Psychology from Islamic Perspective

Amber Haque, Department of Psychology & Counseling, UAEU, Al Ain, UAE

Note: I am developing this manuscript as a book chapter for undergraduate students of

psychology. Any suggestions or comments are welcome!

Abstract

This chapter outlines the basic concepts rooted in Islamic religious and spiritual traditions. The
different types of fitrah, nature of human soul, and the dynamics of the metaphysical elements
like nafs, aql, and ruh are explored with their effects on human personality. Concepts of Jinn,
Satan and evil eye and their influences on human personality as well as contributions of some
prominent early Muslim scholars to psychology are discussed. It is hoped that with the growth of
indigenous psychologies, Islamic psychology will also be researched and developed in various
parts of the world.

Introduction

Psychology that is taught today as a discipline around the world is almost entirely western in its
nature and origin. Western psychology originated in the European countries in the late 19th
century and started as an independent science when Wilhelm Wundt established the first
experimental lab in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. Modern psychology flourished in the west and
especially in America and was imported throughout the 20th century in almost all non-western
countries. Two other kinds of lesser-known psychologies have also existed throughout human
history but overshadowed by western psychology for less than 150 years. Folk psychology,
which is common sense views of human behavior and based on assumptions, beliefs, norms and
values held by the general population of society still exists in many parts of the world but is
considered inferior to western psychology because the latter is based on scientific methods.
Philosophical psychology is also as old as humanity and based on the views of philosophers of a
particular time and society. So there are psychologies from different parts of the world that have
been around for centuries, for instance, Chinese psychology, Indian psychology, African
psychology, etc. However, within these broad-based psychologies, there are also sub-
psychologies of particular cultures, ethnicities, and groups. These are known as indigenous
psychologies that are becoming popular as we see globalization around the world and at the same
time, often find it difficult to explain human behaviors and mental processes based solely on
western psychology. We see that explanations of human behaviors from Eurocentric point of
view are not always relevant for or beneficial to people of non-European based cultures. The
American Psychological Association (APA) therefore came up with a Task Force within its
Division 32 to work on the unique needs of non-western cultures to understand and solve their
psychological issues through indigenous practices and applications
(http://www.apadivisions.org/division-32/sigs/indigenous/index.aspx). The Muslims in the Arab
world also belong to a group that may not benefit fully from western explanations of human
behavior. This may be one reason why psychology never established its roots, became fully
developed or even accepted in this part of the world--the theories of western psychology are
incompatible with Islamic worldview (Haque, 2004). So in order to truly understand people, it is

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imperative that we know their basic belief system and what it says about human nature. As the
name implies, Islamic psychology is based solely on Islamic theology and worldview. Therefore,
this chapter discusses Islamic perspectives of psychology based on the Quran and Hadith
(traditions of Prophet Muhammad). The early Muslim scholars also wrote extensively about
human nature and some of their works are also introduced in this chapter (Haque, 2004).
As we all know, the term “psyche” refers to soul and “ology” means “study of”, so
psychology was originally meant to study the soul, but later as scientific psychology developed,
its subject matter changed. However, psychology still retained its original name. Psychology was
initially a branch of philosophy and was therefore studied primarily by philosophers. The Arabic
equivalent of the term psychology is ‘ilm-an-nafs or knowledge of the soul or self. The key
difference between western and Islamic psychology is that while western psychology studies the
physical aspects of behavior and mental processes, Islamic psychology concentrates on their
spiritual aspects (Haque, 1998). The physical and material aspects of behaviors are secondary in
Islamic psychology because Islam considers matter secondary to spirit. In Islam, human beings
possess a dual nature, as they are both a body and a soul. However, the body is not as important
as the soul because the latter consists of inner structures of personality that influence the body
until it is perished. In Islamic psychology, the metaphysical elements that influence human
behaviors are the soul (al-nafs), the heart (al-qalb), the spirit (al-ruh), and the intellect (al-aql).
The concept of al-fitrah which is the inherent knowledge combined with the human soul is the
most essential aspect of human behavior, so it is essential that in order to understand psychology
from Islamic perspective, we understand the concept of al-fitrah. It is also essential to know that
the Islamic creed or aqeedah mandates that believers unravel the mysteries of nature not only
through science and speculation but also through Divine words and wisdom by reflecting on the
verses of the Quran. Scientific knowledge keeps developing, while the divine words are infallible
and final. Knowledge of the ‘self’ is especially important in Islam as narrated in one of the
sayings of the Prophet: “whoever knows himself/herself, knows his/her Lord.” So psychology in
Islam has great significance if it is studied from Islamic indigenous perspectives.

