INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

1. John Marshall was the first scholar to use the term “Indus Valley Civilization”. The civilization
flourished between 2500BC-1750BC.
2. Indus Civilization belong to Proto-History period (Chalcolithic age/Bronze Age)
3. Also called as Harappan civilization after the first city to be excavated, Harappa in 1921.

Geographical Extent
1. Manda (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Narmada Estuary) in the south. Suktagendor
(Makran coast) in the west till Alamgirpur (U.P) in the East.
2. The total geographical stretch of Harrapan civilization is about 1,250,000 sq. km.

Important Aspects of Indus Valley Civilization

1. Town Planning and Structure of IVC

• Grid system (Chess Board) of town planning.
• Generally, Indus towns were divided into two parts i.e.
a). Lower Town meant for common people
b). Upper Town (Citadel) meant for administrative people.
• Rectangular Houses with brick-lined bathrooms and wells together with stairways are
found.
• Use of burnt bricks (4:2:1) and underground drainage system.
• There was very good network of roads and roads use to cut each other at right angle.
• Inside the drains one can see Gypsum plastered depth perhaps it was meant to filter the
water and retain the impurity.

2. Agriculture of IVC
• Agriculture was the backbone of Indus valley Civilization.
• Cotton (Sindon) was the major trade good. Indus Valley people were the earliest people to
produce cotton.
• Proofs of Rice Husk were found (Rangpur and Lothal)
• Wheat and Barley were majorily cultivated.
• Use of wooden ploughshare. They had no idea about Iron implementation.

3. Domestication of Animal
• Oxens, Buffalo, Goats, Sheep and Pigs were domesticated.
• Asses and Camels were used as Beasts of Burden.
• Elephant and Rhino were Known.
• Earlier it was believed that the animal jaw found from Surkotada belonged to a horse but in
the light of scientific evidence it has been concluded that horse was not at all known to
Indus Valley people.

4. Trade of Indus Valley Civilization

• Presence of graneries, weights and measures, seals and uniform script signifies the
importance of trade.
• Barter system was widely prevalent.
• Lothal, Suktagendor, Balakot, Allahdino, Suttahkoh etc. were port cities used for conducting
trades.
 • Trade destinations- Afghanistan, Iran, Egypt, Oman, Sumer, Dilmun, Mesopotamia.
• The major commodity of export from IVC was wheat and Cotton Textiles.
• The major commodity of which were imported were: - Copper, Tin, Gold, Silver and semi-
precious stone like Ametheist, Carnelian and Lapis Lazuli.

5. Political Organization of IVC

• Cultural homogeneity achieved through a strong central authority.
• No temples or religious structures were found. Harappa was possibly ruled by Merchant
Class.
• Weapons were rarely found.
• The concept of permanent stationed army was not there during IVC but Dholavira could be
exception where middle town was supposed to be military garrison.

6. Society During IVC

• Society was unequal in nature but it was non-discriminatory.
• As far as the authority system is concerned there was difference of opinion. Some people
believed that society was Patriarchal and they cited the example of priest who was a male.
But majority of the historian believed that society was Matriarchal and they highlighted
example of Mother Goddess which was most abundant sculpture in Indus town.

7. Religious Practice of IVC

• Terracotta figure of Mother Goddess was worship.
• Phallus and Yoni Worship
• Pashupati Mahadev was worshipped.
• Pipal tree worship was found
• Humped Bull and Rhino were commonly worshipped.
• Use of amulets to ward off ghosts and evil spirits.
• Lion was not known to Indus People.

8. The Harappan Script

• Harappan script were pictographic in nature but not deciphered so far.
• It is the oldest script in Indian Sub-continent.

9. Harappan Pottery of IVC

• well-developed pottery techniques with elaborate design of trees and circles.
• Redware pottery painted with black design.

