Chemical Additions

Drinking Water
Operator Certification Training
Module 21:
Chemical Addition
March 2017
This course includes content developed by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection
(Pa. DEP) in cooperation with the following contractors, subcontractors, or grantees:
The Pennsylvania State Association of Township Supervisors (PSATS)
Gannett Fleming, Inc.
Dering Consulting Group
Penn State Harrisburg Environmental Training Center
MODULE 21: CHEMICAL ADDITION
Topical Outline
Unit 1 – Chemicals Used in Water Treatment
I. Chemical Uses in Water Treatment

A. General Overview
B. Chemical Uses
II. Chemical Usage Table
Unit 2 – Safety and Handling
I. Safety Data Sheet

A. Availability
B. Contents
II. Chemical Handling Equipment

A. Selection of Equipment
B. Labels and Warning Signs
C. Breathing Protection
D. Protective Clothing
E. Protective Equipment
Unit 3 – Chemical System Components
I. Feed Systems
A. Liquid chemical feed system components
B. Mechanical diaphragm metering pump components
C. Dry chemical feeders
D. Solving detention time problems
II. Jar Testing

A. Overview
B. Preparation
C. Conducting the Test
III. Dry Chemicals

A. Calculating the pounds of dry chemicals to prepare a % solution for a day tank
Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection

Drinking Water Operator Certification Training i
B. Solving feed rate problems using Davidson pie
IV. Liquid Chemicals

A. Chemicals – Active Strength/Active Ingredient Weight
B. Perform process control calculations including calculating:
1. “Active ingredient” weight
2. Weight of “active chemicals” within a drum
3. Total weight of a gallon of a % solution
4. Drum weight of a % solution
5. Using “active ingredient” weight to convert feed rate of lbs/day to gal/day
6. Theoretical pump output
V. Pump Calibration
A. Steps in Developing a Pump Calibration Curve
B. Calculating # of gallons used in 8 hours from a pump setting
C. Pump Calibration Operator Tips
D. Optional Class Activity: Pump Calibration Workshop
VI. Gas Feeders
A. Direct feed
B. Solution feed
C. Feed rate equation
Unit 4 – Chemical Feed System Schematics
I. Chemical Storage
A. Adequate Supply
B. Storage Areas
II. Dry Chemical Feed Systems

A. Storage Facilities
B. Feed Equipment
C. Accessory Equipment
III. Liquid Chemical Feed Systems

B. Feed Equipment

Drinking Water Operator Certification Training ii
IV. Polymer Feed Systems

B. Feed Equipment
V. Gaseous Chemical Feed Systems

B. Feed Equipment
Appendix
A. EPA Incompatible Chemical Storage Fact Sheet

B. Extra Math Problems
C. Homework

Drinking Water Operator Certification Training iii
Unit 1 – Chemicals Used in Water Treatment
Learning Objective
 When given a source water problem, participants will be able to identify on the Chemical Usage
Table those chemicals used to address and correct the problem in the treatment of drinking water.
Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-1

Drinking Water Operator Certification Training
CHEMICAL USES IN WATER TREATMENT
General Overview
Use of chemicals in the treatment of water is not new.
Historically
 Chlorine was reported to have been added to drinking water as early as 1835 to control foul
odors in the water.
 Chlorine was proven as an effective disinfectant in the 1890’s.
 The Louisville Water Company introduced a new treatment technology combining coagulation
with rapid-rate filtration in 1896.
 Chlorination as disinfection was first practiced at a U.S. public water supply in 1908.
Requirements for improved treatment have resulted in greater chemical use during recent years.
Currently
Water Treatment Plants are being designed and operated using chemicals for improving both process
performance and finished water quality.
Chemical Uses
The current practice of adding coagulants, pH adjustment chemicals, oxidants, disinfectants, alum, and
polymers during the water treatment process results in improved process performance and, ultimately,
enhanced finished water quality.
Coagulation
Definition: The clumping together of very fine particles into larger particles (floc) caused by the use of
chemicals (coagulant chemicals). The chemicals neutralize the electrical charges of the fine particles
and cause destabilization of the particles. This clumping together makes it easier to separate the
solids from the water by settling, skimming, draining or filtering.
Types of Coagulant Chemicals
Primary Coagulants Coagulant Aids

 Primary Coagulants: neutralize the electrical charges of particles in the water which causes
the particles to clump together. Primary coagulants are always used in the
coagulation/flocculation process.
 Coagulant aids: add density to slow-settling flocs and add toughness to the flocs so that they
will not break up during the mixing and settling process. Coagulant aids are not always
required and are generally used to reduce flocculation time.
 Coagulant chemicals are either metallic salts (such as alum or ferric) or polymers. Polymers
are man-made organic compounds made up of a long chain of smaller molecules. Polymers
can be cationic (positively charged), anionic (negatively charged) or nonionic (neutrally
charged).
 Common primary coagulant chemicals and their corresponding pHs are listed in Table 1.1.
o Aluminum Sulfate (alum) is very widely used.

o Poly Aluminum Chloride (PAC) has some advantages particularly for coagulation of
“difficult” waters.
o Ferric chloride and sulfate are aggressive, corrosive, acidic liquids; even more so than
aluminum salts.
Table 1.1
Common Primary Coagulant Chemicals
Type Chemical pH
Dry Alum (Aluminum Sulfate) 3.3-3.6
Aluminum Salts Liquid Alum (Aluminum Sulfate) 2.1
Poly Aluminum Chloride 1.8
Ferric Chloride less than 2
Iron Salts
Ferric Sulfate 1

pH Adjustment
Definition: pH is an expression of the intensity of the basic or acidic condition of a liquid.

Mathematically, pH is the logarithm (base 10) of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity. The pH
may range from 0 to 14, where 0 is most acidic, 14 is the most basic, and 7 is neutral. Natural waters
usually have a pH between 6.5 and 8.5.
 pH is the measure of the hydrogen ion strength. At equilibrium, the hydroxyl and hydrogen
ions are present in equal numbers and the water is considered neutral.
 The balance of the H+ and OH- determines the pH of the water. Adding an acid to neutral
water increases the number of hydrogen ions, conversely adding a base will increase the
number of hydroxyl ions.
H+ > OH- = acidic solution
H+ < OH- = basic solution
H+ = OH- = neutral solution
 Like the acidic coagulants listed above, other chemicals in water treatment affect pH.
Table 1.2
If you add The pH will be: raised/lowered
Potassium hydroxide KOH
Nitric Acid HNO3
Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Hydrated Lime
Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)3
Slaked Lime
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4
Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
AKA: Caustic Soda
Soda Ash Na2CO3
Hydrochloric Acid HCl

 pH is the single most important parameter in water treatment. Practically every phase of water
treatment is pH dependent. The pH of a water system is usually dynamic and a change in
water chemistry will often be reflected by a change in pH.
Iron and Coagulation

Manganese Efficiency
Removal
pH
Disinfection
Corrosion Efficiency
Control
Treatment
Disinfection
By-product
Creation

Alkalinity
Definition: the capacity of a water to neutralize acids. This capacity is caused by the water’s content of
bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxide.
 A system’s ability to maintain stable water chemistry seems to be influenced by the alkalinity
concentration of its water.
 Generally, alkalinity should be 20 mg/L or above to give sufficient buffering (prevent pH from
changing). Without sufficient buffering, pH control is very difficult.
 The amount of alkalinity in the source (raw) water is generally not a problem unless the
alkalinity is low.
 Alkalinity is needed to provide anions, such as (OH) for forming insoluble compounds to
precipitate them out. Alkalinity can be naturally present or may need to be added. However, it
is important to note that 1 part alum uses 0.5 parts alkalinity and 1 part ferric chloride will
consume 0.92 parts alkalinity for proper coagulation.
 Sodium bicarbonate (Bicarbonate Soda) will make water more alkaline. It can be used when
you only want to increase the alkalinity.
 pH adjustment chemicals may also increase alkalinity. Therefore, alkalinity may be increased
by the addition of lime, caustic soda or soda ash.

Taste and Odor Control
Taste and odor in drinking water are among the most common and difficult problems that confront
waterworks operators. And most customers judge their water quality by taste and odor. Ironically,
many harmful contaminants cannot be detected by the taste or odor of the water and many of the
tastes and odors that are detected are not harmful. However, the extensive public relations difficulties
resulting from taste and odor make it important to treat these problems. Sources of taste and odor
problems can be found in ground and surface water.
 Prevention of taste and odor is considered the best way to treat taste and odor.
o Source water protection is the best way to prevent taste and odor issues.
 Protect supply from contaminants such as gasoline, industrial solvents, and
volatile organics.
o Many taste and odors come from algae growth.
 Source water protection can help reduce algae growths from pollution from
domestic waste, run-off from fertilizer and animal, domestic and industrial
waste.
 Use copper sulfate in reservoirs to prevent algae growth.
o Possibly use chlorine shock treatments to avoid algae growth in treatment plant
basins.
o Periodically flush distribution system and ensure adequate chlorine to keep pipes
clean and odor free.
 Treatment of taste and odor compounds can be accomplished through the use of various
chemicals which are added to remove tastes and odors. There are two general methods for
controlling tastes and odors.
o Removal of the causes of the tastes and odors can be accomplished through:
 Optimum coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation.
 Degasification / Aeration are practical solutions for taste and odor when the
problem is cause by volatile compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide.
 Adsorption with activated carbon.
o In most cases, oxidation is the best way for controlling taste and odor problems.
Oxidation/Destruction can be carried out with the following chemicals:
 Potassium permanganate is a very strong oxidant. A dosage range of 0.1 to
0.5 mg/L can control taste and odor problems.
 Ozone is effective in oxidizing taste and odor compounds. Ozone changes
the characteristics of the taste and odor in addition to reducing the level of the
odor producing compounds.
 Chlorine dioxide, sodium chlorite, chlorine and sodium hypochlorite are also
effective methods of taste and odor control.

Removal of Trace Elements and Heavy Metals

Water may need softened to remove excess hardness caused by calcium and magnesium.
Additionally, iron and manganese are undesirable because they will cause undesirable color in water
and stain clothes and plumbing fixtures. There are three processes by which these removals are
accomplished.
 Oxidation
 Improved Coagulation/Flocculation/Sedimentation
 Lime Softening

Corrosion Control and Sequestration

Corrosive water is characterized by pH and alkalinity values that are somewhat lower than they should
be for the water to be considered “stable”. Corrosive water can cause the materials it comes in contact
with to deteriorate and dissolve into the water.
 Chemical Treatment of Corrosive Water

o Stabilizing the water is often the simplest form of corrosion control.
 As pH increases, corrosion decreases.
 As alkalinity increases, corrosion decreases.
 Add alkalinity in the form of lime, soda ash, or caustic soda to make
the water stable or slightly scale-forming.
o The second type of corrosion control treatment is the use of corrosion inhibitors.
 Corrosion inhibitors are specially formulated chemicals that:
 Form thin protective films on pipe walls which can prevent corrosion.
 Can be used to control scale build up.
 Types of inhibitors include:
 Phosphate inhibitors (polyphosphates, Orthophosphates, Ortho/Poly
blends)
 Silicate Inhibitors
 Sequestering
o Polyphosphates are also sequestering agents:
 They keep iron, manganese and calcium in solution thereby preventing the
formation of precipitates that could deposit scale or cause discoloration.

