General Studies - I

Section – I: History and Cultural Heritage (India and Karnataka)

Unit 1: Cultural Heritage of India
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization was the first major civilization in south Asia, which spread across a
vast area of land in present day India and Pakistan (around 12 lakh sq.km). The time period
of mature Indus Valley Civilization is estimated between BC. 2700- BC.1900 i.e. for 800
years. But early Indus Valley Civilization had existed even before BC.2700.
Features of Indus Valley Civilization
 2700- BC.1900 i.e. for 800 years.
 On the valleys of river Indus.
 Also known as Harappan Civilization.
 Beginning of city life.
 Harappan Sites discovered by – Dayaram Sahni (1921) – Montgomori district,
Punjab, Pakistan.
 Mohenjo-Daro discovered by – R. D. Banerji – Larkana district, Sind, Pakistan.
 City was divided into Citadel (west) and Lower Town(east).
 Red pottery painted with designs in black.
 Stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools, long stone blades etc.
 Copper, bronze, silver, gold present.
 Artificially produced – Faience.
 Specialists for handicrafts.
 Import of raw materials.
 Plough was used.
 Bodies were buried in wooden coffins, but during the later stages ‘H symmetry
culture’ evolved where bodies were buried in painted burial urns.
 Sugar cane not cultivated, horse, iron not used.
Indus Valley Sites and Specialties
Harappa
 Seals out of Stones
 Citadel outside on banks of river Ravi
Mohenjodaro
 Great Bath, Great Granary, Dancing Girl, Man with Beard, Cotton, Assembly hall
 Term means ” Mount of the dead”
 On the bank of river Indus
 Believed to have been destructed by flood or invasion (Destruction was not gradual).
Chanhudaro
  Bank of Indus River. – discovered by Gopal Majumdar and Mackey (1931)
 Pre-harappan culture – Jhangar Culture and Jhukar Culture
 Only cite without citadel.
Kalibangan
 At Rajastan on the banks of river Ghaggar, discovered by A.Ghosh (1953)
 Fire Altars
 Bones of camel
 Evidence of furrows
 Horse remains (even though Indus valley people didn’t use horses).
 Known as third capital of Indus Empire.
Lothal
 At Gujarat near Bhogava river, discovered by S.R. Rao (1957)
 Fire Altars
 Beside the tributary of Sabarmati
 Store house
 Dockyard and earliest port
 Double burial
 Rice husk
 House had front entrance (exception).
Ropar
 Punjab, on the banks of river Sutlej. Discovered by Y.D Sharma (1955)
 Dog buried with humans.
Banawali
 Haryana
 On banks of lost river Saraswathi
 Barley Cultivation.
Dholavira
 Biggest site in India, until the discovery of Rakhigarhi.
 Located in Khadir Beyt, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat. Discovered by J.P Joshi/Rabindra
Singh (1990)
 3 parts + large open area for ceremonies
 Large letters of the Harappan script (sign boards).
Religion of Indus Valley People
 Pashupathi Mahadev (Proto Siva)
 Mother goddess
 Nature/ Animal worship
 Unicorn, Dove, Peepal Tree, Fire
 Amulets
  Idol worship was practiced (not a feature of Aryans)
 Did not construct temples.
 Similarity to Hindu religious practices. (Hinduism in its present form originated later)
 No Caste system.
Indus Valley Society and Culture
 Systematic method of weights and measures (16 and its multiples).
 Pictographic Script, Boustrophedon script – Deciphering efforts by I. Mahadevan
 Equal status to men and women
 Economic Inequality, not an egalitarian society
 Textiles – Spinning and weaving
 3 types – burial, cremation and post cremation were there, though burial was
common.
 Majority of people Proto-australoids and Mediterraneans (Dravidians), though
Mongoloids, Nordics etc were present in the city culture.
Artifacts for Posterity
The most numerous of the surviving artifacts are a series of steatite (soapstone) seals, of
which the best known are those of the Humped Brahmani Bull and Pashupati. Apart from
this, there are some carved figurines – the bronze Dancing Girl and the statues of a priest
and a male torso, again in steatite.
Reasons for Decline of Indus Valley Civilization
Though there are various theories, the exact reason is still unknown. As per a recent study
by IIT Kharagpur and Archaeological Survey of India, a weaker monsoon might have been
the cause of decline of Indus Valley Civilization. Environmental changes, coupled with loss
of power of rulers (central administration) of Indus valley to sustain the city life might be the
cause (Fariservis Theory). There might be resource shortage to sustain the population, and
then people moved towards south India. Another theory by Dr Gwen Robbins Schug states
that inter-personal violence, infectious diseases and climate change had played a major
role in the demise of the Indus Valley Civilization

