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Module 1:
Mathematics in our World

INTRODUCTION
In this fast-paced society, how often have you stopped to appreciate the beauty of the things around
you? Have you ever paused and pondered about the underlying principles that govern the universe?
As rational creatures, we tend to identify and follow patterns, whether consciously or
subconsciously. Recognizing pattern feels natural, like our brain is hardwired to recognize them. Early
humans recognized the repeating interval of day and night, the cycle of the moon, the rising and falling of
tides, and the changing of the seasons. Awareness of these patterns allowed humans to survive

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOME

At the end of the lesson, the students can:

1. identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world

2. Argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is , how it is expressed, represented and used

ACTIVITY

1. What do you think will be the next face in the sequence

?
2. What is the next figure in the pattern below?

3. What number comes next in 1,3,5,7,9, ?

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ANALYSIS

Many Flora and Fauna (Plants and animals) also follow certain patterns such as the arrangement of
leaves and stems in a plant, the shape of a snowflake, the flowers’ petals, or even the shape of a snail’s shell.

Do you also notice pattern around you? What other examples can you think of?

ABSTRACTION

PATTERNS - are regular, repeated, or recurring forms or designs. We see patterns everyday--- from the
layout of floor tiles, designs of skyscrapers, to the way we tie our shoelaces.

TYPES OF PATTERNS

A. Symmetry
- Indicates that you can draw an imaginary line across an object and the resulting parts are mirror
images of each other. Examples are Butterfly, Leonardo da Vinci’s Virtruvian Man, and star fish.

The butterfly is symmetric about the axis indicated

by the line. Note that the left and right portions
are exactly the same. This type of symmetry is
called bilateral symmetry (line of symmetry or
mirror symmetry)
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There are other types of symmetry depending on the number of sides or faces that are symmetrical.

For example, the starfish, if you will rotate it above by several degrees, you can still achieve the same
appearance as the original position.

A shape has Rotational Symmetry when it still looks the same after some rotation. The smallest angle that a
figure can be rotated while still preserving the original formation is called angle of rotation. How many times it
matches as we go once around is called the Order of Rotation. The starfish in the figure has an angle of rotation
72° and is a five -fold symmetry.

It can be observed that the patterns on

a snowflake repeat six times, indicating that
there is a six-fold symmetry.

B. Fractal
- The term fractal was first used by mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot in 1975 in his book “The Fractal
Geometry of Nature“. Fractals come from the Latin fractus meaning ‘broken’. Mandelbrot defined a
fractal as “a rough or fragmented geometric shape that can be split into parts, each of which is (at least
approximately) a reduced-size copy of the whole.” 

C. Spiral
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- spiral patterns are attributed to complicated mathematical algorithms, sequences and

equations and are common in plants and some animals like the fern and desert big horn sheep.

D. Spots and stripes

E. Tessellation
- A Tessellation (or Tiling) is when we cover a surface with a pattern of flat shapes so that there are no
overlaps or gaps.
Examples:

The arrays of hexagonal cells in a honeycomb or the diamond-shaped scales that pattern snake skin are natural
examples of tessellation patterns.

What is exponential growth?

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Exponential growth is a pattern of data that shows greater increases with passing time, creating the
curve of an exponential function. For example, if a population of mice doubles every year starting with two in
the first year, the population would be four in the second year, 16 in the third year, 256 in the fourth year, and
so on. The population is growing to the power of 2 each year in this case (i.e., exponentially).

The Fibonacci Sequence

Sequence- A sequence is an ordered list of numbers, called terms, that may have repeated values. The
arrangements of these terms is set by a definite rule. The terms of a sequence could be generated by applying
the rule to previous terms of the sequence.

Fibonacci Sequence- is formed by adding the preceding two numbers, beginning with 0 and 1. Ratios of two
Fibonacci numbers approximate the Golden Ratio, which is considered as the most aesthetically pleasing
proportion.

The Fibonacci Sequence is the series of numbers:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...

The next number is found by adding up the two numbers before it:
the 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+1),
the 3 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+2),
the 5 is (2+3),
and so on!

the next number in the sequence above is 21+34 =  55

Here is a longer list:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181, 6765, 10946, 17711,
28657, 46368, 75025, 121393, 196418, 317811, ...