The Concept of al-fitrah

Islamic scholars have written in much depth about al-fitrah and there are at least four
interpretations of fitrah (Mohamad, 1996) but for the sake of brevity and purpose of this chapter
we will discuss only the “positive” interpretation of fitrah, i.e. human beings are innately good.
There is also the “dualistic” view, which proclaims that humans are both innately good and evil.
There are three dimensions in the positive view of fitrah: linguistic, religious and pre-existential.
The linguistic meaning of fitrah refers to a person’s tabiya or mizaj, which is the innate nature
that exists in all human beings and is unalterable. In the religious dimension, al-fitrah is
considered as a natural predisposition of a person to accept the Oneness of God (Al-Tawhid) or
that a person is born with an innate faculty to know God. The pre-existential or metaphysical
dimension refers to the notion that fitrah existed before the creation of humans meaning that God
created fitrah so humans could acknowledge Him as the One and Only God who has power over
everything. The Quran testifies that God brought forth from the loins of the children of Adam
and made them testify that He is their Lord (Quran 7:172). Islamic psychology stresses that
nothing can erase human fitrah and for those who have buried it, it can be revived. Man’s pre-
existential fitrah is superior to his earthly existence because the physical is ephemeral and
spiritual permanent. The spiritual condition of man also affects his physical condition in various

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ways. The dualistic dimension of fitrah indicates two equal tendencies of good and evil that are
dynamic and have potentials to take humans to higher levels in harmony with the pre-existential
fitrah and also to lower levels that may wipe out the purity inherent in one’s original fitrah as a
result of negative thinking and social influences. Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406), the celebrated Arab
philosopher and sociologist, attributed the rise and fall of Arab civilizations to fitrah and
maintained that religion alone can bring humans closer to their pre-existential nature.

The Nature of Human Soul

The Quran testifies that humans are both body and soul or a physical and spiritual being at the
same time. The knowledge of soul given to humans is very little, yet (s)he is capable of arriving
at some knowledge of God as the object of worship (Quran, 17:85). What this means, is that true
knowledge has to do with the realization of the covenant which bounds human beings to God and
to the primordial covenant taken by all offspring of Adam to be duty bound to One God (7:172).
This is al-fitrah as discussed above. The word human in Arabic translates to insan, which is
derived from nasiya meaning forgetfulness. Humans therefore forget their covenant with God
and this is the cause of disobedience to God in this world leading to all kinds of problems in life
including certain kinds of psychological distress. God has equipped humans with powers and
faculties to distinguish between right and wrong. These characteristics distinguish humans from
other creatures that do not possess that level of intellect (aql) and free-will (iradah). The terms
heart, soul, spirit and intellect convey two meanings. The first refers to the physical entity and
the second to the non-material or spiritual entity of human existence (Rahman, 1975). Also from
the first quality originates the “animal instincts” that may come in conflict with intellectual and
spiritual instincts. The Quran states that humans are created in the best of molds but without true
faith and good works they can become worse than the beasts (7:179 or/and 25:44). It is against
these animal instincts that Prophet Muhammad cautioned humans asking them to fight against
the evil inside oneself, calling it jihad al-akbar or the greater struggle. The second meaning of
heart, soul, spirit and intellect refers to the ultimate and metaphysical reality of humans and their
essence, hence the tradition that “whoever knows himself knows his Lord.” It is said that when
the soul inclines towards al-firah, peace descends upon it and this state in the Quran is called the
tranquil soul or nafs al-mutmainnah (89:27). The soul also vacillates between spiritual qualities
affirming loyalty to God and at the same time is drawn towards animal instincts. This vacillation
of the soul is called the nafs al-lawwamah (75:2). It is possible by means of knowledge and good
works to tame the animal instincts and if one cannot do this, a person may appear human in
shape and construction but cut-off from fitrah, thus enticing soul to the depths of bestiality and
this condition of the soul is called nafs al-ammarah bissu (12:53). This understanding of the
nature and dynamics of human soul is essential to appreciate the indigenous Islamic perspectives
of psychology. Some scholars have also elaborated on the different levels or stages of nafs as
follows:

1. Nafs Ammara (the commanding self): the first stage in the development of humans where
the rational self and conscience is overtaken by carnal desires and expresses itself in
selfishness, arrogance, oppression of others, lack of gratitude, stinginess, envy, anger,
laziness, etc.