Distinction between Indus Civilization and Vedic Civilization

These two civilizations have not only played a major role in the development of ancient
India, but have also left a lineage that still continues to shape our present Indian culture.
Differences based on Following Major Headings
PERIODICTY BASED DIFFERNENCES:
Indus Valley Civilization:
Till 20th century, historians thought that the Vedic society was the earliest civilization of
India. However study done by 2 archaeologists – Dayaram Sahani and Raakhaldas
Banerjee proved that Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, though 1400 kms apart, were a part of
one civilization older than Vedic. Since the region spanned India across the coastal western
belt and along the Indus River, the civilization was called Indus Civilization. Indus
civilization was at its peak around 2500 B.C.E
Vedic Civilization:
After the decline of Indus Civilization, a new civilization grew which was dominated by the
Aryans and came to be known as the Vedic Civilization. The period extended from 1500
B.C.E to 500 B.C.E
REGIONAL SPREAD BASED DIFFERNENCES:
Indus Valley Civilization:
The Indus civilization was spread across the Indus valley (river Sindhu).
It spread in the North from Harappa in Punjab province (Pakistan) to Bhogtrar in South
Gujarat (1400 kms). In the east, there was Alamgir (Meerut) and to its West was Sutkagen
Dor in Baluchistan, next to Iran (1600 kms).
Thus, the Indus valley spread across 12.15 lac sq.km.
Vedic Civilization:
The Vedic period marked the entry of Aryans on Indian soil. There has been a huge debate
on the origin of Aryans. Various scholars have postulated theories which are either
supported or debated.
North Pole: Bal Gangadhar Tilak proposed that the Aryans came from North Pole. However
there is no concrete evidence for this theory.
Asia: Scholars like Max Muller suggested Middle Asia could be the place of Aryans,
whereas Rhodes thought it should be Bactria and Edward Meyer postulated the plateau of
Pamir (Iran).
Europe: Penka and Hirt thought Germany as the base of Aryans.
South Russia: Based on archaeological, historical and linguistic study, Meyer, Peek and
Gordon Childes postulated that South Russia should be the home of Aryans.
Archaeological excavations in Russia unearthed horse skeletons, potteries, earthen wares
which were strikingly similar to Aryans.
URBAN DEVLOPMENT BASED DIFFERNENCES:
Indus Valley Civilization:
The cities of Indus civilization were well planned and built with baked bricks of equal sizes.
The streets were at right angle to each other with an elaborate drainage system.
There were public buildings, vast granaries and the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro.
Production of several metals like copper, bronze, lead and tin was carried out. The
discovery of kilns proves that bricks were extensively used for domestic and public
buildings.
Vedic Civilization:
It was mainly the rural civilization, centered round the village
SOCIETY BASED DIFFERNENCES:
Indus Valley Civilization:
The social life of Indus Civilization was that of a happy, satisfied society.
The society by large was “female dominated” and family was a central force.
Though the society was divided into 4 groups as per the occupation, it does not prove that
there could be any discrimination since the housing structure proves that irrespective of the
occupation, people lived in each other’s vicinity.
The people of Indus Civilization were vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian. Diet usually
consisted of wheat, jowar, rice, sesame seed, dal, vegetables, milk and fruits. Meat of
sheep, goat, pig, hen, duck as well as fish was consumed.
Excavations reveal that women of Indus valley liked to wear ornaments made of gold,
precious stones, silver and copper. Men kept long hair, sported moustache and beard
whereas women tied their hair in a bun. They also wore bangles made of glass and metal
ware.
Vedic Civilization:
Compared to the Indus civilization, the early Vedic period civilization was “male dominated”.
Though the women were known as “better half’, they were not allowed in politics and did
not get share in family property.
The caste system of 4 varnas became prominent to such an extent that even the burial
grounds were segregated.
The Brahmins and Kshatriyas fought for superior position, Vaishas did business and paid
taxes whereas Shudras were considered to be slaves of all the 3 varnas.
The people of Vedic civilization also followed vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian diet. Milk
and milk products were an important part of diet along with vegetables and meat. People
drank “som ras” and played dice. Horse race, chariot race, music, dance were the favorite
pastime.
In the Vedic civilization, metals like gold, silver, copper, tin, glass were in use. Iron utensils
and equipments were also made during this period.
OCCUPATION BASED DIFFERNENCES:
Indus Valley Civilization:
The main occupation of Indus Civilization was agriculture. Wheat, jowar, sesame seed,
bajra were grown. Animal farming was also carried out. They also grew cotton and wore
clothes.
There were sites where ornaments and jewelry were made.
Trade was also another occupation and each merchant family had their own seal. Trading