Can you figure out the next few numbers?

Make A Spiral
When we make squares with those widths, we get a nice spiral:

Do you see how the squares fit neatly together?

For example 5 and 8 make 13, 8 and 13 make 21, and so on
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The Rule

The Fibonacci Sequence can be written as a "Rule"

First, the terms are numbered from 0 onwards like this:

n= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 …
xn 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 …

So term number 6 is called x6 (which equals 8).

Example:
the 8th term is the 7th term plus the
6th term:

x 8 = x7 + x6

S o we can write the rule:

The Rule is xn = xn−1 + xn−2

where:

 xn is term number "n"

 xn−1 is the previous term (n−1)
 xn−2 is the term before that (n−2)

Another simple example in which it is possible to find the Fibonacci sequence in nature is given by the
number of petals of flowers. Most have three (like lilies and irises), five (parnassia, rose hips) or eight (cosmea),
13 (some daisies), 21 (chicory), 34, 55 or 89 (asteraceae)

(You may want to watch a video on Fibonacci sequence on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wTlw7fNcO-0)

Golden ratio
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The golden ratio (symbol is the Greek letter "phi" φ ) is a special number approximately equal to 1.618
It appears many times in geometry, art, architecture and other areas.

We find the golden ratio when we divide a line into two parts so that:
the long part divided by the short part
is also equal to
the whole length divided by the long part

Many buildings and artworks have the Golden Ratio in them,

such as the Parthenon in Greece, but it is not really known if it was
designed that way.

And here is a surprise. When we take any two successive (one after the other) Fibonacci Numbers, their ratio is
very close to the Golden Ratio "φ" which is approximately 1.618034...

In fact, the bigger the pair of Fibonacci Numbers, the closer the approximation. Let us try a few:

A B   B/A
2 3   1.5
3 5   1.666666666...
5 8   1.6
8 13   1.625
... ...   ...
144 233   1.618055556...
233 377   1.618025751...
... ...   ...

Using The Golden Ratio to Calculate Fibonacci Numbers

We can calculate any Fibonacci Number using the Golden Ratio:

xn =  φn  − (1−φ)n

√5

Example: x6

x6 = (1.618034...)6  − (1−1.618034...)6
√5
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When I used a calculator on this (only entering the Golden Ratio to 6 decimal places) I got the
answer 8.00000033 , a more accurate calculation would be closer to 8.

MATHEMATICS FOR OUR WORLD

- Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world. Mathematics helps predict the
behavior of nature and phenomena in the world, as well as helps humans exert control over
occurrences in the world for the advancement of our civilization.

APPLICATION

1. What do you think will be the next face in the sequence

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2. What is the next figure in the pattern below?

Answer: A

3. What number comes next in 1,3,5,7,9, 11

4. What is the order of rotation of the following figures

Order 2 Order 3

ASSESSMENT

INSTRUCTION:

A. Look at your surroundings and identify some of the patterns that were discussed earlier on this module.
Choose 5 objects (either living or nonliving things) and take a photo of it. In each object, identify the pattern. If
its symmetric identify if its mirror symmetry or a rotational symmetry. If it is a rotational symmetry identify its
order of rotation. Submit this on March 1,2021 thru FB messenger.
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B. They say Math is Everywhere. Hence, choose a profession, industry, work or any circumstances in which
mathematical concept is being applied. Discuss how the concept is being applied. Write your answer in the
paper , take a photo and submit thru fb messenger.

REFERENCES

Mathematics in the Modern World (2018), Rex Book Store Inc.

https://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/symmetry-rotational.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o68FAFj04Vg
https://ecstep.com/natural-patterns/

Module 2:

Variables and the language of Sets

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOME

1. Identify the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics

2. Demonstrate knowledge on sets

INTRODUCTION
This module will introduce to you some of the special language that is
a foundation for mathematical thought, the variables and sets.
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ACTIVITY

Answer the following:

1. Ralph is a baker who makes the same number of loaves of bread each day. He uses 5 cups of flour in
each loaf of bread. How many cups of flour he uses each day making bread?