10. Seals of IVC

• Seals were made of soft river stone known as “Steatite”.
• A few of them were also made of Terracotta, gold, agate, chert, ivory and faience
• Used for the purpose of trade or worship. Images of animals such as Buffalo, Bull, Tiger etc
were found inscribed in the seals.
• The moist popular seal of the Indus Valley Civilization is the Pashupati Seal. It is made of
Steatite with an engraved figure of a human, possibly a divinity, named Pashupati.
11. Decline and Disintegration of IVC
• Initially it was believed by the historian that Aryan Invasion led to decline of IVC. They cited
the example of Battle of Harupiya mentioned in Rig Veda as Battle of Harappa which
culminated into the end of IVC. But in the light of evidence this theory has been rejected.
• Now it has been established that change in Climate Phenomena was the reason particularly
heavy flood and inundation led to its end.
 IMPORTANT INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION SITES
SITES EXCAVATED BY LOCATION IMPORTANT FINDING
Harappa Daya Ram Sahini in On the bank of • Sandstone
1921 river Ravi in Mont- statue of hu-
gomery district of man anatomy
Punjab (Pakistan) • Granaries
• Bullock Cart
• Textile Indus-
tries
• Coffin Burials
(only founded
in Harappa)
Mohenjodaro R.D Banerjee in On the bank of • Great Bath
1922 river Indus in Lar- • Great Granary
kana district of • Bronze Danc-
Punjab ing Girl
• Seal of Pashu-
pati Ma-
hadeva
• Steatite statue
of bearded
man
• Most number
of Unicorn
Seal
Sutkagendor Stein in 1929 On the bank of Dast • Trade point
River in Balochistan between Ha-
rappa and
Babylon (Mes-
opotamian
Civilization)
Chanhudaro N.G Majumdar in On the bank of In- • Bead making
1931 dus river in Sindh industries
• Footprint of a
dog chasing a
cat
• Bangle Fac-
tory
• Only city with-
out a Citadel
Amri N.G Majumdar in On the bank of In- • Antelope Evi-
1935 dus River dence
• Rhinoceros’
Evidence
Kalibangan Amlanand Ghose in On the bank of • Fire altar
1953 Ghaggar river in Ra- • Camel Bone
jasthan • Wooden
plough
 • Evidence of
Earthquake
• Furrowed land
Lothal R. Rao in 1953 On the bank of • First
Bhogva River near Manmade
Gulf of Cambay in Port
Gujrat • Dockyard
• Rice Husk
• Fire altar
• Chess Playing
• Copper Dog
Surkotada J.P Joshi in 1964 Gujrat • Beads
• Earlier evi-
dences of
Bones of
horses
Banawali R.S Bisht in 1974 Hisar District of • Barley
Haryana • Beads
• Evidence of
both pre-Ha-
rappan and
Harappan Cul-
ture
Dholavira R.S Bisht in 1985 Gujrat in Rann of • Water Har-
Kachchh nessing sys-
tem
• Water reser-
voir
• Presence of
Middle town

SOME IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

1. John Marshall was the first to coin the term “Indus Valley Civilization”.
2. Time period of the Civilization spread from the year 2500-1750 BC according to radio car-
bon dating.
3. The most distinctive feature of the civilization was its “Urbanisation”
4. Sheep and goats, dogs, humped cattle, buffalo and elephants were domesticated in the
Indus Valley Civilization.
5. The Capital Cities are Mohenjodaro and Harappa
6. The port cities are Sutkagendor, Balakot, Lothal, Kuntasi, Allahdino and Suttakoh
7. The Indus valley people were well acquainted with the use of both cotton and wool.
8. Most of the Seals were made of steatite. A few of the seals were also made of gold, ivory,
agate, terracotta, chert and faience.
9. The shape of the Harappan seal was primarily square with a 2*2 dimension.
10. Copper was sourced from Khetri mines of Rajasthan and Oman whereas gold was sourced
from Southern India.
11. Rangpur and Lothal is the only place where the evidences of rice husk has been found
 Advent of Aryans in 1500 BC
• Aryans started to arrive in India by 1500BC, they belonged to different tribes from Central
Asia (Steppes Grassland). They were nomadic and pastoralist and they were always in
search of good pasture land because cattle was there greatest wealth.
• The term “Aryan” stands for a linguistic community who spoke Aryan group of language.
• Aryans were able to overpower the indigenous Indian called as Dravidian due to the use of
horses, horse driven chariots which provided swiftness to their army.
• They also used very superior bronze tools which include Helmets and Mail coats also.
• Soon after their arrival Aryan started composing vedas in sanskrit language. Rig veda was
their first Shruti composition. It is considered as the most important source of information
about early Vedic Aryan.