Fluoridation
 Fluoride compounds are voluntarily added to some drinking water systems in Pennsylvania.
Water systems may decide to fluoridate a water supply as a public health measure to reduce
the number of dental cavities in children who drink the water. Fluoride is not required by EPA
or DEP.
Disinfection
Disinfection kills or inactivates disease-causing organisms in a water supply. Methods of disinfection
include chlorination, chloramines, ozone, and chlorine dioxide. There are two kinds of disinfection:
 Primary disinfection achieves the desired level of microorganism kill or inactivation.
 Secondary disinfection maintains a disinfectant residual in the finished water that prevents the
regrowth of microorganisms.
Residuals Management
Sludge conditioning prepares sludge for further processing.
 Addition of lime, coagulants or polymers

CHEMICAL USAGE TABLE

Active
Weight Best Batch
Chemical Chemical Common Available Commercial Chemical
lb/ft3 or Feeding Strength
Name Formula Use Forms Strength Strength
lb/gal Form lb/gal
lb/gal
Odor Control Dry to
Activated Carbon C Organics Powder 12 lb/ft3 100 form slurry 1.0 1.0
Removal (1)
Lump,
Granular, Dry to
Aluminum Sulfate 60 – 75
Al2(SO4)3 · 14 H2O Coagulation Rice, 98% form 0.5 0.5
(Alum) lb/ft3
Ground, solution
Powder
Aluminum Sulfate 11.1 lb/gal
Al2(SO4)3 · X H2O Coagulation Liquid Liquid 5.48 Neat
(Liquid Alum) (SG = 1.33)
Liquefied
Ammonia NH3 Disinfection 40.0 lb/ft3 100% Gas NA NA
Gas
Ammonium
NH4OH Disinfection Liquid Liquid Neat
Hydroxide
Blended Varies with Corrosion Powder, Per
Varies Varies Varies varies
Phosphates manufacturer Control Liquid Manufacturer
Calcium
pH Adjustment 20 – 50 Dry to 0.93 0.93
Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Powder 82 – 95%
& Coagulation lb/ft3 form slurry (10% slurry) (10% slurry)
(Hydrated Lime)
Lump, Granules ¼ - ¾ inch
70 – 96%
Pebble, 68 – 80 pebble 1.4 – 3.3
Calcium Oxide pH Adjustment (below 85% 0.93
CaO Granular, Powder (Slaker) (Slaker)
(Quick Lime) & Coagulation can be poor (10% slurry)
Ground, 32 – 50 Feed as (2.1 avg)
quality)
Pellet lb/ft3 slurry
Disinfection,
Liquefied
Chlorine Gas Cl2 Taste & Odor 91.7 lb/ft3 100 Gas NA NA
Gas
Control
11.2 lb/gal
Ferric Chloride FeCl3 Coagulation Liquid 35 – 45% Liquid 4.40 Neat
(SG = 1.4)
Dry to
5.5 lb/gal
Ferric Sulfate Fe2(SO4)3 · X H2O Coagulation Granules 70 72 lb/ft3 68 – 76% form 5.5
max
solution

CHEMICAL USAGE TABLE (cont’d.)

Active
Weight Best Batch
lb/cu ft or Feeding Strength
lb/gal Form lb/gal
lb/gal
Hydrofluosilicic 10.1 lb/gal
H2SiF6 Fluoridation Liquid 15 – 30 % Liquid 1.77 Neat
Acid (SG = 1.2)
Varies with Corrosion Powder, Per
Orthophosphates Varies Varies Varies varies
manufacturer Control Liquid Manufacturer
Disinfection, Generated on
Ozone O3 Taste & Odor Gas Site @ 0.5 – Gas NA NA
Control 1.0%
Poly Aluminum 10.1 lb/gal
Coagulation Liquid Liquid 3.3 Neat
Chloride (SG = 1.2)
Coagulation,
Flake,
Sludge Varies with Varies with
Varies with Powder, Varies with Varies with Per
Polymers Conditioning, polymer & polymer &
polymer Liquid, polymer polymer Manufacturer
Wastewater application application
Emulsion
treatment
Varies with Corrosion Powder, Per
Polyphosphates Varies Varies Varies varies
manufacturer Control Liquid Manufacturer
Iron &
Dry to
Potassium Manganese 86 – 102
KMnO4 Crystal 97% form 0.5 0.5
Permanganate Removal, lb/ft3
solution
Odor Control
Dry to
Sodium pH Adjustment Granular, 59 – 62
NaHCO3 99% form 0.3 0.3
Bicarbonate & Coagulation Powder lb/ft3
solution
11.1 lb/gal
Sodium Bisulfite NaHSO3 Dechlorination Liquid Liquid 3.2 – 3.5 Neat
(SG = 1.33)
Sodium Dry to
pH Adjustment Granular, 50 – 70
Carbonate Na2CO3 98% form 0.25 0.25
& Coagulation Powder lb/ft3
(Soda Ash) solution
Disinfection, Crystals, Dry to
65 – 75
Sodium Chlorite NaClO2 Taste & Odor Powder, 80% form 0.12 - 2.0 0.12 – 2.0
lb/ft3
Control Flakes solution

CHEMICAL USAGE TABLE (cont’d.)

Active
Weight Best Batch
lb/cu ft or Feeding Strength
lb/gal Form lb/gal
lb/gal
Disinfection,
10.26 lb/gal
Sodium Chlorite NaClO2 Taste & Odor Solution 25% Liquid 2.08 Neat
(SG = 1.23)
Control
Granular, Granular
65 – 100
Sodium Fluoride NaF Fluoridation Crystals, 95 – 98% to form 0.08 – 0.2 0.08 – 0.2
lb/ft3
Powder solution
Dry to
Sodium Hexa- Corrosion 65 – 100
(NaPO3)6 “Glass” 67% form 1.0 1.0
Meta Phosphate Control lb/ft3
solution
pH Adjustment Flake, Dry to
45 – 70
Sodium Hydroxide NaOH & Lump, 99% form
lb/ft3
Coagulation Powder Solution
pH Adjustment 6.38 for
Sodium Hydroxide 12 – 75
NaOH & Liquid 12 – 50% Liquid 50% Neat
(Caustic Soda) lb/gal
Coagulation solution
Disinfection,
Sodium 1.0 – 1.25
NaOCl Taste & Odor Liquid 10.1 lb/gal 12 – 15 % Liquid Neat
Hypochlorite as Cl2
Control
Dry to
Sodium Silica Granular, 60 – 105
Na2SiF6 Fluoridation 98.5% form 0.017 0.017
fluoride Powder lb/ft3
solution
Dry to
Powder, 50 – 100
Sodium Sulfite Na2SO3 Dechlorination 93 – 99% form 0.25 – 0.5 0.25 – 0.5
Crystal lb/ft3
solution
Dry to
Sodium Crystal, 53 –60
Na2S2O3 · 5 H2O Dechlorination 98 – 99% form 0.1 0.1
Thiosulfate Rice lb/ft3
solution
Liquefied
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 Dechlorination 89 lb/ft3 100 Gas NA NA
Gas
14.2 lb/gal
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4 pH Adjustment Liquid Liquid 11.08 Neat
(SG = 1.7)

CHEMICAL USES IN WATER TREATMENT REVIEW QUESTIONS
Exercise
Fill in the blank
1. _________________: The clumping together of very fine particles into larger particles (floc)
caused by the use of chemicals. The chemicals destabilize the fine particles.
2. _____________________: Add density to slow settling flocs and toughness to the flocs so that
they will not break up during the mixing and settling process.
3. ___________: an expression of the intensity of the basic or acidic condition of a liquid.
4. ___________________: The capacity of a water to neutralize acids.
5. ___________________and ___________________ may cause excessive hardness, therefore

water may need softened.
6. ______________________ ______________: keep iron, manganese, and calcium in solution

thereby preventing the formation of precipitates.
7. ______________ _____________ achieves the desired level of microorganism kill or inactivation.
8. ___________________ _______________ maintains a disinfectant residual in the finished water

that prevents the regrowth of microorganisms.
9. Complete the following table indicating if the pH will be raised or lowered

If you add: The pH will be raised or lowered
1. NaOH
2. Aluminum Sulfate
3. Ca (OH)2
4. Sulfuric Acid
5. H2SiF6
6. Ferric Chloride
7. Na2CO3
Use the Chemical Usage Table to complete questions 10 and 11.

CHEMICAL USES IN WATER TREATMENT REVIEW QUESTIONS
10. List the chemicals you might add to control odor. Include the chemical name and best feeding form
for each.
11. Name several chemicals which might be added during the coagulation process. Include examples
of coagulants and other chemicals that will change the water characteristics to promote
coagulation.

UNIT 1 KEY POINTS
Various chemicals are used in the treatment of water. Chemicals can be a solid, liquid, or gas.
Coagulation is the clumping together of very fine particles into larger particles (floc) caused by the
use of chemicals.
Chemicals used to increase pH are KOH, Ca(OH)2, Ca(OH)3, NaOH, Na2CO3
Sodium bicarbonate (Bicarbonate Soda) will make water more alkaline. It can be used when you
only want to increase the alkalinity.
pH adjustment chemicals may also increase alkalinity. Therefore, alkalinity may be increased by
the addition of lime, caustic soda or soda ash.
Aluminum salts and ferric salts can have low pH values and will therefore decrease the pH of raw
water.
It is important to know what a chemical does in water treatment so that the incorrect chemical is not
used.
By using the correct amount of chemicals in water treatment operator and public safety is protected
while a quality water supply is produced.
Taste and odor chemicals include potassium permanganate, ozone, chlorine dioxide, sodium
chlorite, chlorine and sodium hypochlorite

Unit 2 – Safety and Handling
Learning Objectives
 When given a Safety Data Sheet and specific chemical names, identify specific information related
to chemical characteristics and other information provided.
 List the five components of Chemical Handling Equipment.

SAFETY DATA SHEET
Safety Data Sheets (formerly MSDS)

A Safety Data Sheet, or SDS, is available from the chemical manufacturer/supplier for every chemical. For
years, these sheets were commonly known as MSDS for Material Safety Data Sheet. However, the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Hazard Communication Standard of 2012
(HazCom 2012) mandates the use of a single format for safety data sheets featuring 16 sections.
You should read and understand the SDS for each chemical used in the plant. You should also maintain a
personal copy for all hazardous chemicals that are used.
An SDS contains detailed assessments of chemical characteristics, hazards and other information relative
to health, safety and the environment. The SDS includes:
 Section 1, Identification
 Section 2, Hazard(s) identification
 Section 3, Composition/information on ingredients
 Section 4, First-aid measures
 Section 5, Fire-fighting measures
 Section 6, Accidental release measures
 Section 7, Handling and storage
 Section 8, Exposure controls/personal protection
 Section 9, Physical and chemical properties
 Section 10, Stability and reactivity
 Section 11, Toxicological information
 Section 12, Ecological information
 Section 13, Disposal considerations
 Section 14, Transport information
 Section 15, Regulatory information
 Section 16, Other information, includes the date of preparation or last revision.

SAFETY DATA SHEET
Example of an SDS – Fluorosilicic Acid (Fluoride) Figure 2.1

SAFETY DATA SHEET

SAFETY DATA SHEET

SAFETY DATA SHEET

SAFETY DATA SHEET

SAFETY DATA SHEET

SAFETY DATA SHEET
Activity – Reading an SDS
Use the SDS on the previous pages to complete the following.
1. True or False – Fluorosilicic acid is an eye and skin irritant, but does not affect the respiratory
system.
2. Is fluorosilicic acid flammable Yes/No
3. Protective clothing and equipment to be worn when handling fluorosilicic acid includes which of the
following?:
a. Rubber apron
b. Rubber gloves
c. Face shield
d. Dust mask
5. What is the specific gravity of fluorosilicic acid? _______
6. Which of the following is fluorosilicic acid incompatible with?
a) Metals
b) PVC
c) Glass
d) Ceramics

CHEMICAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT
The chemicals used at a treatment facility are harmful not only to system employees but also visitors;
contractors and anyone else close the facility. The first step in protection is to understand the five
components to Chemical Handling Equipment. Next is to develop an Emergency Response Plan.
The components of Chemical Handling Equipment are: Selection of Equipment, Labels and Warning
Signs, Breathing Protection, Protective Clothing, and Protective Equipment.
Five Components of Chemical Handling Equipment
1. Selection of Equipment
When handling chemicals use equipment listed on the SDS.
2. Labels and Warning Signs
Labels
 All containers, whether used to store, dispense, process, or transport chemicals, should bear some
form of precautionary labeling.
 The label should identify the chemical and its potential hazards.
Signs
 Warning signs should be used to alert employees to hazardous conditions.
 Three basic sign forms:

o Warning signs – depict general nature of hazard
o Regulatory signs – “No Smoking,” “Eye Protection Required,” etc.
o Pictorial signs for required personal protective equipment

3. Breathing Protection
 Select breathing protection based on exposure.
 Provide adequate protection for the given working condition.

o Use Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA)/ National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) approved equipment.
 Considerations:
o Level of airborne contamination.
 Use appropriate filter for specific contaminant exposure.
o Type of work activity and exposure.
o Presence of sufficient oxygen.
 Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) for oxygen deficient atmosphere.
o Store SCBA equipment upwind from suspect chemicals and in a known location.
4. Protective Clothing
 Select protective clothing based on the chemical to be handled.
 Materials should be compatible with the required protection.

o Boots, Gloves, Apron
o Protective chemical safety goggles
o Face shield
5. Protective Equipment
Emergency Preventative
 Emergency eye wash stations  Dust Collectors
 Deluge Showers  Leak monitoring and detection equipment
 Exhaust fans

6. Protective Chemical Storage
 Avoid storing and handling incompatible chemicals in close proximity to each other. The EPA fact
sheet in the Appendix provides practical guidance on the dos and don’ts of chemical storage at a
water treatment plant.

