] M/Mz [%]
20 20 20
0 0 0 0
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
n [rpm] n [rpm]

??

>Y
!Y|

The maximum intensity of CO emission, given in milligrams per second, falls within the range
<×<<! [[<[<\[`}[´}!
*¶{[ X} ń-
tional vehicle this range is approximately 4–5 times wider (maximum for high loads and medium
\[
*¶{+}<!!X <X}[X}ngine capacity and the fact
that for the hybrid vehicle medium loads are more frequently the case as compared to the conven-
tional diesel engine, which operates at high loads for most of the time.
221
a) b)
600 3000
500 2500
400 2000
CO [mg/s]
CO [mg/s]
300 100 1500 100
80 80
200 60 1000 60
40 40
100 M/Mz [%] 500 M/Mz [%]
20 20
0 0 0 0
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
n [rpm] n [rpm]

?á?

>Y
!Y|

The maximum values of the emission of hydrocarbons for both of the powertrains is similar
(approximately 25–35 mg/s), yet, for the hybrid vehicle only the maximum values reach 25 mg/s
`*{ÏX} <[<\[[! [X}´![ X×[<µ
`*{* X} ´X ![!´}!X}!![\[etween the HC
emission and the engine speed and load (the maximum is observed for the maximum values of the
engine speed and load).
a) b)
40 30
35
25
30
20
HC [mg/s]
HC [mg/s]
25
20 100 15 100
15 80 80
60 10 60
10
40 40
M/Mz [%] 5 M/Mz [%]
5 20 20
0 0 0 0
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
n [rpm] n [rpm]

?¡?

Y

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The area of elevated NOx emission }[´}!`*{!!X}X} !
engine speeds in the whole range of engine loads and the maximum engine speed and high engine
load. This could be the effect of the application of selective catalytic reduction in this vehicle,
w}
X }} ×}X X<\X X} [X =%× * X} ´}! X} X}
conventional powertrain (no SCR) a linear growth of NOx emission is observed as the engine
\[[! [`*{

a) b)
450 400
400 350
350 300
300
NOx [mg/s]
NOx [mg/s]
250
250
100 200 100
200
80 150 80
150 60 60
100 100
40 40
M/Mz [%] M/Mz [%]
50 20 50 20
0 0 0 0
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
n [rpm] n [rpm]

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222
4. Comparison of the emission level of the tested engines
The emission intensity under real conditions was calculated with the help of the time density
characteristics of the engine operation (u!%ê%) and the characteristics of the emission intensity for
a toxic compound (!%ê%z):
_ , ¦ ¦ ûn, M / M z
`
( n, M M z ) , (1)
n M /Mz
where:
_ ! – emission of a toxic compound under real conditions,

n – engine speed,
%ê%z – relative engine load.
Knowing the effective power in each range (determined by the engine speed and load), the unit
emissions of the toxic compounds were compared, related to the engine power during the whole
test cycle. The following values were obtained for the hybrid bus: HC – 0.193 g/(kW·h), CO –
3.981 g/(kW·h), NOx – 2.711 g/(kW·h) and CO2 – ¶ µ` >}{ * X} ´X ! [!
bus: HC – 0.282 g/(kW·h), CO – 9.130 g/(kW·h), NOx – 3.128 g/(kW·h) and CO2 – 763.3
g/(kW·h). The above, when compared, discloses lower values for the hybrid vehicle: CO by
56.4%, HC by 31.8%, NOx by 13.3% and CO2 by 25.3% as compared to the conventional power-
X`*{
120%
Hybrid Diesel
Unit emission CO2, CO, HC, NOx, PM
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
CO2 CO HC NOx

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| |

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5. Engine emission level indexes
* <X} <X \X[X}\\}X}}XX X}}

operation at given engine speeds and loads as well as the characteristics of emission intensity we
can obtain the factor of multiplication of the increase (decrease) of the emissions under real traffic
conditions as opposed to the values obtained during the homologation test. The emission index
(for a given toxic compound) has been defined as follows [12]:
_ !
, (2)
_ ( ),
223
where:
– toxic compound for which the emission index has been determined,
_ ! – emission intensity obtained under real conditions ([g/(kW·h)]),
_ ~! – emission intensity obtained in the ESC or ETC test ([g/(kW·h)]) or the boundary val-
ues adopted as permissible for a given emission standard.
The knowledge of the actual emission and the test emission (or the one compliant with the
standard) may serve to determine the emission indexes of the toxic compounds of a given vehicle.
If there is no information on the engine toxic emissions in the ESC or ETC test, we can adopt the
permissible values according to the Euro emission standard which is binding for a given vehicle.
* <X}[X![[+X}< [×obtained for each vehicle as they
complied with different emission standards, hence the actual emission of a hybrid bus was com-
pared with the emission values set out in Euro 5 (ETC test as the vehicle was fitted with an after-
treatment system) and the actual emission of the conventional diesel bus was compared with the
emission values set out in Euro 4 and the ESC test as the engine was not fitted with aftertreatment
systems other than Oxicat. Because the standard does not provide for the CO2 emission level the
unit CO2 emission was converted into unit fuel consumption and then the mean overall efficiency
of the engine was estimated in the whole road test
(Ko Hybrid = 0.48, Ko Diesel = 0.36).
Y?{?_

|

\ Y

Y
n-
|
|

Parameter CO HC NOx CO2
1 2 3 4 5
Actual emission (hybrid) [g/(kW·h)] 3.981 0.193 2.711 570.2
Actual emission (conventional) [g/(kW·h)] 9.130 0.282 3.128 763.3
ESC test emission
Euro 4 [g/(kW·h)] 1.5 0.46 3.5 –
Euro 5 [g/(kW·h)] 1.5 0.46 2.0 –
ETC test emission
Euro 4 [g/(kW·h)] 4.0 0.55 2.0 –
Euro 5 [g/(kW·h)] 4.0 0.55 2.0 –
Emission index [–] Hybrid bus
ESC included 2.645 0.419 1.350 –
ETC included 0.993 0.351 1.350 –
Emission index [–] Conventional bus (Diesel)
ESC included 6.086 0.613 0.894 –
ETC included 2.282 0.513 1.564 –
+}! X}< [× X[ X}X [X`*{} X}X

the hybrid bus has advantages in terms of both – fuel economy such as lower CO2 emission and
ecology such as lower emission indexes for CO and HC (lower than 1). This means that during its
operation the bus releases fewer toxic compounds to the atmosphere than in the dynamic ETC test
(in reference to a unit of energy). The emission index obtained for NOx amounts to 1.35 – this
means that the emission of this compound during the road tests is 35% higher than in the ETC test.
The emission indexes obtained for the conventional bus show that the emission of CO has been
exceeded (more than 6 times) in the road test. The emission of the other toxic compounds does not
224
exceed the boundary values set out in the Euro 4 standard. It should be noted that for the conven-
tional bus the emission indexes were obtained through the data related to the Euro 4 standard and
the ESC test.
7
Hybrid Diesel
6.086
6
5
Emission index [-]
2
1.35
0.993 0.894
1 0.613
0.351
0
CO HC NOx

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6. Conclusions
A hybrid bus is more environment friendly because of a lower emission of CO2 (fuel consump-
tion) by 25% and a lower emission of other toxic compounds such as CO by 60%, HC by 30%,
NOx by 15% as opposed to a conventional bus.
The analysis of the emission indexes shows that the emission values in the homologation test
`' '+ ' § ' ´}!{[X}´!X}! \X ´* n-
ventional bus the differences of certain toxic compounds (as opposed to the emission set out in
Euro 4 in the ESC test) are high and amount to: CO 6 times higher, HC 1.5 times lower and NOx
< <!* X}}[` \\ [X X}<ssion set out in Euro 5 in the ETC test) the
following emission values were obtained under real traffic conditions: NOx emission 35% higher,
HC emission 65% lower and CO emission similar. The elevated NOx emission during the tests can
result from an inappropriate selection of the engine for this particular vehicle (an engine of higher
capacity and power would be required so that it could more frequently operate on part loads).
The defined emission indexes could come in handy in the classification of vehicle fleets in
terms of toxic emissions according to their year of manufacture, emission limit compliance, mi-
leage or conditions of operation.
Literature
[1] AVL, _\_

#

, AVL List GmbH, Graz 2007.
[2] Gao, Y., Checkel, M. D., _

^
%

-
!"- _

% * , SAE Technical Paper Series 2007-01-1327.
[3] Gao, Y., Checkel, M. D., _\
% - _

n

, SAE Technical Paper Series 2007-01-1610.
[4] Greening, P., _ #
-¨ ç | ¨ ¨ – #

| , On-Board
Diagnostic Symposium: Light and Heavy Duty, Lyon-Villeurbane 2007.
225
[5] Jehlik, H., ì//¡–çY
&
- _

£ > ^ ; è *, Sensors 5th Annual SUN (SEMTECH User
Network) Conference, 25-26.09.2008.
[6] Johnson, K., Durbin, T., Cocker, D., Miller, J., Agama, R., Moynahan, N., Nayak, G., On-
_|
&_%*%
"- _

ç |-¨
¨

[7] Khair, M., Khalek, I., Guy, J., &Y _

%
^
a
–

_\
[8] Khalek, I., * &%-&_%* % ^ & , Sensors 5th
Annual SUN (SEMTECH User Network) Conference, 25-26.09.2008.
[9] Korniski, T., Gierczak, C., Wallington, T., #Y_|
?<"¨

*_%_çí_\%

, Sensors 4th Annual SUN
(SEMTECH User Network) Conference, 22.10.2007.
[10] McCarthy, M., #
¨¨"", On-Board Diagnostic Symposium: Light and
Heavy Duty, Lyon-Villeurbane 2007.
[11] Merkisz, J., Pielecha, J., Gis, W.,

_

¥_¨
, APISCEU 2008, Beijing 2-6.11.2008.
[12] Merkisz, J., Pielecha, J., Gis, W., &
Y

_|

_

|

¨ "" *
, Better Air Quality (BAQ) 2008, Bangkok
12-14.11.2008.
[13] Quan, H., ^§*ç |-¨
#Y&Y _

%
¤

* ~&_%*^
|

, Sensors 5th Annual SUN (SEMTECH User Network) Confe-
rence, 25-26.09.2008.
[14] Palocz-Andresen, M.,
¨-
%-~-- % -
, Predelli O.: Onboard-Diagnose II, Expert Verlag, Renningen 2007.
[15] Rapone, M., Ragione, L., Meccariello, G.,

-¨
|
¤
|
_

_|
[16] Shahinian, V. D., *_¥* - ^

* *_%_ç %Y

_

^ , Sensors 4th Annual SUN (SEMTECH User Network) Conference,
22.10.2007.
[17] }\

*X

ç¨" &_%*% ^ &o-
&%&*, Sensors 4th Annual SUN (SEMTECH User Net-
work) Conference, 22.10.2007.
[18] }
**

¥ -$ -_

-&
, SAE Interna-
tional, Warrendale 2007.
226
HISMAR - UNDERWATER HULL INSPECTION AND
CLEANING SYSTEM AS A TOOL FOR SHIP PROPULSION
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE INCREASE
Marek Narewski
Polski Rejestr Statków SA

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1. Introduction
We observe continuous growth both the global and EU shipping fleet. When speaking about
the measures that can be taken to improve the shipping efficiency one of major issues is hull
performance increase by the reduction of the wave and frictional resistance and increase of
propulsion system efficiency. Whilst shipping is one of the cleanest forms of transportation, the
fouling of ships reduces efficiency, increases fuel consumption and in extreme cases - corrosion.
To minimize wave drag, special attention is given the smooth ship hull design and construction
quality. The numerous efforts focus on frictional drag reduction using not only computational
techniques. Modern anti-fouling paints and special low friction coatings are another large area
of investment into research and achieved spectacular performance. When speaking about the
increasing efficiency of the propulsor system there is a number of another opportunities like
new highly efficient diesel engines, advanced propeller designs as well as promoted by some
companies propeller coating techniques that prevent biofouling. Some guidelines and draft data
regardding potential savings due to lowering of fuel consumption can be found in technical
227
literature. An example taken from data collected by Wartsila is presented in Table 1. The
important comment to that table is that, there is very limited amount of data available that could
be referenced as being confirmed by measurements at real sea conditions. Bearing that in mind,
when using such data for calculation of potential savings we have to treat that figures as
guidance. More detailed data can be collected during research on ship performance using real
object data gathered during ship operation. This is quite complex task and will need certain
financial resources and positive approach from ship operators to collect and validate the data
with assistance of ship crew.
Table 1. Estimated savings due to selected measures applied to various types of ships
Ship Type Tanker Container Ro-Ro Ferry

Efficiency measures
Hull clearing < 3% < 2% < 2% < 2%
Propeller clearing and polishing <10% <10% <10% <10%
Modern hull coatings < 9% < 9% < 5% < 3%
Propeller efficiency measurement < 2% < 2% < 2% < 2%
Constant versus variable speed operation < 5% < 5% < 5% < 5%
Source: Wartsila [1]
It is obvious, that machinery that operates for longer time and at higher power and loading is
more susceptible to failures. Lower engine loading in general means lower wearing of certain
components of ship drive system that could lead to longer operational life of the ship propulsion.
Furthermore, it results in better reliability of the main propulsion and resulting ship safety
improvement - particularly important for tankers, bulkcarriers, ro-ro and passenger ships.
Monitoring of the ship hull condition for estimation of fouling or coating roughness
measurements when coupled with means for cost effective ship hull cleaning (an example could
be HISMAR system), could be valuable operational tool that could be used for ships in
operation. Such procedure could be a part of more complex propulsion efficiency audits being
a part of modern ship hull survey procedures.
2. Environmental and legal aspects

There is ongoing discussion at International Marine Organisation (IMO) with regard to Marpol
Annex V (Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships). IMO has already
defined the residue from hull scrubbing as ships waste and it is therefore covered by the
convention. As a consequence of this, it is likely that restrictions will be introduced as to where
and how ship hulls may be scrubbed. The scrubbing of hulls by divers is forbidden within many
European harbours. Fouling on a hull increases a ship’s drag through the water, thus increasing
the amount of power required to maintain the same speed or reducing the speed of the vessel for
a given power. Fundamental data on that subject can be found in reference [2]. It is estimated
that serious fouling can increase the drag on a ship by up to 40%, reducing the speed by up to 2
knots and increasing the fuel consumption by 10÷20% [3]. For the shipping industry, this
means increased costs and time delays. The extra fuel consumption also increases greenhouse
gas emissions, being composed of NOx, SOx and CO2 from ships by up to 20 million tonnes
per annum. Although shipping produces the least amount of greenhouse gases annually when
compared to other modes of transportation, under the Kyoto agreement the EU is committed to a
5% reduction in emissions by 2012.
228
3. Underwater ship hull cleaning -- advantages and tools
For over 130 years people have thought about machines or robots for cleaning ship hulls.
Various devices and technology has been developed and tested. Only few developments have
found wider application, an example could be hydraulic brush system operated by diver
(BrushCart). In recent years, we are observing growing interest in robotic system that are
developed to cope with the bigger ships and eliminate diver’s presence underwater. Important
issue is stress on marine ecology requirements. Robots are able to cope with that case using
suitable tools. However, the investment in robotic system may be substantially high, such
system will be able to work continuously underwater and possibly above the water where divers
do not have access. Plug in sensor modules could allow to conduct detailed inspection of the
almost whole hull during the same mission.
3.1 Brush technology
Brushes are used in cleaning carts, handheld polishers and some robotic systems and are
able to cope with almost all types of fouling. Most systems consist of one or more rotating
brushes pneumatically, or hydraulically driven. This requires the minimum of equipment
beyond the cleaning device itself thus reducing the cost of the system. Before the ban on
tributyltin (TBT) came in, brush technology was preferred to underwater jetting systems, as it
was easier and more economical to use. However, the increase in use of environmentally
friendly low friction coatings can cause a problem, as these coatings are less durable and more
easily damaged by the abrasive action of the brushes. Research has shown that bristle density,
angle and gauge have a greater effect on shear and normal forces produced by brushes, while the
brush speed and stand-off distance has little or no effect. The main point demonstrated by the
research was the selection of the brush cleaning system and forces involved is dependant on a
number of factors and their relationship is very complex. The major problems in cleaning using
heavy duty brushes could have place when dealing with calcerous forms of fouling.
3.2 Water jetting technology
The use of high pressure water jets has become an accepted alternative to brush cleaning
systems. Unlike the brush-based systems, water jets can be easily controlled by reducing or
increasing the pressure from the pump. A water jet's effectiveness is dependant on the surface,
pressure of water, jetting angle and distance from the cleaning surface. Jet nozzles, such as
CaviJet or SwirlJet have been developed to enable effective cleaning of the hull underwater.
Tests using cavitating water jet nozzles showed that the cleaning process can remove various
types of fouling from hull coatings, while at the same time, minimizing the damage to the
coating. Although jet washing provides increased control of the cleaning process, the perceived
increase in the cost of the equipment is still thought to be prohibitive. In hase of the HISMAR
system low pressure jetting will be sufficient to remove effectively and safely the layer of slime
from the hull surface.
4. Cleaning problems
Diver(s) presence enhances the risk of diving accidents at work. Some data revealed by HSE
show that probability of diver accidents during professional diving operation is higher than in
farming or civil engineering. The number of accidents in offshore and inshore diving is in a
range 20-40 for 100000 dives while fatal accidents occur in number of 6-7 for 100000 dives.
Additionally to the risky job, diver has limited time to be able to work underwater so a team of
divers is required to perform cleaning task. An open issue is the cost of diver safety measures
229
and environment protection requirements that must be taken into consideration discussing the
cost benefits. Remotely controlled machines are not able to clean the whole wetted ship surface
due to some hull features that restrict the robot operation. Ship bow and stern, due to hull shape
are very difficult for automatic cleaning and that area will probably be cleaned by divers.
Generally it is assumed that cleaning of 80% of the ship underwater area from slimes could
provide suitable effect of drag reduction.
5. HISMAR idea
The abbreviation HISMAR stands for Hull Identification System for Maritime Autonomous
Robotics. HISMAR is intended to be a multifunctional robotic platform which will be able to
perform specific inspection or maintenance tasks such as structural integrity monitoring of the
ship’s hull or cleaning operations. Apart from Project leader - Newcastle University, the other
partners in the project were Graal Tech of Genoa; the UK's Shipbuilders and Shiprepairers
Association; TecnoVeritas of Portugal; Polski Rejestr Statków; Robosoft of France; Carnival;
Moscow State Technological University; Royal Thai Navy and TEPAC Technology & Patent-
Consulting of Germany.
Robotic platform is to be deployed for the board of the ship, harbour service craft or from
the pier using simple care or special launching and retrieval device. The control over the vehicle
is provided via the special umbilical with power, control lines and hoses used for removal of
cleaning wastes to the surface. Intervention with the use of HISMAR robot needs some
preparation before the vehicle is placed on the surface of the ship hull. The desired situation is
the case when digital data of the ship hull construction are provided to the robot control
computer. On the other hand, at start of the job a map of the hull is automatically charted,
recording the location of every weld, thickness change, rivet and indentation on the ship’s
surface. Adjustable jets of pressurised sea water blast the marine growth off the surface of the
ship which is then sucked up into the main chamber. Here, ca 150 litres of water a minute is
filtered and the bio-fouling removed and rendered harmless to the local environment. In this
way, the ship’s robotic ‘vacuum’ can continuously roam the ship’s hull, preventing the build up
the layer of slime.
Hull surveying is an important part of any vessel's life span and a number of periodic
inspections of the hull are required during the vessel's life. Currently, the minimum requirement
is for a visual inspection of the hull and with some thickness measurements being taken in
specific areas of the hull, or where a probable defect might have occurred. These are usually
performed using an ultrasonic sensory system that is placed on the plate's surface. Due to the
size of the detection head and the skill required to operate the equipment, only a small
proportion of a vessel's hull can be accurately measured. A full hull inspection is required to be
performed in dry dock every five years, but up to 20% of the hull may not be inspected due to
the vessel's dock supports. Between these class renewal inspections, intermediate hull
inspections are required. These are general visual underwater inspections performed by divers.
However, in recent years a number of robots have been developed to improve the accuracy,
coverage and reliability, while reducing the time and cost of the inspection. The current robotic
systems available are limited to visual inspection and ultrasonic plate thickness measurements.
6. The critical components of the HISMAR Robotic Platform
The HISMAR robot design is presented in Fig 1 and 2. The key systems of the robot
include:
¨
| * Y
&
Key to the HISMAR robotic platform is the versatile central drive module. This incorporates the
robot’s drive systems, navigational sensor systems and control electronics. Robot is linked with
230
the surface by a mean of specialised umbilical that contain power and data conductors and
possibly hydraulic hoses for removal of cleaning debris.

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The cleaning system will utilize a water jetting to clean the hull. The jet spray system is
intended to provide the customer with sufficient control for their cleaning needs while
preventing damage to the hull coatings. A complete extraction and waste handling system is to
be developed to comply with current and future marine environmental legislation.
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HISMAR’s unique mapping and navigation system will allow for full autonomy of the robot
after the initial process of mapping the hull. This will allow for complete or partial cleaning of a
ship’s hull, the latter being complete at the crew’s convenience with no loss of operating time.
The map will be a permanent record of the condition of the ship’s hull, being updated by the
navigational system whenever a cleaning operation is performed.
7. HISMAR robotic system advantages
Marine growth on ships is a huge environmental and financial problem for the marine
industry and HISMAR offers a unique solution to both of these — and more. Created is a
system that works totally independently — in or out of the water — and not only keeps the ship
clean but also feeds back vital information about the hull’s condition. Because the map it
follows is so detailed, if there is a change to its path caused by corrosion or a crack in the steel
then it feeds this information back. This means it can be used as an additional check the
condition of ship’s hull and provide important reference data for classification society
surveyors. All other developed cleaning or inspection systems currently available are remotely
controlled during their operation, requiring highly skilled and experienced operators to
effectively clean the hull, while the ship is out of operation and usually in dry dock. The
advantage of the HISMAR robot is that it is an autonomous system so it can continue cleaning
with the ship remaining in service.
The platform can be launched whenever the vessel is in port or at anchor. The device will be
able to complete its tasks partially whilst in one port and be re-launched at successive points to
complete the task. The generic platform will offer the option of using targeted plug-in modules
to perform specific inspection or maintenance tasks such as structural integrity monitoring of the
ships hull or carrying out cleaning and waste recovery operations. This project offers a means to
effectively and efficiently undertake hull inspection and maintenance thereby extending the safe
working life of the vessel. Cleaning of the hull ensures the vessel maintains the lowest possible
hydrodynamic resistance and consequently reduces amount of fuel oil consumed. Therefore
ensuring a clean and smooth vessel underwater hull surface reduces vessel emissions and
reduces operating costs.
8. Validation of fuel consumption data and effectiveness of cleaning
There is noticeable amount of published data providing general information about cleaning
benefits but only few data available that provide reliable figures of possible savings due to
periodical cleaning of the ship hulls. A very optimistic diagram that presents possible
advantages from cleaning ship hull is given in Fig. 3. Some companies are offering advisory
optimization services of vessel performance and in some cases also hull cleaning underwater
using hydraulic tools. Up to our knowledge, only one company is using specialized ROV system
and no reliable commercial or scientific data regarding its performance are available.
231
Taking decision about cleaning requires certain data to be analyzed. US Navy underwater
husbandry practice requires the decision to be taken after underwater inspection and precise
estimation of the area covered by fouling after comparison with reference data. Other
commercial practice requires analysis of periodically collected voyage data as well as basic data
about the prime mover operation like – rpm, specific heating value of fuel oil, fuel oil
consumption, power measured by special device or torsiometer, turbocharger revolutions,
exhaust gas temperature – just as example. In that case, the collected data are subject of
evaluation using dedicated software by commercial company on a subscription basis. In case of
some ships and sea routs potential savings are big enough to pay for kind of ship services..
9. Conclusions
The use of remotely controlled technology for underwater cleaning is subject of numerous
R&D activities. Commercially available devices are not cheap and the cleaning in dry dock is
much more popular and usually coupled with class surveys. Prime target for robotic tool is to
achieve performance and cost of operation at the competitive level. Hull cleaning by cost-
effective robotic devices that are able to cope with slime will limit fouling and lower the fuel
consumption. The use of intelligent crawling underwater robots will expand as there will be
more comparable data available describing ship propulsion performance increase as a result of
more frequent robotic cleaning. Collection of reliable data about the financial and technical
benefits of the robotic cleaning technology will be important for independent assessment of
ship propulsion system performance. Plate thickness measurements and other data describing
ship hull condition that will be collected by robot during cleaning missions could be further
used by classification societies for class renewal surveys. The hull surveying using innovative
robotic technology is in development phase and needs additional founds to be recognized as
mature technique recommended for wider use.
References
[1] Boosting Energy Efficiency, Energy Efficiency Catalogue, Ship Power R&D, Wartsila
Presentation, 19 Sept. 2008, Source: Internet.
[2] R.L.Townsin, The ship hull fouling penalty, pp 9-15, Biofouling 2003 Vol. 19
(Supplement).
[3] CASPER: The leading edge in vessel performance – Propulsion Dynamics, 2008.
[4] HISMAR News Report No 1/2007 and 2/2007.
232

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234
A MODEL OF MARINE VESSELS MOVEMENT
TO ESTIMATE HARMFUL COMPOUNDS IN THE VESSELS EXHAUSTS
> ; *
Q>;
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Polish Naval Academy in Gdynia

69, Smidowicza Str., 81-103 Gdynia, Poland
tel.: +48 58 626 26 03, fax: +48 58 626 25 03
e-mail: malgopawlak@tlen.pl, piaseczny@ptnss.pl
Abstract
Marine transport development and related to it, an increase in emission of harmful compounds forming when
burning marine fuels, enforces conducting research on that emission in sea regions located in the vicinity of
agglomeration areas. The basis for formulating the models of emission of harmful compounds in marine engines
exhausts is formulation and study of the vessels movement models. The models ought to take into consideration the
specificity of the processes taking place while a vessel is moving, which influence the formation of harmful compounds
and their emission intensity. Emission models can be later used in formulating models of pollutants dispersion and
their immission in the areas distant from the source of pollution, e.g. in city agglomeration regions. The paper
indicates the possibility of using the Automatic Identification System as a source of statistical data, which can be used
to define parameters and characteristics of the vessels movement. Identification of such a model was illustrated by the
examples of the Gdansk Bay region.
Key words: movement models, emission, toxic compounds in exhausts, marine engines
1. (

Emission of harmful compounds in engines of different applications constitutes a significant

ecological problem of the 21st century. For a few decades there have been made many attempts to
describe emission and its intensity with some specialised mathematical models [1-5]. When
mobile sources of emissions are considered, majority of such models are formulated to conduct
research on emission of motorization origin [1-3], both for road vehicles and off-road vehicles
(mainly construction equipment and agricultural machinery). There exist also models of emission
for aircraft vehicles (planes, helicopters). However, relatively few attempts are made to perform
spatial modelling of pollutants emission distribution for the area where the source of these
pollutants is the vessels movement. The problem of emission of pollutants in marine engines
exhausts is all the more essential, as contrary to observed global land-based emissions decrease, it
is projected that international shipping emissions will continuously be growing [6]. Such a
situation results from dynamic development of marine transport – it is assumed that over 90 % of
the world’s total trade is carried by sea [7].
Movement models to estimate emission of pollutants from engines of motorization and aircraft
origins, which have been formulated for many years, constitute a significant input into the
development of modelling the pollutants emission from combustion engines. However, due to
235
significant differences in topographic, hydrometeorological conditions and the specificity of
vessels maintenance, they cannot be directly applied in estimation of emission of these pollutants
in marine engines exhausts.
Existing inventories of distribution of a mean number of vessels in a given sea area in given
period of time, although they give a general idea on the vessel traffic intensity in a given area, they
are often too general and imprecise, especially in the cases when the research do not aim at
determining the mean number of vessels in a given sea region, but aim at describing the trajectory
of individual vessels operating in a given sea area at given time interval. Modelling should also
take into consideration technical parameters of an individual vessel (type, load, power etc.), which
would be helpful in modelling the emission and dispersion of toxic compounds in the vessel
exhausts.
2. X,