2. A librarian has 4 times as many mystery books as romances. She lends out 12 mysteries. How many
mysteries does she have now if she started with 15 romances?

ANALYSIS

How will you answer the activity? Can you directly give the answer? How important is it to translate
word problem into mathematical sentence?

ABSTRACTION

Variable - a symbolic name associated with an object whose associated value may be changed. Typically, we use
a single letter to represent a variable. The letters x, y, and z are common generic symbols used for variables.
Sometimes, we will choose a letter that reminds us of the quantity it represents, such as t for time, v for voltage,
or b for bacteria.
For example, the height and weight of a person do not remain constant always, and hence they are
variables.

Constant - has a fixed value all the time. For example, the size of a shoe or cloth or any apparel will not change
at any point.
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In an algebraic expression, x+y = 8, 8 is a constant value, and it cannot be changed. While x and y are
variables (it can change). If x = 5 then y = 3 so that x+y = 8 ------ 5 + 3 = 8
If x = 1 then y = 7 so that x+y = 8 ------ 1 + 7 = 8
If x = 6 then y= 2 so that x+y = 8 ------ 6 + 2 = 8

Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

universal statement says that a certain property is true for all elements in a set.
Example: All positive numbers are greater than zero

conditional statement says that if one thing is true then some other thing also has to be true.
Example: If an animal is a dog, it is a mammal.
If 378 is divisible by 18, then 378 is divisible by 6.

Given a property that may or may not be true, an existential statement says that there is at least one thing for
which the property is true.
Example: There is a prime number that is even ------ true ----number 2 is both prime and even

Take note that a universal statement contain some variation of the words “ for all” and conditional
statements contain versions of the words “ if-then”.

A universal conditional statement is a statement that is both universal and conditional.

Examples: For all animal a, if a is a dog, it is mammal.
If a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
For all dogs a, a is a mammal.

A universal existential statement is a statement that is universal because its first part says that a certain
property is true for all objects of a given type, and it is existential because its second part asserts the existence
of something.
For example: Every real number has an additive inverse

An existential universal statement is a statement that is existential because its first part asserts that a certain
object exists and universal because its second part says that a certain property is true for all objects of a given
type.
For example: There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every positive integer.

THE LANGUAGE OF SETS

A set is a collection of things called elements or members. It can be defined by describing the contents,
or may be specified using the set-roster notation by writing all of its elements between braces.

Some examples of sets defined by describing the contents:

a. The set of all even numbers
b. The set of all books written about travel to Chile

Some examples of sets defined by listing the elements of the set:

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a. {1, 3, 9, 12}
b. {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, purple}

A variation of the notion is sometimes used to describe a very large set, as when we write {1, 2, 3, . . .
100} to refer to the set of all integer from 1 to 100. A similar notation can also describe an infinite set, as when
we write {1, 2, 3, . . . } to refer to the set of all positive integers. (The symbol . . . is called an ellipsis and is read
“and so forth.”)

Commonly, we will use a variable to represent a set, to make it easier to refer to that set later.
The symbol ∈ means “is an element of”. A set that contains no elements, { }, is called the empty set and
is notated ∅
Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
To notate that 2 is element of set A, we’d write 2 ∈ A while 5 ∈ A

An axiom of extension says that a set is completely determined by what its distinct elements are, not the order
in which they might be listed or the fact that some elements might be listed more than once.
• Order of elements does not matter.
• No duplicate elements.

Example: The set represented by {1, 2, 3} is equivalent to the set {3, 1, 2}.