Early Vedic Period (1500BC-1000BC)

Geographical Extent
• The Aryan first arrived by 1500BC in the Sapta Sindhu Region also known as Land of Seven
Rivers.
• Seven rivers of this period are as follow
Present Name Original Name
1. Indus (Most Important River) Sindhu
2. Jhelum Vitasta
3. Chenab Askini
4. Ravi Parushani
5. Beas Vipasa
6. Sutlej Shutudri
7. Saraswati (Most sacred River) Nadi Tarna or Nadi Tama

Economy During Early Vedic Period

• Cattle was the most important wealth.
• Wheat (Godhuma) and Barley (Yava) were important crops.
• The most important function of chief of community was to organise battle to secure large
number of cattles.
• There were no formal system of Taxation and people contribute voluntarily to the chieftain
of community in the form of Bhaga or Bali.

Polity During Early Vedic period

• Rajan was the most important functionary and he was chieftain of community. In all his
political function he was assisted by 3 Political assemblies which are as follow:-
1. Sabha: - exclusive assembly mainly consisted of elders from both the genders. It was important
and most decisive assembly
2. Samiti It was an inclusive assembly with large number of members but women were not
member of this assembly.
3. Vidhata: - limited membership assembly but both men and women were part of this assembly.
The exact function of this assembly is not clear but it took decision related to religious rituals and
agricultural practices.
Society During Early Vedic Period
• Society was organised on the lines of profession and not by birth which included:- Priestly
class, Warrior class and Trader-Peasant class.
• The unit of society included:-
Kula- Family
Vis- Clan
Jana- Community
• Kula or family was the most important unit headed by Kulapa who was the eldest male
member of the family. Society was Patriarchial in nature and women were accorded high
respect in the society.

Religious Affairs During Early Vedic Period

• At this point of time they personified element of nature into gods as such many important
divinities emerged.
a) Indra- known as God of Rain and Thunder. Also known as Purandhar which means Breaker of
the Fort.
b) Agni- Considered as Intermediary god and also God of Fire.
c) Varun- known as God of water. His original function was to maintain Cosmic Balance.
d) Marut or Mitra- known as God of Air.
• Apart from all this divinity the sun and the female divinities like Aditi, Usha, and Savitri
were also worshipped.
• The mode of worship was through offering sacrifice and recitation of mantra.
• The objective of the worship was Material Gain and it was not for Spiritual growth.
Some important term related to cattle:-
• Gavisthi- search for the cow
• Gopajanya- Master of cow
• Gavyu- Cow
• Duhitri- Milcher of the cow or Daughter was also known as Duhitri
• Godhuli- Measurement of time
• Aghanya- Not to be killed
• Goghana- the most important guest was served the meat of cattle
 Later Vedic Period
Around 1000BC, Iron was discovered from the place known as Atranjikhera and Jakhera from
Western UP. With this discovery very good quality of iron tools were created which facilitated in
clearing the dense forest in Gangtic Valley and Plain. Now very fertile land was available on which
they started agressive agriculture which made their life more sedentary. Aryans further penetrated
to different parts of the country which are as follow:-

• North-west and Northern Part Known as Aryavrat or Brahmavrat

• Eastern Part known as Purvakhand
• Central India known as Madhyadesh
In the Later Vedic Text (Atharva, Yajur and Sama Veda) the river like Ganga, Yamuna and Sadanira
(Gandak) was mentioned.

Economy During Later Vedic Period

• Agriculture became most important activity and agricultural commodity became most
important wealth which included
a) Yava- Barley
b) Godhuma- Wheat
c) Vrihi- Rice
• There was no formal sysytem of taxation and people contributed voluntarily in the form of
Bhaga or Bali however it became a regular contribution.

Polity During Later Vedic Period

• The position of Rajan became hereditary and much more important at this point of time.
The assemblies of Sabha and Samiti lost their formal importance and Vidhata completely
disappeared.
• Now Rajan was assisted by Priestly class which initiated many types of rituals sacrifices to
confer supreme power to the Rajan which are as follow:-
a)Rajasuiya- it was a consecretion ceremony were Rajan was appointed with the blessing of
priestly class.
b) Vajpeya- in this ceremony sport events like chariot race was organised. After the end of race
public was given free feast. This ceremony was intended to increase the trust of Rajan among his
subjects.
c) Ashwamdha- It was the most important ritual sacrifice aimed at increasing territory.