,(*7,
:*,:,
The length of the segment joining any two points Pi 1 , Pi , i 1,..., N , of coordinates (xi,yi),
between which a vessel moves:
| Pi 1 Pi | [ x(t i ) x(t i 1 )]2 [ y (t i ) y (t i 1 )]2 , (1)
and after transformations (applying the Lagrange’s theorem about average value):
| Pi 1 Pi | [ x' (T i )]2 [ y ' (-i )]2 't i , (2)
where T i , -i are points from interval [t i 1 , t i ) , and 't i t i t i 1 .
Analysis of emission and its intensity of the compounds in exhausts, should begin with
determination of the randomly changing vessel speed at a given time t, since the emission intensity
depends on this value. Vector stochastic process {V (t ) (V X (t ), VY (t )) : t T } describes the
randomly changing vessel speed. At a given time t, this value is a two-dimensional random
variable indicating a momentary speed vector. It should be noticed that between the random
processes of vessel trajectory: {S(t ) ( X (t ),Y (t )) : t t 0} and speed {V (t ) (V X (t ),VY (t )) : t t 0}
there exist the obvious relations: t
dS(t )
V (t ), t t 0,
S(t ) ³ V ( x)dx, tt0 (3)
dt 0
From equation (3) there come the following formulas:

dX (t ) , dY (t )
V X (t ) VY (t ) (4)
dt dt
Realisation of the process V(t) can be thus described by the following formulas:
dx(t ) dy (t )
v X (t ) vY (t )
dt , dt
(5)
After transformations, the length of the speed vector is determined:
| : (t ) | [v X (t )]2 [vY (t )]2 (6)
In modelling the marine vessels movement, there can be assumed that in time intervals
[t i 1 , t i ), i 1,..., N the vessel speed is constant: | :(t ) | vi , i 1,..., N , and therefore the
intensity of their exhausts emission will be constant: f ( x(t ), y (t )) Oi , t [t i 1 , t i ), i 1,..., N .
In reality, due to the yawing, the vessel route from point Pi 1 to point Pi along a given
trajectory, differs from the trajectory determined theoretically by drawing a line from point Pi 1 to
point Pi . The yawing can be written as:
236
2
§\ ·
'S
S 2 ¨ om ¸
© v W ¹
S
where: \ om W – period of dominant harmonic of
– yawing amplitude; v – vessel speed;
yawing.
Therefore, due to yawing, the vessel route from point Pi 1 to point Pi is longer than
'si vi 'ti by a random value Di , i 1,..., N , and therefore the mass of exhausts emitted at this
route interval will increase by a random value 'mi Oi Di , i 1,..., N . There can be accepted a
preliminary hypothesis that the random variables Di , i 1,..., N are mutually independent and
have Gaussian distributions N (di , V i ), i 1,..., N , where d i H 'si , V i U 'si , i 1,..., N .
Factors H , U are the coefficients of the average route elongation and of the standard error of
route elongation.
'<
,(*7:*,:,
Number of vessels operating in a given sea area varies in time, which constitutes therefore a
stochastic process. Such a process is determined with a symbol ^X t : t T ` . The value of this
process at time instant t means the number of vessels operating in a given sea area at instant t.
Realisations of this process are the functions of constant intervals. Any change of states appears at
a moment of entering or leaving an analysed sea area by a vessel. The first approximated model of
this process can be assumed the -, : / of discrete set of states
S {0,1,2,...} .
Stochastic process ^X t : t T ` of finite or denumerable set of states is called the Markov
process, if for any t 0 , t1 ,..., t n , t n 1 T such as t 0 t1 ... t n t n 1 and any i, j , i0 ,i 1 ,..., in 1 S ,
P{ X (t n 1 ) j | X (t n ) i, X (t n 1 ) in 1 ,..., X (t 0 ) i0 } P{ X (t n 1 ) j | X (t n ) i} (7)
If t 0 , t1 ,..., t n 1 are interpreted as the past instants, t n as the present instant, and t n 1 as the
incoming instants (future), then the equation defining the Markov process means that conditional
distribution of ‘future’ states does not depend on the ‘past’ if the present state of the process is
known.
If T N 0 {0,1,2,...} , then the Markov process is called the Markov chain, and if
T R [0, f) , then it is the Markov process with ‘continuous time’.
Conditional probabilities
Pij (t n , t n1 ) P{ X (t n1 ) j | X (t n ) i}, i, j S (8)
are called the probabilities of passing from state i at instant t n to state j at instant t n 1 . Let
t n s, t n 1 t , where 0 d s t . From the definition of Markov process there result the following
corollaries:
1) Pij ( s, t ) t 0 for all i, j S and s, t T , s t.
2) ¦ P ( s, t )
jS
ij 1 for all i S and s, t T , s t.
3) Pij ( s, t ) ¦ P (s, u ) P (u, t )

kS
ik kj for all i, j S and s, u, t T , s u t , (Chapman-
Kolmogorov equation).
Markov process is called homogenous, if probabilities of passing depend only on the
difference of instants (t-s): Pij ( s, t ) Pij (t s ) . For s 0 , Pij (0, t ) Pij (t ) .
237
Let ^X t : t [0, f)` be Markov process of discrete set of states S. Functional matrix, whose
elements are the probabilities of transition:
Pij ( s, t ) P{ X (t ) j | X ( s ) i}, i, j S , 0 d s t (9)
will be designated as:
P( s, t ) [ Pij ( s, t ) : i, j S ] . (10)
The Chapman-Kolmogorov equation in matrix notation will be as follows:
P ( s, t ) P ( s, u )P (u , t ) (11)
It can be assumed that there exist uniform t–relative limits
1 Pii (t , t h)
Oi (t ) lim , iS , (12)
h o0 h
Pij (t , t h)
O ij (t ) lim , i, j S (13)
h o0 h
and they are continuous functions of parameter t .
For homogenous Markov process, the intensities of transitions are constant Oij (t ) Oij .
The Chapman-Kolmogorov equation can be written in the form of:
Pij ( s, t h) ¦ Pik ( s, t ) Pkj (t , t h) , where i, j S and 0d st th. (14)
kS
Subtracting from both sides of the equation Pij ( s, t ) and dividing by h, there is obtained:
Pij ( s, t h) Pij ( s, t ) Pkj (t , t h) Pjj (t , t h) 1
h
¦P
kz j
ik ( s, t )
h
Pij ( s, t )
h
. (15)
Passing to the limit at h o 0 , assuming that in case of Markov process of countable set of states,
the convergence defining the intensities O kj (t ), k , j S at every determined j is uniform in
relation to k, the following system of differential equations is obtained:
wPij ( s, t )
wt
¦
kS
Pik ( s, t )O kj (t ), i, j S (16)
The initial condition constitutes the natural equality:

1 dla j i
Pij ( s, s ) G ij ® (17)
¯0 dla j z i
In a similar way, the can be derived some differential equations allowing to calculate one-
dimensional distribution of the process:
Pj (t ) P{ X (t ) j}, j S .
From the formula for total probability, it is obtained:
Pj (t h) ¦ Pi (t ) Pij (t , t h), jS (18)
iS
Subtracting from both sides Pj (t ) , dividing by h and passing to the limit at h o 0 , the following
system of equations is obtained:
Pjc (t ) ¦ P (t )O
iS
i ij (t ), jS (19)
The initial condition in this case constitutes the initial distribution of the process
Pi (0) pi0 , i S .
For homogenous Markov process, Kolmogorov system of equations (18) is brought to the system
of linear differential equations of constant coefficients:
Pjc (t ) ¦ Pi (t )Oij , j S (20)
iS
238
Such a system of differential equations is the most often solved using operators, applying
Laplace’s transformation:
f
~
L[ Pi (t )] Pi ( s ) ³ Pi (t ) e st dt . (21)
0
~
Making use of the property: L[ Pic(t )] s Pi ( s ) Pi (0) , the Laplace system of differential equations
undergoes transformation. As a result, there is obtained the following system of linear equations,
~ ~
where unknown are the Laplace transforms: Pi ( s ), i S : s Pj ( s ) pi0 ¦ Pi ( s )Oij , j S
~
iS
[8].
One of limiting theorems for homogenous Markov processes with ‘continuous time’ at time
t o f goes as follows:
Let ^X t : t [0, f)` be a homogenous Markov process of finite set of states S and of the intensity
matrix Ë [Oij : i, j S ] . If there is such a real positive number t 0 , that at least one column of the
matrix [ pij (t 0 ) : i, j S ] contains one column consisting of all the positive elements, then
there exist limiting probabilities:
lim Pj (t ) lim Pij (t ) Pj , j S (22)
t of t of
and they meet the system of linear equations

¦ Pi Oij 0, j S ,
iS
¦P
jS
j 1. (23)
Therefore, the limiting distribution is determined by solving the system of linear equations, whose
coefficients depend only on constants of the transition intensity.
Using non-homogenous Markov process as a model of the movement of objects navigating in
a given sea area is possible it there is assumed that the Markov process ^X t : t T ` , the value of
which at instant t constitutes the number of vessels operating in a given sea area at instant t, is a
single process, which means that in a short time interval the state can change by one. The matrix of
the intensity of transitions [8]:
(t ) [Oij (t ) : i, j S {0,1,2,...}] (24)
of this Markov process is as follows [8]:
ª D 0 (t ) D 0 (t ) 0 0 0 ... 0º
« »
D
« 1 ( t ) (D 1 (t ) E 1 (t )) E 1 (t ) 0 0 ... 0»
« 0 D 2 (t ) (D 2 (t ) E 2 (t )) E 2 (t ) 0 ... 0» (25)
« »
(t ) « 0 0 D 3 (t ) (D 3 (t ) E 3 (t )) E 3 (t ) ... 0»
« ... ... ... ... ... ... ...»
« »
« ... ... ... ... ... ... ...»
« ...
¬ ... ... ... ... ... ...»¼
Analytical solution of the system of the linear heterogeneous differential equations (18) in general
form is practically impossible. However, it is possible to find an approximated solution, assuming
that the elements of the matrix of the intensity of passages are constant in given time intervals and
that the set of states of the process is finite S {0,1,2,..., n} . Asymptotic distribution is received
when solving the system of equations (23), in which given coefficients Oij are the elements of the
matrix of the intensity of transition:
239
ª D 0 D0 0 0 0 ... 0 º
« »
« D1 (D1 E1 ) E1 0 0 ... 0 »
« 0 D2 (D 2 E 2 ) E2 0 ... 0 » (26)
« »
(t ) « 0 0 D3 (D 3 E 3 ) E3 ... 0 »
« ... ... ... ... ... ... ... »
« »
« ... ... ... ... D n1 (D n1 E n1 ) E n1 »
« ...
¬ ... ... ... ... En E n »¼
The solution of this system of equations, having replaced the constants with the functional
coefficients is of the following form [8]:
1
p 0 (t )
D (t ) D 1 (t ) ... D k 1 (t )
n
1 ¦ 0
k 1 E 1 (t ) E 2 (t )... E k (t ) (27)
D 0 (t ) D 1 (t ) ... D k 1 (t )
p k (t ) p 0 , k 1,2,..., n
E1 (t ) E 2 (t ) ... E k (t )
The number n is the maximal number of vessels in the sea area.
If in a given time interval [D , E ] , the distribution of the number of vessels in the sea area is
constant, then the number K can constitute the integer part of the expected value:
n
E[ X (t )] ¦k p
k 0
k (28)
In order to realize the described above stochastic model of movement of the vessels operating
in Gdansk Bay region, it is necessary to know the number of vessels operating in the analysed
area, their distributions in relation to the vessels types, their size, speed, power and kind of main
engines etc.
3.
,
7,/ ,7 ,(* 7,

7 ,7*,/(
,

:*+
Estimation of the intensity of movement of the vessels operating in a given sea area at
particular time interval, and on its basis – determination of emission of harmful compounds in
exhausts of the vessels engines, is possible with the use of data transmitted in the Automatic
Identification System (AIS), registered by the shore installation, which traces the vessels
movement in a given sea area. For the marine vessels passing through certain test segments (fig.
1), situated perpendicularly to shipping lanes approaching the ports of Gdynia and Gdansk, as well
as the shipping lane splitting into those two shipping lanes (in the proximity of Hel port), there
were analysed the movement parameters of the vessels operating in a given sea area at given time
interval.
240
Fig. 1. Map of Gdansk Bay area where there are marked the test intervals [9] of geographic coordinates:
AB = (54,58325°N; 18,85362°E) (54,45917°N; 18,88191°E) – gate GD; CD = (54,54200°N; 18,69511°E)
(54,52508°N; 18,69326°E) – gate GA; EF = (54,48666°N; 18,70878°E) (54,47326°N; 18,73178°E) – gate HE.
There were examined the vessels passing in the period of one month (from 1st to 30th June
2006) through the test intervals (called later: ‘gates’) shown in fig.1. In the analysed Gdansk Bay
region (fig.1), the total number of vessels operating in June 2006 amounted to 627 (fig.2). On
average, during 24 hours, to the analysed area through the gates there were entering from 3 to 8
vessels (in case of vessels entering the analysed area through the GD gate and GA gate), and from
9 to 14 vessels (in case of vessels entering the analysed area through the HE gate) (rys.3). Majority
of these vessels were entering the analysed area in the afternoon (through gates GD and GA) and
at time interval 00.00-12.00 (through gate HE) (fig.4).
Fig. 2. A 24-hour distribution of the number of vessels: a) outward bound passing through ‘gate GD’; b) outward
bound passing through ‘gate GA’; and c) passing through ‘gate HE’ and going towards of Gdansk port or Gdynia
port (in the period of 01-30.06.2006)
Fig. 3. A 24-hour distribution of the number of vessels: a) outward bound passing through ‘gate GD’; b) outward
bound passing through ‘gate GA’; and c) passing through ‘gate HE’ and going towards of Gdansk port or Gdynia
port (in the period of 01-30.06.2006)
241
Fig. 4. Distribution of the number of vessels: a) outward bound passing through ‘gate GD’; b) outward bound
passing through ‘gate GA’; and c) passing through ‘gate HE’ and going towards of Gdansk port or Gdynia port,
depending on time intervals during 24 hours (in the period of 01-30.06.2006)
Analysis of the available statistical data allowed to determine values of momentary speed v* of
the vessels entering the analysed area in analysed period of time. As it can be noticed, the most
frequent speed of the vessels entering the area through individual gates, was from 8 to 18 knots
(fig.5).
Fig. 5. Distribution of the momentary speed v* (velocity over ground) [in knots] for vessels a) outward bound passing
through ‘gate GD’; b) outward bound passing through ‘gate GA’; and c) passing through ‘gate HE’ and going
towards of Gdansk port or Gdynia port (in the period of 01-30.06.2006)
The volume of the underwater part of a hull V was calculated for the analysed group of
vessels on the basis of assumed simplified shape of a hull [10]. On the basis of the obtained
results, it can be stated that most of the analysed vessels were the ones relatively small – of
underwater hull volume up to 25000 m3 (fig. 6).
242
Fig. 6. Distribution of the underwater hull volume of the vessels a) outward bound passing through ‘gate GD’; b)
outward bound passing through ‘gate GA’; and c) passing through ‘gate HE’ and going towards of Gdansk port or
Gdynia port (in the period of 01-30.06.2006)
From the analysed group of vessels there were chosen the ones, which in the period of 01-
30.06.2006 were passing through gates GD and GA and going towards gate HE (in total there were
289 vessels). On the basis of analysed change in momentary speed v* of individual vessels, read
when they were passing consecutive two gates, there was calculated the probability of the
occurrence of the speed change. There were taken into account the changes of the range of 0.1
knots. In figures 7 and 8, it is shown the probability of occurrence of an increase and decrease in
speed (by x-knots) on the route between individual gates. Function y, described by a 4th order
polynomial, means that probability, and R2 means the adjustment coefficient.
Fig. 7. Probability of occurrence of an increase in momentary speed (by x-knots) for the analysed group of vessels
operating at the route between gates GD-HE and GA-HE (in the period of 01-30.06.2006)
243
Fig. 7. Probability of occurrence of a decrease in momentary speed (by x-knots) for the analysed group of vessels
operating at the route between gates GD-HE and GA-HE (in the period of 01-30.06.2006)
From the analysis of the charts shown in fig. 7 and fig. 8, it results that the changes in the vessels
speed on the route from gate GD to gate HE and from gate GA to gate HE are slight, and the
probability of occurrence of the changes in speed by more than one knot is very low (below 0.12).
4. *

In the paper, there were presented formulation and estimation of parameters of models of
movement of the vessels operating in the Gdansk Bay region in a particular time period. The
analysis was possible with the use of statistical data obtained via Automatic Identification System
(AIS), which appeared to be a tool that can be effectively used in such purposes. The proposed
method is possible to be applied in the process of determination of an approximated level of the
toxic compounds emission in marine engines exhausts in given se region at particular time.
=7
[1] COPERT II - Computer Programme to Calculate Emissions from Road Transport - Methodology and
Emission Factors. European Environment Agency. European Topic Center on Air Emission, 1997.
[2] } \ , Modelowanie procesów emisji spalin w warunkach eksploatacji trakcyjnej silników spalinowych.
Prace Naukowe. Seria „Mechanika” z. 173. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej. Warszawa
1999.
[3] ; , Modelowanie emisji i rozprzestrzeniania
'
,
Archiwum Motoryzacji, Wyd. Naukowe Polskie Towarzystwo Naukowe Motoryzacji, Nr 1/2007, 2007.
[4] Cooper, D.A., Exhaust emissions from ships at berth. Atmospheric Environment 37, 2003.
[5] Cooper D.A., Gustafsson T., Methodology for calculating emissions from ships - 1. Update of emission
factors, 2004.
[6] European Commission Directorate General Environment Service Contract on Ship Emissions, Assignment,
Abatement and Market-based Instruments, Task 1 - Preliminary Assignment of Ship Emissions to European
Countries, Final Report, ENTEC UK Limited, 2005.
rd
[7] IMO Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), 53 Session, Agenda Item #4. Prevention from
Air Pollution from Ships. London, 2005.
[8] Grabski F., Stochastyczne mode . Sprawozdanie z realizacji projektu
badawczego Nr 502 009 31/1187 pod kier. L. Piasecznego. AMW w Gdyni, Gdynia, 2008.
[9] Naus K.,

Y

,
Akademia Marynarki Wojennej, Instytut Nawigacji i Hydrografii Morskiej, Gdynia, 2008.
[10] Pawlak M., Piaseczny L., Mathematical models of the vessels movement for determination of toxic
compounds emission. X Z_?[# [ Z Z= wo-Technicznej p.t.
%#4#[#¡%4¢Akademia Morska w Szczecinie, 2008.
244
MODELLING EXHAUST EMISSION FROM VESSELS
[)}]Q^\^X<=
), >niaziewicz, Leszek Piaseczny
Polish Naval Academy

Smidowicza Street 69, 81-103 Gdynia, Poland
tel.: +48 58 6262851, 6262603
e-mail: tkniaziewicz@wp.pl, piaseczny@ptnss.pl
Abstract
!

!
| Y

\

! ts, vehicles and harmful compounds contained in exhausts of vessels.
"
|

\

\

|es of those compounds’ emission from particular
| !

Y Y
| | ssels, the values of concentrations of particular
compounds for these parameters and the atmospheric condi

ence.
Y Y

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|
Y

!|

!

Y the effi-

|
|
Y

Y §
. ¨

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measurements o|

!

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i

well as mathematical models.

\| n

!

| \
mpounds concentration.
Keywords: emission, dispersion, model

,

, exhausts
1. Introduction
The problem of air pollution in ports and approaches to ports is important inasmuch as the
ports are usually close to or on the territories of large cities, and their restricted area causes large
concentration of vessels in a small area. Widely conceived operational conditions are not insignifi-
cant either, among them being the way of engine operation, the frequency of occurrence and char-
acter of non-stationary states, transitory processes characterised by considerably larger emission of
toxic compounds than during sailing in open areas with constant engine load. The way of opera-
tion is also affected by external conditions, that is the effect of marine environment on the engine’s
work. Certainly the kinds of fuel and lubricating oil affect exhaust toxicity in no smaller degree.
The research currently carried out concerning atmosphere pollution caused by the emission of
harmful compounds from traction engines (airplane and car engines) [1-3] provides very large con-
tribution to the development of modelling of imission of harmful compounds emitted from diesel
engines, but due to the difference in both topographic and hydrometeorologic conditions and the
specificity of vessel operation, they cannot be applied for estimating imission in coastal areas [4].
245
Modelling emission of particular exhaust components from exhaust systems of marine en-
gines during movement in a particular area constitutes one of the key problems of balancing and
making input data for dispersion models.
The object of balancing emission of pollution contained in the exhausts from engines pro-
pelling vessels are the processes of global emission, averaged in a sufficiently long time period,
which is determined first of all by the efficiency of averaging the variable conditions of the ob-
jects’ operation.
The factors determining global emission of substances contained in marine engines ex-
hausts have been classified and described in [4,5].
The process of modelling emission and dispersion of toxic compounds (ZT) in marine en-
gine exhausts (which are the elements of modelling the imission of these compounds), is very
complex and requires the knowledge of five basic parameter groups [5,6]:
x vessel parameters: length, breadth, draft, technical condition of propulsion system, kind of
propulsion (including kind and number of engines), kind and number of propellers, etc.;
x vessel movement parameters: speed and course;
x external conditions: wind direction and force, air and water temperature, atmospheric pres-
sure, air humidity, state of the sea;
x number of vessels, with consideration to category;
x topographic parameters of the area: terrain kind and profile (water, land).
Models of emission from land means of transport created in Europe, like HBEFA,
COPERT, DVG and DRIVE-MODEM [7,8] endeavour first of all to take into account the
largest possible number of parameters affecting emission, yet with such a large number of
factors and the complex description of phenomena determining the emission process, sim-
plifying assumptions cannot altogether be avoided.
2. Modelling emission of exhausts from marine engines
In work [9] there has been considered the trajectory of vessel movement as the realisation of a
two-dimensional stochastic process {S(t ) ( X (t ),Y (t )) : t t 0} , assuming that the process is of mul-
tidimensional distribution of continuous type and continuous realisations. The realisation of such a
process is a two-dimensional trajectory dependent on time {s(t ) ( x(t ), y (t )) : t T } .
The equation describing the mass of exhausts emitted can be presented as follows:
E
M ³ f (s(t )) | v (t ) | dt ,
D
(1)
where:
v(t) length of vessel velocity vector.
Assuming that in the time intervals [t i 1 , t i ], i 1,..., N the speed of the vessel is constant
| v (t ) | vi , i 1,..., N , (2)
and the intensity of exhaust emission is constant
f ( x(t ), y (t )) J i , t [t i 1 , t i ), i 1,..., N , (3)
the lower estimation of emitted exhaust mass is obtained
246
N
M ¦M i 1
i , (4)
where:
M i J i v i 't i , i 1,2,..., N .
The mass of emitted exhausts in particular area A in time interval [t i-1 , t i ] is the sum of masses
emitted by all vessels in this time interval in the area. If W ( k ) , k 1,..., K denotes the mass of
exhausts emitted by the k-th vessel, then the total mass of exhausts emitted in area A in time inter-
val [t i-1 , t i ] is a random variable
K
WK ¦W
k 1
(k )
, (5)
Random variable WK as the sum of independent random variables with normal distribution
has normal distribution with expected value
K K K N
E ( WK ) ¦W (k )
¦ [E ('M (k )
) M (k ) ] ¦ [M (k )
H ( k ) ¦ J i( k ) 'si( k ) ]
k 1 k 1 k 1 i 1 , (6)
Standard deviation of these random variables is equal to
K K N
V ( WK ) ¦V ['M
k 1
(k )
] ¦ U ¦ [J
k 1
(k )
i 1
i
(k )
'si( k ) ] 2 , (7)
In this model the number of vessels K has been assumed to be constant. In reality the number
of vessels varies randomly in time, so it is a stochastic process [10].
Work [11,12] presents a method of approximate identification of vessel movement model, and
for estimating the parameters and characteristics of exhaust emission from vessels sailing in the
! [ XX X}< ´ls navigating in the region ana-
lysed, their distribution with regard to kind, size, speed, power and kind of main propulsion en-
gines etc.
3. Modelling load of vessel main propulsion engines in order to estimate the value of toxic
compounds emission in the exhausts
The amount of emitted harmful compounds in marine diesel engines depends on values de-
scribing the state of engine work like torque Mo, engine speed n, thermal state of the engine J,
technical state of the engine Z (parameters of load exchange system, state of TPC system, techni-
cal state and proper regulation of injection apparatus), condition of environment G (e.g. ambient
temperature, pressure, air humidity) and variable sailing resistance of vessel O (vessel resistance in
shallow water, vessel resistance while moving in a canal, air resistance and waving effect). It can
thus be written down that the emission of the n-th harmful compound in exhausts en will have the
form:
en= f (Mo, n, J,Z,G,O) ,
247
To calculate the vessel’s momentary power P* there have been used methods of calculating the
power necessary to sail with speed vs based on calculations of resistance of sea-going vessels.
There are a number of methods of calculating resistance of sea-going commercial vessels, among
the most widespread being: Papmiel’s, Ayre’s, Lap’s, Taylor’s and # ’s. The first two
permit the determination of total (towing power) resistance, the three other only residual resis-
tance.
All methods (excluding Papmiel’s and Ayre’s) have vessel resistance comparable to resistance
determined from model experiments, therefore additions have to be applied for them similar to
those for resistance determined from model experiments. Only Papmiel’s method, which in the
range of smaller speeds gives results considerably higher than those obtained by other methods,
supposedly takes account of those additions.
In connection with the amount of information available concerning the vessels’ dimensions and
momentary speed v* obtained from AIS system [13,14], two methods were accepted for calculat-
ing the value of momentary power P*: Papmiel’s and the Admiralty’s.
In Papmiel’s method the power necessary for the vessel’s sailing with speed vs may be pre-
sented by means of the equation:
V x v3 § v3 ·
Po \ s f¨ s ¸ , (8)
L O Cp ¨C ¸
© p ¹
where:
V – volume of the vessel’s underwater part [m3],
L – vessel’s length on the waterline [m],
vs - vessel’s speed [k],
x – coefficient dependent on the number of shafts, taking account of protruding parts,
O - length allowance coefficient calculated from the formula O = 0.7 + 0.3 L/100,
\ - hull fineness coefficient.
In the case of Admiralty’s method the equation describing the power necessary for the vessel to
sail with speed vs is significantly simplified and has the following form:
2
v s3 D 3
Po , (9)
C0
where:
Po – power required (towing power bound with hull resistance),
C0 – Admiralty’s coefficient for towed power,
vs – vessel speed [k],
D – vessel’s displacement [m3].
On the basis of formulae (8) and (9) there were calculated the values of momentary power P*,
whose distributions have been presented in Figs 1 and 2.
On the basis of results analysed it can be stated that the differences in calculated values of
momentary power determined by Papmiel’s and Admiralty’s methods are significant. Therefore,
particular attention should be paid to the means of determining momentary power, as successively
the value of toxic emission for particular vessels is calculated on its basis, which entails further
simplifications and errors.
248

?1 ¨

Y
P* [MW] Y&
§ | [9]
Momentary power
Momentary power

?2. ¨

Y
&ñß%à Y^
§ | [9]
For a more accurate assessment of the emission value of particular toxic compounds there were
worked out tests for examining the concentration of toxic compounds in the exhausts of main en-
´!!X}! [ . For this purpose, out of the group of vessels sailing
in the examined area in a period embracing 11 months 63 vessels were picked out with the highest
incidence index, which gave 3543 observations [15].
On the basis of momentary power values of vessels tested P* = Pe/Pn 4 and 10-phase tests
of exhaust toxicity were prepared. Seeing that most of the considered vessels sail according to
typical propeller characteristic, modified test E3 acc. to ISO 8170 part 4 was accepted as initial
test. The modification consisted in altering the values of weight coefficients, which in the original
test characterise the whole range of the engine’s operation, and in the case considered are to pre-
249
sent conditions of engine work X} ! [ . Particular values of four-phase
tests have been presented in Table 1[16].
In Fig. 3 there have been compared the emission values of nitrogen oxide calculated by means
of E3 test according to ISO 8170-4 and prepared 4-phase test A (required power P0 determined by
Admiralty method) and 4-phase test P (required power P0 determined by Papmiel method).
The difference between results of NOx emission results obtained on the basis of E3 tests ac-
cording to ISO8178-4 and 4-phase tests A and P seem to be insignificant (from 0.1 to 0.47
g/(kWh)). Yet if the typical powers of vessels sailing in the Gulf of Gda X X d-
eration, e.g. ferry “Stena Nornica” sailing from Gdynia (114 observations within 1 year, engines
power 39600kW), then such slight differences in tests give NOx emission intensity respectively
from 3.96 to 18,61 kg/h. In relation to NOx emission values from vehicles these are significant
values and should not be ignored.
Y?}?&sition of 4- \\

|

? c-
teristic

Engine speed [% nn] 100 91 80 63

Load [% Pn] 100 75 50 25
Weight coefficient P1) 0.20 0.38 0.40 0.02
Weight coefficient A2) 0.22 0.20 0.41 0.17
Weight coefficient of E3 test
0.20 0.50 0.15 0.15
acc. to ISO 8178-4
1)
weight coefficient P - required power P0 determined by Papmiel’s method,
2)
weight coefficient A - required power P0 determined by Admiralty’s method.
19
18,92
18,9
18,8
18,7
NOx [g/(kW*h)]
18,6
18,5 18,45
18,4 18,35
18,3
18,2
18,1
18
ISO 8178 test E3 4-phase test A 4-phase test P
Kind of test

.3. Comparison of NOx emission values ßê~h)] YE3 test acc. to ISO 8170-4, 4-phase ^~re-
quired power P0
YAdmiralty’s method) and 4-phase &~required power P0
Y Papmiel’s
method)
250
Recapitulation
The modelling of emission of harmful compounds is a very important problem and a complex
one at the same time. The scientific research work conducted at present devoted to pollution
spreading concerns pollution in atmospheric air of stationary origin (power and industrial plants),
motorisation and recently also airplanes. Current studies which concern first of all motorisation,
because of, among other things, the size of marine engines, cannot find application for modelling
emission of toxic compounds from marine engines, as the model structure depends not only on its
destination but largely also on the amount and quality of input data.
The possibility of obtaining data from AIS system like ship’s name, length, breadth and type,
universal time bound with the vessel’s passing through the „gate”, course and velocity over the
ground (COG, VTG) and the ship’s draft permit the creation of innovative models describing ves-
sel traffic in the area researched and the emission of harmful compounds in exhausts both for one
vessel and the whole researched area.
The method of calculating power required for vessel propulsion has significant influence on the
final results of determining values of toxic compounds emission in the exhausts of vessels. During
analysis of data obtained from AIS system and simulated loads of main engines it was found that
vesse!< X!!X}! [ X}! [ 4 ÷ 0.6 Pn and 0.9 ÷ 1.0 Pn. Yet due to
the lack of hull resistance characteristics of vessels considered it seems pointless to make tests in
the function of vessel velocity.
It should be added here that apart from problems that motorisation experts are coping with
when modelling the emission of toxic compounds, in the case of vessels among the parameters
disturbing the accurate determination of emission of particular compounds (due to lack of informa-
tion or its variability) there should be additionally counted the engine’s technical condition, fuel
apparatus in particular, and atmospheric conditions (particularly wind direction and force).
References
[1] } \ , Z., %

l-
ników spalinowych, PN Politechniki Warszawskiej , Mechanika, z.173, Warszawa 1999.
[2] Brzozowska, L., Brzozowski, K.,

'

samochodowych, >[X = ¡®! ¢
X – Warszawa
2003.
[3] Kotlarz, W., Y
'

o-
, ># # % " X#}
X[ "X !
;?!n
2003.
[4] Kniaziewicz, T., &Y

k-
r'

nadmorskich, Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki
#?X } Z
'/=
#?X }
[5] Kniaziewicz, T., Piaseczny, L., Model of NOx _

Y* -
¥|

the Gulf of Gdansk R
, Silniki Spalinowe PTNSS – 2007-" #¶
[6] Kniaziewicz, T., &Y %
¥x Emission from Marine Diesel E
s, Journal of
KONES Powertrain and Transport, vol.15, No.4, p. 227-234, Warszawa, 2008.
[7] ;
, %