Take Note of the common set of numbers that are frequently used and their symbols

R set of all real numbers

Z set of all integer numbers
Q set of all rational numbers

Set Builder Notation

Let S denote a set and let P(x) be a property that elements of S satisfy. We may define a new set to be
the set of all elements x in S such that P(x) is true.
We denote this set as follows: {x | P(x)}
It reads as “the set of elements x such that P(x) is true”.
Example:
Z1 = {x ∈ Z | x ≥ 5} This read as “ the set Z1 is the set of x element of Z such that x is
greater than or equal to 5

This means now that all the elements of Z 1 are integers ( Z) that is greater than or equal to 5
Z1 = { 5,6,7,8 … . . }

SUBSETS
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If A and B are sets, A is called a subset of B, written as A ⊆ B (or A is contained in B or B contains A), if,
and only if, every element of A is also an element of B.
A ⊆ B means that For all elements x, if x ∈ A then x ∈ B

Not a subset: A ⊆ B (there is at least one element of A that is not an element of B)

Proper subset: let A and B be sets, A is a proper subset of B, written as A ⊂ B, if and only if, every element of A is
in B but there is at least one element of B that is not in A.

Example: A = { 1,2,3,4,5 , 6 } B = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,} D={x∈Z/x<7}

With the given sets we can say that: A ⊆ D or D ⊆ A since both have elements {1,2,3,4,5,6}
And A⊂ B since elements of A can be found in B but one
element from B cannot be found in A and that is the element
0

Cartesian Products
Given two sets A and B, the Cartesian product (also called cross product)) of A and B, denoted A×B (read
“A cross B”), is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

Example: Let A = {4, 6}, B = {3, 4, 5}, What is A × B?

Answer: { (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5) }

You may also consider this link for more discussion on the topic https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=ngUotonNTNY

APPLICATION

1. Use variables to rewrite the following sentences more formally.

a. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their squares equals the square of their
sum
b. Given any real number, its square is nonnegative

Solution:
a. Are there numbers a and b with the property that a2 + b2 = ( a+b) 2 ?
b. Given any real number r, r2 nonnegative
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2. Rewrite a Universal Conditional Statement

For all real numbers x, if x is nonzero then x2 is positive
a. If a real number is nonzero, then its square __________
b. For all nonzero real number x, _____________
c. If x ___________, then ______________
d. The square of any nonzero real number is __________
e. All nonzero real numbers have.

Solution:
a. is positive
b. x2 is positive
c. is a nonzero real number; x2 is positive
d. positive
e. positive squares

3. Using the Set-Roster Notation

a. Let A = {1,2,3}, B= {3,1,2}, and C= {1,1,2,3,3,3}. What are the elements of A, B, and C? How are
A, B, and C related?
b. Is {0} = 0?
c. How many elements are in the set {1, {} } ?

Solution:
A, B, and C have exactly the same three elements : 1,2,3. Therefore , A,B, and C are simply different ways
to represent the same set
{0} ≠ 0 because {0} is a set with one element, namely 0, whereas 0 is just the symbol that represents the
number zero
The set {1, {1} } has two elements: 1 and the set whose only element is 1

4. Describe the set A ------- A = {x ∈ Z / -2 < x <5 }

Solution: This means that A = { -1,0,1,2,3,4}

ASSESSMENT

INSTRUCTION: Write your answer in a paper and take a photo of it and submit it through the messenger. But
keep your paper it will be part of your portfolio.

1. Consider a group of students, Ann, Bob, Carl, and David.

Let set X = {Ann, Bob, Carl}, Y = {Bob, Ann, Carl}, and Z = {Ann, Ann, Bob, Carl, Carl}.
a. What are the elements of X, Y , and Z?
b. How are X, Y , and Z related?

2. How many elements are in the set { a, {a,b}, {a} }?

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3. Which one of the following is true or valid? If not true, rewrite it to make it true.
a. {1} ∈ {1, 2}
b. 1 ∈ {1, 2}
c. {1} ⊆ {1, 2}
d. 1 ⊆ {1, 2}
e. {1} ⊆ {{1}, {2}}

4. Let A = {e, f, g}, B = {f, t}, C = {f, g}, D = {f, g}. which one of the following is true? If false explain why
a. B ⊆ A
b. C ⊆ A
c. C ⊆ D
d. C ⊂ D

5. Let Y = {a,b,c} and Z = {1,2}

a. Find Y x Z
b. Find Z x Y
c. Find Y x Y

REFERENCES

Mathematics in the Modern World (2018), Rex Book Store Inc.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-hostos-introcollegemath/chapter/set-theory/
http://2ksfe2u6shz19ksvbbdjiwkg.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/chap1.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ngUotonNTNY