was usually done with neighboring regions of India, Persian Gulf and Iran.
Vedic Civilization:
The Vedic period people were rural oriented and had agriculture as main occupation. They
ploughed sowed and reaped various crops like wheat, jowar, rice, moong dal, urad,
sesame. They also reared animals like cows, bulls, horses, goats, donkeys, sheep, pigs
and dogs.
It is during this period that ‘elephant’ was first domesticated.
ART, ARCHITECTURE & CULTURE BASED DIFFERNENCES:
Indus Valley Civilization:
Indus Civilization had mastered the art of using metals, mud, wood, glass for making
ornaments, architecture and various forms.
They made terracotta vessels with decorative colors and design. They made toys,
household utensils, agriculture equipments and ornamental things.
The people of Indus Civilization were good sculptors carving wood and stone in the form of
“relief architecture”, statues and articles. Statues of various birds and animals were also
found along with men, women and “mother goddess”.
The script still remains undecipherable.
Vedic Civilization:
In the Vedic civilization, metals like gold, copper, silver, tin were used to prepare various
artifacts.
This period contributed to the Vedic literature namely Samhitas (Samved, Yajurved,
Atharvaved, Rigved), Brahmanas, Aranyaks and Upanishads
RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY BASED DIFFERNENCES:
Indus Valley Civilization:
The Indus Civilization people worshipped gods and goddesses. The figures found in
excavation reveal some rituals and ceremonies.
Various terracotta statues of “Mother Goddess” have been discovered from various sites
which prove that she was worshipped in nearly every home.
Many seal depicting rhinoceros, bull, leopard, elephant, ox were found suggesting that the
Indus valley people revered them.
Vedic Civilization:
The religious dogmas increased during the Vedic period and old gods (multiple ‘nature
gods’ like wind, water, fire, etc.) were replaced with new formed gods. Prajapati, Vishnu &
Rudra Shiva became the new gods.
It was during this period that ‘animal sacrifice’ became rampant. Some large scale yagnas
like Rajsuyagna, Vajpeya and Ashwamedh were performed.
The belief in soul, magic, tantra increased and people succumbed to blind faith. The only
difference was that the Vedic gods were immortal whereas the human beings were not.
Major differences in Both Civilization
The key differences between Harappa and Vedic Civilization are enumerated as follows:
The sources of information of the Harappan civilization are mainly archaeological, while the
Vedic culture is mostly known from the literary sources.
Harappans are said to have been the original inhabitants of India while the Aryans are
believed to have come to India from central Asia.
The Harappan civilization was urban in nature; Vedic culture was rural and pastoral. At best
the Rig Vedic Aryans lived in fortified places protected by mud walls; and these cannot be
regarded as towns in the Harappan sense.
In the Indus civilization trade, internal and external, crafts as well as industries were the
main sources of economy, Vedic Economy was initially postoral and later became based
upon agriculture and cattle rearing.
The agricultural operations, including the ploughing of fields, were better known to the later-
Vedic people.
Indus people did not know the use of iron. It was purely a copper-bronze culture, while the
Vedic culture in its later phase is replete with references to iron.
The horse, which played a decisive role in the Aryan system of warfare, was not known to
the Indus people. A few bones of horse and terracotta figure of a horselike animal have
been unearthed from surkotada.
Indus people were basically peace loving. Their arms (swords, daggers, arrowheads, and
spears) were primitive in nature. Aryans were warlike people and were conversant with all
kinds of traditional arms and armour and had devised a fullfledged science of war.
Aryans worshiped Varuna, Indra, aditi and a large number of other deities which stood for
the principal phenomena of nature. They performed sacrifices and offered milk, ghee, etc.
to their. The Harappans worshipped Pashupati, mother goddess, animals, snake and
nature. The fire-altars were discovered from only one Harappan site at Kalibangan.
The Harappans practiced earth burials whereas the Aryans practiced cremation.
Harappan pottery called black or red pottery was wheel made and very distinctive in nature.
The distinctive Aryan pottery is known as PGW (painted grey ware).
The Harappans were short stature, black in complexion; Aryans were tall, well-built and
handsome.
The Harappans ate all birds and animals including cow and calf. They ate wheat, barley
and bread.
The Aryans preferred Barley, milk and its products, especially ghee or butter and enjoyed
Soma drink.
Cotton was the basic fabric of the Harappans while the Aryans put on woollen garments
Vedic Sanskrit is the mother of all non-Dravidian languages, Indus script still remains
undeciphered.
It was quite clear that Indus people were literate whereas the Vedic people were illiterate (In
terms of writing) because there is not a single word for writing in any of the Vedic texts.