'
sportu
, Archiwum Motoryzacji nr 1/2007.
[8] Joumard, R., Methods of Estimation of Atmospheric Emission from Transport: European Sci-
entific State of the Art, Action COST319 final report, LTE 9901 report, 1999.
[9] Pawlak, M., Piaseczny, L., %

i-

? Czasopismo Techniczne „Mechanika” z. 7-M/2008, str. 319-334,
Kraków, 2008.
251
[10] Kniaziewicz, T., Piaseczny, L., Merkisz, J., Stochastic Models of Emission of Toxic Com-

%
_
_xhaust, Journal of POLISH CIMAC. Vol. 3, No. 1, p. 129-138,
[

[11] Pawlak M., Piaseczny L., Model ruch

i
szkodliwych spalin. X Z '×\! -;! +
?[##[ Z

[12] Grabski, F., * , Fragment sprawozdania z
realizacji projektu badawczego Nr 502 009 31/1187. AMW Gdynia 2008.
[13] Felski, A., Piaseczny, L., %

| Y Y

, Combustion Engines,
No. 2007-SC1, p. 377 – " #¶
[14] Kniaziewicz, T., Piaseczny, L., %

AIS w

Zatoki G
, Zeszyty
Naukowe AMW Nr 4, Gdynia 2008.
[15] Kniaziewicz, T., Piaseczny, L., %
_

\

%

_
_\ as, Czasopismo Techniczne „Mechanika” z. 7-M/2008, str. 239-249,
Kraków, 2008.
[16] Pawlak, M., T Y
'

Y $

, Fragment sprawozdania z realizacji pro-
jektu badawczego Nr 502 009 31/1187. AMW Gdynia 2008.
252
APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE METHODS IN
DIAGNOSTIC OF A SHIP COMBUSTION ENGINE – MAPS OF
DIAGNOSTIC PARAMETERS
Dariusz Pielka
?%

>
The West Pomeranian University of Technology

Al. Piastow 41, Szczecin, Poland
Tel.+48 600 275 871
e-mail: dpielka@adnet.com.pl
e-mail: HORN.losiewicz@wp.pl
Summary
In the real ship’s conditions, the methodology of taking an operational decision is based on the analysis of simple
diagnostic data. The quality of a correct multi-criteria analysis of such data is the more dependant on the SDG
diagnostic system the lower the professional competences of the engine operator. The complexity of the problem
requires application of quick methods that analyse the information in a multifaceted way. The description of the
current states of the engine operation can be presented in the form of a topographic map showing the current values
of the operation parameters of the system, as scaled and correlated points on a plane. A change in the values of the
operation parameters is imaged as a change in reciprocal location of points on the plane. On the basis of a
topographic description, a classification of the engine operation state can be carried out by means of a neural
classifier. Such a method of the engine operation classification will allow for obtaining a very high capability of the
diagnostic system for adaptation and analysis of untypical states of the object and an easily construed visualisation of
results.
Key words: artificial intelligence, diagnostic of a ship Diesel engine, map of diagnostic parameters, diagnostic
system.
1. (

Different breakdowns of rates of a piston combustion engine operation can be encountered in the
literature.
In the operational practice, a marine engineer operates an engine that can be diagnosed with the
methods available on a ship. The diagnostic system (SD) existing on the ship consists of the
diagnosed system – the engine (SDN) adapted in a specified way for fitting of a diagnostic system
(SDG) to it, consisting of sensors. The accuracy and reliability of the diagnosis depends on many
factors, including the accuracy of selection of measurement points, the type of measured
parameters, the measurement accuracy, the correct analysis of diagnostic data and the quality of
the drawn conclusions – as good as the knowledge and the experience of the engine operator and
the knowledge of an engineer who designs a diagnostic system.
253
An essential problem is the multi-criteria analysis of the measurement data and imaging of results
of such analysis. The competences of operators are very different and they are often not able to
correctly read and use the results prepared and given by the SDG, which influences the level of
rationalism of their operational decisions. In the real ship’s conditions, the methodology of taking
an operational decision is based on the analysis of simple diagnostic data that can include
parameters of power media (most often the values of temperature and pressure) or accessible
process parameters, e.g. the charge compression process in the cylinder or the combustion process.
The quality of a correct, multi-criteria analysis of such data is the more dependant on the SDG
diagnostic system the lower the professional competences of the engine operator.
The complexity of the problem requires application of quick methods that analyse the information
in a multifaceted way. Identification in the shortest time of processes taking place in the engine is
very essential. Therefore the description of current states of the engine operation can be presented
in the form of a topographic map of states that images the current values of the operation
parameters of the system as scaled and correlated points on a plane. On the basis of the
topographic description, a classification of the engine operation condition can be carried out by
means of a neural classifier. Such a method of the engine operation classification will allow for
obtaining a very high capability of the diagnostic system for adaptation and for analysis of
untypical states of the object and an easily construed visualisation of results.
2.

7
(
7

7
state
Example criteria structures that can be taken for identification of the engine state include:
-
(different materials of specific physical and chemical properties,
adequately fitted tribological systems, etc.),
-

* (co-operating subassemblies and assemblies of devices and the engine,
operating within a precisely specified time, adjusted and controlled),
- / (combustion process, cooling process, heating process, wear process (friction,
oxidation, ageing, etc.).
There is a set of couplings between the structures that can be determined in an experimental way
but they cannot be predicted in a computational way with too many non-measurable unknowns and
the necessity to apply many simplifications.
Changes in the structures, in their serial dependences differ between themselves with their
characters.
Changes taking place in the structure of interdependencies of mechanical parts are visible and
immediately detectable and identifiable (vibrations, noise, pressure loss of media, tightness of
systems, e.g. hydraulic, compression pressure systems, etc.).
Changes in the process structure are often detected with a long delay, are detectable but hardly
identifiable, often with wrongly determined genesis and predictions (e.g. high temperature of
exhaust gases – it may mean too low injection pressure, too large openings of an injector – but the
reason can be different than the injector, e.g. too low fuel viscosity (too low temperature for a
particular sort of fuel), wrong injection time, wrong ignition time, wrong time of valve opening,
wrong process of head and cylinder liner cooling, leaky piston and cylinder system.
The parameters of the engine operation determining the technical condition of the engine, closely
attributed to the adequate structure and the area of the engine can be topologically imaged on the
“map of parameters” with anomalies, possibly explicitly geometrically or colouristically deformed
254
and clearly suggesting the operational decision to the operator as an alternative to any graphs and
fields of operation non-identifiable and non-comprehensible to the operator (with different levels
of technical knowledge).
Fig.1 Dependence of the combustion process on the criteria structures of the engine:
KS – combustion chamber: Tsp – combustion temperature, Psp – combustion pressure!´– combustion time
D – supercharging: Tpd – supercharging air temperature, Ppd – supercharging air pressure, TSPR – turbocharger,
UTT – liner-piston system: Ps – compression pressure, Ts – compression temperature, Tspl – temperature of exhaust
gases, *– piston speed, SzczUk – system tightness!&– dimension of piston rings!– dimension of piston
grooves, WTc– dimension of cylinder liner, WchT – cooling water for liner, WP – fuel injection: Tp –fuel
temperature, Pp – fuel pressure, HSS – hydraulic controlling system, MSS – mechanical controlling system, STUW –
technical condition of injection system, WK – crankshaft: Ne – shaft power, SUTr – lubrication of tribological
systems: Tos – temperature of lubricating oil, Pos – pressure of lubricating oil
3. /7(

/ ,7an engine
The Fig. 2 shows the idea of creating maps of diagnostic parameters of an engine. A circle is the
simplest geometric figure, on the basis of which the initial model has been based. It is possible to
create a ‘set of maps’ divided into ‘packages of maps’, the quantity of which is limited only by the
capacities of electronic equipment. Due to editorial limitations, the idea has been presented on a
single map.
The ‘map’ should, in a simple way, signal the trends of changes in particular structures. Centric
circles set the rings (three outer ones separated from the inner ones by a dotted line) defining the
values of parameters: the white ring means normal state, the broken ring (outside the white one)
255
means excess of parameters above the upper limit of normal values, the dotted ring (inside the
white one) means excess of parameters below the lower limit of normal values.
In order to facilitate understanding of the idea, the image area (image on the screen) has been
divided into four zones.
Fig. 2. Idea of creating of a map of diagnostic parameters of an engine:
- field “I-1” excess of the upper limit of the normal parameter relating to the dimension or the
operation of an engine element or subassembly
- field “I-2” excess of the lower limit of the normal parameter relating to the dimension or the
operation of an engine element or subassembly
- field “II-b” excess of the lower limit of the normal parameter relating to the dimension or the
operation of a device or the engine system
- field “III-” excess of the upper limit of the normal parameter relating to the dimension or the
operation of a device or the engine system
- field “IV-B” - a field determining the state of full efficiency of an engine
- field “IV-C” - a field determining the state of partial efficiency of an engine
- field “IV-D”- a field determining the state of inefficiency of an engine
256
-“outer circles” - a field determining normal values of parameters (green colour)
-“outer circles” - a field determining excess of the lower value of the normal parameter (yellow
colour)
-“outer circles” - a field determining excess of the upper value of the normal parameter (red colour)
In the zone marked with “I”, excess of limits of parameters concerning particular systems or
devices has been shown (depending on the class of the map detailing):
- in the field “1” visualisation of excess of the upper limit of the normal parameter has been
shown,
- in the field “2” visualisation of excess of the lower limit of the normal parameter has been
shown,
In the zone marked with “II” and “III”, excess of limits of parameters concerning
subassemblies or the whole engine has been shown
After processing by the logic system, the influence of the parameter change on a subassembly or
the whole engine can be shown:
- in the field “II” visualisation of excess of the lower limit of the normal parameter of the
engine operation resulting from change in one or in several parameters of the engine
elements operation has been shown (e.g. damage to the injection system in one system),
- in the field “III” visualisation of excess of the upper limit of the normal parameter of the
engine operation has been shown,
In the zone marked with “IV” visualisation of the condition of the whole engine has been
shown (“inner” rings limited from outside with a dotted line):
- in the field “B”, the white arrow shows the field (white) of normal operation of the whole
engine marked with green colour,
- in the field “C”, the grey arrow shows the field (marked with a thin wavy line) of limited
operation marked with yellow colour,
- in the field “D”, the dark grey arrow shows the field (marked with a dense wavy line) of
unsuitability for operation marked with red colour,
In practice, such approach to the analysis of states of the engine operation can be accomplished
with use of artificial neural networks. The advantages of such implementation methods are their
high flexibility, versatility and possibility to use them for analysis of the object without the
necessity of having the mathematical description of the object. The neural networks have got the
ability for parallel processing of information and recognition of topographic maps reflecting the
current state of an object under diagnosis.
For recognition of the object’s condition one can use two types of networks: learning networks and
self-learning networks.
The learning networks are most often used for well defined problems where we have got the
knowledge what the network’s response will be. For the learning networks it is possible to create a
neural classifier of states (double-state or triple-state). However, the structure of such classifier is
complex and the learning process is quite laborious. Input of new elements into the tested system
requires changing of the neural network architecture and its re-teaching.
An alternative solution is the application of the Kohonen’s neural network. Such networks have
got the feature of topographic imaging of complex shapes, thanks to which they learn any imaging.
257
Another feature of such network is the process of self-learning consisting in competition between
neurons. The neural network responds to the input signals. Obtaining of the final order of the
system of neurons corresponds to the diagnostic maps of an object under testing. Input of new
elements into the system does not require significant changes, and the neural network adapts itself
to new tasks. A detector of the hybrid diagnostic system of a ship engine can make the neural
classifier of the object’s conditions. The neural networks analyse signals coming from the
diagnosed object. On the basis of the base, the expert’s system takes decisions by making use of
the information about the current map of the object’s state gained through the neural network.
4. <,, "
Modern ship engines need rational operation aiming at both increasing their reliability and their
efficiency. Therefore development of diagnosing systems that make use of the most modern
technological achievements enabling processing of data is evident. Depending on the type of
diagnostic information and the expected results of operation of a diagnosing system, different
mutually supplementing methods of data processing are used.
Therefore, application of neural networks as a supplement of statistical and probabilistic methods
used at different stages of the engine control and diagnostic processes allows for shortening the
time for assessment of technical condition of elements, subassemblies as well as the whole engine.
The idea of maps of diagnostic parameters presented in the paper is another trial of visualisation of
the results of the SDG operation that allows a mechanic for determination of the condition of the
engine in a short time as well as for monitoring the trends in changes of diagnostic parameters. At
the same time, it may contribute to selection of an unambiguous operational decision of high
degree of reliability worked out by the SDG to the mechanic.
=7
[1] Duch W., Korbicz J., Rutkowski L., Tadeusiewicz R.:, Sieci neuronowe, Wydawnictwo
Naukowo - Techniczne, Warszawa, 2000.
X!
#<[
"! &³ Wybrane zagadnienia eksploatacji statków morskich
w
Y

? WSM w Szczecinie, Szczecin 2003.
[3] Korbicz J., Koscielny J., Kowalczuk Z., Cholewa W., Diagnostyka procesów, WNT,
Warszawa 2002.
§ #"! ;
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, Zeszyty Naukowe nr 71, Akademia
Morska w Szczecinie, Szczecin, 2003.
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nej inteligencji do diagnostyki
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! Zeszyty Naukowe nr 162 K/2, AMW w Gdyni, s. 261-266,
AMW w Gdyni, Gdynia 2005.
258
MODEL TESTS OF PISTON RING-CYLINDER LINER
COLLABORATION ON HIGH POWER ENGINES
Wojciech Serdecki
Institute of Combustion Engines and Transport

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1. Introduction
Full information on phenomena accompanying the collaboration of engine kinematic pairs

is available from tests carried out on running engines but such tests very often are impossible.
For example, tests on collaboration of marine engine kinematic pairs such as piston rings and
cylinder liner require an installation of certain type of sensors (pressure, temperature or
distance, for instance) that means a need for changes in construction of collaborating parts.
Such modifications on marine engines are forbidden by the classification societies because
they can considerably affect the ship’s safety.
259
Tests on material models of piston–cylinder assembly parts could be a substitution for an
investigation on phenomena accompanying the collaboration of these elements conducted on
a real engine. Such models allow to reconstruct the operational conditions of frictional
associations , geometry of mating parts contact, kinematics and dynamics of their loading as
well as phenomena occurring by the process of lubrication. An additional advantage of such
tests is a relatively low cost, short time needed for carrying out the investigation and no
chance for engine failure.
Another way to evaluate the phenomena present on engine subassemblies is a construction
and running the mathematical models of these subassemblies. It is noteworthy that a
mathematical model is merely an approximation and should be validated in a course of tests
carried out on a real engine or at least on its material model. Successive chapters of this paper
will present selected constructions of test benches where investigation on piston ring –
cylinder liner collaboration could be performed and the most significant information about
mathematical models will be provided.
2. Model test benches for tests on piston ring – cylinder liner collaboration
Tests benches where investigation on collaboration of piston cylinder group elements

could be carried out can be classified into those entirely designed and constructed for this
purpose and other ones constructed on the basis of a typical engine where certain parts and
subassemblies have been modified.
The model test benches of the first type offer wider possibilities for investigation, because
the constructional details such as the range of operational parameters adjustment, location of
sensors, selection of measurement devices could be foreseen at the very beginning stage of
design. On the other hand, they are much more expensive than those using parts of a typical
combustion engine.
Taking into consideration methods employed for investigation one can distinguish test
stands using optical and electrical methods.
Test stands presented in Figs 1 and 2 are the examples for the use of optical methods in
tests on evaluation of ring-liner collaboration quality.

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The test stand presented in Fig. 1 has been constructed on the basis of a typical IC engine
equipped with systems for research on oil film formed between models of ring (6) and
cylinder (7). The model of ring fixed to a piston moves reciprocally relative to a steady glass
plate lubricated with oil and ring pressure against the plate is exerted by a pneumatic
servomotor (5). Through a semitransparent plate(8) and transparent one (7) a laser beam (10)
comes to the oil layer (oil film) which makes that as a result of interaction between reflected
and falling waves an arrangement of interference strips characteristic for a momentary oil
layer thickness is being recorded by the camera (9). There is a possibility to reproduce the
changes in oil film thickness throughout the entire cycle of engine operation thanks to the
further analysis of recorded images.
The test stand presented in Fig. 2 offers a quite different method of oil film evaluation.
Cylinder liner made of cast iron has been substituted by a glass model (1). The cylinder
surface is being lubricated with oil mist outflowing from slide bearings and additionally with
oil sprayed to precisely specified regions of liner by a set of special jets (omitted in Fig. 2)
which allows for a continuous adjustment of oil dose. Thanks to strong xenon lamps it is
possible to observe and record (camera 8) the oil layer over the cylinder surface and to
estimate certain oil parameters including oil layer thickness and oil film extent, in particular.
Design of the stand presented in Fig. 3 is quite different from a typical model of engine
piston-cylinder assembly. A flat slat (5) representing a piston ring slides over a plate (1)
covered with lubricating oil. Differently than in real engine the oil layer is not renewable, i.e.
fresh oil does not come to the plate in consecutive strokes. The slat is fixed in a groove cut in
a flat model of piston (clamp 7) hanged on transducer (8). It is pressed on against the moving
plate with a flat spring or hydraulic actuator controlled by a special circuit. It is possible to fix
in the clamp a series of slats of profiles corresponding to the face profile of a real piston ring.

?{?*
>}– !– !{– || !;– position resistor, 5 – !–

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The hydraulic oil from oil reservoir (14) is being pumped to the control valve (3) by the
oil pump (13). According to the position of control valve the oil is being pumped to the left or
right side of the actuator plunger (2) which results in the movement of cart with the plate
simulating cylinder liner surface.
Either an analogue (15) or digital (16) control system can be used. The first one allows for
a reciprocating movement according to gradually selected parameters of speed and amplitude.
261
When applying the digital control system it is possible to use a computer program which
allows to realize an arbitrary motion of the plate including a reciprocating movement, typical
for combustion engines.
Due to a sophisticated measuring system (11) which is a part of the simulation stand it is
possible to determine oil film essential parameters like thickness, pressure and friction forces
connected with the motion of ring model. Also other sensors monitoring plate motion and
recording its position, speed and acceleration are installed on the test stand.
Taking into consideration features of the stand including possibility of tests on rings of big
size and different profile geometry it can be assumed provisionally that this test stand allow to
conduct tests on oil film parameters of the engine of high power. Next chapter will validate
this assumption.
3. Is it possible to test a ring-liner collaboration on a test stand?
Both marine and generator engines belong to the group of high power engines (power
higher than 100 kW/cyl) as well as the bigger railway engines which have the power indices
close to the border value [3]. Among those mentioned the biggest are two stroke low speed
marine engines. Their popularity results from the highest efficiency (nowadays beyond 50%)
and possibility of consumption so called heavy fuel of relatively low price.
The stroke to cylinder diameter ratio is the characteristic parameter for contemporary
marine diesels of high power where it reaches the value of 4 (this secures continuity of oil
film over cylinder surface thanks to the high value of the piston mean speed at low rotational
speed). For engines of higher rotational speed the value of this parameter is far lower (see
Table 1).
Tab.1.

\

ß}! 3, ;à
Engine locomotive generator marine
Technical data 12LDA28 214D40 L23 L21 L35MC K80MC-
D cylinder diameter [mm] 280 230 230 210 350 800
S piston stroke [mm] 360 300 300 310 1050 2592
k ratio (S/D) 1.28 1.30 1.30 1.47 3.0 4.00
Rotational speed [rpm] 750 750 720 900 210-178 93-70
Power per cylinder [kW/cyl] 94.7 77.2 130 190 650 3640
O ratio 0.25 0.26 0.25 0.23 0.42 0.44
Piston mean speed [m/s] 9.0 7.5 7.2 9.3 7.35 8.10
Full reconstruction of engine kinematics on the model stand would mean the same piston
displacement with similar speed. It means that it is impossible to fulfill conditions listed in
Table 1 on the presented test stand [5,6]. Boundary value of speed that could be performed on
test stand is about 12 rad/s which corresponds to the piston mean speed of about 3.8 m/s
(when maximum is 4 m/s), i.e. the value several times lower than that on real marine engine
(see Fig. 4).
Course of speed vs. crank angle presented in Fig. 4 show only the maximum value of
speed and its position expressed as corresponding angle. Presentation of speed fluctuations at
selected points of its displacement seems to be a better form of such illustration (see Fig. 5).
262

? ;? |?
> } –
– #¨^¡
!
3 – ¨;/
!;– #{
engine, 5 – #}
!
6 – #{<%
á –
¡/%

? <? |?

>}–
– #¨^¡
!
3 – ¨;/
!;– #{
engine, 5 – #}
!
6 – #{<%
á –
¡/%

According to the test stand technical data the range of plate stroke is several centimeters to
less than one meter (0.8 m) which allows for reproduction of ring displacement of most of
locomotive and generator engines but could not represent the long stroke marine engine (of
far longer stroke).
Digital control of plate movement makes possible any kind of displacement between both
dead center with a constant speed of 4 m/s (horizontal line no 1 in Fig. 5). Though the ring
movement with constant speed differs from that on a real engine it can be employed for tests
because it facilitate the evaluation of the effect of ring selected design parameters on the
formation of oil film.
As it comes from the above considerations full reproduction of piston and rings movement
(taking into account speed and range) would not be possible on the presented test stand, which
does not mean that it is completely aimless. For the engines of stroke longer than the plate
range another kind of tests could be performed, namely over the sections shorter than the
stroke. On the other hand, for engines of shorter stroke tests could concern speeds lower than
the nominal one. Thanks to the fact that both the oil layer thickness and the friction force are
approximately proportional to the speed of ring movement, the value of these parameters can
be estimated this way for a real engine.
A large number of input values for which tests could be performed makes that
investigation could be time consuming and expensive and the results obtained could be of low
value. The reasonable solution could be development of stand mathematical model (as a
computer program). Such creation and further application (after validation) could improve the
effectiveness of research and carry them out within a range possible to be performed on the
test stand.
263
4. Mathematical model of test stand
Description of the test stand presented in chapter 2 shows that this solution does not allow
for a full reproduction of phenomena encountered on the engines of high power (listed in
Table 1). Beside differences resulting form different kinematics of the stand following
shortcomings should be noted: omitting the effect of ambient pressure, low operational
temperature (ambient temperature), ring sliding over unreconstructed oil layer, constant value
of ring pressure against the plate.

?

ß<à
Fig. 6 shows the most important modules and mutual connections of the model. Within
initial 180 grades of crank angle the slat encounters the fresh layer of oil on the plate which
secures fully flooded contact with plate (at the inlet). Along with the increase in plate speed
the pressure in oil film increases which eventually causes the rise in oil layer thickness. After
the maximum oil layer thickness came along in the region of maximum speed, a slow
decrease appears. Thanks to so called squeeze effect this pressure drop does not reach the
value of zero at both dead centers. At consecutive strokes (180 to 360 degrees and beyond)
the slat slides over the oil layer left after previous stroke. The layer thickness slowly decreases
because the oil surplus is being swept towards the plate turning points. As a result the slat face
area covered with oil also decreases.
Computations carried out according to the described model give courses of oil layer
thickness (in front, behind and under the slat), pressure distribution in oil film as well as
courses of friction force. Results can be presented in tables or graphs and can be further
processed.

? á? ^ |

–
Y

e test stand
264
Exemplary picture of simulation program chart with courses of minimum oil film
thickness and the thickness of oil layer left behind the slat is presented in Fig. 7.
Fig. 8 shows a comparison of minimal oil film thickness measurement results recorded on
test stand (a) with results of model computations (b) carried out for input data corresponding
to the stand operational parameters. As it can be seen maximum and minimum values of oil
film thickness are the same, also the drop in thickness along the consecutive strokes is very
similar. There are numerous discontinuities and waves on the course of recorded film
thickness which result from plate shape imperfections not taken into consideration in the
computational program.
a)
b)

?¡?

~
~Y
5. Summary and conclusions

Summarizing analyses presented in the previous part of this paper one can note that the
presented test stand allows:
to evaluate phenomena accompanying the collaboration of piston ring and cylinder liner
in a presence of lubricating oil, including oil film thickness and friction force, for a single
ring (slat) or the complete set of rings,
to reconstruct partially the piston movement for long stroke marine engines
to reconstruct phenomena accompanying the piston movement for locomotive and
generator engines, however at speeds lower than nominal ones.
On the other hand, use of computational program allows to execute tests within the range
unreachable for the test stand.
At present efforts on development of the model stand are being carried out towards
possibility of refreshing the oil layer over cylinder surface in a way similar to that applied on
marine engines and perform the test at higher temperature of operation.
265
Literatura
[1] Gronowicz j. Kasprzak B., #
>
>#
[2] Iskra A., *

-
.
>[X " !X} " # Z
" #1996.
[3] \#
# >

'

'
ç?

–&*?^. Silniki Spalinowe nr 3, 2006.
[4] Marine Engine Programme – MAN B&W, informator, 2007.
[5] Serdecki W.,
-

. >[X " !X} " # Z
" # 2002.
[6] [ >
#< "
^
Y

piston ring-
Y

. Journal of KONES
Powertrain and Transport. European Science Society of Powertrain and Transport Public,
vol.15 No. 2, Warsaw 2008
266
SELECTED PROBLEMS TO LOSS AND MAINTAIN THE PROPRIETES
OF TECHNICAL OBJECTS.
Zbigniew Smalko
Air Force Institute of Technology
?
'
!/}-; ;;!&
?>¢;¡¡<¡
Abstract
Ÿ

~ Y

Y ? Y

Y

|

| ?
Y
!

~
|
| ê

no longer fit for use. The Y

Y

Y

|
eY

?
Y
£

Y Y

?ç | !

!

longer fit for use

? !
-

?
Keywords: Y

!Y

!

Y

KINDS OF DURABILITY
A loss of required usable properties characteristics can result inter alia from technical reasons,
economic reasons or perished innovativeness as it is present hereinafter.

Y

is identified with retention usable properties until the moment
when further maintaining of requested technical availability is found to be uneconomic. This is
dependent on both economic and technical factors. An important measure of durability in light of
the economic aspect is the unit price of maintaining an objects availability and the profitability of
its use.
The
|
| Y

is identified with the preservation of usable features until a new
generation of competitive and non-compatible technical objectss appears, when at the same time a
possible modernisation of an item is uneconomic. An important feature in terms of innovativeness
is a prospective rise in profits due to the employment of a new generation technical objects. The
necessity to terminate the use of a technical objects can be result from its incompatibility with the
technospheric environment.
Y

is identified with retention already existing usable properties until
hazards occur. A need to terminate the operation of an object can result from non-fulfilment of
objects safety requirements in the human- object-environment system .
It is obvious that the technical durability -the physical durability to be exact - is what
constitutes a reference base for all considerations on a lost worthiness of a given technical objects.
267

Y

is identified with retaining a required value of usable features until the
possibility to maintain usable features to ensure a required level of the operational avaiability by
means of repairs and technical services is irretrievably lost.
The technical durability expires due to the depletion of technical expendability since there is no
technical possiblility of upgradeability of an object .

~Y

of a technical objects is the service life after the termination of
which a technical objects loses its capability of use according to its designed application.
For human- object -environment systems one uses the term of liveliness, which applies to a
multiple renovation (including a biological renovation) and sustaining of functions (including life
functions) over a defined period of use under determined conditions. For the above systems also
the notion of survival under sudden overloads (e.g. during an attack, sudden weather changes,
hurricanes, tsunami, volcanic erosions) etc. is used. Due to this, an object loses irrevocably its
capability of further functioning.
LOSS OF USABLE PROPERTIES
The technical durability is considered usually at the macroscopic level and the physical
durability at the microscopic level.
In case of the macroscopic level (considering constrains between objects elements and
subassemblies which create the structure of a technical objects in the energetic meaning). On a
microscopic level one considers interatomic constrains, which occur in material structures. The
material of design elements is considered a system with a structure of constrains, superimposed
onto microscopic material particles.
Considering the durability of a design material one takes into account the laws of the

. Therefore the
Y

is expressed as a limit period resulting from the loss of
the hardiness of its components against the effect of enforcing factors, in particular of working
factors.
The art of engineering consists, inter alia, in finding the relations between defects in the
substance of a design material and the failure of the technical objects as a whole.
Three destructive phenomena play the basic role: fatigue, metal corrosion and wear due to
friction. The first process results in fractures and breaks of shaped pieces. The result of the two
other phenomena, is a loss of the surface material layer, called wear. The results of these
phenomena decide, inter alia, whether the usefulness of an objects can be technically restored.
Exceeding the permissible values of usable features (states of characteristics) related to a
correct functioning of an object, causes a variety of unwanted phenomena and events.
Such damages may leave an object in an unwanted technical state, in which this item does not
fulfill its required usable functions; loses the capability of repairing it and/or it does not satisfy
safety requirements..
According to a thorough analysis the durability is define with two notions -
resi ~

The strength is a property dfine the capability of a design material subjected to allowable loads
to maintain required usable properties. It is understood as a capability of maintaining -
maintainability - of the internal cohesiveness of a material until permissible working loads are
exceeded.
One distinguishes an immediate strength and fatigue strength, i.e. a capability of a repeated
taking on of usable loads. In the latter case, a destructive process, called a fatigue occurs and
results in brittle ruptures, slip ruptures and split ruptures as well as in plastic and elastic
deformations.
The probability of occurrence of this kind of damage is a basis to determine the upper limit of
the use-time of design elements.
268
The strength is a property, therefore a physical value, expressed in units of measure, which
consequently can have particular numerical values.
The resistance is a feature which define the capability of a structural material and associations
of technical objects elements to maintain the required element characteristics and associations
when subject to impact of external and internal forcing factors..
The requisite cohesiveness of a system is maintained thanks to the internal energy of cohesion
binding material parts of a system.
There are three basic factors, which contribute to maintaining the system’s resistance; these
are: proper strength of an item, properly selected load acting on an item and a controlled speed of
deterioration of objects characteristics.
The resistance can be regarded as a non-measurable feature (a behaviour manifestation). E.g.
technical objects can have a resistance or not. This resistance can be described only approximately
as very low, low, high or very high etc
PRESERVATION OF OBJECTS USABILITY
Considering technical technical objects as consisting of assemblies, association of kinetic and

static elements, one considers them as macro systems of a structure of constrains superimposed on
cooperating design elements.
As a result of destructive processes within systems of associated design elements
Y

as well as

| . This is the reason
why components lose their worthiness and consequently rendering useless of the objects as a
whole. One distinguishes two extreme states of technical objects.
The first extreme state being the one in which an item loses its capability of processing and
transferring energy (due to evolved additional parasitic constrains and/or disappearance of useful
constrains).
The second extreme technical state is a state when an item loses its capability of performing
working moves and obtainment of a required speed of relocation – movement (due to a change of
purposeful constrains to restricted constrains and due to an elastic deformation of constrains and
kinematical pairs under the impact of forces and temperature).
According to a thorough analysis the durability is described with a set of two notions

Y

Y

?
The maintainability – a feature of a machine and technical equipment, define its capability of
performing maintenance as well as service and repair steps within a given time.
These steps are: repairs to restore a requisite condition (state), a technical service to maintain a
required condition and a technical inspection to determine the technical condition of a technical
object.
Y

consists in features, which enable easy services and repair of a
technical objects as well as keeping a technical objects in a required condition by way of an
appropriate strategy of maintenance.

of a demanded technical operational stand-by is a rational time
schedule of inspections of the technical objects condition and preventing steps or upgrading steps.
This strategy consists in a determination of such work periods of technical objects, which satisfy to
the best advantage technical, organisational and cost limitations.
The measure of the maintainability can be e.g. such a ‘physical value’ like performed technical
steps or a property (a behaviour manifestation), e.g. a technical objects shows the capability of
maintenance or repair or it does not .It can be also definite - not clearly - as a very low, low, high
or very high etc. capability.
The supportability – a feature expressing a |
Y

and usefulness of technical
equipment and means to maintain a machine in a required technical state.
269
As a result of very advanced technical progress, the use of machines is more and more
dependent on professional maintenance. Performing maintenance and technical checks calls for
modern inspection and measuring devices, availability of service with spare parts and appropriate
consumables. Logistic service guarantees safe and effective use of technical objectss.
A measure of the Y

can be e.g.such a physical quantity as a required diagnosing
time, spare parts delivery time etc. or e.g. a feature of behaviour like accessibility or non-
accessibility of services [0,1]. It can also be described approximately as a very low, low, high or
very high professionalism of maintenance.
CONCLUSIONS
Therefore in order to estimate durability the following aspects have to be determined:

x a technical aspect: i
£

due
to an overly dispersed energy of internal structural cohesiveness of an object
x an economic aspect: non-
Y

due to an excessive rise in unit
operating costs
x aspects of innovation: innovative manufacture of technical objects of
!
x
Y
Y

as a result of new requirements for use, which are a
consequence of a new generation of solutions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Arendarski J.,

Y
, Arkady, Warszawa,1987.
[2] # [#Z
=X#!