Emergency Response Planning
An emergency response plan (ERP) must be developed to help a system protect public health, limit
damage to the system and the surrounding area, and help a system return to normal as soon as possible.
Employees who are prepared know what actions must be taken in the event of an emergency. A good
ERP includes:
 Contact information – who do you need to call in the event of an emergency.

o Internal Organization
o Outside Contact Information
 Assessment of available resources – what equipment do you have on hand that can help during an
emergency situation?
 Corrective actions for probable emergency situations – this would include descriptions of
emergency measures to be taken.
The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection has a template you may use to develop an
ERP. “Emergency Response Plan Template for Water Suppliers (3800-FM-WSFR0300) - Water suppliers
can use this template to address all emergency response plan elements required under Chapter 109.707
including new requirements that became effective May 9, 2009 when the PN revisions were published.
This template includes 8 sections. “
Remember, ERP’s must:
 Be simple and understandable.
 Be updated annually – this is a living document, people change, numbers change!
 Be placed in secure locations – can it be located when needed?
 Practiced – will it work when put to the test?

SAFETY DATA SHEETS REVIEW QUESTIONS
Exercise
1. Operators are expected to keep a copy of each ____________ _____________ ____________

with regard to each of the hazardous chemicals used at their treatment facility.
2. List the three basic types of warning signs used and an example of how it will alert employees to
hazardous conditions.
Sign Alert
1.
2.
3.
3. What types of protective clothing may be used with the various chemicals handled? Circle all that
apply.
A. Boots
B. Gloves
C. Apron
D. Goggles
E. Face Shield
4. List 3 components of a good Emergency Response Plan

A.
B.
C.

UNIT 2 KEY POINTS
The single most important resource for finding information about a chemical is the Safety Data
Sheet (SDS).
When using chemicals, protections are necessary. These protections include labels, signs, and
safe chemical handling equipment. Not all chemicals require the same protections.
A good Emergency Response Plan contains contact information, an assessment of available

resources to be used in the event of an emergency in addition to corrective actions which describe
the types of emergency measures to be taken.

Unit 3 – Chemical Feed System Components
Learning Objectives
 Review chemical feed system components and the associated purposes.

 Perform detention time calculations.
 Determine the feed rate through jar testing.
 Perform process control calculations including:
o Adding dry chemicals to produce a % solution for a day tank
o Solving feed rate equations for dry and liquid feed chemicals
o Using specific gravity to calculate the weight of a chemical and the weight of the “active
ingredients” within a solution.
o Calculating theoretical pump output
o Converting a pump output in mL/min to gal/day to develop a pump calibration curve.

CHEMICAL FEED SYSTEMS
Feed Systems
This section discusses chemical feed systems. Chemical feed systems are necessary components of
treatment systems. As discussed, there are several chemicals which need fed into treatment systems;
some of those chemicals are fed through solution feeders and some are fed through dry feeders.
Feed systems are an important aspect of the treatment process. Feed systems need to deliver chemicals
into the treatment system at rates necessary for optimal performance. When designing a chemical feed
system consider:
1. Building redundancy into the system so if there is a failure or malfunction in the primary
system, a secondary system can be used.
2. Checking the feed pump dosage range. Feed pumps should be sized so that chemical
dosages can be changed to meet varying conditions.
3. Evaluating the condition of the chemical feed system regularly. Preventative maintenance
is critical for avoiding process upsets due to equipment breakdown.
4. Ensuring a good stock of repair parts for all critical equipment.
The proper knowledge of a chemical feed system is an essential part of controlling treated water chemistry.
Since there are various techniques for feeding chemicals, an operator must know the type of chemical
being used and the amount to be fed over a certain period of time. An illustration of a properly designed
liquid chemical feed system is demonstrated in figure 3.2. Definitions/descriptions of each part follow.

Components of a Liquid Chemical Feed System
Flow
6. Injector Assembly
5. Pulsation Damper
4. Four – Function Valve

*Anti - Siphon
*Backpressure Relief
*Pressure Relief
*Priming Function
3. Calibration
Cylinder
7. Metering
Pump
Shut Off Valves
1. Chemical
Storage
Foot Valve
2. Suction Assembly
Suction Strainer
Figure 3.2

Description of Components of a Liquid Chemical Feed System
1. Chemical Storage Containers – Chemicals that are shipped from the manufacturer may be
stored in containers that have many different shapes and sizes depending on the type and amount
of chemical that was shipped. Primarily there are two types of storage containers used; one would
be a chemical drum and the other might be a chemical storage tank.
A. The chemical drum is used primarily when the solution is fed neat (undiluted).
B. A day tank is used to store, dilute and mix chemicals.
1. All chemical storage tanks should have some type of measuring device to let the
operator know the amount of chemical that is in the storage tank at all times.
2. Chemical spill containment should be provided to contain accidental spills of

chemicals.
2. Suction Assembly – Should be suspended just above the bottom of the tank so as not to pull in
any solids that might have settled to the bottom of the tank. The suction assembly consist of:
A. Suction Strainer – A strainer is used to protect the internal components of the pump.
B. Foot Valve – This is a check valve that is used to prevent the pump from losing prime.
3. Calibration Cylinder – A calibration cylinder consists of a graduated cylinder typically located on

the suction side of the pump. It is used for accurate determination of the pump’s feed rate.
4. 4-Function Valve - A valve can be used to not only control flow, but the rate, the volume, the
pressure or the direction.
A. Pressure relief valve – When line pressure exceeds the set pressure, the diaphragm
moves the valve stem off the seat of a pressure relief valve and dissipates the excess
pressure.
B. Backpressure Valve – A backpressure valve consists of an adjusting spring loaded

diaphragm. It maintains a steady backpressure to ensure accurate delivery. Additionally,
a backpressure valve prevents over pumping when little or no backpressure is present.

C. Anti-Siphon Valve – Negative pressures can be produced in normally pressurized lines

due to power failures, draining of lines, inadvertent valve operation or fouled check valves.
The anti-siphon valve prevents siphoning of the chemical storage tank into the distribution
system when negative pressure is produced.
D. Priming Function – Simple way to prime your pump.
5. Pulsation Dampener – This is meant to offset surges created by the pulsating discharge pressure
encountered when using either a piston or diaphragm metering pump. This helps a system combat
water hammer (clanging of pipes caused by a change in direction of flow when a pump shuts off or
a valve is closed).
6. Injector Assembly - The art of chemical injection is complex.
A. Installation is determined by the chemical being fed. And the order of chemical addition is
important and should be specific to your system.
B. Location of the assembly is important for proper mixing. However, it also needs to be
placed so it does not become clogged with passing debris that may be in the system.
7. Liquid Chemical Feed Pump – Pumps are made up of 2 major components; the drive assembly
(motor) which provides power for the pumping action and the liquid end which is the area through
which the solution is pumped. Positive displacement pumps are used to pump a measured dose of
liquid chemical into a treatment system. While there are several types of positive displacement
pumps, the most common:
A. Peristaltic Pump – Used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a
flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing.
B. Diaphragm Pump – Used to pump a variety of fluids and is more common than a peristaltic
pump. Measures a liquid volume ensuring accurate delivery of a chemical solution.

How a Mechanical Diaphragm Metering Pump Works
Mechanical Diaphragm Metering Pump – The diaphragm pump is composed of the following:
 A chamber used to pump the fluid
 A diaphragm
 Two valve assemblies
Figure 3.3 shows the internal components of the pumping chamber when the pump is pulling chemical from
the storage container. The plunger moves to the left or inward, the discharge check valve closes, the
suction valve opens, and the chemical is pulled in to the chamber.
Valve Closed
Discharge Check Valve

(Outlet)
Plunger moves left
Diaphragm
Suction Check Valve

(Inlet)
Valve Open
Chemical pulled in
Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4 shows the internal components of the pumping chamber when the pump is pushing chemical
into the system. The plunger moves to the right or outward, the suction check valve closes, the discharge
check valve opens, and the chemical is pushed in to the system. The pumping cycle starts over at this
point.
Chemical pushed out
Valve Open
Discharge Check Valve

(Outlet)
Plunger moves right
Diaphragm
Suction Check Valve

(Inlet)
Valve Closed
Figure 3.4
Adjusting Chemical Feed Pump Dosage – The output of the pump is controlled by the length of the
plunger stroke and the number of repetitions of the stroke (the stroke and the speed).
 Changing the stroke is the way to make a major adjustment to a chemical feed system.
 Flow pacing may be used to control a metering pump. The main flow (usually of water) is
monitored by the flow meter which in turn controls a metering pump. In this way, a chemical can
be injected at a rate which matches the flow, for uniform concentration (the chemical feed rate is
proportional to the water flow). For example, a chemical feed pump will decrease proportionally as
plant flow decreases or vice versa.

Liquid Chemical Feed System Operation and Maintenance:
Proper design is important for a successful feed system but there is something that is even more critical:
operation and maintenance of feed systems. Chemical feed systems will give years of trouble free
operation if the following factors are considered:
1. Observe all operating components daily.
2. Maintain a regular schedule of maintenance on all equipment as per the manufacturer’s

recommendations.
3. Chemical metering pumps should be calibrated on a regular basis or when the operator suspects a
problem with the pump (pump calibration demonstration to follow).
4. Any leak throughout the system will cause a reduction in the amount of chemical solution pumped.
All leaks must be repaired as soon as they are discovered.
 If the pump appears to be operating, but the chemical feed is less than expected, suspect
a ruptured diaphragm.
5. The suction assembly on a chemical metering pump should be inspected and cleaned on a regular
basis as per the manufacturer’s recommendations.
6. All components that contact the chemical solution that is pumped should be disassembled, cleaned
and inspected as per the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Dry Chemical Feed Systems
Dry feeders are used for many purposes in a treatment facility. They can be used to feed lime, fluoride,
carbon, and potassium permanganate. A dry feeder measures dry chemical and mixes it with water in a
solution tank. The resulting solution is either pumped into the main water flow of the system or fed in using
an ejector. An ejector system uses the Venturi effect to create a vacuum and moves the solution into the
main water flow. The two basic types of dry feeders are volumetric and gravimetric feeders.
1. Volumetric Dry Feeders – Volumetric Dry Chemical Feeders are usually simpler to use, less
expensive to operate, less accurate dry feeders and feed a smaller amount of chemical. The
operation of this type of system is fairly simple. The chemical is usually stored in a silo above the
unit and each time the system needs to make a new batch of solution a feed mechanism (rolls or
screws) deliver exactly the same volume of dry chemical to the dissolving tank with each complete
revolution. Varying the speed of rotation varies the feed rate.
Figure 3.5

2. Gravimetric Dry Feeders – Gravimetric Dry Chemical Feeders are extremely accurate and can be
adapted to automatic controls and recording. However, they are more expensive than Volumetric
Dry Feeders. This is a belt-type feeder that delivers a certain weight of material with each
revolution of the conveyor belt. Because gravimetric feeders control the weight of material, not the
volume, variations in density have no effect on feed rate. This accounts for the extreme accuracy
of this type of feeder.
Figure 3.6
Dry Chemical Feed System Operation and Maintenance
1. Observe operating components daily.
2. Follow manufacturer’s recommendations when performing maintenance.
3. These units are feeding fine powdery chemicals therefore cleaning and inspection of all moving
parts should be conducted routinely.
4. After all preventative maintenance has been completed, proper calibration should be completed.