Society During Later Vedic Period

• In the 10th Mandala of Rig veda it was mentioned to divide the society on the basis of birth
into four Varnas. Its explanation is given under Purushashukti.
• The top position are given to:-
a) Brahmins- emerged from the mouth of Adi Bramha
b) Kshatriyas- emerged from arms and chest
c) Vaisyas- emerged from thigh
d) Shudras- emerged from feet
• The concept of Gotra emerged in the later vedic period
• The concept of 16 Samskara were consolidated at this point of time
• The concept of Ashram Vyavastha started to emerge at this point of time but only 3 stages
were consolidated which are as follow:-
a) Bhramacharya- Learning phase and abstaining from physical pleasure
b) Grihastha- Married life and its responsibility
c) Vanaprastha- Partial retirement in search of knowledge.
d) Sanyas- complete asceticism in search of enlightment was consolidated during the age of
Buddha.

Religion During Later Vedic Period

• Early Vedic God lost their formal importance and Brahma or Prajapati emerged as the most
important god.
• Concept of Rudra and Vishnu was also consolidated
• The mode of worship was through Recitation of Mantra and offering sacrifice.
• The objective of worship was material gain throughout the later vedic period but in the end
progressive section of society started a movement for reform. They composed their
progressive ideas under Upanishad.
• From here onwards Spiritualism was emphasised to be the main purpose of the worship.
 RISE OF SIXTEEN MAHAJANAPADA
Mahajanapada: It implies to big territorial state known for flourishing trade and commerce.
Moreover, they had well established administrative machinery which include: Monarchy,
Oligarchy and Republic.
We traced the information about Mahajanapada from:
a. Buddhist Book: Anguttar Nikaya and Mahavastu
b. Jain Book: Bhagwati Sutra

Difference Between Janapadas and Mahajanapadas

‘Jana’ in both terms means people. These people denoted a tribe or an ethnic group or a tribal
political organization. Indo-Aryans as mentioned in the early Vedic texts, used to live in the semi-
nomadic tribal states. This tribal state organization called ‘Jana’ transformed into Janapadas
towards the end of the Vedic period and when the Janapadas started growing, they transformed
into Mahajanapadas.

SIXTEEN MAHAJANAPADA WITH THEIR CAPITAL AND PRESENT LOCATION

MAHAJANAPADA CAPITAL PRESENT LO- IMPORTANCE
CATION
Anga Champa Munger and • During the rule of Bimbisar,
Bhagalpur it was taken over by
Magadha Empire
 Magadha Girivraja/Rajagriha Gaya and • It became centre of Jainism
Patna and the first Buddhist coun-
cil was held in Rajagriha
Kashi Kashi Banaras • This city got its name from
rivers Varuna and Asi as
cited in the Matsya Purana
Vatsa Kaushambi Allahabad • It followed the Monarchical
form of government
Kosala Sravasti Eastern Uttar • Located in modern Awadh
Pradesh region of Uttar Pradesh
Saurasena Mathura Western Uttar • Centre of Krishna Worship at
Pradesh the time of Megasthenes
Panchala Ahichchatra and Western Uttar • Northern Capital was
Kampilya Pradesh Ahichchatra and the South-
ern capital was Kampilya
Kuru Indraprastha Meerut and • Republic form of Govern-
South-Eastern ance
Haryana
Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur

Chedi Shuktimati/So- Bundelkhand • Mentioned in Rig Veda

thivati Region
Avanti Ujjaini or Mahis- Malwa and • Related to Buddhism
mati M.P
Gandhara Taxila Rawalpindi • Mentioned in Atharva Veda
Kamboja Rajapura Kashmir and • Republic form of governance
Hindukush
Ashmaka Pratisthan/Paithan Bank of Goda-
vari
Vajji Vaishali Bihar • Related to Buddhism
Malla Kushinara Deoria and Ut- • Republican form of Govern-
tar Pradesh ance
Features of Mahajanapadas
There are seven features or main constituents of a Mahajanapadas and they are listed below:
1. The King 2. The Minister
3. The Country 4. Fortified City
5. Treasury 6. Army
7. Ally
 Emergence of Magadh as Most Powerful Mahajanapada

• Magadha was strategically located. Its capital Rajgriha or Grivivraj was surrounded by 5
mountains which in turn promoted its safety and security.
• Presence of large number of river channels facilitated trade and commerce.
• Himalayan river brought very fertile soil which in turn promoted agriculture.
• Magadha was heavily forested and very good quality of timber was sourced from it.
• Magadha was located on the Abode of Iron Reservoir i.e Chotanagpur Plateau, with iron
they created very good quality tools.
• The magadha society and rulers were unorthodox and enterprising. They did not followed
things mentioned in Dharmashastra which was going against their trade and commerce.