Y

>=+
Warszawa,1968.
[3] Haviland R.P., ¥

, ">=
1968.
[4] Mazur M.,

>=+
>#
[5] = < Y

"=-¶¶µ=-04010, "=
Warszawa, 1977.
[6] Radkowski S., &Y

, OFPW, Warszawa,2003.
[7] <!

-
, MaX #
=# [ «"=
Szczyrk 2007,
[8] S<!
* Y

Y

, Journal of
%==
= `§{ 2008,Warsaw.
[9] ># , ¥
Y

, ">=
1988.
270
RANDOMNESS OF ROLLING BEARINGS’ ELEMENTS GEOMETRY
AS PROBABILISTIC FACTOR OF BEARINGS FATIGUE LIFE

<"/-Rekowski
University of Technology and Life Sciences

al. Prof. S.Kaliskiego 7, 85-789 Bydgoszcz, Poland
tel.:+48 52 3408623, fax: +48 52 3408245
e-mail: msr@utp.edu.pl
Abstract
The great number of factors generate situations that real dimensions of each machine elements are different from
nominal ones. In the case of rolling bearings elements mentioned disagreements are small – their values are rank of
micrometers. However, such small differences can generate significant changes of operational features of bearings.
The analysis of influence of ball dimensional deviation on load distribution in ball bearings is presented in this paper.
The probability of occurrence of ball diameters of the range of acceptable values is statistically determined. Random
distribution of this important dimensions results in other than nominal level of internal stresses (in the contact area of
balls and raceways) and therefore true values of some operational features of bearings are other – the most often
smaller – than calculated ones. In presented analysis sequence of occurrence of different ball diameters is also taken
into account.
Key words: ball bearing, dimensional deviation, operational features of bearing, random character of balls diameter
1. Preface
A lot of factors which determine each manufacturing process cause situation which has random
character. In this connection real dimensions of every machine elements, including rolling
bearings, are encumbered with machining dimensional deviations. Therefore, real dimension can
differ from nominal in some value, however, not greater than boundary value for specific accuracy
class of machining. Consequently, in case of rolling bearings the essential factor is dimensional
selection of their elements because it determines inner load distribution in contact area of rolling
elements and raceways. The more uniform distribution - the achievement of calculated durability
of bearings close to the true value is more probable.
The statistical analysis of probability of existence in the bearings the balls’ diameters of
specified values is presented below. The results of analysis are necessary for exact analytical
designation of fatigue life of the rolling bearings, e.g. Applied in combustion engines.
For standard rolling bearings analytical procedures are well-known and experimentally
verified, instead for special bearings – this kind is analyzed in this paper – appears necessity of
description new ones.
q'Q ((

%

(%

The rolling bearings contain rolling elements (e.g.: balls, rollers, needles) of different diameters
271
(of course in the range of acceptable deviations for specific bearings’ accuracy class), just for that
reason real load distribution, and thus also contact pressure between rolling elements and
raceways, will be distorted in comparison to analytical – Fig. 1.
a) b)
Fig. 1.Theoretical load distribution in angular ball bearing: a) distribution of forces in contact area of balls
and raceways, b) distribution of internal load of bearing circuit for determined load conditions
The values of internal load existing in the rolling bearings and stresses in the contact area of
balls and raceways one can calculate by well-known relationships, e.g. [2, 5]. For inner forces PJ it
is the following equation:
3
ª 1
1 cos J º» ,
2
PJ Pmax «1 (1)
¬ 2H ¼
in which:
Py
Pmax , (2a)
J y (H ) z sin D
or
Px
Pmax , (2b)
J x (H ) z sin D
where:
Pmax - maximum internal force,
Ô - load distribution factor,
â - position angle,
Px,y - load components, respectively: axial or radial,
Jx,y - load integrals, respectively: axial or radial,
z - number of the balls,
- contact angle.
For calculation of the maximum contact stress value Vmax the following relationship is used [5]:
> @,
1
858
V max Pmax ¦ U
2 3 (3)
a b
where:
a*, b* - dimensionless axis of contact elipse, respectively: semimajor
or semiminor,
272
¦U - curvature sum.
In consideration of the fact that loads values are function among others of rolling bearings
dimensions (especially contact area geometric features), calculated values of inner loads existing
in the bearing, assigned to specific angles, one should admit as approximate values.
As a result of changed distribution, attitude towards nominal load distribution, and thereby
other values of contact pressure, bearings’ fatigue life can be different (most often smaller)
because amplitude values of stresses in contact area of rolling elements and bearings’ rings also
are different (usually greater than nominal).
In order to settle quantitative determination of that influence, below the analysis is carried out.
To this aim theory of probability is applied [1]. Analysis is conducted on the example of angular
ball bearing applied in the front wheel hub of a bicycle.
' *"
of % **(
,

The accuracy of rolling bearings is determined conjointly by geometrical constructional

features of following bearings’ elements:
x rolling elements (balls, rollers, needle rollers, barrels, cones).
x inner ring,
x outer ring,
In manufacturing consideration, conveniently is to assume that bearing element diameter (in
analyzed example – ball) is redundant dimension. Its value is assorted to specific, measured values
of raceways diameters of rolling bearings – on the outer and inner rings. Thanks to it, the proper
value of clearance is obtained in the bearing.
In the all manufacturing processes surface geometric structure (SGS), with random and
determined components, is generated on machined elements [7]. Therefore, true dimension is
stochastic quantity – different from nominal dimension assumed by designer. For the aim of balls
selection, in order to limit range of these differences, in standard [6] are created nine accuracy
classes. In each class, values of boundary deviations of: diameter, geometrical tolerance and
surfaces’ roughness are determined. On account of diameters’ spread in the inspection lot, in
quoted standard the division of individual accuracy classes to dimensional groups and subgroups is
suggested.
The rolling bearings are composed of finite, strictly determined number of rolling elements
(balls) z. Therefore, the probability of existing of balls with determined diameters should be
limited and refer to the lot number z. The distribution of diameter deviations in the lot of balls is
presented in Fig. 2.
Individual quantities in the mentioned figure are defined in standard [6]. The way of their
values delimitation is also described in this reference. In below presented considerations the most
fundamental of them is VDwL – scatter of diameters in the lot. It is the difference between the
greatest DwmL max and the smallest DwmL min average balls’ diameter in the lot.
scatter of diameters in inspection lot VDwL

minimum diameter DwmL min maximum diameter DwmL max
average diameter DwmL scatter of observed diameters VDws
lots
Fig. 2. The distribution of bearings’ balls dimensional deviations in inspection lot
273
Particular attention should be paid to the fact that average ball diameter Dwm is arithmetic
average of the greatest and the smallest individual balls’ diameters.
'= (,7% **(
,- s

*(

%

Factor X, refers to true ball diameter, have Gaussian distribution with average value m and
standard deviation s. This fact may be written as follows:
XaN(m, s), (4)
In the bearing exist the balls with the diameters in specific accuracy class, therefore new
~
random variable X is introduced. Its features limit the set above mentioned what can be note as
follows:
X for X m d a
~ °
X ® , (5)
°0 for X m ! a
¯
This variables set has Gaussian distribution, with two-sided section, limited by assumed
deviations values a of average balls diameters. This type of distribution is shown in Fig. 3.
f(x)
m-a m m+a x
~
Fig. 3. The graph of probability density function of random variable X
~
The probability density function of analyzed factor X has alternate form:
1 (x m) 2

° for x m d a
2
e 2s
°° cs 2S
f X~ ( x) ® , (6)
° 0 for x m ! a
°
°¯
where:
c – constant, calculate from equation:
ª § a ·º
c 2 «1 I ¨ ¸» , (7)
¬ © s ¹¼
in which
I(x), for x = a/s – distribution function of standard Gaussian distribution,
274
which can be described by relationship:
x u2
1
I ( x)
2S ³e
f
2
du , (8)
and
u – working variable.
~
The distribution function of random variable X , in individual function intervals, assumes
values in accordance with dependences mentioned below:
0 if x d ma
°° 1 § x m · § a ·½
F ( x) ® ®I ¨ ¸ I ¨ ¸¾ if ma x d ma, (9)
° c ¯ © s ¹ © s ¹¿
°¯1 if x !ma
Let X1,n, X2,n, ..., Xn,n are ordinal statistics from random test (X1, X2, ..., Xn) arising from
distribution with distribution function F(x). The value of average r-th ordinal statistics Xr,n one can
assign from relationship:
ma
§ n 1·
EX r , n n ¨¨ ¸¸ xf x >Fx @r 1>1 Fx @n r dx ,
³ (10)
© r 1 ¹m a
In the case of analyzed real rolling bearing, parameters’ values in equation (10) are following:
x n = z = 9,
x r = 1, 2, ..., 9.
The statistic assumed in presented analysis:
Wn = Xn,n – X1,n (11)
is called the range of the sample and it is difference between maximum and minimum average
diameter in the sample – see Fig. 2. For example, in 40th accuracy class of the bearings, value of this
quantity, according to standard [6], is equal r16 Pm. Average value of the range of the sample, for n
elements in the sample, can be calculated from relationship:
f
³ ^1 F x >1 F x @ `dx ,
n n
EWn (12)
f
Analytical solution of considered problem makes possible to illustrate the dependence of EWn
on standard deviation s. This way can be determined which part of the range ¢m-a, m+a² is
covered by ordinal statistics X1,9, X2,9, ..., X9,9.
In this aim dependence of average value of range of sample EWn on standard deviation is
evaluated for the whole lot. For better interpretation of computation’s results, values of ratio
EWn/2a are given on the Y-axis – Fig 4.
With the help of above described procedure, values of balls diameters are calculated, in
assumption that machined balls are subjected to Gaussian distribution with two-sided section. In
the calculations the true constructional features of tested bearings are taken as input data.
275
1
a2/ WE
n
Fig. 4. Dependence of EW n versus standard deviations (value and unit of s – adequate to basic size)
As results of calculation the following values of balls diameters dk were obtained: 4.754, 4.757,
4.760, 4.762, 4.762, 4.762, 4.764, 4.767, 4.770 mm. They composed input set of quantities in
bearings’ fatigue life calculations.
';% %
*

*"
7%
7
*
7
As earlier was found, differences between nominal and true diameters of balls in the bearings,
which are contained inside the range of particular sample (in considered example the lot of analyzed
size is z = 9 and it is equivalent to balls number in the bearing), cause that inner loads distribution,
shown in Fig. 1, is only theoretical. The true value of amplitude, as the result of such changing
load, will be also other than theoretical. Thus, there are good reasons to state that analytical fatigue
life will be different from determined on experimental way.
The sequence of the balls of differentiated diameters occuring in the bearing is also random
factor. Differences of balls’ diameters cause differentiation of contact stress - see equations (2) and
(3), therefore, order of balls sequence – Fig. 5, generates changes of stress amplitude – quantity
which decides about fatigue life of bearings.
276
Fig. 5. The examples of possible cycles of load in the contact ball-raceway caused by nominal dimension deviations of
ball diameters: seq.1) decreasing sequence, seq.2) ascending sequence,seq.3) mixed sequence;
n – nominal level of stresses’ amplitude
The above figures show that balls’ sequence existing in the bearing directly determines run of
load cycle, therefore, it can have significant meaning for fatigue life of analyzed rolling bearings
[8, 9].
`'*
In the operational processes of all machines one observed that durability of correctly serviced
bearings’ pairs is different (usually greater) than determined on computational way. This is caused
by analytical methods imperfection. That is why evolution of computational methods is observed,
e.g. [3, 4, 10]. It appears in including increasing number of the factors, which determine durability
of bearings.
Application of the above presented analysis in constructional practice should increase
calculations accuracy and thereby, to induce better closing of analytical and practical results. This
way the mathematical models, describing observed changes will be more correlated (congruent) to
real run of researched phenomena.
277
=7
[1] Draper N.R., Smith H., Applied Regression Analysis, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York –
London - Sydney 1973.
[2] Harris T.A., Rolling Bearing Analysis, 3rd edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York 1991.
[3] Ioannides E., Life Prediction in Rolling Element Bearings, in: New Direction in Tribology.
Proceedings of Ist World Tribology Congress, pp. 281÷290, London 1997.
[4] #< *[ /
Modern Methods of Calculation of Rolling Bearings Fatigue Life,
Tribologia No. 2, pp. 223÷232, 1993 (in Polish).
[5] #< *[/
Rolling Bearings, PWN, Warsaw 1985 (in Polish).
[6] %# «'
&< ´_
Geometrical Structure of Surfaces, Rzeszów Technical University
Publishers, Rzeszów 2003 (in Polish).
[7] Polish standard PN-83/M-86452 – Rolling Bearings. Balls.
[8] Styp-Rekowski M., Significance of Constructional Features for Angular Ball Bearings Life,
Scientific Number of Technical and Agricultural University, series Dissertations, No. 103,
Bydgoszcz 2001 (in Polish).
[9] Szala J., Assessment of Machines Elements Fatigue Life in Random and Programmable Load,
Scientific Number of Technical and Agricultural University, series Mechanics, No. 22,
Bydgoszcz 1980 (in Polish).
[10] Warda B., New Computational Model of Rolling Bearings Fatigue Life, Proceedings of XVIIth
Symposium on Fundamentals of Machine Design, pp. 265÷268, Lublin 1995 (in Polish).
278
APPLICATION OF MARINE ENGINE ROOM SIMULATORS WITH 3D
VISUALIZATION FOR EMERGENCY OPERATING PROCEDURES
TRAINING
Leonard Tomczak

tel.:+48 58 6901331, fax:+48 58 6901399
Abstract
It is well established that one of the major factors of accident prevention on board is the perfect theoretical and
practical knowledge possessed by engine room officers while operating engines and auxiliary equipment.
This paper describes the latest developments in 3D computer simulation applications, designated for the
familiarization with marine machinery, specially taking into account the emergency operating procedures training.
The experiences in 3D computer simulation application, the benefits and advantages of use of computer
simulation in educational process of engine room officers in the Gdynia Maritime University are equally presented in
this paper.
This paper describes an example of application of new 3D simulation techniques in engine room simulator based
on modern - computer controlled engine room with low speed main engine MAN Diesel LMC type, applied on a
container ship, where trainees have possibilities to develop operational skills, update their know-how and refresh
emergency procedures.
This installation plays a vital role in the safety on board. Thus, it is of extreme importance that trainees acquire
the capacity to react in a prompt and effective manner to emergency situations. This new 3D simulation technique
specially emphasizes the relation between simulation and realism of machinery operation. The simulator described in
the paper provides for a new approach to navigation through the different system’s elements, allowing for an easy and
quick access to basic engine room operation (valve opening/closing, setting position of switches, push-buttons etc.).
This has been possible due the application of state-of-the art 3D visualisation with zoom techniques.
The basic tasks for computer simulation in maritime education are equally described, taking into consideration
the new methods and emergency procedures training.
This papers’ conclusion is that the use of 3D computer simulation in maritime education results in increased
emergency preparedness and in consequence, leads to hazard mitigation and reduces the risk of human error in the
operation and maintenance of marine equipment.
Keywords: 3D computer simulation, marine engine room simulators.
1 Introduction
Marine engine simulators allow for operation of emergency situations that are not permissible
under normal exploitation conditions due to safety limitations. Simulator’s software includes also
assessment features that enable objective review of trainees acquired capacities. During simulator
279
exercise the instructor is able to apply various exercise set-ups (initial conditions) and scenarios
that include different fault finding tasks.
For this reason, engine room simulators are more and more used in maritime academies as a
valuable asset for educational process [1]. The application of engine room simulators is also
recommended by STCW 95 IMO Convention [2].
It is worthwhile mentioning that marine engine room simulators have also some basic
disadvantages. Namely, they include lots of simplifications, abbreviations and schematic
presentation of machinery systems as a result of the fact that they are presented only in 2D
visualization. Hence, the trainee with perfect knowledge of simulator operation can experience
serious problems with real ship power plant operation, because the graphical presentation and
operating procedures of the simulator are distinct from the reality.
For this reason, manufacturers of engine room simulators begin to apply 3D graphical system’s
layout presentation in order to provide a machinery configuration as close as possible to reality.
The main problem in creation of 3D simulators is to provide for proper navigation through the
system’s elements [4,5,6]. Engine room is a complex, multi level and complicated set of sub-
systems, equipment and machinery and this is a new challenge for entities creating such kind of
simulators.
It is also necessary to allow for an easy and quick access to basic engine room operation (valve
opening/closing, setting position of switches, push-buttons etc.). It is possible to achieve this
feature by applying zoom techniques for selected elements of the system. Users of 3D simulators
should also be able to observe the system’s elements from pre-select specific parts of the engine
room.
Based on the author’s experiences with the application of different types of simulators, a better
solution consists in navigation by mouse cursor and zooming facilities.
The application of new 3D simulation techniques in marine engineering education shall be
analysed on the examples of full mission, hardware type engine room simulator with low speed
main engine.
A new technique of navigation through the system’s elements has been applied in this virtual
reality simulator, providing for a solution of the main problem in creation of 3D visualisation. The
latest development includes also a combination of 3D and 2D diagram presentation, which enables
to follow how a certain device really functions and gives a complete picture of its structure. The
presented solutions have improved considerably the level of simulator fidelity in relation to real
machinery. In consequence, it was possible to eliminate the disadvantages of the engine room
simulator with typical 2D presentation consisting in a schematic and simplified presentation of
machinery systems.
The application of virtual simulation in teaching the operation of complex marine machinery
leads to a better understanding of the functioning principles of both the equipment and the systems
in comparison with traditional educational methods. As a result, trainees are far better prepared to
deal with real life operation of machinery, thus increasing in a considerable manner the standards
of safety of ship operation.
On the other hand, software, due to its features enables the trainee to repeat in an unlimited
number of times the required operations, thus to achieve the necessary preparedness level.
The engine room simulator based on the medium speed engine room simulator is one of the
first simulators which use hardware type of consoles combined with 3D visualization.
This simulator specially enhances the operational procedures related to emergency situations,
like electrical black-down, emergency manual operation of the main engine with propulsion
system as well as auxiliary machinery in case of remote control failure. As it has been said before,
these procedures may not be trained in real life conditions due to safety constraints. From didactic
point of view the best solution is to combine hardware version of engine room simulator with 3D
visualization. Such combination improves in a considerable manner the safe operation of marine
280
engine room, as the crew members have previously been trained in relation to various fault
scenarios.
2 LER3D Low speed engine room simulator’s description
The application of new 3D simulation techniques in marine engineering education shall be

analyzed on the examples of software type engine room simulator with low speed main engine.
The LER3D virtual reality simulator provides for a new approach to navigation through the
different system’s elements, allowing for an easy and quick access to basic engine room operation
(valve opening/closing, setting position of switches, push-buttons etc.). This has been possible due
the application of state-of-the art 3D visualisation with zoom techniques. The latest development
includes also a combination of 3D and 2D diagram presentation, which enables to follow how a
certain device really functions and gives a complete picture of its structure. The presented
solutions have improved considerably the level of simulator fidelity in relation to real machinery.
In consequence, it was possible to eliminate the disadvantages of the engine room simulator with
typical 2D presentation consisting in a schematic and simplified presentation of machinery
systems.
This simulator is designated for training students of maritime academies as well as for different
types of marine vocational training centres. The simulator has universal features and may be used
both for training merchant and navy fleet crew.
The main purpose of the LER3D simulator is the practical preparation of the trainee for engine
room operation, and more particularly:
- familiarization with the basic engine room installation (compressed air system, fresh and
sea water cooling system, lubricating, fuel oil system etc.), specially taking into account
training on the base of modern, computer controlled engine room;
- acknowledgment with main engine and auxiliary equipment exploitation procedures;
- propulsion system maneuvering ;
The software also generates the main engine room’s sound.
The simulator has been developed in compliance with:
- STCW Code: Section A-1/12 and Section B-1/12.
- ISM Code: Section 6 and Section 8.
A general view of the LER3D simulator engine room (main engine ) has been presented on fig.1.
Fig. 1 Low Speed Engine Room Simulator LER3D – General view of main engine
281
It is well known that one of the major factors of accident prevention on board is the perfect
theoretical and practical knowledge possessed by engine room officers while operating engines
and auxiliary equipment. The basic role of Low Speed Engine Room Simulator LER3D is the
familiarization with different operational modes, required for achieving a high level of emergency
preparedness [6].
The basic role of this simulator is the familiarization with different operational modes.
This simulator allows not only for training under normal operation conditions but also
for emergency operation procedure training. The more familiar the trainee is with the
equipment the faster and more effective are his reactions to a state of emergency [3].
On fig. 2 main engine’s emergency control local station is presented.
Fig. 2 Low Speed Engine Room Simulator LER3D - Main engine emergency local control station
On of important element for training emergency operating procedure in LER3D simulator is

emergency power plant. The basic role of Emergency Power Plant is to supply electric current, in
case of failure of main diesel generators.
General view of 3D Emergency Power Plant simulator is shown on fig.3.
282
Fig.3 Emergency Power Plant – 3D simulator’s general view
Emergency Power Plant diesel engine view with control panel zoom selection is presented on fig.
4.
Fig.4 Emergency Power Plant simulator - Diesel engine with control panel
Diesel engine starting procedure can be effectuated in two ways:
- from control panel with application of electrical starter (24 V available)
- by emergency hydraulic starter (24 V not available) – fig. 5
In case of diesel engine emergency operation, the trainee ought to create proper pressure in
hydraulic bottle and by manual lever start the engine. Emergency hydraulic engine’s starter is
shown of fig. 5.
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Fig.5 Emergency hydraulic starter
One of possibilities to improve realism and fidelity of operation procedures training is application
of touch screen. On fig. 6 use of touch screen is presented for hydraulic starter emergency
operation.
Fig. 6 LER3D Engine Room Simulator – Application of touch screen for hydraulic starter emergency operation
Emergency operation procedures are emphasizes in hydraulic systems operation.
On fig. 7 steering gear installation (rotary vane type) is presented. Trainee, by pressing push-
buttons on solenoid control valve can change rudder position in emergency ( manual) way.
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Fig.7 Steering gear installation - Solenoid control valve with emergency push-buttons
Another example of engine room installation where it this possible to train emergency situation is
fire fighting system. An example of S-type fuel oil separator fire simulation is shown on fig. 8
LER3D Low Speed Engine Room Simulator in relation to fire fighting system consist of:
- CO2 system
- Water mist system (fig. 9 – 10)
Described engine room simulator allows for very detailed operating procedure training like CO2 or
water mist system activation.
Fig. 8 S-type fuel oil separator fire simulation
285
Fig. 9 Water mist system – activation panel on engine control room
Fig. 10 Water mist activation in Diesel generators section
LER3D virtual reality engine room simulator can support and facilitate preparation of trainee for
use of full mission, hardware type of engine room simulator.
This software type simulator is first of all intended for individual students’ training ( one student –
on PC). Typical configuration of PC classroom is 8 till 12 stations + instructor station. En
examples of PC classroom with two screen solution on each station and PC projector is shown on
fig. 11.
286
Fig.11 LER3D Engine Room Simulator – PC classroom
3. Conclusion
The application of engine room simulators with 3D visualization, in maritime education leads to
a better understanding of the marine machinery and results also in increased emergency
preparedness and in consequence, leads to hazard mitigation and reduces the risk of human error in
the operation and maintenance of marine equipment.
The application of simulator gives the operator of equipment the opportunity to get acquainted
with the system’s operation, before starting real life usage. For this reason, more and more often,
manufacturers of marine equipment supply their products accompanied with software type of
simulators.
As it results from the above, the latest developments in simulation techniques, including 3D
presentation enhances the above mentioned benefits, as it brings the engine room simulators closer
to reality. In consequence, the gap between operating marine machinery in simulation conditions
and in real life is decreased.
As it has been mentioned above, proper navigation through the 3D simulator’s elements is the key
point in order to achieve the didactic purposes. The new concepts of view selection, zooming
features of elements and operation by cursor and mouse clicking, as applied in LER3D low speed
engine room simulator, described in this paper, appears to be very effective and easily adaptable
by trainees in practice.
Due to the specificity of operating marine equipment in real life conditions, the didactic goals in
marine education are directly linked with achieving preparedness for emergency situations. Such
preparedness may only be achieved if the trainee is familiar with both the equipment and its
operating modes, including emergency situations.
In the near future, this type of 3D solutions should be applied more and more often in engine room
simulators design. The presented simulators are related to marine machinery, but the concept of
composition and navigation through the system’s elements can be easily applied for the purposes
of any type of technical equipment and shall contribute in a similar manner to hazard prevention.
287
To summarize, the application of engine room simulators with 3D visualization is a valuable
hazard prevention tool as it reduces the level of human error in the operation and maintenance of
marine equipment.
References
[1] R.Cwilewicz, L.Tomczak, Z.J. Pudlowski, Effective application of engine room simulators in
marine engineering education, Proc. 3rd Global Conference on Engineering Education,Glasgow,
Scotland, United Kingdom, 2002,
[2] STCW - Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers 78/95
Convention International Maritime Organization, London, United Kingdom, 1996
[3] H. Chen , The latest developments in engine room simulator WMS-1004 for marine training
needs, Proc. ICERS6 International Conference on Engine Room
Simulators, Wuhan, Chiny, 2004,
[4] R..Cwilewicz, L.Tomczak., The latest developments in the application of 3D graphical
presentation in computer based training – interactive programs for marine mechanical engineering
students, Proc.. 8th UICEE Annual Conference on Engineering Education, Kingston, Jamaica,
2005,
[5] S.J.Cross S., Enhancing competence based training and assessment for marine engineers
through the realism of virtual presentation, Proc.ICERS7 International Conference on Engine
Room Simulators
" X #

[6] R. Cwilewicz, L. Tomczak, The role of computer simulation programs for marine engineers in
hazard prevention by reducing the risk of human error in the operation of marine machinery, Proc
4th International Conference on Computer Simulation In Risk Analysis and Hazard Mitigation -
Risk Analysis IV, 2004,
[7] F. Donders F., The pedagogical issues related to the use of virtual engine room environment,
Proc.ICERS7 International Conference on Engine Room Simulators, Portoroz