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 2. Nafs Lawwamah (the blaming self): the second step in the development where one
becomes aware of one’s actions and differentiates between right and wrong yet unable to
stop oneself from wrong doing.
3. Nafs Mulhima (the inspired self): the third stage in which the good begins to predominate
in the constant struggle of the previous two levels but the dangers of reverting back to the
earlier stages is possible.
4. Nafs Mutmainnah (the secure self): the fourth stage in development where one has
entered the first station of spiritual development and has completed one’s faith and level
of self. In this stage, the evil forces of nafs shrink and purity dominates the heart so it
becomes the secured self.
5. Nafs Radiyyah (the content self): the fifth stage wherein as the secure self ascends to
Allah, the lights of the heart increase and it is totally content with its Lord. Hardships and
ease are same to it as it is happy that every action is from Allah alone. There is perfect
harmony of which he is aware and there are no possibilities of error as he is the master of
his nafs.
6. Nafs Mardiyya (the gratified self): the sixth stage where the nafs is not only content with
its Lord but gratified by Him.
7. Nafs Kamiliya/Nooraniyah (the purified self): This final stage of development of the self,
which is the level of completeness of servant hood to Allah and called the station of
beauty or Maqam al-Ihsan.

Significance of the Heart, Intellect and Freewill

The heart (qalb) in Islamic psychology is the metaphysical entity that is symbolically the seat of
the true self, the repository of the soul and the core of human personality. It is the heart through
which an individual grasps the ultimate knowledge and metaphysical truth; it is our true
existential and intellectual center, where contemplation takes root and is therefore, considered
more significant than intelligence (Ahmad, 2009). It is also referred to as the organ of volition
and intention. Human behaviors are considered reflections of the psycho-spiritual processes
taking place in the heart, where sense perception can be supplemented to glean the true meaning
of what we see physically. The ultimate object of all sensory observations is to open the eyes of
the heart so it can perceive the Reality of the Oneness of God, hence there are those who have
hearts with which they understand not, eyes with which they see not, and ears with which they
hear not… (7:179). In another verse, the Quran asks “Have they never journeyed about the earth,
letting their hearts gather wisdom, and causing their ears to hear. Verily it is not their eyes that
have become blind—but blind has become their hearts that are in their breasts…” (22:46). The
Quran asserts that it came down upon the “Prophet’s Heart” (2:97) and God reveals Himself to
the heart, which knows Him, the spirit which loves him, and the soul that contemplates Him.
There are various terminologies used in Quran regarding the characteristics of the human
heart. Qalb mutmainnunbil-iman (a heart pacified with faith), qalbim-munib (a heart moving
towards God), qalbin-saleem (the righteous and the pure heart) are expressions of a healthy
heart, and the negative conditions are called amraz al-qalb or diseases of the heart. Humans
carry within themselves good and evil tendencies and they are in constant struggle due to
opposite dispositions. If the heart is not God-conscious, the evil disposition becomes strong. The
complacency of the good and dominance of the evil can destroy the capacity for spirituality and
inner vision to realize one’s fitrah and improve one’s self. According to some Muslim scholars,