DETENTION TIME
Detention Time
A properly designed chemical feed system is used to feed various chemicals. However, it is important that
the optimum (best minimum) chemical dosage for the water you are treating is determined. Some chemical
dosages are easier to determine than others. Jar testing is required to help determine some chemical
dosages. However, design drawings may first be needed to help calculate expected detention times
throughout the system. Detention time data can then be used during jar testing.
Detention time indicates the amount of time a given flow of water is retained by a unit process. Detention
time can be calculated in any unit of time (i.e., seconds, minutes, hrs, days). It is calculated as the tank
volume divided by the flow rate:
Detention Time Equation
Theoretical Detention Time (minutes) = Volume of Tank (gallons)

Influent Flow (gpm) Volume units match = gallons
Time units match = minutes
There are two basic ways to consider detention time:
1. Detention time is the length of time required for a given flow rate to pass through a tank.
2. Detention time may also be considered as the length of time required to fill a tank at a given flow
rate.
In order to calculate the detention times of tanks, basins, or clarifiers, we must know the volume of the
container.
1. To calculate the volume of a rectangular tank or basin in cubic feet:

a. Volume, cu-ft = Length, ft x Width, ft x Depth, ft
2. To calculate the volume of a circular tank or clarifier in cubic feet:

a. Volume, cu-ft =0.785 x D2 x H (or depth of water) or 3.14 x r2 x H (or depth of water)
3. Frequently, we need the volume in gallons, rather than cubic feet:

a. Volume, gallons = Volume, cu-ft x 7.48gal/ft3
4. The time units (second, minutes, hours, days) in the influent flow must match the desired
detention time units.

DETENTION TIME
Example 3.1 – Detention Time Calculation
A sedimentation tank holds 50,000 gallons and the flow into the plant is 500 gpm. What is the detention
time in minutes?
Detention Time (time) = Volume =

Flow
A tank is 20 feet by 35 feet by 10 feet. It receives a flow of 650 gpm. What is the detention time in
minutes?
1. First must find volume (in gallons) then plug into Detention Time formula.
Volume, cu-ft = Length, ft x Width, ft x Depth, ft
2. Convert to gallons from ft3
Volume, gallons = Volume, cu-ft x 7.48 gal/ft3
3. Plug into: Detention Time (time) = Volume =

Flow
A flash mix chamber has a volume of 450 gallons. The plant flow is set at 5 MGD. What is the detention
time of the flash chamber in seconds? (Assume the flow is steady and continuous).
1. First, it is best to convert the flow rate from MGD to gps.
a. Convert MGD to GPD 5 MGD = _________________GPD
b. Convert GPD to GPS 5,000,000 _________________GPS

1440 X 60
2. Plug into: Detention Time (time) = Volume = 450 gal ______ seconds
Flow 58 gps

DETENTION TIME
A water treatment plant treats a flow of 1.5 MGD. It has 2 sedimentation basins, each 20 feet wide by 60
feet long, with an effective water depth of 12 feet. Calculate the Theoretical Sedimentation Detention Time
with both basins in service (in hours).
1. Step 1, find the volume of the two tanks. Note: to use the formula you have to have the volume in
gallons. So, what is the volume of the tanks in gallons?
Volume of something rectangular: L x W x D
You have two tanks to take into account
You have to convert to gallons
2. Step 2, the flow cannot be in million gallons. Keep the DAY units. Convert from MGD to gpd to
find our detention time in days. How do we do that? So, MGD to GPD – multiply by 1,000,000.
3. Step 3, plug our volume and our flow into the detention time formula.
D.T = Volume of Tank =

Flow
4. Last step, convert to hours.
Hours =
So, the theoretical detention time of the sedimentation tanks at a plant flow of 1.5 MGD is ___________

JAR TESTING
Jar Testing Overview
Precipitation is the chemical conversion of soluble substances (including metals) into insoluble
particles.
o Coagulation and flocculation cause a chemical reaction that promotes the formation and
agglomeration, or clumping of these particles to facilitate settling.
o The amount or dosage of a precipitant, coagulant, or flocculant needed to precipitate and
remove substances in water solutions is dependent on many factors. These include:
 Concentration of substance in solution
 Solution pH
 Chemical used to adjust the pH
 Different types (and concentrations) of substances present
 Amount and types of complexing agents present
 Amount of residual oxidizers present
 Coagulants and flocculants used
 Sequence in which chemicals are added
 Untreated waters may contain ingredients other than dissolved metals that will affect the treatment
technology.
Jar Testing is a laboratory procedure that simulates coagulation, flocculation, and precipitation
results with differing chemical dosages.
 The single most valuable tool in operating and controlling a chemical treatment process is the
variable speed, multiple station Jar Test Apparatus.
o Various chemicals and/or dosages can be tested simultaneously and the results compared
side-by-side.
o Tests are good indications of dosage and concentrations of treatment chemicals required, but
should be followed by full-scale laboratory testing.
Tests will only have meaning if the tested water exactly resembles the flow stream that will
ultimately be treated. A single batch of grab sample tests will rarely provide reliable information.

JAR TESTING
Preparation
In preparation for conducting Jar Tests, equipment, chemicals and procedures must be in place.
Recommended Equipment
 pH Meter – is used to identify the intensity of the basic or acidic strength of a solution. It is
measured on a scale of 0 to 14. The values 0 to 7 are in the acidic range, 7 to 14 are basic, and 7
is absolute neutrality. The pH meter measures the value.
 Turbidimeter – is used to measure turbidity.
 ORP Meter – is a piece of laboratory equipment used to measure the Oxidation-Reduction

Potential of a solution. ORP is a measure of the electrical potential required to transfer electrons
from one compound (the oxidant) to another compound (the reductant).
 Multi-station Jar Test Stirrer with containers or six 300 – 400 ml Beakers, clear plastic or glass.
Figure 3.7 Jar Test Stirrer Equipment
 Magnetic stirrer – is a stirring device used to mix chemicals and other solutions.
 Pipets, burettes, or eyedroppers for adding chemical reagents.
 Laboratory Type Filter.
 Metals Test Kit or a Spectrophotometer – equipment used to measure metal ion concentrations in
solution. The spectrophotometer measures light absorbance/transmittance of a sample.

JAR TESTING
Chemical Reagents
 Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda) solution – Basic solution used to raise pH. Actual testing should
be performed using the same chemical as will be used in the actual treatment process.
 Sulfuric Acid Solution – Acidic solution used to lower pH.
 Coagulants – Chemicals which neutralize the electrical charges of the small particles and which
are used to promote coagulation.
 Flocculants – Chemicals which add density and toughness to the floc. Often referred to as
“Coagulant Aids.”
 Polymers – Long molecular chain chemicals used with other coagulants to aid in formation of
strong floc.
Establish Test Procedures
 Prepare for test.

o Prepare fresh chemicals.
o Use test data sheets.
 Establish test sequence.

o Determine testing required—what combinations of chemicals will be tested.
 Establish dosage range.

o Compare raw water quality with past records and experience.
o Bracket expected “best” dosage (i.e. – if 15 mg/l of alum is expected to be best, test 5, 10,
15, 20, and 25mg/l).
o Maintain one container during each run as a Control (no chemicals added).
o Change only one variable (i.e. pH adjustment chemical dosage) during each test run.
 Any noted changes in test results are then due to the change in that single variable.
 Perform multiple runs if multiple variable changes are necessary.

JAR TESTING
Conducting the Test
General Guidance for Conducting Jar Testing
 Fill the Jar Testing Apparatus containers with sample water.
 Add test coagulant chemical to each container at selected dosages.
 Stir at high speed for 30 seconds to distribute chemical.
 Reduce stirring speed and continue mixing for 15 to 20 minutes.
 Turn off mixers and allow containers to settle for 30 to 45 minutes.
 Evaluate test results in each container—visual evaluation or measure turbidity with turbidimeter.
 Rate of floc formation.
 Floc formation should begin shortly after high speed mixing.
 Floc should gradually clump together during slow mixing period.
 Type of floc.
 Discrete, dense floc particles settle better than light, fluffy floc and are less subject to
shearing (breaking up of the floc).
 It is desirable to have smaller amounts of sludge to reduce sludge handling and
disposal requirements.
 Floc settling rate, the rate that floc settles after mixer is stopped, is important.
 Floc should start to settle as soon as mixing stops.
 Settling should be 80 to 90 percent complete in 15 minutes.
 Floc remaining suspended longer than 15 minutes is not likely to settle in the plant.
 Clarity of settled water—quality of floc is not as critical as quality or clarity of settled water.
 Hazy water indicates poor coagulation.
 Properly coagulated water contains well formed floc particles with clear water between
the floc.
 Repeat test as necessary to “fine tune” required chemical dosage.
 Use test results to compute chemical feeder settings.

FEED RATE EQUATIONS
Dry Feeders
“Dry Chemical Solution Day Tanks”
A day tank is used to store a limited supply of diluted chemical solution to be fed into the treatment system.
The solution in a day tank can be diluted to a specific concentration (strength). The solution consists of two
parts: the solute and the solvent.
1. Solute: The dry product that you are adding or the amount of dry product in a concentrated
solution.
2. Solvent: The liquid which is dissolving the solute.
Solute
Solvent
Example Dry Feed Solution Tank Mixing
How many pounds of dry chemical must be added to a 50 gallons day tank to produce a 0.5% solution?
Hint: Every gallon of water weighs 8.34 pounds.
? lbs = Weight of water X Tank volume (gals) X % Solution (as a decimal)
Example Dry Feed Solution Tank Mixing
How many pounds of dry chemical must be added to a 35 gallon tank to produce a 2% solution?

FEED RATE EQUATIONS
Jar testing is used to determine a chemical dosage. Once the chemical dosage has been determined, the
feed rate can be calculated.
Feed Rate is the quantity or weight of chemical delivered from a feeder over a given period of time.
A feed rate can have different units of expression, such as lb/day, lb/hr, lb/min, lb/sec, mg/L.
Often, determining a feed rate involves time and weight conversions.
Flow Rate is the amount of water being treated daily at a facility. It is measured and reported in
millions of gallons per day (MGD).
Chemical feed rate calculations involve four primary considerations: chemical product strength, product
feed rate, plant flow and dosage (determined by jar testing). The feed rate can be calculated using a
common formula:
“The Pounds Formula”
Chemical Feed Rate in Pounds = Plant Flow in MGD x Dosage mg x 8.34

Day L
“Davidson Pie Chart”
Feed Rate
Lbs
Day
MGD 8.34
Dose
mg
L
To Use the Davidson Pie Chart:

1. To find the quantity above the horizontal line, multiply the three numbers below the horizontal line.
2. To solve for one of the wedges on the bottom, simply cover that pie wedge (either Flow or Dose),
multiply the remaining 2 bottom wedges, then divide the feed rate by the product of the
denominator (bottom) multiplication.
3. You can only do this if the given units match the units in the pie chart. If they do not, conversions
are necessary before you can use the pie chart.
4. Using this chart alone is only applicable to 100% strength chemical products.