History of Magadha

1. Haryanka Dynasty (544BC-413BC)

• Brihadrath and Jarasandh are considered as initial founder of Magadha.
• Bimbisar is the founder of Haryanka dynasty. He followed both the policies of military
annexation and matrimonial alliances.
• Going by matrimonial alliance he married:
a) Mahakosala Devi of Kashi (sister of Prasenjit)
b) Chellana of Licchavi (Daughter of Licchavi king Chetak)
c) Khema of Madra in Punjab.
• He annexed the Mahajanapada of Anga and placed it under his son Ajatshatru.(Military
Annexation)
• He also sent the famous physician Jivak to cure Avanti ruler Chand Pradyot who was
suffering from Jaundice. It resulted into friendly relation between the two kingdom.
• He was the first king to have a standing army and was also known as Shrenik or Shreniya.
• He was contemporary of Buddha and admirer of Mahavira Jain.
• In 492BC Ajatshatru assasinated Bimbisar to become the next ruler.
Ajatshatru
• His elevation to throne was contested by Kashi and Licchavi. He defeated Kashi ruler and
completely destroyed the city of Vaishali. In this war he used two innovative war engine:-
a) Ratha Musala:- a revolving mace was attached to a chariot.
b) Mahashil Kantaka:- it was a flexible platform to catapult stone on enemy.
• He convened first Buddhist Council in 483BC at Rajgriha
• He transferred the capital from Rajgriha to Patliputra but was not able to construct the city
of Patliputra.
• Buddha was contemporary to both Bimbisar and Ajatshatru.
• He died in 460BC and the next ruler was Udayin.

Udayin
• He constructed the beautiful city of Patliputra and completely shifted the capital from
Rajgriha to Patliputra
• The last ruler of this dynasty was Nagadasak who was assassinated by his own minister
Shishunag in 412BC.
Shishunag Dynasty (412BC-344BC)
• Shishunag was the viceroy of Kashi before becoming the king of Magadha. He politically
annexed the Mahajanapada of Avanti.
• He shifted the capital from Patliputra to Viashali.
• The last ruler of this dynasty was Kalashok who convened the Second Buddhist Council in
383BC at Vaishali.
• Kalashok was known as Kak Varnin and he shifted the capital to Patliputra.
• He was assassinated by a person known as Mahapadmananda in 344BC.

Nanda Dynasty (344BC-321BC)

• The founder of this dynasty is Mahapadma Nanda. He is called as the “1st Historical
Emperor of India”.
• After coming to power, he took resolve to eliminate all the Kshatriya from Magadha. Due to
his aggressive stand, he was often termed as Ekrat or Ugrasen or Sarva Kshatriyantaka.
• The last ruler of Nanda was Dhanananda. He was considered as one of the most powerful
rulers in Asia. He controlled a very strong army.
• At this point of time ruler of Macedonia, Alexander started his campaign of India
Subcontinent. In 326Bc in the Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum), he defeated Indian ruler Porus
but he was so impressed by the bravery of Porus that he decided to reinstate Porus and
made him his ally.
• Alexander decided to invade Magadha but he was stopped by his armymen because due to
continuous war, they were exhausted and needed time to rejuvinate.
• Though Dhananada was saved from the attack of Alexander but he was defeated and
eliminated by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BC.
• He was able to defeat Dhanananda due to political mechanisation created Vishnugupta
also known as Chanakya or Kautilya. The detail of Political mechanisation is mentioned in
the book Mudrarakshas written by Vishakhadutta.
 Mauryan Empire (321BC-185BC)

Chandragupta Maurya (321BC-297BC)

• He was the founder of Maurya Dyansty in 321BC. After consolidating his rule Chandragupta
Maurya fought with Seleucus Nicator in 305BC and defeated Nicator with the help of
Chanakya.
• A treaty was signed between the two and as per the term of treaty Nicator ceded the
province of Afghanistan and area lying west of River Indus to Chandragupta. He also
married his daughter Helina to Chandragupta.
• Megasthenese was sent to Mauryan Court as Greek Ambassador.
• Chandragupta under the influence of jain monk Bhadrabahu accepted Jainism. There was a
severe famine in Magadha, in this situation Chandragupta shifted to a place called
Shravanabelagola in Karnataka where he performed extreme penance of Jainism i.e.,
Salekhna or Santhara and died in typical jain fashion.
• After the death of Chandragupta his son Bindusar became the next ruler in 297BC.