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the heart is divided into three types: the healthy heart, the dead heart and the sick heart. A
healthy heart is cleansed from passion for all things that God forbids and follows the injunctions
given in the Quran. The dead heart does not know or worship its Creator in the way it is
commanded by Him and the sick heart knows the commandments of its Creator but it suffers
from illnesses resulting from a lust for the fleeting pleasures of this world. Thus the hadith,
“there is a piece of flesh in your body (referring to the heart) that if it is sick, the whole body is
sick.”
It is said that the intellect and evil in humans work simultaneously to regulate the
material desires (shahwa) but in opposite directions. The intellect also works towards the growth
and development of the self and if the functions of heart and intellect are compatible with al-
fitrah, they will subdue the animal forces within us, but in cases where evil tendencies prevail,
the intellect gets weakened and its functions and potentials are paralyzed. In such scenarios,
human intellect is used to fulfill the impulses and gratifications of the material world and in the
end, veiled over by animal passions; the heart becomes totally blind, losing sight of the real and
the ultimate good for one’s self. Thus a direct command from the Quran is “…don’t be like those
who forgot God and eventually He caused them to forget themselves…” (59:19). The terms used
in the Quran are ta`aqqul and tadabbur with respect to the heart’s cognitive processes. A heart
that does not engage itself in deep and reflective thought is described as one that has “gone
blind.” Freewill (iradah) is another concept that refers to the choice of belief and actions in
accordance with fitrah and the accountability for not doing so. The purpose of all these concepts
and their dynamic interplay is to demonstrate their existence and relation to human behaviors and
mental processes from Islamic perspectives.

The concept of man as a small world

Based on the Islamic worldview of the Oneness of God (Al-Tawhid), the spirit, the soul and the
material world, some notable Islamic scholars considered humans as a microcosm of the universe
as their physical and spiritual nature corresponds to that of the universe and once the humans
realize this, they will come to know the world and its Creator. Humans as possessors of both
body and soul have both animal and angelic qualities. The animal nature is reflected in behaviors
of certain animals and the purity of soul is reflected in angelic character and aspects akin to the
rational faculty by which reality can be apprehended. Implicit in this concept is a respectful
attitude of the universe because the universe reflects something of the divine; the contemplation
of it will lead oneself to the knowledge of God.

The Concept of Jinn, Satan and Evil Eye

The belief in Jinn, Satan and evil eye is part of Islamic creed and its influence on psychological
processes and mental health is seen throughout the Muslim world. Jinn is part of God’s creation,
separate from man and the angels, but share certain human qualities like intellect, freedom to
choose between true and false, right and wrong, good and bad, and so on. Among the Jinn, there
are believers and non-believers. According to Islamic belief, Jinn are made of smokeless fire and
dwell generally in deserted places, ruins, in the air and in fire and also possess bodily needs
similar to humans. Jinn are mentioned in the Qur’an and the possibility of possession by the Jinn
is also mentioned in verses 52:29, 68:2, 81:22. The treatment of possession by Jinn is very
common in the Muslim world.

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 Satan (Shaitaan) is the Arabic name of Devil, whose primary work is to incite humans to
commit evil through deception. This is known as “whispering into the hearts” and referred to in
many places in the Quran and Islamic texts. While all humans are created with a pure soul and in
a positive state of fitrah, it is through one’s own free will that humans fall prey to the
enticements of Satan. This leads humans to not only deviate from fitrah but invite all kinds of
psychological and emotional distress and disorders. This happens with all people including the
believers who relinquish their beliefs and surrender to the temptations from Satan.
The concept of evil eye is based on the Islamic doctrine and backed by traditions of the
Prophet. The idea of evil eye is that when someone looks at something beautiful and fails to
recognize the Creator by offering some form of verbal praise, such as subhanAllah (Glorified is
God), or is envious, God can create harm in that particular thing. It affects an individual in the
same manner as poison or any harmful medicine and the person needs to seek a cure from and
protection against it. When it does not afflict the envied, it is because of the preventive methods
taken by the person in reciting the last three chapters of the Qur’an and a verse entitled
ayatulkursi in advance before going to bed and after the morning prayers.