FEED RATE EQUATIONS
Davidson Pie Diagram Interpretation and Formulas
This diagram can be used to solve for 3 different results: dosage, feed rate, and flow (or volume).
As long as you have 2 of those 3 variables, you can solve for the missing variable.
Davidson Pie Interpretation

Middle line = divided by (÷)
Bottom diagonal lines = multiply by (x)
In other words, here are the 3 equations that can be used with these variables:
1. Feed Rate, lbs/day = Flow (MGD) or Volume (MG) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34 (which is the density
of water)
2. Flow (MGD) = lbs/day ÷ (Dosage, mg/L x 8.34)
Vertical Format: Flow(MGD) = Feed Rate (lbs/day)

[Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34]
3. Dosage (mg/L) = lbs/day ÷ (Flow, MGD x 8.34)
Vertical Format: Dosage (mg/L) = Feed Rate (lbs/day)

[Flow(MGD) x 8.34]

FEED RATE EQUATIONS
Example Dry Feed Rate Calculation
How many pounds of lime are needed for a desired dosage of 17 mg/L when the average daily plant flow is
200 GPM?
Feed Rate
? Lbs
Day
200 GPM – must convert
to MGD
? MGD 8.34
200 x 1440 = _____MGD
1,000,000 Dose
17 mg
L
Chemical Feed Rate in Pounds = Plant Flow in MGD x Dosage mg x 8.34

Day L
= 0.288 X 17 X 8.34
= ______________ lbs/day
What would the feeder output be in lb/hour?
lbs/hr = lbs/day ÷ 24 = ______________ lbs/hr
This is 100% strength dry chemical, what if we are using a liquid chemical?

LIQUID FEED: ACTIVE STRENGTH & ACTIVE INGREDIENT WEIGHT
Chemicals – Active Strength
Active Strength is the percentage of a chemical or substance in a mixture that can be used in a
chemical reaction.
 Active strength of liquid chemicals must be known.

o Different strength chemicals can be purchased.
 Caustic Soda commercially available at 25 to 50% NaOH
 Calcium Hypochlorite is commercially available at 65 to 70% chlorine
In addition to knowing that solutions are not 100% pure (i.e., 100% active), we also need to determine the
weight of the “active ingredients” within that solution.
Active ingredient weight is the number of pounds of “active ingredient” per gallon of a % solution
that cause a chemical reaction. It is calculated using the specific gravity of the chemical and the %
solution.
 Active ingredient weight differs with different chemicals.

o 25% Sodium Hydroxide @ 2.66 lb active/gallon
o 50% Sodium Hydroxide @ 6.38 lb active/gallon
o Aluminum Sulfate (Liquid Alum) @ 5.48 lb active/gallon

Calculating the Active Ingredient Weight of a % Solution Chemical
EXAMPLE: How many pounds of caustic soda are there in a gallon of caustic soda that is 50% pure that
has a specific gravity of 1.53?
Step 1: Solve weight equation (lbs/gal) for 1 gallon of chemical
Weight, lbs/gal = (Specific gravity of substance) x (weight of a gallon of water)
1.53 x 8.34 pounds = 12.76 pounds

gallon gallon
Step 2: Determine the “active ingredient” weight of the caustic soda based on the % purity of
solution
a) Convert % purity of solution into a decimal:
50% = 0.50
100%
b) Multiply the weight of a gallon by the % purity of the product (as a decimal).
12.76 pounds x 0.50 = 6.38 pounds of caustic soda in a gallon of 50% caustic soda solution
gallon
This “active ingredient” weight provides the pounds of active strength ingredients that are found in each
gallon of 50% caustic soda solution. Within the 12.76 pounds of 50% caustic solution, there are 6.38
pounds of active ingredients.
 The active ingredient weight of same chemical may differ with different shipments.
o The active ingredient weight should be tested periodically.
 Measure specific gravity and compare with known values.
 Specific gravity is the weight of a particle, substance, or chemical solution in relation to
the weight of an equal volume of water (the weight of water is 8.34 pounds/gallon).

Calculating the Weight of the “Active ingredient” of a % Solution Chemical

Practice Problem: How many pounds of caustic soda are there in a gallon of caustic soda that is 25%
pure that has a specific gravity of 1.28?
Step 1: Solve weight equation (lbs/gal) for 1 gallon of chemical
Weight, lbs/gal = (Specific gravity of substance) x (weight of a gallon of water)
1.28 x 8.34 pounds = _______ pounds

gallon gallon
Step 2: Determine the “active ingredient” weight of the caustic soda based on the % purity of
solution
a) Convert % purity of solution into a decimal:
25% = _______
100%
b) Multiply the weight of a gallon by the % purity of the product (as a decimal).
10.67 pounds x 0.25 = _______ pounds of caustic soda in a gallon of 25% caustic soda solution
gallon
This “active ingredient” weight provides the pounds of available caustic soda that is found in each gallon of
25% caustic soda solution. Within the 10.67 pounds of 25% caustic solution, there are 2.66 pounds of
active ingredients.

We can use this same approach to calculate how many pounds of “active chemicals” there are in a drum.
Weight Calculation of “Active Chemicals” within % Solution in a Drum
Example Problem: How many pounds of chemical are there in a 55 gallon drum of liquid alum if the
product is 48½ percent pure with a specific gravity of 1.33?
? lbs of active ingredient within drum = Tank or Drum Volume X SG X 8.34 X % solution as a decimal.
? lbs of active ingredient within drum = 55 gal X 1.33 X 8.34 X 0.485 = 295.8 lbs of active ingredient (alum)
within the 48.5% solution
Practice Problem: How many pounds of chemical are there in a 55 gallon drum of sodium hypochlorite
that is 12½ percent pure with a specific gravity of 1.15?
? lbs of active ingredient within drum = Tank or Drum Volume X SG X 8.34 X % solution as a decimal.
? lbs of active ingredient within drum = 55 gal X 1.15 X 8.34 X 0.125 = _______ lbs of active ingredient
(chlorine) within the 12.5% solution
Total Weight Calculation of a single gallon of a % Solution
The measured specific gravity of the 11% strength Ferric Chloride delivered to your plant is 1.38. Find how
much each gallon weighs.
Weight, lbs/gal = (Specific gravity of substance) x 8.34 (weight of water)
? lbs of ferric chloride = 1.38 x 8.34 lbs = _____ lbs

gal gal gal
We can also use the same approach to calculate the total weight of a drum or tank.
Drum Weight Calculation of a % Solution
How much does a 55 gallon drum of zinc orthophosphate weigh if the SDS says the specific gravity of zinc
orthophosphate is 1.46.
Drum Weight, lbs = (gallons of drum or tank) x (SG) x (8.34 lbs/gal)
? Drum weight, lbs = 55 x 1.46 x 8.34 = 671 lbs

Specific gravity is used in two ways:
 To calculate the total weight of a % solution (either as a single gallon or a drum volume).
Total Weight = Drum Vol X SG X 8.34
 To calculate the “active ingredient” weight of a single gallon or a drum.
Active Ingredient Weight within Drum = Drum Volume X SG X 8.34 X % solution as a decimal.
(i.e., Total Weight X % solution as a decimal)
NOTE: Both ways start with solving for the total weight (Drum Vol X SG X 8.34). When solving for
“active ingredient” weight, you have to then multiply by % solution as a decimal.
Now let’s show you how to use this “active ingredient” weight to convert a liquid feed rate calculation from
“lbs/day” to “gal/day.

Using “Active Ingredient” Weight to Convert Feed Rate from lbs/day to gal/day
Example: A water plant uses sodium hypochlorite (12%) to disinfect the water which provides 1.2 lbs/gal
of available chlorine (“active ingredient” weight). The required dosage is 2.5 mg/L. They treat 118,000
gallons per day. How many gallons of sodium hypochlorite will need to be fed?
Step 1: Convert flow in gallons (per day) into MGD so that the feed rate (lbs/day) formula can be used.
? MGD = 1 MG X 118,000 (gal) = 0.118 MGD

1,000,000 gal 1 day
Step 2: Solve for pounds per day (feed rate) for 100% pure chemical (no impurities).
? pounds per day = flow x dose x 8.34 = (0.118)(2.5)(8.34) = 2.46 pounds of chlorine is required.
Step 3: Use “active ingredient” weight with unit cancellation steps to convert lbs/day to gals/day
Active Ingredient Feed Rate of 100% pure

Weight of 12% hypo chlorine NOTE: Inverted weight
solution so that gallon unit was in
numerator to position the
numerator
?gal = 1 gallon x 2.46 lbs = 2.05 gal
day 1.2 lbs day day
NOTE: When you are given the “active ingredient” weight of a solution to solve a feed rate
problem, you do not need to use the % purity factor because it was used in the weight calculation.

Practice Problem: A water treatment plant uses liquid alum for coagulation. At a plant flow rate of 2.0
MGD, an alum dosage of 12.5 mg/l is required. The alum has an “active ingredient” weight of 5.48
lb/gallon. Compute the required alum feed rate in gallons/day.
Step 1: Solve for pounds per day (feed rate) for 100% pure chemical (no impurities).
Using the formula pounds per day = flow x dose x 8.34 = (2)(12.5)(8.34) = ______ pounds of liquid alum.
Step 2: Use “active ingredient” weight with unit cancellation steps to convert lbs/day to gal/day
Active Ingredient Weight

of liquid alum Step 1 Feed Rate of 100% pure alum
?gal = 1 gallon x ___lbs = ____ gal

day 5.48 lbs day day
NOTE: When you are given the “active ingredient” weight of a solution to solve a feed rate
problem, you do not need to use the % purity factor because it was used to derive the “active
ingredient” weight.

THEORETICAL PUMP OUTPUT
Theoretical Pump Output
Using the maximum pump output from the dataplate of a pump, you can determine the theoretical pump
output.
Pump Output = Maximum Pump Output x % Speed x % Stroke
For example, if a 24 GPD pump is set at 80% stroke length and 100% speed, the theoretical pump output
would be:
Pump output = 24.0 gal x 1.0 x 0.80 = 19.2 gal

day day
When choosing a pump for a facility, you want a pump that can maintain a stroke between 20% and 80%
and keep the speed setting high.
Practice – Theoretical Pump Output
An operator wants to estimate the approximate speed and stroke settings on a diaphragm pump that is
rated to deliver a maximum pump output of 24 gallons per day. The system needs to deliver approximately
15 gallons per day of sodium hypochlorite. Where would the speed and stroke need to be set?
This is a guessing game of sorts; however, go again with the concept of a higher speed setting and a
stroke setting between 20% and 80%.
Pump Output = Maximum Pump Output x % Speed x % Stroke

Pump Output = 24 gal X 0.90 X 0.70 = _____ gal
day day
This formula should only be used as an estimate. The values are accurate only when the pump is brand
new and under ideal conditions.
Because the output will change with wear and tear on the pump, pump calibration is still the most accurate
tool used to determine the pump’s output.

PUMP CALIBRATION
Chemical Feed Pump Settings

Feed Rate is the quantity or weight of chemical delivered from a feeder over a given period of time. The
chemical feed pump must be calibrated to deliver the selected dosage. A feed rate can have different
units of expression, such as lb/hr, lbs/day, mg/L, mL/min, or gal/day. Often, determining a feed rate
involves weight and time conversions.
Pump calibration is the process of measuring and recording the output at each dial setting. Once the data
is recorded, it offers a quick reference for adjusting the feed rate in response to varying water quality or
chemical demand.
 Feed pumps are calibrated with the use of a pump calibration curve.
 A new pump calibration curve should be constructed:
o At least once per year.

o If troubleshooting points to the need for a new pump calibration.
o If any maintenance is performed on the pump.
For start-up, an operator would construct a calibration curve for the full range of percent stroke settings
(20-100%) to determine the optimal pump setting.