Bindusar (297BC-273BC)
• In 299Bc, he convened 1st Jain Council at Patliputra in which Jainism was formally divided
into two branches i.e. Digambar and Svetambar.
• He maintained very cordial relationship with Syria and Egypt. Once he requested to the
ruler of Syria for sweet wine, fig and sorcerer. The Syrian ruler obliged with sweet wine and
fig but but apologizes for sorcerer.
• He also maintained cordial relationship with Egypt from where art of Cartography came to
India.
• He extended the territory of Magadha to South India. He was also called as Amitraghat
which means the slayer of enemies.
• Nicator’s successor Antichus 1 replaced Megasthenes with Deimachus as a greek
ambassador to Mauryan court.
• After the death of Bindusar, war of succession started amongst his son from 273BC. After 4
years one of his son Ashoka eliminating many of his rivals ascended to the throne in 269BC.

Ashoka (269BC-232BC)
• Overall life of Ashoka can be divided into 3 phase:-
a) Kamashoka- involved in Physical pleasure.
b) Chandashoka- extremist and brutal phase of Ashoka whereby he killed any of his
brother and fought Kalinga war.
c) Dhammashoka- followed the policy of Dhamma and patronize Buddhism.
• The sources of information about Ashoka reign is his Rock Edicts and Inscription in
following languages and script.
Languages Script

1. Pali Brahmi (Mainland India)

2. Prakrit Kharosthi (North-Western India)
3. Greek Greek
4. Aramic Aramic

• James Princep in 1837 deciphered the Mauryan Inscription i.e. Brahmi and Kharosthi.
 • In the Rumindei Inscription (Lumbini) the name of Ashoka is mentioned as Devnampiya
piyadasi which means “the one he is beloved to god”.
• In 261BC he fought Kalinga War at the site of Dhauli near Daya River. After this war Ashoka
abandoned the policy of Bherigosha ( policy of military annexation) and embraced
Buddhism under the influence of Upagupta
• He convened the 3rd Buddhist Council in 250BC at Patliputra. In this assembly decision was
taken to spread Buddhism outside India.
• He sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Ceylon (Srilanka) to spread
Buddism. Some other mission were also sent to East Asia and Central Asia. The purpose of
this mission included the policy of spreading Dhammagosha (socio-cultural annexation).
• Ashoka maintained a very strong army which after the policy of Dhammagosha started to
become burden which was more manifested after the death of Ashoka in 232BC.
• The last ruler Brihadrath was assassinated by his Brahmin minister Pushyamitra Sungha in
185BC.

Mauryan Administration
Mauryan administration was a highly centralised administration based on well-established
Bureaucratic system.
Administration was based on 7 organ named as Saptang:-
1. Swami- King
2. Ammatya- Ministers
3. Kosha- Treasury
4. Bala- Army
5. Jana/Durg- community or Fort
6. Mitra- Ally
7. Shatru/Danda- Enemy.

Some important officers during the Mauryan period are as follow:

a) Sannidhata- Chief Treasurer
b) Samharta- Chief of Revenue Collection
c) Shulkadyaksha- Chief of Agricultural Land
d) Nagarika- Superintendent of city administration
e) Rajukas- class of officer responsible for rewarding and punishing people
f) Grahmini- responsible for Village administration
g) Gopa- responsible for control over 10-15 villages
h) Adhyakshas- appointed to regulate the economic activities of the state
i) Dharmathikarin- Chief Justice at the capital Patliputra.
• Mauryas also created public hospitals in which physicians were appointed known as Bhesaj.
• There was a very well-established Espionage network or Guptachar Vibhag which was
brainchild of Kautilya.
• Chanakya used all kind of people including men, women, prostitute and even children for
spy activities.
Society During Mauryan Period
• Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador in Mauryan court. His book “Indica” is an
important source of information about Mauryan society.
• He mentioned presence of 7 castes in society but it seems that he was confused between
profession and caste. But he was right in his observation that the categories followed
Endogamy (marriage in the same category)
• There were two types of Philosophers during this period i.e., Brahmin and Shramanas
(Buddhist, Jainas and Ajivikas)
• Women were accorded respect in the society and many employment opportunities were
available to them.
• Flexible system of slavery was practised at this point of time.
• Silk, cotton textiles and other agricultural commodities were traded with areas like
Bactria, Persia, Egypt, Syria.