Evolution of Varna, Jathi/Caste System

Caste, Class & Occupation

The caste system is a classification of people into four hierarchically ranked castes called
varnas. They are classified according to occupation and determine access to wealth,
power, and privilege.

The Brahmans, usually priests and scholars, are at the top. Next are the Kshatriyas, or
political rulers and soldiers. They are followed by the Vaishyas, or merchants, and the
fourth are the Shudras, who are usually laborers, peasants, artisans, and servants. At the
very bottom are those considered the untouchables. These individuals perform occupations
that are considered unclean and polluting, such as scavenging and skinning dead animals
and are considered outcastes. They are not considered to be included in the ranked castes.

The four orders of society are believed to have originated from the self-sacrifice of Purusha-
the creator, the primeval being and are mentioned in Rig Veda.

There seems to be a constant upward and downward social mobility between the different
Varnas. When a lower Varna changed into a higher varna, it was known as jatyutkarsa or
uplift of the caste. On the other hand, if a person belonging to a higher varna gradually
descended into a lower Varna, it was known as jatyapakarsa or the degeneration of the
caste. While the caste system is rigid without possibility of social mobility.

Caste on the other hand may be defined as a hereditary endogenous group which decides
the individual’s status in the social stratification and his profession. Caste is also defined as
an aggregate of persons whose share of obligations and privileges is fixed by birth,
sanctioned and supported by magic and or religion.

Caste is basically a closed system of stratification, since members are recruited on the
criteria of ascribed status. In other words, an individual becomes a member of a caste in
which he or she is born. Thus, it is an ascribed status. Even if there is social mobility in the
caste system through the process of Sanskritization, urbanizations, etc it is only a positional
change rather than a structural change.

The main features of caste system in Indian Society are:

(1) Hierarchy
(2) Endogamy and Hypergamy
(3) Pre-fixed occupation of castes
(4) Restriction on food, drink, smoking etc.
(5) Distinction in customs, dress and speech
(6) Differentiation in rituals
(7) Caste based disabilities
(8) Theory of pollution
(9) Criteria of touchability and untouchability
(10) Concept of purity and impurity
(11) Claim of Divine creation
(12) Prohibition on marriages outside one’s own caste
(13) Location or residences.

The division of Indian society into various castes, together with the practice of
untouchability, and the geographic isolation of some tribal communities has meant that
these communities have lagged behind others in terms of educational and occupational
attainment, political participation and with regard to opportunities for social mobility.

There were many movements and governmental actions that took place pre- and post-
independence in order to overcome and attempt to eliminate the inequalities and injustices
associated with the caste system. During the national movement, Gandhi began using the
term “Harijans” (God‟s people) to refer to the untouchables in order to encourage a shift
towards positive attitude towards the lower castes. B.R. Ambedkar campaigned for greater
rights for Dalits in British India, and even after independence.

Theory of Sankritization and Mordernization has lead to the diminishing characteristic of

caste system in Indian society.