PUMP CALIBRATION
Steps in Developing a Pump Calibration Curve

Step 1: Determine actual feed pump output.
 Operate feed pump over full operating range
 Determine actual pump output
Pump Setting Alum Pumped Time

(% Full Speed) (mL) (sec)
0 0 30
20 65.6 55
40 141.9 59
60 249.1 61
80 195.2 32
100 267.4 35
Figure 3.8 Liquid Feeder Operation Test Results – Alum Feed Pump Output
Here’s an example of the type of data you would collect for each stroke setting (20 – 100%)
LIQUID FEED PUMP CALIBRATION TABLE
% Stroke: __________
PUMP SPEED SETTING VOLUME (mL) TIME (min) FEED RATE

(mL/min)
20
40
60
80
100

PUMP CALIBRATION
To convert each pump speed setting into mL/min, use this equation:
?mL = 65.6 mL X 60 sec = 71.56 mL

min 55 sec 1 min min
?mL = 141.9 mL X 60 sec = 144.31 mL

?mL = 249.1 mL X 60 sec = 245.02 mL

?mL = 195.2 mL X 60 sec = 366 mL

?mL = 267.4 mL X 60 sec = 458.40 mL

Here’s an example of a completed liquid alum feed pump calibration table for 60% Stroke.
60% Stroke Pump Calibration Table
Alum
Pump Speed Feed Rate Feed Rate
Pumped Time (sec)
Setting (mL/min) (gal/day)
(mL)
0 0.0 30 0.00 0.000
20 65.6 55 71.56 27.2
40 141.9 59 144.31 54.8
60 249.1 61 245.02 93.1
80 195.2 32 366.00 139.1
100 267.4 35 458.40 174.2
Figure 3.9 Liquid Feeder Pump Calibration Table
Converting mL/min into gal/day:

For Pump Setting 20: ?gal = 1 gal X 71.56 mL X 1440 mins= 27.22 gal Note: 1440 = 0.38
day 3785 mL min day day 3785
For Pump setting 40= 0.38 X 144.31 = 54.83 gal/day

For Pump setting 80= 0.38 X 366 = 139.1 gal/day

PUMP CALIBRATION
Step 2: Develop feed pump calibration curve.
 Plot each Feed Rate (mL/min or gal/day) vs. Pump Speed setting on the graph.
 Connect each of the points together with a straight line.
PUMP: ______________________________ PUMP CALIBRATION CURVE DATE: _____________________
% Stroke: ____________________________
60
F 50
E
E
D
40
R
A
T
E
30
m
L 20
/
m
I
n
10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PUMP SPEED SETTING

PUMP CALIBRATION
Here’s the pump calibration curve for the data from Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.10 – Feeder Calibration Curve for 60% Stroke
Step 3: Select the pump speed setting from all the % stroke calibration tables that provides the
calculated feed rate.
The optimal pump setting would take into account:
 The dosage required.

 The manufacturer’s recommendations for minimum and maximum settings.
 The linearity of the “curves”. A more linear (straight) curve is better because changes to
settings will provide a more predictable change in feed rate (dosage).
 For the chemical you are feeding, consider if a higher pump speed will deliver the chemical
more consistently into the water stream and promote better chemical mixing.
Once the appropriate percent stroke setting has been determined, future calibration would only involve the
speed range (20-100) at that percent stroke.

PUMP CALIBRATION
Figure 3.11 – Feeder Calibration Curve for 60% Stroke
Question: Using this pump calibration curve, approximately what pump speed setting is required for a
plant that has a liquid feed rate of 40 gal/day? ________Speed Setting

PUMP CALIBRATION
Example – Liquid Feed Calculations
Using Figure 3.9, if the plant ran for 8 hours, determine how many mL the pump would deliver at a pump
setting of 20%. How many gallons would you expect to use?
60% Stroke Pump Calibration Table
Alum
Pump Speed Feed Rate Feed Rate
Pumped Time (sec)
Setting (mL/min) (gal/day)
(mL)
0 0.0 30 0.00 0.000
20 65.6 55 71.56 27.2
40 141.9 59 144.31 54.8
60 249.1 61 245.02 93.1
80 195.2 32 366.00 139.1
100 267.4 35 458.40 174.2
Figure 3.9 Liquid Feeder Pump Calibration Table
Pump Setting 20: Total Volume (mL) = 71.56 mL X 60 mins X 8 hrs = __________mL
min 1 hour
?Total Volume (gal) = 1 gal X 34,348.8 mL = ______ gallons

3785 mL

PUMP CALIBRATION
Operator Tips: Pump Calibration
 Pump calibration is conducted to determine the pump’s feed rate.
 A pump calibration curve is constructed to serve as a quick reference should the pump setting
need to be adjusted in response to varying water quality or chemical demand.
 The pump speed setting equals the number of strokes per minute. A pump calibration should
run for at least 50 strokes at each setting.
 If a calibration curve is constructed in ascending (increasing) order and a decrease in pump

output is required, the pump control dial(s) should be turned down below the desired setting
and then slowly increased to the appropriate setting. Q: Why? (Pump output is different going
up the scale than it is going down the scale. Output from 30 - 40 is different than 40 - 30.)

PUMP CALIBRATION
Optional Class Activity
Required Equipment for a Pump Calibration Using Calibration Column:
Ruler or straight edge

LMI chemical feed pump
Calibration column with adapter fittings
Discharge tubing
Calculator
Adjustable 8” wrench
400 ml beaker
Stop watch
Paper Towels
Safety glasses
Rubber Gloves
Bucket to collect discharge
Pump Calibration
A chemical feed pump must be adjusted to deliver a systems selected dosage (feed rate). The feed rate
determines how the chemical will be added to the water and could be expressed in terms of mL/min,
gal/day, or lbs/day. As discussed, feed pumps are adjusted with the use of a pump calibration curve.
The key to chemical feed is knowing where to set the dials on a mechanical diaphragm metering pump.
The dials are:
1. Length of the stroke – considered the major/best adjustment. This controls the displacement of a
fixed volume of chemical per stroke.
a. Dial setting from 0-100 percent.
2. Speed – controls the number of strokes per minute.
a. Dial setting from 0-100 percent.
During a pump calibration, each setting is measured and recorded. Once the data is recorded, it offers a
quick reference for adjusting the feed rate in response to varying water quality or chemical demand
changes.
Chemical feed pumps should be calibrated during start-up to determine the optimal pumping range. A new
pump calibration curve should be constructed:
 At least once per year
 If trouble shooting points to a need for a new pump calibration.
 If any maintenance is performed on the pump.

PUMP CALIBRATION
Procedure
1. Prime the pump.
A. Fill the calibration chamber with water.
B. Turn on the pump. Set the “Percent of Full Stroke” to 80% and the speed to 100%. (For
many pumps, the dial settings can only be adjusted while the pump is on. Do not adjust
the stroke length when the pump is not running. This can damage the mechanical
components of the stroke length.)
C. Allow the pump to run until water is pumped through the discharge tubing. Then, turn the
pump off. The pump is now primed.
2. Refill the chamber with water to the 0-0 (ml/min) level on the calibration column.
3. Re-check that the “Percent Stroke Length” setting is at 80%.
4. Record the starting volume of water in the calibration chamber.
5. Set the speed control to 20%.
6. Turn the pump on and allow the pump to run for three (3) minutes. Then turn the pump off.
7. Read the ending volume of the time the pump was allowed to run in the Liquid Feed Pump
Calibration Table.
8. Repeat steps 2-7 at speed settings of 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%. Record the results on the
Liquid Feed Pump Calibration Table. Note: allow the pump to run for (2) minutes at the speed of
40%. For all others (60%, 80%, and 100%), allow the pump to run for one (1) minute.
9. When all of the results have been recorded on the table, perform the following calculation to
determine the feed rate in ml/min:
A. Calculate the feed rate (ml/min) by dividing the volume pumped by the elapsed time. For
example, if 80ml’s were pumped in two (20) minutes, the feed rate would be:
Feed Rate (ml/min) = 80 ml = 40 ml
2 min
Liquid Feed Pump Calibration Table

% Stroke: 80%
Pump Volume Time Feed Rate
Speed (ml) (min) (ml/min)
Setting
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
10. Construct a calibration curve.
a. Plot each Feed Rate (ml/min) Vs Pump Setting on the graph.
b. Connect each of the points together with a straight line.

PUMP CALIBRATION
Construction of a Calibration Curve
Pump:______________ Date:________________
%Stroke: 80%
60
50
Feed Rate ml/min
40
30
20
10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Pump Feed Setting

Gas Feeders
Types of Gas Feeders
 Direct feed
o Gas is fed directly under pressure to flow stream to be treated
o Limited application
 Gas is distributed under pressure
 Leaks in piping result in gas escape
 Limited feeder capacity
 Solution feed (commonly referred to as vacuum-type feeders)

o Gas is drawn by vacuum through piping system
 Safer than direct feed—piping leak results in loss of vacuum and shut down of gas
supply
o Greater available capacity than direct feed systems
o Requires use of ejector to create necessary vacuum for operation

Feed Rate Equation
Tip Box
Feed rate calculation for gas is the same as for other chemicals.
Feed Rate (lb/day) = Flow Rate (MGD) x Chemical Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34 lb/gal
 Chemical dosage is dependent on the desired purpose. For example, Chlorine addition serves
many purposes in water treatment as illustrated below.
Purpose for chlorination Dosage Range (mg/l)

Algae Control 1.0 – 10.0
Ammonia (NH3-N) Removal 10 x NH3-N content
Color Removal 1.0 – 10.0
Disinfection:
With Combined Residual 1.0 – 5.0
With Free Residual 1.0 – 10.0
2.22 x S content to free sulfur
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) Removal
8.9 x S content to sulfate
Iron (Fe) Removal 0.64 x Fe content
Manganese (Mn) Removal 1.3 x Mn content
Slime Control 1.0 – 10.0
Taste & Odor Control 1.5 – 15.0
 Gas withdrawal from cylinders is limited and temperature dependent.

o 100 or 150 pound cylinders – 1 pound/day/°F
o Ton Cylinders – 8 pounds/day/°F
 If withdrawal exceeds these limits, evaporators are required.

o Liquid is withdrawn for cylinder and converted to gas by the evaporator.

UNIT 3 REVIEW QUESTIONS
Exercise
1. The suction assembly consist of:

A. ___________________ – Used to protect the internal components of a pump.
B. ___________________ – Used to prevent the pump from losing prime.
2. A __________________ is used for accurate determination of a pump’s feed rate. This is typically
located on the suction side of a pump.
3. Adjusting chemical feed pump dosage is controlled by:

A.
B.
4. A ______________________ has chemical stored in a silo above the unit and each time the
system needs to make a new batch of solution, a feed mechanism delivers exactly the same
volume of dry chemical to the dissolving tank.
5. A _________________ is a belt type feeder that delivers a certain weight of material with each
revolution of the conveyor belt.
6. _____________________ is a laboratory procedure that simulates coagulation, flocculation, and

precipitation results with differing chemical dosages.
7. _________________ is a percentage of a chemical or substance in a mixture that can be used in a

chemical reaction.
8. A pump calibration curve shows:

A. ____________________
B. ____________________
9. List three purposes of chlorine addition:

A. ______________________
B. ______________________
C. ______________________
10. A tank is 25 feet long, 15 feet wide and has 10 feet of water in it. Two wells pump into the tank; the
first well pumps at a rate of 150 gpm and the second well pumps at a rate of 75 gpm. What is the
detention time of the tank in hours?
11. A system is using “Aqua Mag” (specific gravity 1.34) to sequester iron and manganese in addition
to corrosion control. What is the weight of 30 gallons of “Aqua Mag”?
12. A treatment plant is feeding 25% caustic soda that has a specific gravity of 1.28. How many
pounds of “active ingredient” are there in the 55 gallon drum?

13. If a 24 gallon per day pump is set at 60% speed and 80% stroke, how many gallons per day should
the plant expect to feed?