Perspectives of Early Muslim Scholars

The written accounts on the description of human nature by early Muslim scholars can be found
as early as 800 AD and then onwards until year 1100 (Haque, 2004). The key element in Islamic
psychology was its emphasis on findings ways to cure and heal rather than just theorize and the
works of the early Muslim scholars underpin many of the modern techniques. While there are
many who contributed in the debates on philosophy of mind and soul, a few names deserve
mention.
Al Kindi wrote his books On Sleep and Dreams, First Philosophy, and The Eradication of
Sorrow, on how to use cognitive strategies to combat depression. Al Tabari was a pioneer in the
field of child development, which he elucidated in his book Firdaus Al-Hikmah. Al Farabi wrote
his treatise on social psychology, most renowned of which is his Model City. Ibn Sina in his
famous book Al Shifa discussed mind, mind-body relationship, sensation, perception and other
related aspects. Ibn Sina also gave psychological explanations of certain somatic illnesses. Ibn
Bajjah based his psychological studies on physics. He explained intelligence as the most
important ability and wrote many essays on sensation and imagination. Ibn Tufail gave a unique
concept of man as Hayy bin Yaqzam which shows that man has enough powers to reach the
ultimate truth with the help of Quran and Sunnah. Al-Ghazali examined human nature in great
detail and found that all psychological phenomena originate with the self. He described in detail
the nature of soul and causations of psychopathology. Yahya Ibn Massawayh, Abu Zayd Hunayn
and Ishaq bin Imran, all wrote monographs on melancholia, emphasizing the benefits of
psychotherapy. Al-Razi wrote Kitab al-Hawi discussing different types of melancholia,
hypochondria, and effects of temperament on personality, lethargy, madness (junun),
schizophrenia (hadhayan), various forms of insomnia, mental confusion (iqtitlat), and delirium.
He described in great detail the causation, symptoms and treatment of these disorders and
credited for coining the term “ilaj-al-nafsani.” Abul Hasan Ali Ibn Abbas Al Majusi in his book,
Kitab al-Malaki, wrote about sleeping sickness, loss of memory, and coma. Abu Bakr Rabi wrote
a book named Al Muta’alimuna fi al-Tibb in which he discussed nerves, nature of the brain, its
form and functions, symptoms of brain disorders, emotional disorders and sleep disorders. Al-
Balkhi wrote in detail about rational and cognitive therapies for anxiety, depression, anger,

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panic, and obsessive disorders. In Islamic perspective, the ability to maintain a positive
occupational, familial, and social life may not be equated with positive mental/spiritual health.
However, the presence of positive character traits and behaviors are indicative of positive mental
health. Additional symptoms of mental illness that are not equated with mental disorders in
Western literature may include addiction to wealth, fame, status, ignorance, arrogance,
cowardice, cruelty, lust, avarice, deceit, etc. hence, a large part of Islamically adherent lifestyle
includes the necessity of gaining self-awareness into the internal experiential realities of the self.

The Dynamics of Nafs, Aql, Ruh and Qalb

On the conceptualization of the human soul, Al-Ghazali explained that there are four aspects of a
person that signify his/her spiritual identity. These are the nafs, aql, ruh and qalb. All of these
are intertwined and influence man in their behavior, present and future (see table 1; figure 1).
The nafs is like the ego that gives rise to reactions to the environment that have been acquired
through the lifespan. They may be reflective of an animalistic side of the individual at its lowest
untrained level. Many spiritual healers liken the nafs to an animal that if it is untrained may not
be very pleasant. However, if one were to train an animal it can be of service to its master. The
nafs is somewhat similar to Freud’s conception of the id. However, from the Islamic perspective,
the nafs is not intrinsically bad. Rather, it acquires an automaticity stemming from the
development of the self. That is, if it learns good habits, it will be of service to the individual,
and if it learns bad ones, it can be a barrier to growth.
The aql is the rational faculty of man and it is home to logic, reason, and acquired
intellectual beliefs. The ruh is the spirit of man that, if kept healthy, allows one to live a
meaningful and wholesome life. Finally, the qalb is the heart, sometimes used synonymously
with “self” and “soul.” Sicknesses of the heart are often indications of sickness of the whole. The
heart is where the effects of the other three elements manifest. The heart may also contain hidden
blemishes such as jealousy, envy, and pride, that are results of the evil inclinations of the nafs,
the aql remaining either dormant to the nafs, or lacking good reason and malnourishment of the
spirit. In order to remove these sicknesses of the heart, one must work toward modifying the
inclinations of the nafs toward good, restructuring and acquiring positive/moral thoughts in the
aql, and feeding the spirit through remembrance of God. The objective is to have an intrinsically
motivated holistic manner of being as opposed to the selfishly motivated desire to avoid God’s
punishment or social sanction by doing what is minimally acceptable. This would be working
toward the adornment of faith by attempting to exemplify the garb of the life of the Prophet
(sunnah) by acting upon supererogatory worship and behavior.