[8] L. Tomczak, Practical aspects of 3D graphical applications in marine Engineering Education,
Global Journal of Engineering Education, 9(2), 2005,
[9] L. Tomczak, Application of 3D visualization in marine engine room simulators, Proc. 7th
International Conference on Engine Room Simulators (ICERS7) , Portoroz, Slovenia, 2005,
[10] R. Cwilewicz, L.Tomczak, Application of 3D computer simulation for marine engineers as a
hazard prevention tool, Proc 5th International Conference on Computer Simulation In Risk
Analysis and Hazard Mitigation - Risk Analysis V,WIT PRESS Southampton, Boston, 2006,
[11] R. Cwilewicz, L.Tomczak, The application of virtual engine room simulators in maritime
engineering education, Proc. 9th UICEE Annual Conference on Engineering Education, Muscat,
Oman, 2006,
[12] L.Tomczak, The latest developments of 3D visualization in marine engine room simulators,
Proc. International Conference on Engine Room Simulators (ICERS8), Manila, Philippines, 2007
[13] R. Cwilewicz, L.Tomczak, , Improvement of ship operations’ safety as a result of the
application of virtual reality engine room simulators Proc. 6th International Conference on
Computer Simulation In Risk Analysis and Hazard Mitigation - Risk Analysis VI,WIT PRESS
Southampton, Boston, 2008,
[14] L.Tomczak, The new generation of engine room simulators with application of 3D
visualization, Journal of Polish CIMAC
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288
THE RULES OF INFERENCE IN MACHINE STATE RECOGNITION
Henryk Tylicki
University of Technology and Life Science

ul. S. Kaliskiego 7, 85-789 Bydgoszcz, Poland
tel.: +48 52 340828, fax.: +48 52 308283
e-mail:tylicki@utp.edu.p
Abstract
The results of investigations connected with the implementation of the procedures of monitoring the technical
condition of machine engines and their investigation for the chosen arrangements of mechanical vehicles were
introduced. The examples of the rule of inference of diagnostic were passed for the gathering of diagnostic
parameters and the opinion of the state.
Keywords: machine state recognition, procedure algorithmization, conclusion rules
1. Introduction
The usage in exploitation process of machines technical state evaluation methods, being the
basis of the automation of state recognition, requires the determination of diagnostic parameters
set, diagnostic tests assignment and method optimization of diagnosis, genesis, forecasting. The
realization of these tasks depends on many factors related to the level of machine complexity, the
quality of exploitation process and the course of wear process. For this purpose it is necessary to
identify the methods of machine state recognition, create procedures possible to use in the machine
state recognition process, as well as determine the rules of concluding being an element of the on-
board software of machine state recognition system [2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 11].
Machine state recognition is a process which ought to enable:
a) real-time estimation of the machine’s technical state on the basis of diagnostic researches
results, through the control of state and the location of damages in case of the machine’s
disability;
b) anticipation of the machine’s state in the future on the basis of incomplete history of
diagnostic researches results, which enables time estimation of the machine’s flawless
operation or the value of work done by the machine in the future;
c) anticipation of the machine’s state in the past on the basis of incomplete history of
diagnostic researches results, which enables the estimation of the machine’s state or the
value of work done by the machine in the past.
2. Problem characteristics
The problem of state evaluation, prognosis and genesis of the machine’s state is equally
important at the stage of construction preparation, production and exploitation, and the main
289
problems appearing during the solution of the machines’ state recognition task are [4, 6, 7, 8, 10]:
a) formalizing the aim of diagnosis, forecasting and genesis of the machine’s state;
b) the description of the machine’s state changes in the exploitation time;
c) building a diagnostic model – the relation between state characteristics and diagnostic
parameters;
d) the solution of state diagnosis task;
e) the solution of state forecasting task;
f) the solution of state genesis task.
The machine’s state W(4n) at the moment in time 4n can be characterized with the use of the
parameter values set {yj(4); j=1,...,m}. The machine at the moment 4b (machine’s state diagnosis
task) is in the state of aptitude S0, when satisfied is the condition:
W(4n) = W 0 (j=1,...,m) [{yj,d} d {yj (4b )} d {yj,g}], (1)
where: {yj,d}, {yj,g} – sets of upper and bottom boundary values of diagnostic parameters.
Respectively, it is possible to formulate the condition of aptitude at the moment 4n+W

(forecasting task) [9,10,14]:
W(4n+W1 ) = W 0 (j=1,...,m) [{yj,d} d {yj (4b+W1 )} d {yj,g}], (2)
whilst the elements of the set {yj(4b+W1 )} are unknown, hence the necessity of foreseeing them in
the assumed time range W1. The element W1 means the time range for which the forecasting process
is realized (the element W1 is also called advance or “prognosis time horizon”). In this aspect, the
time evaluation of machine’s passage from the aptitude state into the inaptitude state is determined
by the results of diagnostic parameters prognoses {yj(4b+W1)} signalizing the exceeding of
boundary values.
Similarly we can formulate the condition of aptitude at the moment 4b-W2 (machine’s state
genesis task):
W(4n-W2 ) = W 0 (j=1,…,m) [{yj,d} d {yj (4b-W2 )} d {yj,g}], (3)
Whilst some elements of the set {yj(4b-W2)} are unknown, hence the necessity of foreseeing them in
the assumed time range W2. The element W2 means the time range for which the genesis process is
realized (the element W2 is also called advance or “genesis time horizon”). In this aspect, the
estimation of the machine’s state or the value of work done by it in the past are determined by the
results of diagnostic parameters values genesis {yj(4b-W2).
The main problems appearing at the solution of such defined tasks are: the selection of “the
best” diagnostic parameters describing the actual state and their change in exploitation time,
diagnostic test determination, the determination of forecasted value of diagnostic parameter for
prognosis horizon W1, yjp(4b+W1) with the help of “the best” prognosis method, and the
determination of the next diagnosis or operation 4d, the determination of genesis value of
diagnostic parameter for genesis horizon W2, yjp(4b-W2) with the help of “the best” Genesis method,
and the estimation of the machine’s state, work done by it in the past, and the determination of the
cause of an existing damage.
The above used notion “the best” is connected with the acceptance of appropriate criteria and
considering these problems in the categories of optimal solution search, whilst taking into
consideration many estimation criteria, it is necessary to consider these problems in the categories
of polioptimal solution [1, 10].
290
3. The algorithm of machine state recognition
The scheme of determining procedures for machine state recognition is shown in the Fig.1,
whilst the algorithm of the use of the appointed optimal diagnostic parameters set, optimal
diagnostic test, optimal genesis method and optimal method is shown in the Fig.2.
Summing up the considered in this chapter problems concerning theoretical bases of the state
recognition process methodology, it is necessary to state that:
1. The process of machine state recognition includes the following kinds of diagnostic research:
state evaluation, genesis and prognosis.
Fig. 1. Scheme of determining procedures for machine state recognition
Fig.2. Scheme of machine state recognition realization
291
2. In the process of machine state recognition, an important element is the determination of the
diagnostic parameters set:
a) for the evaluation of the machine’s state considering the criterion of machine states
differentiation;
b) in the process of prognosis and genesis with the use of criteria of: correlation between the
diagnostic parameter value and the state and machine’s exploitation time, and the
information capacity of the diagnostic parameter.
3. In the procedure of machine state evaluation, analyzed was the possibility to use the following
methods for examining the relations between diagnostic parameters and the machine’s states:
a) mean test examination;
b) examining the distance of trust ranges of the diagnostic parameter mean value;
c) examining the changeability of the diagnostic parameter value.
4. The presented estimations allow to state that it is possibile to create appropriate algorithms of
the machines’ technical state recognition, and appropriate concluding rules vital for creating
the software of the on-board machine technical state recognition system.
4. On-board state recognition system
Created rules of diagnostic models identification, established procedures of acquisition and

processing of information on state changes of examined models, their implementation in
information technology, as well as proposed state recognition procedures (diagnosis, genesis,
prognosis) are the basis of on-board diagnostic systems construction. In this chapter we presented
the assumptions for the construction of the on-board machine state recognition system, the rules
for its design, and the procedure of the diagnostic system construction [10, 11].
The idea of the on-board state recognition system ought to be included in the organizational
range of the new machine’s design, including the problems determining:
a) functional features;
b) construction features;
c) exploitation and operation conditions;
d) operational resource base potential;
e) economic calculation.
Taking into consideration the above assumptions, the creation rules of the on-board machine state
recognition system should include:
1. The project analysis – concerns the analysis of needs and possible problem solutions, the
analysis of economic calculation concerning the construction of the system, as well as the
analysis of functional, technical and economic requirements including the relation of
manufacture and exploitation costs of the system to the acquired benefits in result of its use;
2. System design – concerns the determination of the architecture of microprocessor, modules,
interfaces and other components, as well as software in the aspect of the system useful
features fulfillment, including:
a) logical project – concerns logical aspects of system, processes and information flow
organization,
b) functional project – concerns the function description of system elements and their co-
operation,
c) construction project – concerns the structure description of system elements (e.g. processor,
memory, communication, input and output, clock, power supply);
3. The construction of system work simulator (computer) – its purpose is to ensure the initial
evaluation of system work with simulated machine states;
4. System implementation – the aim is to create and build a physical model performing the
assumed functions of the system;
292
5. System quality assurance – concerns testing the programs and exploitation research;
6. System documentation preparation – including the construction, requirements and limitations,
functioning and operational procedures.
The object of the machine state recognition system working involves:
1. In the area of State Evaluation:
b) concluding on the machine state based on the relations between the measured values of
diagnostic parameters set and their nominal values on the basis of the created state control
test;
c) concluding on the machine state location based on the relations between the measured
values of diagnostic parameters set and their nominal values on the basis of the created
damage location test.
In the module State Evaluation we experience:
a) diagnostic matrix creation on the basis of input data;
b) the possibility to edit the diagnostic matrix;
c) saving to a text file.
2. In the field State Genesis based on the concluding on a possible cause of the located disability
state of the machine according to the algorithm:
a) optimal diagnostic parameter (maximum weight value);
b) optimal genesis method (minimum genesis mistake value);
c) minimum value of the distance between the diagnostic parameter value with the range of
genesis mistake and the boundary value of the diagnostic parameter dmin;
d) correlation of the minimum distance value dmin with the machine’s disability states si, with
the simultaneous testing of circumstances and exploitation conditions of their occurrence,
as the potential cause of the located machine’s disability state.
In the module State Genesis we experience:
a) the determination of genesis value of diagnostic parameter and genesis mistake;
b) the determination of the minimum distance between the genesis value of the parameter and
its boundary value;
c) testing the influence of exploitation factors (number of parameters, row size) over the state
genesis;
d) the visualization and record of approximation or interpolation function for chosen
parameters of a chosen object in the form of a graph and a report (Fig. 3).
293
Fig. 3. Interpolation method with the third-degree compound function from the State Genesis module (estimating the
genesis value of the parameter NO2 (weight w1=0,9229) for the interpolation with the combined function, type 3)
3. In the area State Prognosis on the estimation of the date of the next machine operation 4d
(accepting the minimum date value 4d1 , 4d2) on the basis of the analysis of values of dates
generated by two prognosis methods for the next operation date 4d1 and 4d2 according to the
algorithm:
a) optimal diagnostic parameter (maximum weight value);
b) optimal prognosis method (minimum prognosis mistake value);
c) minimum value of the next operation date 4d.
In the module State Prognosis we experience:
a) the determination of the prognosis value of the diagnostic parameter and prognosis
mistake,
b) the determination of the diagnosis and operation date of the machine;
c) testing the influence of exploitation factors (number of parameters, time row size,
prognosis horizon value) over the state prognosis;
d) the visualization and record of analyzed prognosis models for chosen parameters of the
chosen object (Fig. 4).
For the realization of the above system functions it is necessary to use the object programming
procedures. Then the basic module of the machine state recognition system is the knowledge base
<OBJECT, ATTRIBUTE (state characteristic) – VALUE>. The object defined in the state
recognition system are the systems and units of the machine.
The information on the machine state have hierarchical structure, where general information take
the highest level, e.g. for the State Evaluation (machine state control), and lower levels are
predestined for more detailed information (system damage location).
294
Fig. 4. Brown-Mayer model from the State Forecast module (Estimating the prognoses value of the parameter pwtr
(weight w1=0,858) and date 4d(W='4, W=2'4, W=3'4) for Brown–Mayer model, type 1 (D=0,2))
An ideal state recognition system is an on-board diagnostic system performing state control,
damage location, state genesis and state prognosis functions. In this case the cost of the machine
rises, however the machine’s exploitation effectiveness grows as all the state recognition functions
are performed. Such solution of the state recognition system can be appropriate for critical
machines or other special machines.
A less costly solution is an on-board state recognition system which performs only state
control functions. In this case the external state recognition system can forecast the state or locate
the damages of the object and perform the genesis of the disability state. It can be a universal
system used for diagnostic researches of different machines.
5. Dedicated conclusion rules
The analysis of research results (for example) of machine state prognosis methodology allows
to formulate dedicated conclusion rules of type “IF – THEN” or “IF – THEN – ELSE” in the area
of:
a) diagnostic parameters optimization;
b) state prognosis.
In case of the combustion engine UTD-20, the generated rules have form:
a) for diagnostic parameters set Yo:
- if w1j t 0,05 then yj Yo,
- or if w1j = w1jmax then yj Yo;
b) for state prognosis:
295
- if w1j = w1jmax and if w1j t 0,9 then yj Yo and the set Yo is a single-element set,
Yo =Yo1,
- if w1j = w1jmax and if w1j < 0,9 then yj Yo and the set Yo is not a single-element set,
Yo =Yoo,
- if the prognosis mistake of Holt method (with appropriate values of the parameters D, E)
for the set Yo1 < prognosis mistake of the Brown–Mayer method (with an appropriate
value of the parameter D) for the set Yo1, then the method of value prognosis of the set
Yo1 is the Holt method (with appropriate values of the parameters D, E), otherwise the
prognosis method of the value Yo1 is the Brown–Mayer method (with an appropriate
value of the parameter D),
- if the value of the next examination date of the engine UTD-20 4d1 (Yo1) d value of the
next examination date of the engine 4d2 (Yo1), then the method to estimate the next
examination date of the engine is the method of levelling the prognosis mistake value,
otherwise it is the prognosis method of diagnostic parameter boundary value,
- if the prognosis mistakes for methods: Holt (with appropriate values of the parameters
D, E) or Brown–Mayer (with an appropriate value of the parameter D) for diagnostic
parameters of the set Yoo take minimum values, then prognosis methods of values of
appropriate diagnostic parameters of the set Yoo are the above methods,
- if the value of the next examination date of the engine UTD-20 4d1 (Yoo) d value of the
next examination date of the engine 4d2 (Yoo) then the method to estimate the next
examination date of the engine (for the considered diagnostic parameter) is the method
of levelling the prognosis mistake value, otherwise it is the prognosis method of
diagnostic parameter boundary value,
- if the value of the next examination date of the engine UTD-20 4d is determined for Yoo,
then this values is the weighed value of the value 4dw.
The presented conclusion rules in range of machine state prognosis, after performing
appropriate verification researches, could be the basis for dedicated software of a machine state
recognition system in an on–line mode (for an on-board system) and off–line (for a stationary
system).
6. Conclusion
From the analysis of action requirements, and the configuration of the on-board machine state
recognition system, it results that the architecture of the system should assure:
a) the system configuration in the range of beforehand determined needs, including inserting
the appropriate number of diagnostic parameters, their boundary values, and nominal
values of diagnostic parameters, machine state, machine operational time;
b) measuring and recording diagnostic signals measured values according to determined
conditions (the beginning and end of the measurement, which values, and when they are
recorded);
c) diagnostic concluding on the basis of relation analysis between the standard values and the
measured values on the basis of diagnostic conclusion rules analysis;
d) machine state visualization, including exploitation decisions generation (able, unable,
damage location, other).
From the above it results that it becomes necessary to create a data base in which, apart from
boundary and nominal values sets, and the set of diagnostic parameters values recorded during
exploitation, there are diagnostic conclusion rules.
The presented conclusion rules can be the base for programming the machine state recognition
system in an online mode (for an on-board system) and offline mode (for a stationary system).
296
The presented algorithm of conclusion rules generation unambiguously identifies the machine’s
set, system or the machine, in the aspect of their state recognition, which should enable the
creation of a dedicated software (for machines’ sets and systems) of the state recognition system.
References
[1] Amelja#
A., Multiple optimization (in Polish), WAT, Warszawa 1986.
[2] Batko, W., Synthesis methods of prediction diagnoses in technical diagnostics (in Polish),
Mechanika, z. 4. Zeszyty Naukowe AGH, Kraków 1984.
[3] Bowerman, B., L., O`Connel, R., T., Forecasting and Time Series, Doxbury Press (USA),
1979.
[4] Box, G., Jenkins, G., Time series analysis, forecasting and control, London 1970.
[5] Brown, R., G., Statistical Forecasting for Invertory Control, Mc Graw-Hill, New York 1959.
[6] Cempel, C., Evolutionary symptom models in machine diagnostics ` " !}{
X
Kongresu Diagnostyki TechniczZ
[
[7] Inman, D., J., Farrar, C., J., Lopes, V., Valder, S., Damage prognosis for aerospace, civil and
mechanical systems, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. New York 2005.
[8] Staszewski W.,J., Boller C., Tomlinson G.,R.: Health Monitoring of Aerospace Structures.
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Munich, Germany 2004.
[9] Theil, H., Applied economic forecasting, North-Holland, Amsterdam 1971.
[10] Tylicki, H., Optimization of the prognosis method of mechanical vehicles technical state
(in Polish), Wydawnictwa uczelniane ATR, Bydgoszcz 1998.
[11] ~X
B., Diagnostic system for the metro train, ICME, Science Press, pp..337-344,
Chengdu, China 2006.
297
298
SELECTED ISSUES OF MODELING THE ACCUMULATOR INJECTION
SYSTEMS IN NAVAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

*

Chair of Marine Power Plants
ul.

69, 81-103 Gdynia, Poland
tel.: +48 58 6262653
e-mail: mwal@interia.eu
Abstract
In the paper has been made an attempt to replace the conventional system of fuel dose control and injection

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accumulator, injector C-R type and fuel dose controller has been attached the marine engine.
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fuel dose, injected to the combustion chamber and to control the injection lasting time.
Fuel which feeds the engine must flow through differently formed/shaped channels of particular component
elements of fuel system. In relation to this, there has been made an attempt of presenting the method of modelling fuel
flow through the chosen sections of fuel system with different shapes of cross-section.
Keywords: damping by the parallel surfaces, flow through the apertures, energetic loss
1. Introduction
In the construction of model describing the course of complex phenomena occurring in the
process of fuel injection in bunker systems it is essential to consider many specific problems
connected with the flow of this liquid through channels with complex shapes.
In this paper there has been made an attempt of describing the fuel flow through the apertures,
pipes with section different from the circular, also the manner of calculating the hydraulic
resistance of two flat surfaces has been presented.
The significant problem at estimating the operation of hydraulic appliances, which are parts of
gear feeding the vessel engines by fuel under high pressure, is the proper estimation of tightness of
moving connections of parts cooperating with each other.
In the mobile joints between two cooperative parts (e.g. between piston and cylinder in the
piston pump, between rotor and housing in the gear pump, between needle and atomizer cylinder)
the narrow apertures always arise what is conditioned by defined constructional backlash. As far as
the basic criterion for flows in the pipes is obtaining the lowest resistances, the aim is to obtain the
highest resistance in the flows through apertures that guarantees possibly lowest flow delivery.
2. ^* /%(* ( ,

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Considering the very low size of one of cross dimensions of aperture, flow through the aperture
299
is usually a laminar motion [1,2,3]. It was experimentally affirmed that Reynolds’ critical ordinal
for apertures (related to the minimal size of aperture), when the transition from laminar flow to
turbulent flow occurs, ranges
s
Re vúr | 600 y 1000 ,
Q
where:
v « – mean velocity in the aperture,
s – minimal size of aperture,
Q – kinematic viscosity coefficient.
2.1. ^

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Let us take under consideration the flow in aperture between two parallel flat plates with
infinite span and one of them moves to other that is immobile at constant velocity v0 on the thin
layer of liquid with thickness s (Fig.2.1.).
Fig.1. Flow in the flat aperture caused by the motion of upperplate
Pressure in the inlet section of such formed aperture is the same as in the outlet section (dp/dx
= 0). Because of adhesion forces, the elements of liquid directly adjoining to plates remain in the
release condition toward them. Whereas the indirect thin layers of liquid will translocate to each
other, velocity gradient will be different from zero (dv/dy z 0) in normal direction to the pan
motion. Assumption of infinite span of plates allows considering the flow in aperture as a flat
flow. On the assumption that temperature in the layer of liquid is constant also its viscosity has not
changed.
The infinitesimal element of prism form with section dxdy and unit spam ±} is taken under
consideration in this layer of liquid. From the condition of force equilibrium on the direction of
axis x we obtain:
p dy 1 p dy 1 W dW dx 1 W dx 1 0 ,
and further dW 0 o W C where C means constant.
Distribution of shear stress in considered flow in the aperture is homogenous.
Introducing Newton’s formula of the dependence of shear stress on velocity gradient in normal
direction we obtain
dv C
W P C, and after merger v y C1 ,
dy P
Constant C i C1 are defined on the basis of marginal conditions. For the approved system
connected with the immobile plate is
for y 0ov 0 y s o v v0 so C 1 0 and C PQ0
s
Substituting defined values to (2.1) we obtain the relation on velocity distribution
300
y
v v0 , so the velocity distribution in the aperture is linear distribution. Flow delivery
s
s
through the section F=sb is equal to Q ³ v b dy
v0 s b
0 2
It is obvious that mean flow velocity in the aperture
v0
vúr
2
Previously introduced relations allow calculating the speed of shaft rotating at constant angular
velocity around the axle which overlaps with the pan axle at presence of very small aperture in
comparison to diameter of (Fig. 2.2) s/D<<1,where: D – diameter of shaft; s – size of radial
aperture.
At low relative aperture, the curvature of layer of liquid could
be omitted and treated as flow in the flat aperture with linear
distribution of velocity and homogenous distribution of shear stress.
Defining the shaft length as l, moment of friction would be
2
D
M W S D l P v0 S l D ,
2 s 2
where: v0=ZD/2 – speed of shaft, so:
3
Fig. 2.2. Laminar flow in the P Z S l D ,

M
ring aperture caused by the 4
speed of shaft It should be emphasized that the laminar flow in aperture
between
D
the shaft and co-axial pan occurs for the Reynolds’ critical ordinals Re d 30 .
s
2.2. ^*
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77
The second flat flow in the aperture, which has broad practical application, is the flow between
parallel immobile plates under the influence of pressure difference. Such flows occur in the flat
and cylindrical distributor, in the piston pump and hydraulic engines in piston–cylindrical opening
and in the valves and other hydraulic sets. Considering very small nominal dimensions of
apertures, flow velocities in the apertures have not reached such high values, to cause the turbulent
flow in them. In principle, they will be the laminar flows.
The laminar stationary liquid flow in the flat aperture between two parallel plates is considered,
omitting the phenomena, which occur on the edges of aperture and thermal processes.
Receiving reference standard (axis x agrees with the flow direction and places/situates in the
longitudinal centre of aperture, axis y in perpendicular direction to the walls of aperture) was
isolated the elementary prism with 2y u l u 1 dimensions (Fig. 2.3) [1,2].
Fig. 2.3. Scheme of flow in the flat aperture caused by the pressure difference
From the condition of force equilibrium influencing on this elementary prism we obtain
301
p1 2 y 1 p2 2 y 1 2 W l 1 0
where:
p1 and p2 – pressure in sections I – I and II – II,
W – shear stress on the lower and upper wall (considering flat flow the stress on the side walls gives
resultant equal to zero).
dv dv
W P o 0,
dy dy
After substitution and reduction we obtain
dv
p1 p2 y P l ,
dy
p1 p2 'p 'p
defining , dv y dy ,
l l 2P l
'p
y C ,
2
Integral of this equation v
2P l
s
From the marginal conditions y r , v 0,
2
was determined constant C of above equation
'p s 2
C ,
2P l 4
The formula for velocity distribution in the aperture will take the final form
'p ª s 2 2º
v y »,
2 P l «¬ 4 ¼
Velocity distribution in the aperture is parabolic.
Velocity reaches the maximal value in the longitudinal centre of aperture
'p
vmax s2 ,
8 P l
Mean velocity of the aperture
2 'p
vúr vmax s2 ,
3 12 P l
Flow delivery through the aperture with unit breadth
'p
Q s3 ,
12 P l
and for the aperture with breadth, b>>s
'p
Q b s3 ,
12 P l
Pressure decease at velocity v
12 P l Q 12 Q l J vúr
'p ,
bs
3
g s2
Flow loss through the flat aperture amounts to
12 Q l vúr
hl ,
g s
2
or in analogous form to the formula for flow loss in the pipelines

l vúr2
hl O ,
Dh 2 g
302
where:
Dh = 2s – hydraulic diameter,
O = 96/Re – flow loss coefficient for the aperture,
Re = (v Dh)/Q – Reynolds’ critical ordinal.
Power lost at the flow through aperture is equal to work which is necessary to translocate the
liquid through aperture at pressure difference equal to pressure loss
s 'p b ,
3 2
N p Q 'p
12 P l
Above considerations and introduced formulas are correct on the assumption of constant
viscosity in aperture. In reality/as a matter of fact the viscosity of liquid depends on temperature
and pressure, which change along the aperture. For practical equations with sufficient accuracy is
accepting the mean arithmetical value of kinematic viscosity coefficient
Q 1 Q 2 ,
Q úr
2
where: Q1 and Q2 define values of kinematic viscosity coefficient which matches temperature in the
inlet/outlet of aperture.
The most common flow in the hydraulic appliances is the flow occurring between two parallel
walls, which is caused by the pressure difference at simultaneous parallel translocation of walls.
The examples could be: the flow between rotating toothed–wheel rim and gear casing and the
flow between cylinder and atomizer needle at their mutual relative motion in the engine atomizers.
If it is considered the laminar flow between two flat parallel walls and one of them moves with
constant velocity v0 at pressure gradient different from zero (dp/dx)=('p/l)z0, it could be regarded
as total of two flows: fractious flow with linear velocity distribution and flow caused by the
pressure difference with parabolic velocity distribution.
When wall moves according to the direction of flow presented in Fig 2.4., velocity distribution
of flow in the aperture to the co-ordinate system in the longitudinal centre plate is analytically
defined by the formula:
ª y 1 º 'p s ª 4 y º
2 2
v v y v0 « » «1 2 » ,
¬ s 2¼ 8 P l ¬ s ¼
Fig. 2.4. Velocity distribution in the flat aperture at pressure difference and upper plate moving according to the

If the wall moves in the opposite direction to the flow caused by the differential pressure,
velocity in the cross-section of aperture will be
ª y 1 º 'p s ª 4 y º
2 2
v v y v0 « » «1 2 » ,
¬ s 2¼ 8 P l ¬ s ¼
Velocity distribution in this case presents Fig. 2.5.
303
Knowing the velocity distribution, the value of mean velocity and the flow delivery is easy to
define
Fig.2,5.

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ed flow in the aperture at motion of upper plate opposite to the

'p s2 v0
vúr r ,
12 P l 2
sign „ + ” – when plate moves in direction of lower pressure,
sign „ – ” – when the direction of plate is opposite.
The relation defines flow delivery through the aperture with span b
ª 'p s3 v0 º
Q « r s» b ,
¬ 12 P l 2 ¼
(sign „ r ” like at defining mean velocity).
2.3. }"( *
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The loss in the rectiaxial pipes with circular cross has been previously considered [1,2,3].
There should be put a question to what degree the presented considerations and formulas could
be correct in solving the practical tasks in case of pipes with section different from the circular and
pipes with circular section.
At calculating the hydraulic loss, the significant source of energy loss is shear stress appeared
on the pipe walls, which was caused by liquid viscosity. Loss caused by the liquid friction will be
the higher, the higher is circumference of washed by the liquid in relation to pipe section. At the
same delivery and the same section, the flow resistance in the pipe with rectangular section will be
higher than flow resistance and it in turn will be higher than the resistance in pipes with circular
section. It is because circle has the lowest relation of circumference to section among all plane
figures. Pipes with circular sections are the most beneficial taking under friction loss. So it is not
difficult to draw to conclusion that measure, which is characteristic of values of loss occurring in
pipes with different sections, is the relation of liquid section Fs to wetted circumference l, i.e. to
the circumference where liquid meets with walls.
This relation is called the hydraulic diameter r h
Fs
l zw
Fig. 2.6 presents examples of hydraulic diameters for cases, which are most common in
practice.
For the flat apertures, where the width of aperture a, is significantly higher in comparison to
s
high s, the values of hydraulic radius rh .
2
304
Although there can not be the dynamic similarity of flows in the pipes with circular and non-
circular-section, still on the basis of experiments it could be assumed that the character of variation
of coefficient O in pipes with different sections will be analogous at the same Reynolds’ critical
ordinals.
1
S d 2
4 d Fs a
2
a a b
rh rh rh rh ,
S d 4 l zw 4a 4 2 a b
Especially at lack of experimental data for not very accurate calculations of flow loss in the
pipes with sections different from the circular could be used formulas given for circular flow
without fear of making glaring mistakes.
Fig. 2.6. The examples of hydraulic radiuses for the most common pipe sections
Because hydraulic diameter for the circle-section rh = d/4, formula on calculating the hydraulic
2
l v
loss for pipes with any section will has following form hl O úr
4r h 2 g
where loss coefficient O is defined for the particular zones on the basis of formulas for sections
with circular-section, where Reynolds’ critical ordinal is following
4 r h vúr
Re ,
Q
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,,
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In the present point the motion of two parallel plates immersed in liquid and approaching to
each other will be considered, what concerns the sections of motion of atomizer needle in extreme
positions [4].
Two parallel flat round plates with diameter R are located one above other in low distance from
each other; space between them is filled with liquid. By pushing out the liquid the plates approach
to each other at constant velocity u. Task lies in calculating the resistance, which plates meet. [4].
To calculate above task the installed set of parallel round plates was oriented to cylindrical
coordinates with the beginning of set in the middle of bottom plate (which is assumed as
immobile). The motion of liquid is axially symmetrical and because the liquid layer is very thin, in
w vr w vr
fact it is the motion along the radius (vz<<vr), where .
wr wz
So the motion equation has form:
wp wp 1 w r vr w vz
K w v2 r
2
, 0 (a) 0 (b)
wz wr wz r wr wz
with following marginal conditions:
vr vz 0 , when z 0 ; vr 0 , vz u , when z h ; p p0 , when r R
where K – dynamic viscosity, h is the distance between plates and pressure p0 is the exterior
pressure. From the equations (a) we obtain:
305
1 dp
vr z z h ,
2 K dr
1 d h h
3
d § dp ·
Merging equation (b) after we obtain u ³ r vr dz ¨ r ¸,
r dr 0 12 K r dr © dr ¹
3 K u
from which p p0 3
R2 r 2 ,
h
3 S K u R4
Total resistance force influencing on the plate is equal to F .
2 h3
'*

Simulation calculations for the chosen sections of feeding system has been presented on the
basis of theoretical and empiric relations without verification and tests on the real feeding
installation in fuel system C – R. type.
As it results from the initial observations of measure results on the stand, the above-proposed
relations are the output basis for detailed analysis of phenomena, which occur in the selected
sections of fuel gear.
To verify the approved model, the experimental tests should be conducted on the test stand,
which is replica of feeding system1SB and the obtained result should be used to adjust the
approved calculation model.
=7
[1] Baszta, T.,

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Y

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&
. WNT, Warszawa
1961.
[2] , M., Kaczmarczyk, J., Maruszkiewicz, J., ç
? Wojskowa
[<+}#<; >#¶.
[3] Guillon, M.,

Y

?WNT. Warszawa.
[4] Landau, L.D., Lifszyc, E.M., ç
? Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Warszawa 1994
[5] Ochocki, W., ¥

'?
Wydawnictwo Po# + #X"#Z= " #§
[6] ## , M., %

? $

wybrane. >
>#
¶ Walkowski, M., %

typu common rail. _ ?[# [ Z = &= %>'
#X = " !X} #?X } Z '/= >[#
Mechanicznej i Informatyki. #?X }
[8] Walkowski, M., Selected prob

common rail type. Journal of POLISH CIMAC, EXPLO – ;''& +4$=' x¶
VINTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC – +'/=&%=*'$'='[ – Stockholm –
Tumba POLAND – SWEDEN 11 – ¶ ;SK UNIVERSITY OF
TECHNOLOGY, Faculty of Ocean Engineering and Ship Technology, Department of Ship
Power Plants.
[9] Walkowski, M., Determining the characteristics of control valve in a common rail injection
system of a combustion engine. SILNIKI SPALINOWE. # \< =¶– SC2,
>[³" ! + #X = ! \! }
306
INFLUENCE OF AXIAL COMPRESSOR FLOW PASSAGE GEOMETRY
CHANGES ON GAS TURBINE ENGINE WORK PARAMETERS
;


ul.