UNIT 3 KEY POINTS
Once it is determined what chemical is needed for treatment, it must be determined how much
chemical must be applied.
A calibration cylinder is used to determine a pump’s feed rate.
The amount of chemical applied to a treatment system over a given period of time is called the
feed rate.
The most common types of positive displacement pumps are peristaltic and diaphragm.
In order to calculate feed rate, unit conversions may be necessary. Unit conversion is the process
of standardizing values in a calculation.
The output of a chemical feed pump is controlled by the length of the plunger stroke and the
number of repetitions of the stroke (stroke and speed).
An ejector system uses the Venturi effect to create a vacuum and move solution into the main
water flow.
A volumetric dry feeder uses a rotating feed screw to deliver a consistent volume of dry chemical
into a dissolving tank; varying the speed of the rotating feed screw changes the feed rate.
A gravimetric dry feeder uses a belt to deliver a certain weight of material with each revolution of a
conveyor belt.
A pump calibration curve graph shows chemical Feed Rates Vs Pump Settings.
Active Strength is the percentage of a chemical or substance in a mixture that can be used in a
chemical reaction. (i.e., 25%, 48.5%, 50%)
Active ingredient weight is the number of pounds of “active ingredient” per gallon of a % solution
that cause a chemical reaction. It is calculated using the specific gravity of the chemical and the %
solution.

UNIT 3 KEY POINTS
Suction assembly consists of a suction strainer (used to protect the internal parts of a pump) and a
foot valve (used to prevent the pump from losing prime).
Here are equations that operators need to use:
Detention time:
Rectangular Volume, cu-ft = Length, ft x Width, ft x Depth, ft
Circular Volume, cu-ft =0.785 x D2 x H (or depth of water)
Volume, gallons = Volume, cu-ft x 7.48gal/ft3
Detention Time = Volume

Flow
NOTE: The time units (second, minutes, hours, days) in the influent flow must match the desired detention
time units. Both volume and flow must be in the same units. (typically gals)
Adding dry chemicals to create a % solution:
Calculating Weight in lbs:
Calculating total weight of a single gallon of a solution, (lbs) = SG of substance X 8.34

Total Drum Weight, lbs = (gallons of drum or tank) X SG X 8.34
Calculating “Active Ingredient” Weight in lbs:
Single gallon = SG X 8.34 X % solution (as a decimal)

Drum = Drum Vol X SG X 8.34 X % solution (as a decimal)
Feed Rate:
Dry Feed Rate, lbs/day = Flow (MGD) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34 (100% strength chemicals)
Using “active ingredient” weight to convert lbs/day into gal/day = 100% Feed Rate
Active Ingredient weight
Theoretical Pump Output = Maximum Pump Output x % Speed x % Stroke

Unit 4 – Chemical Feed System Schematics
Learning Objectives
 Identify storage considerations for dry, liquid, and gaseous chemicals.

CHEMICAL STORAGE
Operators should maintain the proper tools and an inventory of spare parts necessary to repair chemical
feed equipment in the event of a malfunction. Typically, the required tools and spare parts are
recommended by the equipment manufacturer.
Adequate Supply
 Provide sufficient chemicals in storage to insure an adequate supply at all times.
 General Guideline – Provide a minimum chemical storage of the larger of:

o 30 day’s supply at average usage, or
o 10 day’s supply at maximum usage
Storage Areas
Chemical storage is located in the vicinity of feeders to avoid unnecessary handling and house keeping
problems. Depending on the chemical, storage will usually be in the same room as the feed equipment.
However, for gaseous chemicals (i.e. chlorine and ammonia) storage will usually be in an adjacent room or
outside the building at a location close to the feed room.
All liquid chemicals should be stored in spill containment areas. These are areas designed to retain the
contents of the largest storage tank should that tank burst and release the contents into the room.
Typically, 10% additional capacity is provided for a total containment of 110% such that the containment
area maintains a freeboard of unfilled space. Spill containment areas have special coatings which are not
affected by the stored chemical so that in the event of a major spill, all of the chemical is retained within the
designated area.
Dry chemicals should be kept dry either by storage in a silo (for bulk chemical storage) or on wooden
shipping pallets.

DRY CHEMICAL FEED SYSTEMS
Dry Chemical Storage Facilities

The type of storage facility for dry chemicals is dependent upon the quantity of dry chemical to be stored.
 Bulk silo storage for large amounts:

o Minimum 110% of maximum delivery quantity
 Bag Storage:
o Dry area on shipping pallets
Feed Equipment
 Feeder Hopper – stores daily chemical required for delivery by feeder. Used for chemical usage
monitoring and inventory control purposes.
 Volumetric Feeder – feeds chemical at set controlled rate.
 Dissolving Tank – provides contact of water and dry chemical with sufficient mixing and detention
to form feed solution.
 Dry Batch System Solution Tank – tank in which operator manually mixes daily chemical solution
from dry chemicals and water.
Accessory Equipment
 Dust Collector – eliminates air borne dust from feed area. Helps to provide clean, healthy, safe
work area.
 Dissolving Tank Float Valve – maintains a constant water level in the dissolver tank.
 Mixer – aids dissolving of the chemical in the dissolver tank. Helps to maintain slurries in
suspension.
 Eductor – jet pump which draws chemical solution from dissolving tank and mixes it with drive
water for transmission to the chemical feed point.

LIQUID CHEMICAL FEED SYSTEMS
Liquid Chemical Storage Facilities
 Dependent on quantity of chemical to be stored.

o Bulk storage tanks for large amounts:
 Minimum 110% of maximum delivery quantity
o Drum Storage for smaller amounts.
 All liquid storage and feed equipment should be stored in chemically resistant containment areas.
o Areas should be large enough to contain a spill of 110% of the largest single container.
o Containment areas should contain leak detection equipment to provide an alarm in the event
of a chemical spill.
Feed Equipment
 Transfer Pump – transfers chemical from bulk storage tanks to day tanks.
 Day Tank – stores daily chemical required for delivery by feeders. Used for chemical usage
monitoring and inventory control purposes.
 Chemical Feed Pump – accurately feeds a specific volume of chemical at selected rate.
Accessory Equipment
 Calibration Chamber – used to measure actual feed pump output.
 Pressure Relief Valve – limits discharge pressure of feed pump; protects feed piping.
 Backpressure Valve – maintains a constant backpressure on feed pump discharge.
 Anti-siphon Valve – prevents back siphonage of process water into chemical feed system.

POLYMER FEED SYSTEMS
Polymer Storage Facilities

Polymer is shipped either dry (bags) or liquid (drums), Therefore storage facilities need to be the same as
other chemicals of similar type.
Feed Equipment
 Polymer must be activated prior to feeding to obtain expected results.

o Requires addition of water, proper mixing, and aging prior to usage.
o Improper mixing and activation results in formation of globs or clumps of inactivated polymer,
commonly known as “Fish-Eyes.”
 Specialized feed equipment available for activating and feeding both dry and liquid polymers.
o Includes mixing, activation and aging components, as well as liquid feed pumps.

GASEOUS CHEMICAL FEED SYSTEMS
Gaseous Chemical Storage Facilities
 Separate storage and feed rooms.
 Size dependent on quantity of chemical to be stored.
 Storage of ton cylinders requires additional accessory equipment.

o 2 Ton capacity monorail for moving ton cylinders.
o Roller trunions for orienting cylinders.
 Cylinders have 2 valves—valves must be oriented vertically.
 Top for gas
 Bottom for liquid
 Both gas and liquid can be drawn from cylinder depending on which valve is used.
Feed Equipment
 Vacuum Regulator – controls vacuum operated systems.
 Automatic Switchover System – provides for continuous gas supply. Automatically switches to a
standby container in the event the active container becomes empty.
 Gas Feeder – controls gas feed rate.
 Ejector – produces the vacuum under which vacuum type systems operate.

GASEOUS CHEMICAL FEED SYSTEMS
Accessory Equipment
Not all of the accessory equipment listed here may be required for all systems.
 Evaporator – used at large installations to convert gas from liquid phase to gaseous phase,
permitting higher withdrawal rate from the ton container.
 Gas Solution Distributors – provides method where a single properly sized ejector can be used to
split gas solution to several different feed points.
 Container Scales – used to measure the quantity of gas remaining in the containers.
 Gas Detectors – used to actuate an alarm if unacceptable levels of the gas are sensed in the
ambient air of storage and feed rooms.
 Self Contained Breathing Equipment – used to protect operation personnel in case of gas leaks or
during emergency access to areas with gas leaks.
 Feed Water Booster Pump – raises pressure of ejector water supply for proper operation of ejector.
 Emergency Repair Kits – used to stop leaks in gas containers (2 sizes available – ton container
and cylinder).

Exercise
1. A general guideline to insure an adequate supply of chemicals at all times is to provide a minimum
chemical storage the larger of either:
A. ________________________________________________________________________
B. ________________________________________________________________________
2. Spill containment areas should be designed to provide how much total containment?
A. 80%
B. 90%
C. 100%
D. 110%
3. Polymer requires addition of water, proper mixing, and aging prior to usage.
A. True
B. False
4. A self-contained breathing apparatus should be stored in the chlorine storage room.

A. True
B. False
5. Name the piece of equipment that provides the vacuum in a gas chemical feed system.
A. Evaporator
B. Emergency repair kit
C. Self-contained breathing apparatus
D. Ejector

UNIT 4 KEY POINTS
It is important to have an understanding of the types of equipment and equipment interconnections

for feeding water treatment chemicals.
Chemicals are fed differently depending upon the amount of chemical required, type of chemical,
and form of chemical (gas, liquid, or solid).
All liquid storage and feed equipment should be stored in chemically resistant containment areas.
Areas should be large enough to contain a spill of 110% of the largest single container.

APPENDIX
Appendix
EPA Incompatible Chemical Storage
Practice Math Problems
Homework
Appendix-1
APPENDIX
Incompatible Chemicals Storage

A sanitary survey quick reference guide for determining how to
properly store chemicals at a water treatment plant
Dos and Don’ts

Do not store liquid chemicals and dry chemicals together regardless of which compatibility group
they fall into.
Do not store chemicals from different compatibility groups together. Water treatment
chemicals are divided into six incompatible groups: Acids, Bases, Salts & Polymers,
Adsorption Powders, Oxidizing Powders, and Compressed Gasses. To ensure the safety
of system personnel and the system itself, store each of these groups of incompatible
chemicals separately (compatibility groups listed on reverse side).
Do not store products such as paint, antifreeze, detergent, oil, grease, fuel, solvent, and beverages in
the same area as water treatment chemicals.
DO store all chemicals in secure, well-ventilated areas that are free of moisture
(especially dry chemicals), excessive heat, ignition sources and flammable/ combustible
materials.
DO see your Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) if you encounter a chemical that is not listed on
one of the following tables (MSDS required by OSHA Regulation 29.CFR.1910.1200 for all
organizations/water systems that handle hazardous chemicals).
Warning
Storing incompatible chemicals together could create a hazardous reaction such as the
production of toxic gas, accelerated corrosion, or an exothermic reaction (a chemical
reaction that releases heat), which could result in an explosion and/or fire. This reaction
could be catastrophic, resulting in loss of life and rendering the water plant inoperable.
Examples:
Examples of Incompatible Chemicals Hazardous Reactions
Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC), an adsorption Excessive heat generation, with the possibility of
powder, should not be mixed with Potassium explosion and fire. Note: PAC alone is extremely
Permanganate, an oxidizing powder combustible.
Calcium Hypochlorite, a combination base/oxidizer
Excessive heat, fire or explosion possible. Can
should not be exposed to moisture or mixed with
provide an ignition source for combustible materials.
viscous fluid such as oil.
Excessive heat and liquid explosion. Note: Highly
Concentrated Sulfuric Acid, a strong acid, should not
concentrated acids and bases when mixed together
be mixed with Concentrated Sodium Hydroxide, a
will have a much more hazardous reaction than
strong base.
weak acids and bases.
Calcium Oxide, a strong base available only as a Excessive heat, fire. Can provide an ignition source
powder, should not be exposed to moisture for combustible materials.
Appendix-2
Appendix
Compatibility Groups: Common Water Treatment Chemicals

Group I: Acids
Name Common Name Available Forms
Acetic Acid Ethanoic Acid Liquid
Hydrofluosilicic Acid Fluosilic Acid Liquid
Hydrogen Fluoride Acid Hydrofluoric Acid Liquid
Hydrochloric Acid Muriatic Acid Liquid
Nitric Acid Sulfuric Acid Liquid
Group II: Bases