Table 1. Elements of the human being and its corresponding effects

Parts of the human being/soul Effect

Aql – Cognition Heart – The holistic consolidation and
 Reason expression of all three elements. Manifest
 Logic personality. Sicknesses or the perfection of any
 Thoughts one of the elements to the left will cause
 Beliefs blemishes or enhancements of personality in
 Knowledge the heart and effect self-presentation.
Nafs – Acquired automatic tendencies of the - Narcissism

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human being. - Arrogance
 Eyes - Jealousy
 Hands - Envy
 Genitalia - Deceit
 Mouth - Self-consciousness
 Ears - Kindness
 Appetite - Openness
 Desires - Shyness
Ruh (spirit)- Experiential, transcendental - Modesty
elements - Etc.
 Emotions – adaptive emotions that
propel toward the good.
 Unconscious
- Dreams
- Visions
- Catharsis
- Sudden awareness
 Wisdom
 Purpose
 Meaning

Adapted from Keshavarzi, H. and Haque, A. (2013)

Figure 1. Circular causality of effects among the elements of the human being

Aql

Heart

Nafs Ruh

Six-Step Model for Self-Improvement

So while there are consequences of negative effects of the nafs on the heart, what can one do to?
Ghazali (1853/1986) suggested the following a six-step method of treatment:

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  Musharata (“shart” = stipulation): to make a contract or agreement with oneself toward
meeting the identified goals.
 Muraqabah (“raqab” = guard): to guard or reflect over one’s actions.
 Muhasabah (“hisab” = account): to take an ongoing self-account of one’s actions.
 Muaqabah (“raqabah” = punish): to consequate oneself for failing to keep up with the
self-agreement or contract.
 Mujahadah (“jhad” = strive): to strive to overcome the desire of the lower nafs.
 Muataba (“atab” = repent): to regret for making an error and vowing not to make the
same mistake(s).

Ghazali’s emphasis is on keeping a watchful eye on one’s thoughts and behaviors to ensure
success of the self-contract. He explained that one can view one’s life as a “business,” which can
bring gain or loss depending on one’s conduct in relation to the six steps. The more conscious
one is and the more one applies these stages in one’s daily life, the more positive gains one can
make in one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, thereby improving the overall quality of nafs
(Haque & Keshavarzi, 2014).

Conclusion

This chapter covered a brief outline of the major concepts in Islamic psychology and the
contributions of some early Muslim scholars on human nature and ways of treating distressful
psychological conditions. Why Islamic psychology never took off as a discipline is beyond the
scope of this chapter and one can only hope that with increasing interest in indigenous
psychologies around the world, proponents of Islamic psychology will continue their research on
the valuable works of early scholars and Islamic texts in order to synthesize, analyze, and
develop a comprehensive theoretical model for understanding and treating psychological
conditions from an Islamic perspective.

References

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Explanation. In A. Haque and Y. Mohamed (Eds.) Psychology of Personality: Islamic
Perspectives. Pages 183-194.Cengage Learning.
Haque, A. and Keshavarzi, H. (2014). Integrating traditional healing methods in therapy:
Enhancing cultural competence in working with Muslims in the West. International
Journal of Culture and Mental Health. 7(3), 297-314.
Haque, A. (2004). Psychology from an Islamic perspective: Contributions of early Muslim
scholars to psychology and the challenges to contemporary Muslim psychologists.
Journal of Religion and Health. 43:4, 367-387.
Haque, A. (2006). Psychotherapy and Soul-searching: Responses to the Spirituality Roundtable.
Psychoanalytic Perspectives: A Journal of Integration and Innovation. 4:2, 49-58.
Haque, A. (1998). Psychology and Religion: Their Relationship and Integration from Islamic
Perspective, The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 15, 97-116.
Keshavarzi, H. and Haque, A. (2013). Outlining a Psychotherapy Model for Enhancing
Muslim Mental Health within an Islamic Context. International Journal for
Psychology of Religion. 23:230-249.

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Mohamed, Y. (1996). Fitrah: The Islamic Concept of Human Nature, 194 pages, Ta-Ha
Publishers, Ltd.
Rahman, F (1975). The Philosophy of Mulla Sadra Shirazi: Nature of the Soul, SUNY Press.

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