69, 81-103 Gdynia, Poland
tel.: +48 58 6262756, fax: +48 58 6262963
e-mail:
Q?, ?

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Abstract

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Keywords: Y

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D1 - air stream outlet angle with stator vanes,

DKW - setting angle of variable stator vanes,
E1, E2 - air stream inlet and outlet angles in rotor vanes,
c1a - axial component of air stream absolute speed on rotor blades inlet,
c1u, c2u - circumferential components of air stream absolute velocity on the inlet and outlet rotor blades,
CO - combustor,
HPC - high pressure compressor,
HPT - high pressure turbine,
K S - compressor efficiency,
i - air stream inlet angle on rotor blades,
LPC - low pressure compressor,
LPT - low pressure turbine,
- variable stator vane,
m - air mass flow,
n - compresssor rotor speed,
Z - angular velocity,
pfuel - fuel pressure,
Pnom - nominal engine power,
PT - power turbine,
S S - compression ratio,
u - circumferential speed,
307
1!2 - air stream relative speed on inlet and outlet rotor blades,
" - variable inlet guide vanes,
'cu, 'u - air stream whirl in the rotor,
"V - variable inlet guide vanes,
- number of inlet guide stator vanes,
1. (
(// 7
When in the compressor construction is assembled system of setting change of variable stator
vanes its task is to make optimal cooperation engine units during the permanent improvement
of compressor characteristic. Perturbations in the operation of this system could cause changes
in work of compressor and engine similarly as in the case of changes caused by changes
of rotational speed or polluted interblades ducts of compressor.
Compressor stage unitary work on radius is defined on the base of equation of angular
momentum and it has form
lst = Z (c2u – c1u) = u'cu = u'u (1)
where:
Z – angular velocity, u – tangential velocity, – rotor radius,
c1u, c2u – circumferential components of air stream absolute velocity on the inlet and outlet
rotor blades on radius ,
'cu, 'u – air stream whirl in the rotor.
That work is constant on whole depth of rotor blade. The sum of works is the unitary work
of stage [2]. Involved change of variable stator vanes angle setting at a constant level rotational
velocity (constant u) caused change of air stream inlet angle in rotor vane E1 (Fig. 1). It caused
change of axial component of air stream absolute velocity on inlet c1a what is equivalent with
the change of air mass flow m and change of air stream whirl 'u in rotor. It influences
on efficiency and work of stage.
The purpose of investigations, which was carried out on real engine was determination of
influence of incorrect operation of axial compressor inlet guide variable stator vanes control
system of gas turbine engine on compressor and engine work parameters.
Compressor characteristic is a relationship between compression ratio S S, compressor
efficiency K S and air flow mass m and compressor rotational velocity n. It makes possible
to determine the best condition of compressor and another engine units mating. The characteristic
is used to select optimal conditions of air flow regulation and assessment of operational factors on
compressor parameters.
Therefore compressor should be so controlled in operational range of rotational velocity that
the compressor and engine mating line has a stock of stable work. The main rule of compressor
control during the change of their rotational velocity or flow intensity is to keep up the stream inlet
angles i value near zero. One of the most popular ways of axial compressor control is changing
their flow duct geometry by application of inlet guide stator vanes or variable stator vanes
of several first compressor stages [2].
This solution makes it possible to change of air stream inlet angle on rotor blades of
compressor stages by change of stator vanes setting angles during the change of compressor
rotational velocity. Fig. 1 illustrates the rule of regulation of variable stator vanes.
For average values of operational range of compressor rotor speed is situation in Fig. 1b –
speed values and directions with subscript number 1. In this situation is intermediate angle setting
of stator vanes. Air stream inlet angle on rotor blades do not cause disturbance of stream flow by
interblades ducts. For lower values of compressor rotor speed and in consequence lower values
of absolute axial component velocity c1a’, it is necessary to reduce the stream outlet angle
308
of variable stator vanes D1 (Fig. 1a). The angle reduction range should allow keeping the same
value of stream inlet angle on rotor blades. Analogical situation takes place during the work
of compressor with higher rotational speed. For higher rotational speed absolute axial component
speed c1a’’ increases. In this situation for keeping stable work of compressor and in consequence
constant value of stream inlet angle on rotor blades, it is necessary to increase the stream outlet
angle of variable stator vanes – Fig. 1c. Application in gas turbine engine construction of control
system of flow ducts geometry has a bearing on a run of unstable processes.
a) b) c) d)
w1
. . .

E1 i=0
u

a1 ’ D1 a1 ’ ’
w1 ”
w1 c1a” E2
w1 ’ w
c1a’ c1a
E1 u
w1
w2 c1a
u E1 E2
w
'wu

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The object of research is type DR 77 marine gas turbine engine, which is a part of power
transmission system of a warship. It is three-shaft engine with can-ring-type combustor chamber
and reversible power turbine (Fig. 2).
T0, p0 T1*, p1* p21* p2* T42* T5*
0 1 2.1 2 3 4.1 4.2 4 5
pfuel OUTLET
INLET
DUCT FUEL DUCT
CO
AIR EXHAUST
L GASES
L
P P PT
C T
HPC HPT
ELECTRIC
STARTER
GAS GENERATOR POWER PROPULTION

TURBINE LINE

??
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309
In compressor construction configuration of this engine there are used inlet guide stator vanes
which make possibilities to change the setting angle incidance (change of compressor flow duct
geometry) in dependance on engine load. This process is operated by control system which
working medium is compressed air received from last stage of high pressure compressor. On Fig. 3
is presented block diagram of flow control signal of variable stator vanes system.
CO CLEANING BLEED
AND COOLING
VIGV
BLOCK
CONTROL MOVING RING
HPC ACTUATOR
p0, T0
Ô0
* * * *
1 2 … z
LPC

?3.
|

Compressed air from the last stage of high pressure compressor is supplied to working space
of control actuator by cleaning and cooling block. Compressed air exerts pressure on control
actuator elements. It causes moving of control piston which is connected with moving ring. This
ring moves on circumference of compressor body. Ring is connected with stator vanes by levers.
When the ring is moving stator vanes realize rotational motion changing the air stream outlet angle
D1 (Fig. 1). In cleaning and cooling block are made holes. During research air stream was bleeded
by the holes and less air was supplied to the actuator. It caused change of setting angle DKW
of variable stator vanes. In consequence of that change flow duct geometry was changed.
The experiment was carried out on an engine load 0,5Pnom with taking into consideration
atmospheric conditions. For this load setting angle of variable vanes has value DKW = - 4o. During
change engine load in the whole range from idle to full load setting angle DKW of variable vanes
changes in range from -18o to +18o. During experiment a few parameters of engine work was
measured and registered. It was made for three different setting angle DKW of variable vanes:
A-DKW = -4o, B- DKW = -11o, C- DKW = -18o. Tab. 1 presents measured and registered parameters.
Y?}?&
¨77

Parameter Measurement range Unit Parameter name
nLPC 0 – 20000 [min-1] low pressure rotor speed
nHPC 0 – 22000 [min-1] high pressure rotor speed
nPT 0 – 10000 [min-1] power turbine rotor speed
p1 -0,04 – 0 [MPa] subatmospheric pressure on compressor inlet
p21 0 - 0,6 [MPa] air pressure on low pressure compressor outlet
p2 0 - 1,6 [MPa] air pressure on high pressure compressor outlet
pp 0 - 10,0 [MPa] fuel pressure before injectors
T1 -203 - 453 [K] air temperature on compressor inlet
T42 273 - 1273 [K] exhaust gases temperature on inlet power turbine
3. =*7
Change angle vanes setting from position A to position C caused the increase of air flow
resistance by stator vanes. In consequence of that subatmospheric pressure on the compressor inlet
p1 decreases. It causes pressure decrease in next parts of compressor and engine flow duct. In this
way reduced air density flowing by compressor, for stable quantity of stream fule supllied to
combustor, causes increase of compressors rotor speed. The most noticeable is increase of low
pressure compressor rotor speed caused by directly influence on this compressor incorrectly
310
setting variable stator vanes. Gasodynamical connection between the low pressure compressor and
the high pressure compressor absorbs disturbances work of low pressure compressor which are
transferred on high pressure compressor. Therefore range of change high pressure compressor
rotor speed is lower than low pressure compressor. In this experiment it is below 1% and it is in
measuring error of sensor range.
Change of subatmospheric pressure is above 5% undisturbed value of this parameter. Changes
of low and high pressure compressor outlet presure are adequately above 1,3% and above 2,4%
undisturbed value of angle setting DKW = - 4o.
Changes of pressure and air mass flow intensity values accompanied disturbed work
of compressor, during constant fuel mass flow intensity in combustor, caused enrichment of fuel
mixture. As a result of that, temperature combustor outlet gases increases. In experiment was
confirmed the tendency changes of gases tempertaure values even though the range of those
changes is in measuring error of sensor range.
On the base of results of experiment there were determined the mathematical equations modelling
the changes of particular engine work parameters in the function of variable inlet guide stator
vanes setting angle D KW :
n SNC = 0,7449D KW 2 + 2,602D KW + 9234,5 (2)
n SWC = 0,0204D KW 2 - 1,1224D KW + 12598 (3)
p 1 = -10-6D KW 2 - 10-6D KW + 0,0077 (4)
p 21 = 10-16D KW 2 + 0,0029D KW + 2,9814 (5)
p 2 = 2·10-16D KW 2 + 0,0143D KW + 8,1771 (6)
T42 = 0,0204DKW 2 + 0,1633DKW + 526,33 (7)
Fig. 4 presents results of mathematical modelling of engine work parameters. Modelling was
cary out an state engine load what was equivalent unchangable fuel mass flow. In this case range
of change of variable inlet guide stator vanes setting angle DKW was widen from -18o to +18o.
Researches in range DKW from -4o to +18o were not possilble to realize on real engine. It is caused
by technical restrictions on the engine.
311
a) 9600
low p ressure comp ressor rotor sp eed b) 12650
high p ressure comp ressor rotor sp eed
_
9500
_
[obr/min]
[obr/min]
9400
12600
9300
SNC
SWC
n
9200
n
9100 12550
-20
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
-20
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
angle setting of controllable vanes D KW [o] angle setting of controllable vanes D KW
o
[ ]
subatmospheric pressure on compressor inlet air pressure on low pressure outlet compressor
c) 0,0008 d) 0,304
0,302
0,00078
p 21 [MPa] _
0,3
p 1 [MPa] _
0,00076
0,298
0,00074 0,296
0,294
0,00072
0,292
0,0007 0,29
-20
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
-20
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
angle setting of controllable vanes D KW [ ] angle setting of controllable vanes D KW [ ]
o o
e) 0,85
air pressure on high pressure outlet compressor
f) exhaust gas temperature on power turbine inlet
809
807
805
p 2 [MPa] _
T42 [K] _
803
0,8
801
799
797
795
0,75
-20
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
-20
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
angle setting of controllable vanes D KW [ ]

o
angle setting of controllable vanes D KW [ ]
o

?;? of values

|
Y

|

4. *

Change of values of variable inlet guide stator vanes setting angle DKW from -4o to +18o caused
the increase of stream outlet angle of variable stator guide vanes D1 (Fig. 1). It decreases air flow
drag on low pressure compressor inlet that caused decrease of subatmospheric pressure. During
keeping the constant engine load (constant fuel mass flow) absolute axial component velocity c1a
increases. It exerts an influence on air mass flow m increase. Simultaneously the absolute axial
component velocity c1a increase caused decrease of air stream whirl in rotor 'u. In consequence
of that low pressure compressor rotor speed increases (Fig. 4a). In connection with decrease of
subatmospheric pressure the increase of air pressure on low pressure outlet compressor is caused
(Fig. 4d). In spite of the slight decrease of high pressure compressor rotor speed the increase of air
pressure on low pressure outlet compressor involves the increases of air pressure on high pressure
outlet compressor (Fig. 4e). This slight decrease of high pressure compressor rotor speed caused
increase of gases flow drag in the next gas turbine engine units for the combustor. The effect of
above is a slight increase of exhaust gas temperature on power turbine inlet.
Multi-shaft construction of gas turbine engine reduces effects of incorrectly setting of variable
vanes. Therefore compressors of three-shaft gas turbine engine do not require variable stators
vanes as many stages as compressor of two-shaft engine with the same achievements.
312
Preliminary research confirms the necessity of inspection the correct operation of variable
stator vanes system control. It makes possibility of elimination this factor from group of factors
informing about technical state of engine which are identified during the diagnostic inspections.
=7
[1] Charchalis A.: ¨

Y

(in Polish). Published by Polish
Naval Academy, Gdynia, 1991.
[2] ;[ X !³
Y

(in Polish). Transport and
Telecommunication "!}/ `>{
>#

[3] Korczew ³ >
"
%

Y

§
£

|
Y , IV International Scientifically-
Technical Conference “Explo-;!+¢
[ -?[##[ Z-Kopenhaga,
W[" !X} [
[
¶-236.
[4] Marschal D.J., Muir D.E., Saravanamuttoo H.I.H.: ç %

Y
Y

¥|, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers 345 E,
47 St., New York, N.Y.10017.
[5] Wirkowski, P., " \
|
Y |

Y

, V International Scientifically-Technical Conference POLISH CIMAC
“Explo-Diesel & Gas Turbine ‘07”, [ -Stockholm-Tumba, "!}[ [
University of Technology
[ 7, 511-518.
[6] Wirkowski P.: %

\
|
Y
!

Y

, Polish Maritime Research, No 3/2007,
"!}[[ 4´X +} !
[ ¶
¶-32.
[7] Wirkowski P.: S

Y

£

|
Y
| \
, 12TH International Conference „Computer
systems aided science, industry and transport”- TRANSCOMP 2008
akopane 1-4 December
2008, Published by Radom University of Technology, Radom 2008, 591-596.
313
314
THE MULTI-EQUATIONAL MODELS IN THE ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
OF MARINE DIESEL ENGINES RESEARCH
="> (? (
Naval University of Gdynia

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1. Introduction
Contemporary empirical researches on the object, which is combustion engine, are conducted
basing on the theory of experiment. Basic purpose of such proceeded scientific researches is to
prove the relation between the input signals (introduced by researcher) and output signals
(observed by him). The final purpose of statistic analysis of the results of measurements is to
determinate functions of the test object and the empirical model of functional engine. Related to
this task very wide equations using calculus of probability, theory of stochastic processes and
differential calculus are very time-consuming and without computer technique and specialist
software are practically impossible. In the process of solving problems concerning
interrelationships and complementary approximation issues, statistic correlations, relevancy
assessment and inaccuracy of measurements and also adequacy of functions of test object with
mathematical issues and graphic defining special points are used available computer programs,
among all package STATISTICA PL. Mentioned programs are based on the analysis of variation
and they assure:
- defining coefficients of function regression in the test object;
- assessing principal effects and interactions;
- defining correlations of input and output values;
- assessing adequacy of function in the test object (empirical functional model);
- defining mathematical dependences assumed by the operator, which results from the
elaborated functional model.
315
It should be emphasized that the statistic computer analysis could relate to various models
which do not concern interactions at various stages of complication, which are accepted in the
description of model of input values. Simultaneously there is possibility of rejecting (disregarding)
in the statistic analysis both at choice selected input values describing the object and various types
of interactions. It means that choice of the appropriate (most adequate) model depends on the
operator and his knowledge about the specialist theoretical basis of the researched issue.
At assumed lower accuracy of projecting reality and in practice in case of defining the
character of changes (trend) of output values there is possibility of significant simplification of
approximating polynomials by concerning only input values and only these of interactions which
are statistically significant. Also the stage of approximating polynomials decides about the stage of
model complexity and complication of basic values. So it is justifiable pursuing to creating models
with the possibly simple form and the most profitable linear models. It is supposed that with
regard for making some mistakes it is better to describe researched issue with non-linear character
in small linear sections than in single complex non-linear complete section.
Commonly used software securing the experiment planning and its further analysis do not give
free hand in analyzing collected material but they use prepared above presented schemes of
analysis. So interfering in the program (program package) is impossible. Noticeable in the recent
period development of social, medical and economic sciences caused rapid progress in using
statistic methods which secure planning the experiment [3,9,10]. Especially econometria has great
achievements in this field and new approach to the statistic analysis could be successfully used in
technical researches [2]. Among all using the multi-equational models gives possibilities to study
the correlations between input and output values and additionally concern feedbacks between
output variables and gives possibility of their direct analysis. Such assumption in contrary to
commonly used multiple regression is closer to real conditions even if considering the Diesel
dilemma i.e. dependence between CO, HC and NOx. concentration.
Below are presented results of researches on the fuel feeding system of the engine (injection
system) using the double-value fractious plan and multi-equational model.
2. = 7*7(

",7

(%*-value fractious plan
The object of research was fuel feeding system in the single-cylinder test engine 1SB installed
in the Exploitation Laboratory of Shipping Power Stations in the Naval Academy [11].
To identify the influence of technical condition of engine on the energetic parameters of
engine, there were defined sets of the input values (given parameters) and output values (observed
parameters).
1. Set of the input values X:
- \} - rotational engine speed n [revê
à¦
- \ – engine torque Ttq [Nà¦
- \{ – leak of the cylinder-injection pump piston set Sßõà¦
- \4 – leak of the discharge valve of pulverizer needle S ßõà¦
- \< – leak of the skirt of pulverizer needle Si ßõà¦
- \– leak of the needle cone in the pulverizer setting Sr ßõà¦
- \7 – erosive wear of the pulverizer nozzle Se ßõà¦
- \¡ – coking of the pulverizer nozzle Sk ßõà¦
- \ – strain injector spring ©& ß%&à?
2. Set of the output values Y:

- y} - fuel injection advance angle [oà¦
- y – fuel injection angle [oà¦
316
- y{ – injector opening pressure ß%&à¦
- y4 –\

~
~\ß%&à¦
- y<- speed of pressure accumulation in the cylinder ~©ê©s ß%&êoà¦
- y – speed of pressure accumulation in the injection conduit (©ê©ß%&êoà¦
- y7 – fuel consumption per hour ßêà
- y¡– outlet exhaust temperature from the cylinder T}ßà¦
- y – mean indicated pressure
ß%&à¦
- y}/– compression pressure during the fuel injection ß%&à¦
- y}}– highest compression pressure ~\ ß%&à¦
- y}– maximal combustion pressure \ ß%&à¦
- y}{– angle at the moment of maximal combustion pressure \ [oà¦
- y};– carbon monoxide concentration in the outlet exhaust manifold C~ ßà¦
- y}<– carbon monoxide concentration in the crankcase C~ßà¦
- y}– hydrocarbon concentration in the outlet exhaust manifold Cç~ ßà¦
- y}á- hydrocarbon concentration in the crankcase Cç~ßà¦
- y}¡– nitric oxide concentration in the outlet exhaust manifold C¥\~ ßà¦
- y} - nitric oxide concentration in the crankcase C¥\~ ßà¦
- y/ – oxygen concentration in the exhausts C ß÷à¦
- y}– air-excess coefficient .
For this present paper analysis of the input values were limited to seven values (y};!}<!}!
y}á!}¡!/!}).
As a result of conducted analysis there double-value fractional plan with possibly highest
resolution (R = III) and maximal incomplication of interaction of values describing the functional
empirical model of fuel feeding system of engine was worked out to realize laboratory artificial
tests. Presented in the beginning remarks of general nature and results of analyzed own researches
justified linear model [7,11] assumed in the tests of fuel feeding system of engine. Therefore
statistic analysis is limited to justification of chosen model, defining approximating polynomials
and also characteristic and estimation using possible statistic measures.
As a result of conducted analysis was accepted model considering double-factor interactions,
in which the highest values of determination coefficient R ± } and total of rest %* ± /
characterize all polynomials approximating output values. Values of these measures indicate that
the model is according to the theory of experiment the accepted model is most adequate.
Considerably lower values of determination coefficient and significant total of rest are
characteristic of the model without interactions, and what is more these differences are depend on
defined output values.
Graphic confirmation of rightness of decision can be also exceptional diagrams in Fig. 1.
Determined approximating polynomials allow to define any dependences between individual
variables and also to calculate and estimate the influence of introduced (simulated) failures (wear)
of the elements in fuel injection equipment on the work and toxicity indicators of engine [3,8]. It is
assumed that it is possible to define relations (correlations) between the parameters of structure
and exhaust toxicity indicators directly or indirectly using the engine operating indicators. It is
assumed that this way it would be possible to select diagnostic parameters of defined elements or
sets of engine fuel equipment among the exhaust compounds.
3. = 7*7(

",7

,*
-
,(*
As it was mentioned above, commonly available models which were used to test analysis and
based on an analysis of the multiple regression have not given possibility of research in the model
of input variable (1) connections [2]. Fundamental feature of the models with correlative equations
317
is the fact that they allow the existence of feedback between the input variables, which is certainly
a real issue.
Below will be presented theoretic basis of the multi-equational models and its practical use on
example of the presented in advance plan of experiment.

?}?¨ Y \
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Y\
¦
Y¦

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318
Dependence between the input signals \1 , \2 ,, \N , and the output signals y1 , y2 ,, yM
could be described by means of the linear system of equations
y1 b12 y2 b13 y3 b14 y4 b1M yM a10 a11 \1 a12 \2 a1N \N [1
y2 b21 y1 b23 y3 b24 y4 b2 M yM a20 a21 \1 a22 \2 a2 N \N [ 2
y3 b31 y1 b32 y2 b34 y4 b2 M yM a30 a31 \1 a22 \2 a3 N \N [3 (1)
.........................................................................................................................
yM bM 1 y1 bM 2 y2 bMM 1 yM 1 aM 0 aM 1 \1 aM 2 \2 aMN \N [ M
where:
yi , i 1,2,, M - explained variables (output),
\ , 1.2,, N , - explanatory variables (input),
b
is a coefficient appearing in i - this equation at - this
explained (output)variable, i, 1,2,, M
a
- is a coefficient appearing in i - this equation at - this
explanatory (input) variable, i 1,2,, N , 0,1,, N ,
[i - is unobserved random element in i -this equation.
System of equations (1) can be described in the matrix form
BY AX (2)
where:
ª 1 b12 b1M º ª a10 a11 a1M º
«b 1 b2 M » «a a 21 a2M »
B « 21 », A « 20 »,
« » « »
« » « »
¬ bM 1 bM 2 1 ¼ ¬a M 0 aM1 a MN ¼
ª y1 º ª \1 º ª [1 º
«y » «\ » «[ »
Y « 2 », X « 2 », « 2 » .
«» «» «»
« » « » « »
¬ yM ¼ ¬\ N ¼ ¬[ K ¼
Identification of the configuration (1) means the issue of selecting coefficients of the system of
equations (1) at values of input signals known from the measurements on the real object of input
values ~y1Q , ~
y2 Q ,, ~
yMQ , Q 1,2,, K .
therefore defined from the measurements ~ \ ,~
\ ,, ~ \ , Q 1,2,, K values of input variables
1Q 2Q NQ
\1 , \2 ,, \N would be presented in the form of matrix of measurements values of input signals
ª1 ~x11 ~xN1 º
«1 ~x12 ~xN 2 »»
~
X « ,
« »
« ~ ~ »
¬1 x1K xNK ¼
where, similarly to above presented plan of experiment the individual input values are placed in
sequence in the columns:
\/ – indeterminate element,
\} – rotational engine speed n,
\ – load of engine at torque Ttq,
\{ – wear of the cooperative surfaces of cylinder and fuel pump piston S,
\4 – loss of leakproofness of the pumping valve S,
\< – wear of the skirt of pulverizer needle Si,
319
\ – wear of the taper part of sealing needle in the pulverizer setting Sr,
\7 – wear of the pulverizer nozzle Se,
\¡ – coking of the pulverizer nozzle Sk,
\ –power loss of strain of the pulverizer spring ©.
However, recorded values ~ y1Q , ~
y2 Q ,, ~ yMQ , Q 1,2,, K output signals y1 , y2 , , yM were
written in the form of matrix of measurement values of output signals
ª~ y11 ~y21 ~yM 1 º
~
«~ y y22 ~yM 2 »»
~
Y « 12 ,
« »
«~ ~ ~ »
¬ y1K y2 K yMK ¼
where individual output values are placed in sequence in the columns:
y1 – air-excess coefficient Ò,
y2 –carbon oxide concentration in the outlet manifold CCOk,
y3 – carbon oxide concentration in the crankcase CCOs,
y4 – hydrocarbon concentration in the outlet manifold CHCk,
y5 – hydrocarbon concentration in the crankcase CHCs,
y6 – nitric oxide concentration in the outlet manifold CNOxk,
y7 – oxygen concentration in the outlet manifold CO2k.
System of equations (1) can be written in the reduced form by multiplying equation (2) by
matrix B 1 opposite to matrix B assuming that its determinant is different from zero, then
B 1 BY (B 1 AX) B 1 ,
from this
Y B 1 AX B 1 .
Marking
: B 1 A, È : B 1 (3)
following form of the reduced model is obtained:
Y ¢ ¡ (4)
where:
ª S10 S11 S1N º ª K1 º
«S S21 S2 N » » «K »
« 20 , ¡ « 2 ».
« » « »
« » « »
¬S M 0 S M 1 S MN ¼ ¬K M ¼
Reduced model in the form of system of equation is following:
y1 S10 S11 \1 S1N \N K1
y2 S 20 S 21 \1 S 2 N \N K2
. (5)
... ... .............................................
yM S M 0 S M 1 \1 S MN \N KM
Coefficients S i 0 ,S i 1 , ,S iN , i 1,2 , , M from the above system of equation were selected
such way to function
k
J i (Si 0 , Si1 ,, SiN ) ¦ (S
Q 1
i0 Si1~
\1Q Si 2 ~
\2 Q SiN ~
\ NQ ~
yiQ ) 2 , i 1,2, M (6)
reaching the minimum, and problem of selecting best model from the range of equations (5) in
sense of minimizing the quality identification indicators (6) was solved using the theorem of
orthogonal projection [1], so the optimal coefficients
S
0 , i 1,2,, M , 0,1,, N
320
reduced form of model (5) can be defined from the identity
ˆ T (X ~ T ~ 1 ~ T ~
X) X Y (7)
where matrix of coefficients is following:
ª S 100 S 200
S M0 0 º
« 0 0 »
ˆ T « S 11 S 21 S 2 M »,
0

« »
« 0 0 »
¬S 1N S 2 N S MN ¼
0
The next step of analysis is defining the matrix of variation and co-variation of estimator 3 ,
examining the confidence range for individual coefficient of multiple regression S
, which is a
coefficient of matrix 3 , defining the coefficient of multiply correlation R [1,5,6].
All of those variables which possibly could have influence on the forming variable value
Y should be considered while constructing the regression model. Not every of these variables are
significant in the model. To verify which of input variables have not significant influence on the
output variables Y the relevancy test should be use to every of obtained coefficients of model at
individual variables. This test allows to verify the hypothesis that value of regression coefficient is
zero. Only after rejecting such hypothesis we can claim that specific variable is significant in the
linear regression model. Variables, at which regression coefficients are not significantly different
from zero, should be removed from the model and construct model with lower amount of
explanatory variables [2].
Final multi-equational model in which all coefficient are significant and it can be used in
practice e.g. for diagnostic purposes we obtain only at the second or third stage, what is more at
every stage coefficients of multi-equational regression of individual model are estimated, their
statistic relevance and removes variables with regression coefficients insignificant from zero [2].
In considered case statistic t has arrangement t – Student at K-N-1=20-9-1=10 freedom stages
and relevance indicator = 0,1, and read off the schedule table t – Student’s crucial value t =
3,169 [1]. After conducting the series of test it is seems that the criteria are too severe. It was
experimentally certify that lower values t significantly approach the model.
After verifying the relevancy of its parameters and rejecting insignificant values as a result, it
comes to the considerable simplification of models. The result of analysis is that following
dependences occur [11]:
y 1 f ( \1 , \ 2 )
y2 f ( \2 , \7 )
y3 f ( \ 2 , \8 )
y4 f ( \ 2 , \ 4 , \5 , \6 )
y5 f ( \ 2 , \3 , \ 4 , \5 , \6 , \7 )
y6 f ( \ 4 , \5 , \6 , \7 )
y 7 f ( \1 , \ 2 , \ 6 )
In accordance with (1) an equation y1 describing change of air-×Ò} form:
y1 b12 y 2 b13 y 3 b14 y 4 b15 y 5 b16 y 6 b17 y 7 a10 a11 \1 a12 \ 2 .
After reducing (considering relevance of coefficients) the equation was accepted

y1 b12 y 2 b17 y 7 a10 a12 \ 2 .
Differences between the measured parameters and parameters obtained from the multi-
equational model ~ yQ yˆ Q , Q 1,20 are insignificant. It is confirmed by the courses of dispersion
compared in the Fig. 2. The result of their analysis is that adjusting obtained model to values
obtained in the experiment are significant.
In case of other models the equations of output variable are following:
321
y2 b21 y1 b23 y3 b24 y4 b25 y5 b26 y6 b27 y7 a 20 a 21 x1 a 22 x2
y3 b32 y2 b35 y5 b37 y7 a 38 x8
y4 b41 y1 b45 y5 b47 y7 a 40 a 44 x4 a 45 x5 a 46 x6
y5 b52 y2 b53 y3 b54 y4 b57 y7 a 50
y6 b61 y1 b67 y7 a 60 a 64 x4 a 65 x5 a 67 x7
y7 b71 y1 b72 y2 a 70 a 72 x2
Analyzing equations obtained as a result of model equation researches it should be state that:
in case of first equation i.e. dependence describing changes of air-excess coefficient , it
depends on the changes of load of torque Ttq and along with them appear changes of carbon
oxide concentration in the outlet manifold and changes of nitric oxide concentration. Relation
between changes of CO and NOx is accurate, because in both case amount of oxygen decides
about emission of these compound. In case unsupercharged engine of Increase of load also
causes the decrease of amount of fresh load in the cylinder.
in case of carbon oxide concentration in the outlet manifold CCOk (y) the equation combines
dependence between carbon oxide concentration in the crankcase CCOs, hydrocarbon
concentration in the outlet manifold CHCk and in the crankcase CHCs, nitric oxide concentration
C¥\ , oxygen concentration C and two input parameters i.e. rotational engine speed n i and
load Ttq. Analyzing values of the coefficients the most significant are coefficient which are
responsible for the amount of oxygen in the combustion chamber. The most insignificant is
coefficient which forms value of NOx.
carbon oxide concentration in the crankcase CCos (y{) is described by the changes of carbon
oxide concentration in the outlet manifold CCOk, nitric oxide concentration C¥\ and input
value i.e.: coking pulverizer nozzle Sk. The greatest influence has variable C¥\ , and it results
from the previous researches, because the linear dependence between emission of CCos and
C¥\ is noticeable.
in case of concentration of hydrocarbons in the outlet manifold CHCk (y4) the equation
combines dependence between air-excess coefficient , concentration of hydrocarbon in the
crankcase CHCs, concentration of nitric oxides C¥\ and input values, i.e. loss of
leakproofness in the pumping valve S, wear of the skirt of pulverizer needle Si and wear of
taper sealing part of pulverizer needle in the injector setting Sr. The most significant is air-
excess coefficient . Also significant is variable C¥\ though it has opposite direction to . At
the similar level of impact remains input variable Si , i.e. wear of the skirt of pulverizer needle.
concentration of hydrocarbons in the crankcase CHCs (y<) is described by the output variables,
first of all concentration of hydrocarbons in the outlet manifold CHCk, which as it was known
from the previous researches changes in proportion to concentration of CHCs, at similar level
of impact remain CCOk and C¥\., although they are inversely proportional to C¥\.
changes of concentration of nitric oxides C¥\ (y) describes firt of all the dependence of air-
excess coefficient , i.e. factor which is directly responsible for forming the nitric oxides. At
the lower level is variable C. Changes of concentration of nitric oxides C¥\ are also
described by input variable Si, i.e. wear of the skirt of pulverizer needle.
changes of oxygen concentration in the outlet manifold C (y7) are described, similarly to the
changes of from the first equation, first of all air-excess coefficient, from he first equation
first of all air-excess coefficient, oppositely correlated nitric oxide concentration in the outlet
manifold CCOk. Similarly correlated is also input variable which comes from engine load by
torque Ttq.
322