Name Common Name Available Forms1
Calcium Hydroxide Hydrated Lime Dry
Calcium Oxide Quicklime Dry
Calcium Hypochlorite HTH Dry
Sodium Bicarbonate Sodium Bicarbonate Dry
Sodium Carbonate Soda Ash Dry
Sodium Hydroxide Caustic Soda, Lye Liquid, Dry
Sodium Hypochlorite Bleach Liquid
Sodium Silicate Water Glass Liquid
1
Certain concentrated dry chemicals, like calcium hypochlorite and calcium oxide (quicklime) will produce an exothermic reaction
when exposed to liquid or even small amounts of moisture.
Group III: Salts & Polymers

Aluminum Sulfate Alum Liquid, Dry
Copper Sulfate Blue Stone Liquid, Dry
Ferric Chloride Ferrichlor Liquid, Dry
Ferric Sulfate Ferri-Floc Dry
Ferrous Sulfate Copperas Liquid Dry
Polyaluminum Chloride PACL Liquid
Polyelectrolytes (Cationic, Polymer Liquid, Dry
Anionic, Non-ionic)
Sodium Aluminate Soda Alum Liquid, Dry
Sodium Fluoride Sodium Fluoride Liquid, Dry
Sodium Hexametaphosphate Glassy Phosphate Dry
Sodium Phosphate Sodium Phosphate Liquid, Dry
Zinc Orthophosphate Zinc Ortho Liquid
Group IV: Adsorption Powders

Powdered Activated Carbon PAC Dry
Granular Activated Carbon GAC Dry
Group V: Oxidizing Powders

Potassium Permanganate Permanganate Dry
Appendix-3
Appendix
Group VI: Compressed Gases2

Name Common Name Available Forms Incompatible Chemicals
Within This Category3
Ammonia Ammonia Liquid, Gas Chlorine
Chlorine Gas Chlorine Liquid, Gas Ammonia
Carbon Dioxide Dry Ice Liquid, Gas -
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 Liquid, Gas -
2
Each compressed gas should have its own separate storage/feed area.
3
Chlorine and ammonia should be stored separately from each other, as well as from all other chemical groups.
Office of Water (4606M) EPA 816-F-09-002 January 2008
A-4
Appendix
Extra Practice Math Problems
1. A sedimentation tank holds 60,000 gallons and the flow into the plant is
600 gpm. What is the detention time in minutes?
2. A tank is 20 feet by 35 feet by 10 feet. It receives a flow of 650 gpm.
What is the detention time in minutes?
3. Two wells flow into a 30,000 gallon tank. Well 1 flows at a rate of 475
gpm. Well 2 flows at a rate of 175 gpm. What is the detention time of the
tank (in minutes)?
4. A tank is 30 feet high, with a 53 foot diameter. It receives a flow of 900
gpm. What is the detention time in hours?
5. How many pounds of dry chemical must be added to a 80 gallon tank to
produce a 10% solution?
9. Determine the weight of a 55 gallon drum of zinc orthophosphate (specific
gravity 1.46).
10. The clearwell at a system is 25 feet long, 35 feet wide and contains 15
feet of water. It is to be disinfected at a dosage of 25 mg/l. How many
pounds of 12.5% sodium hypochlorite do you need?
12. You receive a shipment of ferric chloride. They tell you it has a specific
gravity of 1.39. How much does each gallon weigh (lbs)?
13. A tank receives a flow of 350 gpm. The tank has a diameter of 30 feet
and has 25 feet of water in it. What is the detention time (in minutes) in
the tank?
14. The flow to a clarifier is 2,400,000 gpd. If the lime dose required is
determined to be 11.9 mg/L, how many lbs/day of lime will be required?
A-1
Appendix
15. How much does a 30 gallon drum of 60% fluorosilic acid weigh (lbs) if it
16. A plant is set at a flow of 3 MGD. The sedimentation tank is 30 feet long,
20 feet wide and has a water depth of 15 feet. What is the detention time
(in minutes)?
17. What is the volume (ft3) of a tank that has a diameter of 48” and has 6 ft of
water in it?
18. What would the volume (gallons) of a tank be if the tank had a diameter of
30 feet and was 30 feet high?
19. DelPac has a specific gravity of 1.29. How much would you expect a 30
gallon drum to weight (in pounds)?
20. An operator wants to estimate the approximate speed and stroke settings
on a diaphragm pump that is rated to deliver a maximum output of 30
gallons per day. The system needs to deliver approximately 19 gallons
per day of 50% caustic soda. Where would the speed and stroke need to
be set?
per day of 12.5% sodium hypochlorite. Where would the speed and
stroke need to be set?
22. A treatment plant uses liquid alum for coagulation. The plant is treating
875 gpm and an alum dosage of 10.5 mg/l is required. The alum has an
"active ingredient” weight of 5.48 lb/gallon. Compute the required alum
feed rate in gallons/day.
A-2
Appendix
Homework
1. __________ The clumping together of very fine particles into larger
particles (floc) caused by the use of chemicals (coagulant chemicals).
The chemicals neutralize the electrical charges of the fine particles and
cause destabilization of the particles. This clumping together makes it
easier to separate the solids from the water by settling, skimming, draining
or filtering.
2. Name three types of primary coagulants:
a.
b.
c.
3. Name three chemicals which will raise pH and three chemicals which will
lower pH:
a. Raise
b. Lower
4. __________________________: the capacity of a water to neutralize

acids. This capacity is caused by the water’s content of bicarbonate,
carbonate and hydroxide.
5. ____________________and __________________may be increased by
the addition of lime, caustic soda or soda ash. ___________________
will only make water more alkaline.
6. Name the two general methods for controlling tastes and odors.
a.
b.
A-3
Appendix
7. Water may need softened to remove excess hardness caused by
______________________________.
8. What factors should be considered when selecting a fluoridation chemical:
a.
b.
c.
9. Chlorine can be added to the water in the form of:
a.
b.
c.
10. _________________________ contain detailed assessment of chemical
characteristics, hazards, and other information relative to health, safety,
and the environment.
11. The SDS for Aluminum Sulfate states the:
a. Specific gravity =
b. pH =
12. An ________________________ must be developed to help a system
protect public health, limit damage to the system and the surrounding
area, and help a system return to normal as soon as possible.
13. ___________________ – Should be suspended just above the bottom of
the tank so as not to pull in any solids that might have settled to the
bottom of the tank.
14. A _________________ consists of a graduated cylinder typically located
on the suction side of the pump. It is used for accurate determination of
the pump’s feed rate.
15. The output of the pump is controlled by the length of the plunger and the
number of repetitions. This is the:
a.
b.
16. What chemicals can be fed using a dry feeder?
a.
b.
A-4
Appendix
c.
17. Name the two types of dry feeders:
a.
b.
18. _________________ is a laboratory procedure that simulates coagulation,
flocculation, and precipitation results with differing chemical dosages.
19. After a jar test, evaluate jar test results for:
a.
b.
c.
d.
20. ___________: The dry product that you are adding or the amount of dry
product in a concentrated solution.
21. ______________is the quantity or weight of chemical delivered from a
feeder over a given period of time.
22. A tank holds 75,000 gallons. A pump is flowing at 75 gpm. What is the
detention time in hours?
23. A flocculation basin is 7 ft deep, 15 ft wide, and 30 ft long. If the flow

through the basin is 1.35 MGD, what is the detention time in minutes?
24. A basin, 4 ft by 5 ft, is to be filled to the 2.5 feet level. If the flow to the
tank is 5 gpm, how long (in hours) will it take to fill the tank?
A-5
Appendix
25. A tank has a diameter of 60 feet with an overflow depth at 44 feet. The
current water level is 16 feet. Water is flowing into the tank at a rate of
250 gallons per minute. At this rate, how many days will it take to fill the
tank to the overflow?
A-6
Appendix
29. How much does each gallon of zinc orthophosphate weigh (pounds) if it
30. How much does a 55 gallon drum of 25% caustic soda weigh (pounds) if
the specific gravity is 1.28?
31. 60% hydrofluosilicic acid has a specific gravity of 1.46. How much (in
pounds) does a 55 gallon drum weigh?
per day of sodium hypochlorite. Where would the speed and stroke need
to be set?
per day of 50% caustic soda. Where would the speed and stroke need to
be set?
A-7
Appendix
Classroom/System Connection
Components of your liquid chemical feed system
1. What type of chemical addition tank/vessel do you have?
a. Day Tank?
b. Chemical Drum?
c. Bulk tank?
2. What type of measuring device do you have?
a. Scale?
b. Sight glass?
c. Yardstick
d. Increments marked on day tank?
e. Electronic level indicator?
3. Describe one of your chemical feed pumps.
a. How many gpd can you feed?
b. What is the speed and/or stroke of your pump currently set at?
c. Using the max gpd, your current speed and stroke, how many gpd
are you theoretically feeding?
d. Measure how many gallons you actually fed in 24 hours.
i. Determine if pump is feeding within the expected range:
ii. + 10% is within expected range.
_
1. (Theoretical – Actual) x 100 = __________%

Theoretical
4. Do you have a calibration column?
5. Valve location.
a. Where is your pressure relief valve?
b. Where is the backpressure/anti-siphon valve?
6. Do you have a pressure gauge on your feed system? What does the
pressure read?
7. Describe location of injection assembly.

A-8

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Drinking Water

Operator Certification Training

Unit 1 – Chemicals Used in Water Treatment

I. Chemical Uses in Water Treatment

II. Chemical Usage Table

Unit 2 – Safety and Handling

I. Safety Data Sheet

II. Chemical Handling Equipment

Unit 3 – Chemical System Components

II. Jar Testing

III. Dry Chemicals

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection

B. Solving feed rate problems using Davidson pie

IV. Liquid Chemicals

Unit 4 – Chemical Feed System Schematics

II. Dry Chemical Feed Systems

III. Liquid Chemical Feed Systems

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection

IV. Polymer Feed Systems

V. Gaseous Chemical Feed Systems

A. EPA Incompatible Chemical Storage Fact Sheet

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-1

 Chlorine was proven as an effective disinfectant in the 1890’s.

Types of Coagulant Chemicals

Primary Coagulants Coagulant Aids

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-2

o Aluminum Sulfate (alum) is very widely used.

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-3

Definition: pH is an expression of the intensity of the basic or acidic condition of a liquid.

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-4

Iron and Coagulation

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-5

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-6

Taste and Odor Control

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-7

Removal of Trace Elements and Heavy Metals

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-8

Corrosion Control and Sequestration

 Chemical Treatment of Corrosive Water

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-9

 Primary disinfection achieves the desired level of microorganism kill or inactivation.

Sludge conditioning prepares sludge for further processing.

 Addition of lime, coagulants or polymers

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-10

CHEMICAL USAGE TABLE

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-11

CHEMICAL USAGE TABLE (cont’d.)

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-12

CHEMICAL USAGE TABLE (cont’d.)

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-13

3. ___________: an expression of the intensity of the basic or acidic condition of a liquid.

4. ___________________: The capacity of a water to neutralize acids.

5. ___________________and ___________________ may cause excessive hardness, therefore

6. ______________________ ______________: keep iron, manganese, and calcium in solution

7. ______________ _____________ achieves the desired level of microorganism kill or inactivation.

8. ___________________ _______________ maintains a disinfectant residual in the finished water

9. Complete the following table indicating if the pH will be raised or lowered

Use the Chemical Usage Table to complete questions 10 and 11.

Bureau of Safe Drinking Water, Department of Environmental Protection 1-14

5. _and _ may cause excessive hardness, therefore

6. ________ : keep iron, manganese, and calcium in solution

7. __ _ achieves the desired level of microorganism kill or inactivation.

8. _____ _ maintains a disinfectant residual in the finished water

1. Operators are expected to keep a copy of each ______ _ ______