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323
4. Conclusions
Presented description of the active experiment space by the multidimensional models gives
great possibilities in analysis of measurement data and scientific conclusions. Furthermore,
assuming that coefficients’ matrix ÂT is orthogonal, there is a possibility of fulfilling reverse task,
that is assessing, with complex relevance at known input variables, which describe work point i.e.
engine rotational speed n and torque load Ttq, the other input values. In the nearest future authors
will work on this issue.
References
[1] «
%
X?\ , _
! TONiK, + ¶
[2] &, & Y

! Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa
2002.
[3] Moore D.S., ^

, Wydawnictwa Naukowo-
Techniczne, Warszawa 1983.
[4] %
>!,

n! PWN, Warszawa 1982.
[5] "Z '
># , &

! PWN, Warszawa – " #
[6] Piaseczny L. i inni, %

'! Sprawozdanie z projektu
badawczego nr T12D 006 13, AMW, Gdynia 2000.
[7] " ! , &

! PWN, Warszawa 1984.
[8] $ X
$ X , &
! Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne,
Warszawa 1999.
[9] Sienkiewicz P., ^
–

!. Wydawnictwo Bellona 1994.
[10] [$, M

! Sprawozdanie z projektu badawczego nr 4T12D 055 29, AMW, Gdynia
2008.
324
CONSTITUTION OF USEFUL PROPERTY OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Joachim Zimniak
University of Technology and Agriculture

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
tel.: +48 52 340 87 21, fax.: +48 52 340 82 45
ul. Prof. S. Kaliskiego 7, 85 – 763 Bydgoszcz, Poland
e-mail: zimniak@utp.edu.pl
Abstract
In the thesis some problems concerning fabrication of composites based on present knowledge and author’s
own experience have been revealed. The methods of fabrication of the composites take into consideration following
operations like size-reduction, agglomeration and compounding (mixing components) in solid (grainy) state to obtain
the composite of determined properties assigned for processing operations like injection moulding, extrusion or press
moulding.
Keywords: grainy materials, rubber powder, mixing, composites
1. Introduction
Production of materials from polymer about required properties joins mostly with selection of
suitable polymer materials (more and more often of composite materials – obtained from waste
material “thermoplastic materials” and waste material “rubber”) also selection of proper methods
of processing [1-5]. Processing of composite materials will demand complex interlocking in
technological process of each composition process [4-6]. The principle problem from scientific
point of view and utilitarian are prospecting of conditions connected with constitution required
proprieties of composite materials also qualification of conditions processing these composites in
aspect their uses in practice [7-9].
2. Aim of this paper
Aim of this work is present idea permiting on qualification of conditions constitution of

composite materials in technological process, aim of receipt of products from materials about
given properties and definite qualities. One accepted argument, that exists one profitable harvest of
composition process constituting properties needs will be this injection, extrusion or pressing) of
composite materials (produced from waste material ”foil” and rubbers) and that are special
manners of their realization (for example characteristic conditions of process agglomerating-plant
of foil, of crumbling for rubbers and mixing) which proper selection will be decide about qualities
325
of products received from these materials. Basing on the literature study, preliminary research in
industry [10,11] and a long-term international co-operation [6,12-14] and especially with the
Technical University of Chemnitz/Germany, composition processes were developed (see Table 1).
These are:
- Process of crumbling of input – materials (connected from them such problems how
obtainment reproducible of fraction, estimation of size and of shape and of external surface
of elementary grains),
- Process of mixing of input – materials (in solid state constants - about figure of grains) and
of additional components (often also about grainy figure) and estimation of degree level of
mixed composite materials with methods direct or indirect,
- Process of processing principle obtained of composite materials (in dependences from
needs will be this injection, extrusion or pressing).
In Table 1 (column 1) one seized in synthetic manner these composition process, which in
essential manner can influence on proprieties of useful composite materials. From table results,
that condition rational elaborations in wanted solutions is nearer recognition replaced of
composition process, which qualitatively would qualify influence select factors constructional-
technological (appointed in column 3 embracing for example kind, dimensions of material
crumbled and mixed), described by functions of object of researches, on physical sizes qualifying
effectivity suitable composition process (appointed in table 1 in column 2, as measure). Will
demand this so uses and leadership proper researches methods.
Tab.1. Summary composition of composition process constituting properties of composite materials

[4,6,7,9,13,14]
Technological-
Measure qualifying
constructional factors
Name of composition process effectivity of composition
essential for composition
process
process
1 2 3
torque Mo,
.A Agglomerating-plant OB I Mo, Fc = f(a1, a2………..an
force of cut: Fc
torque Mo, Mo, Fc = f(a1, a………..an)
B Crumbling OB II
force of cut: Fc
power N, time tm,
C Mixing OB III N, tm, Mm = f(b1, b2,......bn)
level of mixed Mm
.D Process of processing
pressure pp, pp, tp = f(c1, c2 .............. cn)
(pressing, injection,
OB IV time tp of pressing
extrusion)
Tensile strength Rm,

E Verification of researches OB V Rm, Mm = f(V1
ÎVn,.....În)
level of mixed. Mm
F Other OB N ……………………… , Ð = f (x1, x2 ……….xn)
3. Experimental part
To reach founded aim of work one passed research laboratory basing on program of
researches, using following materials
- from recycling (agglomerate) polythene (PE-LD) about grain class equal 1.0 mm:
326
- crumbled waste material rubber (about nearing proprieties to practical Tyres of vehicles of
rubber type SBR) about grain classes given below.
On suitable position research [12, 14], one crumbled waste material of rubber, with aim of
obtainment of suitable grain classes. In result passed strainer analysises in (accordance to PN-
71/C-04501) one obtained rubber powder about following grain classes: 0.2; 0.4; 0.6 and 0.8 mm.
On Fig. 1 one showed of for example distribution curve grain for different classes grain rubbers.
btained fractions of rubber powder one added (in masses) according to material from recycling in
following quantities: 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25%.
a)
b)
Fig. 1. Example- distribution curve for grain classes 0.4 (and) and 0.6 mm( b)
327
Process mixings of components in state solid and estimation of quality of process mixing one
realized according to provided for procedures in description of position research [13, 14], with
utilization of computer programmer COREL PHOTO-PAIN. Received samples at random
according to literature [9], one subjected to estimation of degree confusions( with immediate
method) showed proprieties of mixture nearing two component to homogeneous [10,11]. From
replaced received at random samples composite one executed with method of injection and of
pressing pressure – according to C (tab. 1) samples about standardized shapes and dimensions to
researches strength with aim of verification of mechanical propriety according to D (tab. 1).
Results of researches of influence suitable grain classes (0.2; 0.4; 0.6; 0.8) and contents of rubber
powder V[%] in recycling PE-LD on endurance on extension one represented graphically on Fig. 2
and 3.
Fig. 2. Influence contents of rubber powder V[%] and sizes of grains( M = 0.2; 0.4; 0.6 and 0.8 mm) on endurance on
extension Rm [MPa] – for pressing
Fig. 3. Influence contents of rubber powder V[%] and sizes of grains(M = 0.2; 0.4; 0.6 and 0.8 mm) on endurance on
extension Rm [MPa] – for injections
328
Analysing nearer courses of each function one can notice, that essential influence on research
feature in section from 0 to 25% has manner of preparation of samples, of melting’s of crumbling
and content of powder in recycling. prepared Samples by pressing show considerably higher
values than injected. However fall of strength is not similar- identical for all of grain classes.
Interesting is that least fall one can notice for composite in all section of content powder rubber for
grain classes equal 0.2 mm.
This will create possibility of minimalizing fall of strength by using of rubber powder about
dimensions below 0.1 mm. Use in future researches and uses of rubber powder on level sub-
micro(10-6) or most profitably on level nana(10-9) will permit probably to obtain composite about
unparalleled to this times proprieties chemical-physics [2,6-10]. As goes for fall of tensile strength
for remaining grain classes (composite with participation of powder about dimensions 0.4; 0.6 and
0.8 mm) this is more considerable to greater in content. On all observed microstructure, in this also
for example shown on Fig. 4 one can notice comparatively little adhesion among warp (PE-LD)
and with interpolations (grains of rubber) - refers this especially microstructure shown on fig. 4c
and of fig. 4d.
a b
c d
Fig. 4. Microstructure turns of samples about different contents and to class grain rubber powder: And – 10% of
rubber powder about class 0.4 mm, b- 20% and 0.4 mm, c – 10% and 0.8, d – 20% and 0.8 mm
This observation will demand of however further researches especially in range of measurement of
adhesion on border: polymer material – grain of powder. Research should be so realized with
regard of wider section of classes grain and greater contents of rubber powder
4. Conclusions
There were no procedures to analyze the fabrication of composites made of thermoplastic film
wastes and rubber wastes in connection with properties of components in solid (grainy) state
329
before compounding and press moulding by now. Because of specific basic operations the tests
were carried art on special test stands using phenomenological methods. The results have enabled
determination of the most advantageous directions for designing technological lines within the
range of utilization of selected plastics and rubber wastes. The results might also be used for
designing other constructional-technological solutions which would concern fabrication of
composites based on other secondary polymeric materials.
References
[1] Sikora, R., &

. Wydawnictwo Edukacyjne,
Warszawa, 1997.
[2] ?[#

. WNT, Warszawa 1997.
[3] Brandrup, J., The economic and Ecological aspects of Reprocessing of Plastics Wastes.
Polimery 1997, 42, nr 11-12. pp. 645-650.
[4] Brandrup, J., Bittner, M., Michaeli, W., Menges, G., Die Wiederverwertung von Kunststoffe.
Carl Hanser Verlag, München Wien 1995, pp. 22-26, and pp. 363-373.
[5] Feller, W.: “An introduction to probability theory and its applications. Vol. I, second
edition. New York, London 1961.
[6]

®!
&
Reutilisation of spent tyre scrap Rubber for modification of Asphalt.
Polimery 43, nr 5 1998, pp. 280-285.
[7] Mennig, G., Michael, H., Rzymski W., Scholz H.: Polimery 1997, 38, pp. 234 – 236.
[8] Michael, H., Scholz H., Mennig, G.: Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe, 1999, 28,pp. 510-513
[9] Pahl, M.H., Sommer K.: Mischen von Kunststoffen und Kautschukprodukte. VDI,
Düsseldorf 1993.
[10] Jurkowska, B., Jurkowski, B., *

? _

praktyki. WNT, Warszawa 1997.
[11] Boss, J., Moc, c

? Wyd. WSI Opole, 1991 Studia i
Monografie, z. 39.
[12] Flizikowski, J., Rozdrabnianie tworzyw sztucznych. Wydawnictwa ATR, Bydgoszcz 1998.
[13] Zimniak, J., Michael, H. Zeszyty Naukowe nr 233, Wyd. ATR w Bydgoszczy, Mechanika z.
50, Bydgoszcz 2001. pp. 329 – 337.
[14] Zimniak, J.: Analyse von Grundprozessen der Aufbereitung von Kompositwerkstoffen aus
ausgewählten Kunststoff- und Gummiabfällen. Habilitationsarbeit, Technische Universität
Chemnitz’04. http://archiv.tu-chemnitz.de/pub/2004/0177.
330
METHODS OF ESTIMATING THE AVAILABILITY OF VEHICLES
?

Wojskowa Akademia Techniczna

ul. Kaliskiego , 00-908 Warszawa, Poland
tel.: +48 22 6837109, fax: +48 22 6837382
e-mail:jziolkowski@wat.edu.pl
Abstract
The article presents methods of estimating the availability of vehicles supported by numerical examples. All the cases
concern the vehicles used In air base logistic system. Markov chains and processes hale been used to work out the
mathematical model of their usage.
Key words: availability, usage, service
1. (

The mathematical model has been built on the basis of analyzing states collection for
vehicles used in air base logistic system. Each of the technical objects can be at certain time t in
one of extinguished states, which make numerable (finite) set of states. The usage is understood as
the movement of the vehicle on the extinguished states collection.
The model of vehicle usage as a random process X(t) with finite set of states. X(t)= Si means
that in time t the analyzed vehicle is in a state Si. The realization of the process is meant as a
sequence of extinguished states and their durations. The sequence, their durations and frequency
are dependent first of all on work organization, the types of vehicles, the structure of subsystems
collaborating in usage process [7].
q')(
/
7 7:
*
Used vehicles can be in different states whose number is limited. Three models of
emergency vehicles in air bases A, B and C of different states collection have been analyzed.
Model A (Fig.1) does not include the system of vehicle restoration meant as the replacement of
used vehicle with the new one (in working order).
331
S8
S1 S3 S2 S4 S5 S6 S7
S1 – performing a task
S9 S2 – being on duty (waiting for a task)
S3 – everyday service
S4 - renovating
Fig.1. Transition graph of vehicle usage process – model „A” S5 -1-st level service
S6 - 2-nd level service
S7 – periodic service
S8 - vehicle supply
S9 - diagnostics
Unknown theoretical probabilities of transition are estimated by empirical probabilities in a

year time – transition frequencies for a vehicles as:
Z ij nij / ni (1)
where:
ni ¦ nij - the number of transitions from Si state;
j
nij – the numbers of transitions from state i to j in a period of time.
Stochastic process X(t) in a continuous time is ergodic, if at least one positive boundary
probability of finding a vehicle in state Sj for tof exist, which is called ergodic probability pj:
pj lim P ( X (t t ; t 't !)
t of
S j ); p j t 0; ¦p
j
j 1 (2)
where:
pj – boundary probabilities;
P( X (t t ; t 't !) S j ) - the probability of being in state j in time interval <t, t+'t> for a
vehicle.
Boundary (ergodic) probabilities fulfil standardizing conditions which means that at least
one of them is positive. In relation to Markov processes it was proved [1, 2, 3] that if boundary
probabilities exist, they can be calculated from boundary matrix in n steps M n M 1n . In other
words the linear equation or equivalent matrix equation must be solved, i.e. coming from
continuous time t to discrete time n being of number of further experiment of observing the vehicle
in time 't:
pj
j
lim pij (n)
n of
¦p p i ij > @ >p @,
M 1T p j j przy ¦p j 1 (3)
i j
332
where:
M 1T - transposed transition matrix M1;
[pj] – vector of ergodic probabilities;
pij – probability of transition from state i to state j.
Giving consideration to a condition: M T p j > @ > p @, j and ¦p j 1 , for A model

j
boundary probabilities must be calculated by doing the following systems of equations shown in
this matrix form:
ª 0 0 p 31 0 0 0 0 p 81 0 º ª p1 º ª p1 º
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 82 p 92 » «« p 2 »» «p »
« » « 2»
« 0 p 23 0 0 0 0 0 p 83 0 » « p3 » « p3 »
« » « » « »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 84 p 94 » « p 4 » « p4 »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 85 0 » « p5 » « p5 » (4)
« » « » « »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 86 0 » « p6 » « p6 »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 87 p 79 » « p 7 » «p »
« » « » « 7»
« p18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 98 » « p 8 » « p8 »
«p 0 0 p 49 p 59 p 69 p 79 p 89 0 »¼ «¬ p 9 »¼ «p »
¬ 19 ¬ 9¼
9
¦p
j 1
j 1 (5)
Model B of a vehicle maintenance description additionally takes into account the

replacement state S10 (Fig.2), which is the reflection state with the same probability transitions S10
(p910 = p109) and zero p1010=0.
S8
S1 S3 S2 S4 S5 S6 S7
S4 - renovating
S5 -1-st level service
S10 S6 - 2-nd level service
S8 - vehicle supply
S9 – diagnostics
Fig. 2. The graph of vehicle transitions with replacement
S10- the vehicle replacement
possibility S10
Also for B model the following systems of equations for ergodic probabilities pj have been
estimated:
333
ª 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p18 p19 0 º ª p1 º ª p1 º
« 0 0 p 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 » « p 2 »» «p »
« » « « 2»
« p 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 » « p3 » « p3 »
« » « » « »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 49 0 » « p4 » « p4 »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 59 0 » « p5 » « p5 »
« »« » « » (6)
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 69 0 » « p6 » « p6 »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 79 0 » « p7 » «p »
« » « » « 7»
« p 81 p 82 p 83 p 84 p 85 p 86 p 87 0 p 89 0 » « p8 » « p8 »
« 0 p 92 0 p 94 0 0 0 p 98 0 p 910 » « p 9 » «p »
« » « » « 9»
«¬ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p109 0 »¼ «¬ p10 »¼ «¬ p10 »¼
10
¦p
j 1
j 1 (7)
In model C undetermined (universal) state S11, (Fig. 3) has been taken into account. It
separates the states from S1 to S10 and has zero probability of return (p11,11=0; p11,jt0; pi,11t0 for
i,jz11). S11 state is meant as time loses of a vehicle being of each of the remaining states resulting
from organizational reasons (technical etc.). in a real time S11 is parallel, but in the graph it has a
terraced character.
S4 - renovation
S5 -1-st level service
S6 - 2-nd level service
S8 - vehicle supply
S9 – diagnostics
S10- the vehicle replacement
S11- undetermined (universal) state
S8
S7
S6
S5
S2 S4
S3
S1
S10
S9
Fig.3. The graph of vehicle transitions. The vehicle renovation and replacement SA well as finite times of
transition between states are covered
Ergodic probabilities pj can be calculated in accordance with (3). Suitable systems of

equations for C model have been written in matrix form:
334
ª 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p18 p19 0 p1,11 º ª p1 º
« 0
« 0 p 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 2,11 »» « p 2 »
« »
« p 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 3,11 » « p 3 »
« » « »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 49 0 p 4,11 » « p 4 »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 59 0 p 5,11 » « p 5 »
« » « » (8)
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 69 0 p 6,11 » « p 6 » 0
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p 79 0 p 7 ,11 » « p 7 »
« » « »
« p 81 p 82 p 83 p 84 p 85 p 86 p 87 0 p 89 0 p 8,11 » « p 8 »
« 0 p 92 0 p 94 0 0 0 p 98 0 p 9,10 p 9,11 » « p 9 »
« » « »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p10,9 0 p10,11 » « p10 »
« » »
¬ p11,1 p11, 2 p11,3 p11, 4 p11,5 p11, 6 p11, 7 p11,8 p11,9 p11,10 0 ¼ «¬ p11 ¼
11
¦p
j 1
j 1 (9)
After having solved the system of equations (8) i (9), taking into account the empiric
probabilities for presented models A, B and C in discrete time the following results have been
achieved (Fig. 4):
0,3
0,25
0,2
p j (n) 0,15
0,1
0,05
model A
0
model B
model C
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11
Fig. 4. Boundary probabilities of Markov chain for A, B and C models
Ergodic probabilities pj(t=n) for Sj state estimated from Markovs chains are the
probabilities of input for each state. For example probability of duty p3=0,23 means that the limit
of duty state number is 23% of all vehicles states number in a considered period of time. It does
not mean that the vehicle was on duty in 23% in average in To. However probabilities pj(n) for
Markov chains are ergodic and applicable to state collection process but not a physical time.
Therefore they cannot be interpreted in a real time. Only after the standardizing of the transition
335
matrix, which means taking into account the duration time for each states (transitions from discrete
times to real one by means of transition intensity Oij ) achieved results will show the real situation
of vehicle usage.
',((,
7
* :
* %
*
"7:
*
To estimate ergodic probabilities for continuous time in compliance of Markov processes

matrix equations are fulfilled [2]:
(/T)[pj] = 0 (10)
and
¦pj
j 1 (11)
where:
/=[Oij] – intensity matrix with diagonal elements -Oii and Oij.
For A model the ergodic probabilities satisfy the equation system with its standardization
condition (12):
ª O11 0 O 31 0 0 0 0 O81 0 º ª p1 º
« 0
« O 22 0 0 0 0 0 O82 O 92 »» «« p 2 »»
« 0 O 23 O 33 0 0 0 0 O83 0 » « p3 »
« » « »
« 0 0 0 O 44 0 0 0 O84 O 94 » « p 4 »
« 0 0 0 0 O 55 0 0 O85 0 » « p5 » 0
« » « »
« 0 0 0 0 0 O 66 0 O86 0 » « p6 »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 77 O87 0 » « p7 »
« » « »
« O18 0 0 0 0 0 0 O88 O 98 » « p 8 »
«O
¬ 19 0 0 O 49 O 59 O 69 O 79 O89 O 99 »¼ «¬ p 9 »¼
9
¦p j 1
j 1 (12)
For B model the ergodic probabilities satisfy the equation system with its standardization
condition (13):
336
ª O11 0 O 31 0 0 0 0 O81 0 0 º ª p1 º
« 0 O 22 0 0 0 0 0 O82 O 92 0 » «p »
« » « 2»
« 0 O 23 O 33 0 0 0 0 O83 0 0 » « p3 »
« » « »
« 0 0 0 O 44 0 0 0 O84 O 94 0 » « p4 »
« 0 0 0 0 O 55 0 0 O85 0 0 » « p5 »
« »« » 0
« 0 0 0 0 0 O 66 0 O86 0 0 » « p6 »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 77 O87 0 0 » « p7 »
« » « »
« O18 0 0 0 0 0 0 O88 O 98 0 » « p8 »
«O 0 0 O 49 O 59 O 69 O 79 O89 O 99 O109 » « p 9 »
« 19 » « »
«¬ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 910 O1010 »¼ «¬ p10 »¼
10
¦p
j 1
j 1 (13)
Also for C model equation systems in matrix form with standardized condition are fulfilled
(14):
ª O11 0 O 31 0 0 0 0 O81 0 0 O1,11 º ª p1 º

« 0 O 22 0 0 0 0 0 O82 O 92 0 0 » « »
« » « p2 »
« 0 O 23 O 33 0 0 0 0 O83 0 0 O 3,11 » « p 3 »
« » « »
« 0 0 0 O 44 0 0 O84 O 94 0 O 4,11 » « p 4 »
« 0 0 0 0 O 55 0 0 O85 0 0 O 5,11 » « p 5 »
« » « »
« 0 0 0 0 0 O 66 0 O86 0 0 O 6,11 » « p 6 » 0
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 77 O87 0 0 O 7 ,11 » « p 7 »
« » « »
« O18 0 0 0 0 0 0 O88 O 98 0 O8,11 » « p 8 »
«O 0 0 O 49 O 59 O 69 O 79 O89 O 99 O10,9 O 9,11 » « p 9 »
« 19 » « »
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 9,10 O10,10 O10,11 » « p10 »
« » « »
¬ O11,1 0 O11,3 O11, 4 O11,5 O11,6 O11,7 O11,8 O11,9 O11,10 O11,11 ¼ ¬ p11 ¼
11
¦p
j 1
j 1 (14)
After having solved the above-mentioned system of equations the boundary probabilities of
the Markov process are obtained pj(t) for a vehicle (if they exist). If we put the transitions
intensities to a system of equations (14) and are not able to solve it that means that the whole
process is non-ergodic (not periodic, not regular). One thing we can do is simulation, which shows
the irregularity of the process. Moreover it allows to estimate the level of non-ergodicity. Another
way [4,5,7] is to calculate the availability according to the relationships (15):
337
n
¦T i 1
G
K n n
(15)
¦ TG ¦ TN
i 1 i 1
where:
n
¦T
i 1
G total sum of medium times of staying a vehicle in availability;
n
¦T
i 1
N total sum of medium times of staying a vehicle in unavailability .
The medium time of staying a vehicle in a considered state collection could be estimated by
taking into consideration historical events[6]. Empirical results for the vehicles used in logistic air
base system have been presented in tables 1-3.
Tab. 1.Collection of data about medium number of entrance, medium transition probabilities, medium time of staying
(hrs) and intensities of (1/year) S1-S11 states for a vehicle – C model
State S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11

ni 214 161 330 8 4 2 2 358 45,656 2 416
p i (n) 0,138 0,104 0,213 0,005 0,002 0,001 0,001 0,232 0,029 0,001 0,269
ti 869,3 5656,3 13,75 252 22 16 240 0,2265 11 240 1439,43
Ôi 10,077 1,5487 637,09 34,762 398,18 547,50 36,50 38675,5 796,4 36,5 6,086
(hrs) and intensities of (1/year) S1-S10 states for a vehicle – B model
State S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
ni 173 161 165 4 2 1 1 179 23,65 1
p i (n) 0,243 0,226 0,232 0,005 0,002 0,001 0,001 0,251 0,033 0,001
ti 1159,3 5656,3 22 504 144 288 240 4,376 22 720
Ôi 7,556 1,548 398,2 17,38 60,83 30,42 36,50 2001,8 398,2 12,2
(hrs) and intensities of (1/year) S1-S9 states for a vehicle – A model
State S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9
ni 173 161 165 4 2 1 1 179 22
p i (n) 0,244 0,227 0,233 0,005 0,002 0,001 0,001 0,252 0,031
ti 1159,33 6376,3 22 504 144 288 240 4,376 22
Ôi 7,5561 1,3738 398,18 17,38 60,83 30,42 36,50 2001,83 398,18
Where:
ni – the average transition number from Si in T0 period;
Z i – frequency Si state in a considered collection state 1 – s (s = 9; 10 or 11);
t i – the average duration time for Si state before entrance to all Sj states in T0 period;
338
Ô i - intensity of Si state;
Mathematical dependencies for parameters mentioned above have been presented in [5]
thesis.
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
p j (t) 0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
C model
0
B model
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S1 S1
A model
Si (t)
Rys. 5. Probabilities p j(t) of staying in availability for vehicles
Fig. 5 describes probabilities staying in availability pj(t) for vehicles in a considered Si states,
which are calculated as:
ti
pi , while availability has been calculated according to (15) relationship;
T0
where:
TG t1 t 2
S
TN ¦t
i 3
i for S=1-9 for A model, S=1-10 for B model, S=1-11 for C model.
'*

Estimated annual average sum of tenses t1 t 2 for vehicles population in availability is from
6526 hrs (realistic C model) to 7535,63 hrs (optimistic A model – table 3), it means that the
availability is from 0,745 to 0,86 in T0 period.
The availability of vehicle population is high, but there is also time margin in a year t11 =
1439,43 hrs (model C), resulting mainly from time losses during replacement S10 and renovating S4
of the vehicles (tab.1-3). It enables to improve the availability up to 16%. Therefore model C with
S11 state is justify and realistic. Withdrawal from usage decrease the number of vehicle population
on average 7% in a year, but the replacement time is usually longer than one month. S10 state
cannot be omitted because it significantly changes the duration time balance for all states of the
339
vehicles. Models B i C with S10 state reflect the simulation of renovating and replacement of the
population in long periods of time.
All presented models are stable and their non-ergodicity in real time is only according the
simulation 0,2-1% for availability state after 3 years. The reason for their non-ergodicity can be
vast (broad) spectrum of duration times for considered states collection.
However Markov chains for A, B and C models are ergodic, but boundary probabilities pj
concern collection states of the process and they cannot be interpreted in real (physical) time.
It has been illustrated by the proportion of the estimated real time of refuelling max. p8(t)=
4,376 hr (tables 2 and 3) to misinterpreted ergodic time p8 1 year | 2200 hours for discrete time
estimated from p8(n).
=7
[1] Bobrowski D., %

, WNT, Warszawa 1985.
[2] Fisz M., Y

, PWN, 1967.
[ >
!Z
;
Metody matematyczne w teorii

, WNT, Warszawa 1968.
[4] Hebda M., Mazur T., Podstawy eksploatacji pojazdów samochodowych
>
>#
1984.
[5] Migdalski J., &

- podstawy matematyczne
>[X "#<
Maszynowego WEMA, Warszawa 1982.

^

Y

, rozprawa
doktorska, ITWL, Warszawa 2004.
¶ ~
&Y

! & Y
> &Y Y
i eksploatacji techniki lotniczej, t.2, ITWL, Warszawa 1993.
340
DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM OF MACHINE EXPLOITATION
Bogdan ÓTOWSKI
Uniwersytet Technologiczno – Przyrodniczy

ul. S. Kaliskiego 7, 85-763 Bydgoszcz
bogzol@utp.edu.pl
Abstract
This work presents the main descriptors of the diagnostic system of machine exploitation. This problem contains: the
measurements of technical state symptoms, the determination of their boundary values, and the frequency of diagnostics.
This problem and the tasks in the system of machine exploitation supported with computer techniques constitutes about the
rank of the discussed problem.
Keywords: machine diagnostics, symptoms of the state, boundary value, frequency of diagnostics
1. Introduction
The knowledge of the machine’s technical state results from the need of making rational decisions
about the “quality”, and further treatment of the machine. It can be a decision on further use, on
undertaking appropriate preventive interventions, or on the introduction of construction, technology or
exploitation changes.
Discussed in this work are chosen problems of machine state diagnosis, emphasizing the problems
of the new strategy of machine exploitation, including state symptoms, determination of the boundary
value of measured symptoms, and determining deadlines of consecutive terms of diagnosis.
The introduction of diagnostic systems makes it possible to improve the organization and
management of machine usage in industrial institutions with the help of computer technology.
2. Main problems in machine diagnostics

The growing level of complexity of machines and criticality of their function within safety and
economics, force constructors and users of these objects to know their current technical state, and to
use them considering prognosis. This is possible, if at construction stage equipment and diagnostic
procedures are integrated with the object.
Generation of vibration signals in the description of machine condition changes.

Evaluation of the machine dynamic state with the use of generated by them physical processes
requires the association of functional parameters of the evaluated object with the set of measures and
the opinions of output processes.
While functioning of the machines, in the consequence of the existence of a number of external
factors (environmental forcing, from different machines) and internal (aging, wastes, co-operation of
341
elements), there are disorders of balance state in the machine, which spread in a springy medium – the
material of which the machine is built.
The disorder has dynamic character and sustain the conditions of balance between the state of
among the condition inertia, elasticity, the suppression and extortion.
The disorder spreads from the source in the form of waves in the way dependent from physical
properties, and the configuration borders, dimensions and shape of the machine. This in result causes
wave energy scattering, their bending, reflection and mutual superposition. The existence of sources
and spreading of disorders causes the occurrence of vibrations of machine elements and the
surrounding environment. These processes are the basis of building a model of signal generation
determining the manner of constructing, functioning and state changes of the object.
The sequence of assumptions leading to the signal generation model can be presented with the use
of a cybernetic model, as in the Fig. 1.
Fig.1 Model of diagnostic signal generation of a machine
The presented way of interpreting the signal y(ø ,r) is, in a general case of machines of periodic
working, true, but not always as simple as in the Fig. 2.
Fig.2. Transformation of the characteristic signal Mi into the output signal y

as the model of signal generation in machines [2]
The example of such formulation of the problem is the main transmission of the bridge of a
vehicle whose generation model is presented in the Fig. 3.
The received output signal in any place of the transmission casing is a weighed sum of answers to
all elementary events Un(t, ,r), occurring always in the same sequence in separate dynamic partial
systems of impulse function of transition hn(t, ø ,r). These effects, after going through certain
342
dynamic systems, sum up and undergo an additional deformation on the transmission corpse, whilst
the change of place of receiving the “r” signal is also connected with the transmittance change.
The notion n(t, ø) describes a random effect occurring because of the existence of dynamic micro-
phenomena, such as friction, roughness, etc. The output signal of any receiving point can be
approximately expressed with the equation:
yk(T,r) = 6 a (k) hi (t,T,r) [ui (t,T,r) + n (t,T,r)] (1)
where: the impulse transition function h(*) corrupts also the properties of the corpse, a(k) gives
different weighs of summing connected with the receiving point ”r“.
Main problems of machine diagnostics include:
- acquiring and processing diagnostic information;
- building of models and diagnostic reports;
Fig.3. Model of the diagnostic signal generation of the toothed transmission
- the diagnostic inference and boundary value;

- the classification of machine state;
- the expected time of next diagnosis;
- presenting the decision information.
Measuring system for the aims of the modern diagnostics of machines consists of two basic
elements:
- the equipment in which distinguished are the modules: conditioning subsystem and processing of
signals, the subsystem of processing signals of the phase gauge, the subsystem of the industrial
computer, the subsystem of power supply,
- the software, consisting of the modules: operating system (VxWorks), the software of the modules of
signal processing and analysis, software assuring communication between the layers of the system,
software for storage and archivization of measuring data, software managing the work of the system
(configuration of the system, testing the system, the initialization of measuring sessions).
343
The introduced structure of the measuring system uses the newest solutions, both in hardware and
software. The applied solutions easy extension of the system and including it for any diagnostic
system.
The problems troubling the practice of applying methods of diagnosis (Fig. 4):
1. The time of forming the diagnostic symptom.
Fig.4. System diagnostic actions
2. The change the boundary symptom - preventive system.

3. Complex state evaluation: the measurements of symptoms, reference to the boundary value,
prognosis of the state, estimation of next diagnosing, the genesis of the cause of the measured
symptom changes.
3. Diagnostic system of machine exploitation

Contemporary machines determined by such features as: functionality, reliability, availability,
safety, mobility and flexibility of operation. Formation and maintenance of these features is possible
with methods of technical diagnostics which enables:
- diagnostic construction and production of new machines and maintenance of machines in the
condition of functional ability.
The use of the machines is characterized by:
- sets of randomly changing times of the correct work;
- randomly changing moments of the beginning and changing lengths of times of task duration;
- intensive work of people and machines in randomly changing period of exploitation time;
- the influence of randomly changing conditions of exploitation;
- various kinds of tasks executed in short periods of time.
The needs and conditions of market economy justify the necessity to introduce modern authorized
strategy of the machine production and exploitation. In the proposition of this strategy, we do not lose
the so-far accomplishments of the newest strategy of exploitation according to the state, but it is
creatively modernized. The proposed strategy of exploitation – ASEM – indicates the creator and
responsible for the product by name. The manufacturer interested in the quality and later the sale is
responsible for the product from the very idea, through construction, production and exploitation, until
utilization after the liquidation of the object.
The same manufacturer constructs and produces their products based on the newest achievements
of technical thought, they protect their product with their own service during exploitation, and also
they provide objects with diagnostic (preferably automatic) means.
344
The effectiveness of solutions in applying this strategy requires the improvement of: machine
diagnostic models, the methods of diagnosing and prognosis of the machine state, economic, exact
and reliable diagnostic equipment, the principles of the diagnostic vulnerability formation, the
algorithms of conducting the maintenance of the machines in the ability state, methods of evaluating
the efficiency of diagnosis and machine exploitation system. The specified questions embrace the
whole problem and unambiguously establish the directions of the development of machine technical
diagnostics.
The users of machines are interested particularly in their task ability, for determining which the
following are necessary:
- determining the symptoms of ability state;
- determining the boundary values of ability state symptoms,
- determining the class of object ability,
- determining diagnosis periodicity.
The distinguished diagnostic tasks will be selectively discussed below, whilst their detailed
description can be found in the author’s works [6,7].
4. Boundary values of state symptoms

Task ability in the symptom notion is unambiguously described by the boundary value of the
measured state symptoms.
Exceeding the boundary value means that the machine enters the state of accelerated wear
characterized by high probability of a sudden breakdown.
Realized most often in the industrial practice passive and passive-active diagnostic experiments
give state symptoms which are compared during concluding with boundary values available in many
national, foreign, trade norms, or with data from own experience. When, however, there are no such
norms for the examined machine, helpful can be the statistic description of a random exploitation
process with the use of decay thickness or the frequency of the observed symptom occurrence.
Estimating the symptom boundary value for a safe shutdown of a machine before failure can be
realized with the use of statistical methods.
The formula for determining Sgr minimizing the probability of failure, with the set, acceptable
probability of redundant repair A can be written down in the form [1]:
f
§ S ·
Pg ³ ¨ ¸dS A
¨X ¸ (2)
S gr© g ¹
where: Pg - the ability probability.
According to Birger [1]: A= k (1-Pg), where: k - the coefficient of the store (k = 1-3 for usual
damages, k = 3-10 for dangerous damages), Pg - availability the machines determined from the
dependence: Pg=Nz / Nz + Nn, where: Nz - the number of fit machines, Nn - number of unfit
machines.
The row of simple transformations leads in the effect to the dependence:
Pg
S gr s r V s (3)
2A
The received estimation of symptom boundary value based on the mean value, dispersion and
repair politics, gives good basis for simple determination of boundary values of examined state
measures in the industrial practice.
345
5. Diagnosis periodicity
The growth of intensity of the occurrence of damages along with wearing away the exploitation
potential of the machine forces the need to optimize diagnosis periodicity. From the course damage
intensity of the machine, it is concluded that that in the period of intensity growth it is necessary to
increase the frequency of diagnosing.
This helps to reduce expenditures on the exploitation of the machine (the decrease: wear
intensiveness, waste of the fuel, spare parts, material use), and at the same time the costs and time
consumption, and the machine turn-off time grow.
The optimization of diagnostic periodicity comes down to two basic questions: how often to
perform diagnosis?, in what range to perform the next diagnosis?.
There are several possibilities to determine diagnosing periodicity (the method of symptom
boundary values, the methods of the smallest sum of exploitation costs), whilst for their realization
indispensable are numerous statistical data, often troublesome (in the sense of amount and reliability)
to obtain.
In this work, the question of diagnostic periodicity has been considered symptom notion, using a
known symptom boundary value. Performing n-measurements of a chosen in a separate procedure
signal measure (symptom), and determining on their basis a boundary value according to the
dependence (2), there is a need to determine the date of the next diagnosing td. The essence of the
method presented in the works [6,7] show that the date of next diagnosing is estimated from the
dependence (Fig. 5):
(1 Pr )( Sgr Sm )
td Tm (4)
Sm
Fig.5. Periodicity of diagnosing in the symptom notion
6. Management of exploitation system

All of economic organizations have a certain system of management which fulfills its
requirements within the realization of an accepted strategy. This is particularly essential for those
which have a considerable influence on the course of production process (logistics, exploitation, tools
and equipment), or control its fixed assets of considerable, from the point of view of the company,
values (movement maintenance, repairs, check-ups) [4].
Subsystem functions:
- it conducts the classification and record of all fixed assets,
- it proposes basic technical-economic indexes,
- it supervises the exploitation of fixed assets,
- it analyses data from monitoring and makes decisions,
- it infers the liquidation of fixed assets,
346
- it plans, supervises and realizes all kinds of examination, maintenance and repairs,
- it establishes basic norms, records and accounts for performed works,
- it plans the supply of spare parts and necessary materials for repairs,
- it offers and motivates leasing, offers and motivates outsourcing,
- it organizes storage of spare parts, their distribution and accounting for,
- it plans investment tasks, organizes and realizes the purchase of machines and equipment,
- it organizes the receipt of fixed assets,
- it prepares the technologies of repairs.
Analyzing the range of functions attributed to the system for realization, it is possible to determine
what groups of data ought to enter it, as well as what data it generates.
The model of exploitation system management was built on the basis analysis of two basic
criteria, i.e. the flow and type of data, and functions realized by individual modules. The structure of
exploitation system management, together with the flow of data, is shown in the fig. 6.
Fig.6. Model of exploitation system management
Separate modules creating the structure of the system realize the following functions:
1. The module of data processing is responsible for processing data sent to the system. Carriers and
media of the transmission can be considerably diverse.
2. The managerial module, to which data of various degrees of aggregation enter from the module of
data processing. It can be stated that about 80% of the data is processed according to the assigned
algorithms, creating a basic set for the need of SE management.
3. The logistic module, which delivers indispensable materials, equipment, components and
standardized machine elements for the needs of realized repairs; manages stock and analyses the level
of stores, runs the record of distributed supplies, analyses their waste for individual orders, organizes
and supervises transport of purchased technological equipment, co-operates with company’s logistics
in the range of the economy of scrap-iron.
4. The task realization module which realizes or supervises the realization of examinations and a
bigger part of repairs.
5. The module of the strange realization, registering the range of repair works ordered to a third party.
6. The control module, checking the quality and range of realized works, outside and own.
7. The module of technical base renovation, purchase of machines, renovation and repairs.
347
8. The personnel training module, motivation and training of workers.
9. The accounting module, creates abstract summaries, as well as controls the needs for the realization
of certain operations.
10. The technical module realizing the functions: planning, constructional, technological, technical
state evaluations of the possessed equipment, record and updating, the emission of records.
PU - the exploitation subsystem which exploits machines and equipment.
PP - Remaining subsystems. Relations of these subsystems with the exploitation management system
are defined to a smaller degree.
The construction of the model of the exploitation management system allows to identify the basic
elements of its surroundings, as well as of the modules creating the subsystem itself.
7. Summary
The accomplishment of diagnostics in recent years using the achievements of many fields of
science, allow treat it as a tool of formation and evaluation of machines, at all stages of their
existence.
Looking at present trends of machine development it should be recognized that currently the
growth of their quality is contained mainly in the sphere of automation. Automatic acquisition of
measurable features is becoming the only objective way of evaluating and forming the quality of
machines.
The range of investigations in the field of methodology of diagnostics includes such questions as:
the source of diagnostic information, signals and diagnostic symptoms, the principles of detailed
methods of diagnostics, modeling in diagnostics, diagnostic experiments, supporting diagnostics with
modern computer technologies, diagnosing in systems of human engineering and social engineering,
and the organizational and economic aspects of applying diagnostics. These question respectively
apply to: source of information from the physical side and from the informative side, further bases of
methods and investigative techniques, simulation and experimenting in diagnostics, and modern
inference and visualization of worked out diagnostic-exploitation decisions.
References
[1] Birger I.A., Technical diagnostics. Science, Moscow, 1978, (p. 32, in Russian).
[2] Cempel C., Basis vibroacoustics of diagnostic machines. WNT, Warsaw, 1982.
[3] Grudzewski I., Pietrowski H., The module organization of the enterprise. ZN, IOPM, 1989.
[4] Jaskulski Z., The influence of chosen internal factors on efficiency of management of production
companies. Conference materials of Diagnostics ‘99, Bydgoszcz 1999.
[5] Pietrowski H., Module system of the organization of the enterprise. PWE, Warsaw 1981.
[6] Zoltowski B., Basis of the diagnostics of machines. ATR, Bydgoszcz, 1996.
[7] Zoltowski B., Cempel C., Engineering of diagnostics machines. ITE, Radom 2005.
348
PROCEDURE OF CONSTRUCTING AND EVALUATING LINEAR
DIAGNOSTIC MODELS OF COMPLEX OBJECTS
$( §)\<
Uniwersytet Technologiczno – Przyrodniczy

ul. S.Kaliskiego 7, 85-763 Bydgoszcz
e-mail: bogzol@utp.edu.pl
Abstract
In this work presented are chosen problems of machines’ technical state diagnosis with the use of identification and
technical diagnostics methods. Relations between methods of dynamic state evaluation and methods of technical state
evaluation were indicated. Example modal analysis results illustrate the complexity of projecting dynamic state
researches into diagnostic researches of machine state evaluation.
Key words: technical diagnostics, identification, modeling, modal analysis.
1. INTRODUCTION
Destruction processes of technical systems force the need to supervise changes of their
technical state. It is possible with the use of technical diagnostics methods.
Methods and means of modern technical diagnostics are a tool of machine state diagnosis,
which is the basis of decisions made at each stage of their existence.
Many previous works of the author [1,2,3,4,5] clearly indicate connections between machine
dynamics and technical diagnostics, especially vibration diagnostics. The bases of identification,
modeling and concluding fully convince towards the dominating role of vibrations in machine
state identification [6,7,8,9].
Properly planned and realized experiment is the base to obtain diagnostically sensitive signals
which processed will determine state diagnosis procedures. The processing includes: creation of
numerous signal measures in time domain, frequencies and amplitudes, selection and reduction of
the number of signal measures, creation and analysis of effectiveness of cause-and-effect models,
as well as evaluation of the righteousness of made diagnostic decisions.
The realization of these tasks is possible only through broad support from information
technology, which in this work is presented in the form of SIBI programs.
Practical applications of the presented ideas has been verified in researches on complex objects
exploited in difficult climate conditions.
2. DYNAMICS AND DIAGNOSTICS
Into quality measures of machine’s technical state, i.e. its dynamics, included is the level of
vibration amplitudes, as well of the machines as the lot, and also of relative vibrations of separate
elements and parts. Overall vibrations of the machine can be perceived as an external symptom
349
while they are responsible for the level of interferences emitted into the environment. Relative
vibrations of separate elements, however, influence mainly the state of internal forces in the
machine, i.e. at its level of dynamic stress amplitudes.
Identification can concern both the construction of models and the reconstruction of the
examined model state, which leads straight to the problem of technical diagnostics.
The process of diagnostic identification includes:
* modeling (symptom or structural),
* identification experiment (simulation and/or real),
* estimation of diagnostic parameters (state features or symptoms),
* diagnostic concluding.
The specificity of diagnostic identification tasks is different from general identification in the
way that it includes a number of additional elements enhancing this process. These are:
- constructing models of diagnostic signals generation,
- choosing features of object structure state and diagnostic symptoms,
- modeling cause-and-effect relations,
- evaluating the accuracy of choosing variables for the model,
- determining boundary values of the symptoms,
- classifying the states and determining diagnosis periodicity.
Methods of identification can be divided concerning: the kind of identified model, the kind of
experiment, identification criterion applied, as well as estimation procedure applied. In general
these are: methods of analysis, time, frequency, correlation, regression, factor analysis, as well as
iteration methods described in works of many authors [2,4,6,5,8].
For simple objects, a good tool to evaluate their changeable dynamic state are methods of
simple identification which use amplitude-frequency spectrum. Searching rezonans frequency and
amplitude value in this frequency with the use of tests (impulse, harmonic and random) are
relatively well masterem in research techniques of our enterprises [2,5].
Another way of describing and analyzing the dynamic state of machines is a modal analysis
used as a theoretical, experimental and exploitation method. It uses frequencies of own vibrations,
values of suppression and forms of vibrations to describe the changing machine state, and it is
used to improve the finished elements method. The presented procedures are based on the
knowledge of the system model, and the conclusions drawn from the actions on the models depend
on their quality. Depending on the aim of the performed dynamic analysis of the object, different
requirements are set for the constructed models, and their evaluation is conducted with different
experimental methods.
3. DESCRIPTION OF OBJECT STATE CHANGES
The dynamic state of the object can be, in the easiest case, described with a model of 1 degree
of freedom – Fig.1. A conventional description of this model are known relations (1-4) indicating
that vibrations well reflect the state of the machine. A description of this model can be achieved
within m, k, c categories, or through a, v, x researches.
k c
Fig.1. Model of a system of 1 degree of freedom. m, k, c = vibration process (a, v, x)
350
.. . (1)
m x c x kx F (t )
(2)
x A sin(Y t I )
dx (3)
v AY cos(Yt M )
dt
d 2x dV
a AY 2 sin(Yt M ) (4)
dt 2 dt
Identification of his model (1) from the experimental side is the a, v, x measurements for
different time moments, which reflects the changes of the object state and is widely applied in
vibration diagnostics. The solution of the task in the m, k, c, categories, however, requires a
number of solution conversion of the equation (1) for determining:
c kr 2mY c kr 43 mf
k m Y 2 k 43 2 mf 2 (5)
Determining the value (5) requires realizing identification experiment from which the frequency f
or frequen Ñ [X<[ / ! X} <\! [XX < [! !
[X!´X}´! ÌÑ <X}X!#X [< – Fig.2.
Fig.2. Stabilization diagram for ¶ determination
The problem becomes more complicated for models of many degrees of freedom (more than
3). /! X}\ !< ZXXX[XX !´[ <X}<<X[
(a, v, x), Chile from the side of determining m, k, c own problem needs to be solved.
K Z M q2
0 0 (6)
Equation (6) presents a linear system of homogeneous algebraic equations:
k 11
Z 2 m11 q1 k12 Z 2 m12 q2 k1n Z 2 m1n qn 0
k 21 Z m21
2
q k
1 22 Z m22
2
q 2 k 2n Z m2 n
2
q n 0
….. …… ……. ……. …… (7)
k 41
Z 2 m41 q1 k 42 Z 2 m42 q2 k nn Z 2 mnn qn 0
351
A solution for q z 0 exists when the main matrix determinant K Z 2 M 0 , i.e.
det K Z 2 M 0 . Solving the system of equations (7) own values can be determined, and from
k
them the frequencies of own vibrations, indispensable for the object identification ( O Z 2 ).
m
4. X[)^)\[=<=}<<\^)= (SIBI)
More and more frequently conducted identification researches of machine dynamic state, used
for the evaluation of the state changes, fault development and location of the occurred state causes,
were the basis for creating a specialized software system. It allows acquiring and processing
measurement data, creating many measures of diagnostic signals, examining their diagnostic
sensitivity, statistic processing and diagnostic concluding. The program was named Information
System of Identification Researches (X< <X#[[X Z}– SIBI).
The structure of the program is a module construction which includes the following modules
(Fig.3.):
Fig.3. Main dialog box of SIBI program
A. READ UNV module which allows processing data from UNV format into XLS format.
B. SYMPTOMS module which allows defining, determining and creating matrix of many
measures of vibration processes.
Modules A and B are part of software responsible for acquiring and processing vibration processes
in order to acquire observation matrix of vibration estimators.
C. OPTIMUM module uses the method of ideal point for individual evaluation of the sensitivity
of measured symptoms of vibration processes.
D. SVD module used for determining generalized damage measures, and for the evaluation of
damage development. Using the SVD method allows a multidimensional description of the
state of the examined object.
E. INPUT/OUTPUT module used for the analysis of similarities between vibration processes,
and for determining different exploitation measures of the examined object.
F. OPTIMIZATION module used for creating models and data in genesis (with approximation
and interpolation methods), diagnosis and prognosis of object states.
G. N)\= module using neuron nets for state classification on the basis of obtained results
in the form of time rows.
C, D, E, F, G modules are elements of 2 parts of the software allowing the performance of statistic
concluding and cause-and-effect relations, as well as visualization of the obtained results.
352
5. CAUSE-AND-EFFECT MODELING
Many state measures acquired in experiments requires the reduction of over measurement,
which is possible with the use of OPTIMUM procedure (statistic evaluation of separate measures)
or SVD (for the multidimensional approach). Optimized set of symptoms is the basis of
constructing cause-and-effect, most often regressive, multidimensional models (Fig.4).
y = -2,68061w1 - 0,54083 row1 - 0,49318 x1 + 2,01273 w2 + 0,35480 row2 + 2,26940 x2 -

¶¶/`{¸
/`{L + 0,01696 g2xy - 92,00391 ARMS(t) + 12,99146 bkurt +
239,69713 Cs - 200,58670 I - 44,37385
Dependent variable Real data

3 Model
R2=0.83343
2.5 F=9.173 Fstat=2.2258
Pvalue=5.237e-006 D =0.05
2 JBtest: OK
1.5
1
w1
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Observations
Residuals Residual Case Order Plot Histogram of residual Normal Probability Plot
1 6 0.99
0.98
Probability
Frequency
Residuals
Residuals
1 0.95
0.90
4 0.75
0 0 0.50
2 0.25
-1 0.10
0.05
0.02
0.01
-1 0
0 20 40 10 20 30 -1 0 1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Case Number Case Number Residuals Data
Fig.4. Regressive model determination
The wellness of the model is evaluated with the help of the determination coefficient R2, and
the number of component symptoms determines its accuracy – Fig.5.
5 etymatorów
13 etymatorów
80
120
70
100 60
50
80
40
R2 = 0,7415
2

R = 0,0857

60 30
20
40
10
20 0
1 2 3 4 5
-10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 -20
-20 -30
Estymatory Estymatory
Fig.5. Number of measures v. accuracy of the model
353
6. CONCLUSIONS
Presented in this work considerations concern the modeling of object dynamic state with the
use use of description and researches within the range of identification, distinguishing modal
analysis and ideas directly supporting different methods of forming machine dynamics.
The knowledge of the dynamic state and structure of the system allows to describe its
behavior, and allows creating prognosis models of the system behavior in the function of dynamic
evolution time, based on the model of the technical state symptoms growth. Most often, however,
there are no known equations describing behaviors of the system in the function of dynamic
evolution time, which accounts for the need to apply new tools to examine the dynamic state.
There is, therefore, the requirement to experimentally verify analytical technical models as the
proper one is a model which is verified in practice. An experiment is, therefore, often only an
inspiration for further researches leading to the optimization of the construction.
LITERATURE
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PWN, Warszawa, 1996.
2. Broch J.T., Mechanical Vibration and Shock Measurements, Brüel & Kjaer, 1980.
3. Cempel C., Vibroacoustical Condition Monitoring, '!! / &X[
}}X
New York,
1991.
4. } ! >
, Technical diagnostics. Reverse diagnostic models, [in Polish]
>[X " !X} ®! Z
!¶
5. Eykhoff P. , Identification In dynamic systems, [in Polish] =Warszawa.1980.
6. Giergiel J., Uhl T., Identification of mechanical systems, [in Polish] PWN, Warszawa, 1990.
7. £<# /
<! , Methods of parametric identification in application into
construction diagnostics, Exploitation problems, [in Polish] 6/93 MCNEMT Radom 1993.
8. Morrison F., Art of dynamic systems modeling, [in Polish] WNT, Warszawa, 1996.
9. +! /, Optimization of the process of vehicle mechanical state prognosis, [in Polish]
Rehabilitation thesis, No 86, ATR Bydgoszcz, 1999.
10. Uhl T., Computer-enhanced identification of mechanical construction models, [in Polish]
WNT, Warszawa 1997.
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GDANSK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF OCEAN ENGINEERING AND SHIP TECHNOLOGY

ISSN 1231 – 3998

Science publication of Editorial Advisory Board of POLISH CIMAC

Editorial Advisory Board

All papers have been reviewed

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>;#?! : THE LIMITATION OF USE OF BIOCOMPONENTS IN THE

A. Erd: ELEMENTS OF THE UML MODEL OF THE RAIL VEHICLE

[# : NOWADAYS ASPECTS OF THE SELECTION OF THE

\: EFFECT OF FATTY ACID METHYL ESTERS (FAME) ON PHYSICAL

 # : ENDOSKOPIC EXAMINATIONS OF MARINE DIESEL

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&[  : SEMI-MARKOV MODEL OF MAINTENANCE OF URBAN

$& : DRAWING CONCLUSIONS ABOUT RELIABILITY OF POWER

 #: ANALYSIS OF THE ACTUAL M.E. DIAGNOSTIC PROCESSES

X# =#: ASSESSMENT OF FAILURE DISTRIBUTIONS OF

= : HISMAR - UNDERWATER HULL INSPECTION AND

<! : SELECTED PROBLEMS TO LOSS AND MAINTAIN THE

X\-$  : RANDOMNESS OF ROLLING BEARINGS’ ELEMENTS

&+ <# : APPLICATION OF MARINE ENGINE ROOM SIMULATORS

/+! : THE RULES OF INFERENCE IN MACHINE STATE RECOGNITION 289

>!  : SELECTED ISSUES OF MODELING THE ACCUMULATOR

">  : INFLUENCE OF AXIAL COMPRESSOR FLOW PASSAGE

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< : CONSTITUTION OF USEFUL PROPERTY OF COMPOSITE

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~ X  : PROCEDURE OF CONSTRUCTING AND EVALUATING

Karol Franciszek Abramek

West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin

Keywords: scavenging, wear, piston, rings, cylinder, crankcase

Xm - is a boundary value of signal indicating the necessity of performing a repair or taking an

3. Formulation of research problem

Poznan University of Technology

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Fig. 1. Schematic structure of graphen

Tab. 1. Results of the preliminary engine tests

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SAE Low temperature Low temperature Kinematic viscosity HT/HS viscosity in

Parameter Test Shear Temperature of testing Cooling/ Viscosity

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Parameter, unit of Requirement Results of tests

Gdansk Uniwersity of Technology

Keywords: acoustic emission, servo-film, friction node

An ideal situation in the compression-ignition engine operation would be if tribological

2. The selective transfer phenomenon

In the development of knowledge on tribological phenomena, worthy of attention is the

MASTER CASE Spider8

Fig.1. Test stand diagram [2]

The acoustic emission phenomenon demonstrates itself by generation and propagation of

Fig.2. Acoustic emission phenomenon on T-02 four-ball tester friction node

Fig. 3. Destruction and possible reconstruction of boundary layer

4. Analysis of test results

Time tests [s]

5. Acoustic emission as a diagnostic signal

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# : ENDOSKOPIC EXAMINATIONS OF MARINE DIESEL

" : "+|*%$'=&;'%4$=&'$=

\#: EROSION PROBLEMS IN PNEUMATIC TRANSPORT

&[ : SEMI-MARKOV MODEL OF MAINTENANCE OF URBAN

$& : DRAWING CONCLUSIONS ABOUT RELIABILITY OF POWER

#: ANALYSIS OF THE ACTUAL M.E. DIAGNOSTIC PROCESSES

X# =#: ASSESSMENT OF FAILURE DISTRIBUTIONS OF

= : HISMAR - UNDERWATER HULL INSPECTION AND

<! : SELECTED PROBLEMS TO LOSS AND MAINTAIN THE

X\-$ : RANDOMNESS OF ROLLING BEARINGS’ ELEMENTS

&+ <# : APPLICATION OF MARINE ENGINE ROOM SIMULATORS

/+! : THE RULES OF INFERENCE IN MACHINE STATE RECOGNITION 289

>! : SELECTED ISSUES OF MODELING THE ACCUMULATOR

"> : INFLUENCE OF AXIAL COMPRESSOR FLOW PASSAGE

$[: THE MULTI-EQUATIONAL MODELS IN THE ANALYSIS OF

< : CONSTITUTION OF USEFUL PROPERTY OF COMPOSITE

: METHODS OF ESTIMATING THE AVAILABILITY OF

~X : DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM OF EXPLOITATION MACHINES ……… 341

~X : PROCEDURE OF CONSTRUCTING AND EVALUATING

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43% 10% 20% & 23% 2%

Pozna University of Technology

Anna Janicka, Wojciech Walkowiak, (>