Post Mauryan Period

This period can be categorised into two parts:
1. Foreign Dynasty
2. Indigenous Dynasty

Foreign Dynasty
1.Indo-Greeks
• They started to arrive by 165BC. They were the first to introduce gold coins in India. They
also introduce Curtains in India.
• Meanander was the most important ruler of this dynasty. He established his capital at
Shakala (Sialkot)
• He was persuaded by a Buddhist monk, Nagasena, as such Meanander asked many
questions to which Nagasena gave satisfying reply. Meanander was impressed with
Nagasena and accepted Buddism. Moreover, he also took the title of Milinda. This historical
conversation is mentioned in book Milindapannho.
• They were the first whose coins carried the portrait of King and his name.
• They influence the Indian science and astronomy.
• Gandhara School of Arts were developed under Indo Greeks.

2. Shakas (Scythians)
• They started to arrive in many branches but the most important one was the western
branch who consolidated their hold in Gujrat and Maharashtra. They established their
capital at Nashik.
• Rudradaman was the most important ruler of this dynasty. He is known for Junagarh
Inscription; it is the first inscription written in Pure sanskrit.
• The Shakas fought a war with a king named Vikramaditya. Vikramaditya emerged
victorious in this war and an era called Vikram Samvat started in 57BC.
3. Parthian (Pahlav)
• The most important ruler of Parthians was Gondophernus.
• During his tenure a Christian saint from Israel, St. Thomas came to India for propagation of
Christianity. A church dedicated t St. Thomas was created in Velankanni in Tamil Nadu
which is one of the earliest churches in the world.

4.Kushana’s
• They belong to Yuechi Tribe of Central Asia.
• They arrived in two branches: -
a) The first branch in 65 AD known as Kadaphise Branch. The two rulers of this branch are
Kujul Kadphise and Wima Kadphise.
• Wima Kadphise released a coin in India. On the obverse side of the coin, image of a person
holding a trident accompanied with a bull was created. On the reverse side of the coin
image of Kadphise ruler were created. This coin indicated that Kushana’s were devotee of
Shiva.

b) Kanishka Branch, 78 AD
• Kanishka in 78 AD defeated Northern Branch of Shaka and to celebrate this victory he
initiated Shaka Samvat or Shaka Era from 78 AD (Official calendar of Government of India).
• In 78 AD, Kanishka accepted Buddhism and convened 4th Buddhist Council at Kundalvan in
Kashmir. Later on he professed Mahayana Buddhist Faith under the guidance of
Aswagosha.
• Kanishka phase is also noted for Phase of Urbanisation. He created two new cities: -
1. Kanishkapur- Jammu
2. Purushapur- Peshawar.
• Kanishka utilised the services of Silk Route to establish trade connection with China and
Roman World.
• He released a large number of coins including purest of the pure quality of Gold coins
• Kanishka also patronize the Mathura and Gandhara style of sculptures.
• Kushana’s introduced Long Over coat and Kurta-pyajama in India.

Indigenous Dynasty
1. Shunga Dynasty
• Pushyamitra Shunga founded this dynasty in 185 BC. He was deep believer of Brahmanical
faith and initiated the revival of Vedic Rituals as such he performed one Ashwamedha
Yajna which is mentioned in the inscription of Ayodha.
• Patanjali was the head priest of Shunga. He founded the philosophy of Yoga at this time
and also wrote an important sanskrit grammer book, Mahabhasya.
• The next ruler Agnimitra Shunga maintained maximum territory of Shunga. His love affairs
with the princess of Vidisha is mentioned in book Malvikagnimitra written by Kalidas.
• The last important ruler was Vasumitra Shunga who reconstructed the stupas and
monasteries destroyed by Pushyamitra Shunga.
• The last ruler Devabhuti was assassinated by his own minister Vasudeva Kanva in 75BC.
2. Kanva Dynasty
• Vasudeva Kanva founded this dynasty in 75BC. During his tenure large number of
foreigners accepted Hinduism.
• One of the Greek ambassadors Heliodorus not only accepted Hinduism but also erected a
pillar Garudadhwaj at Bhilsa (Vidisha). This pillar is the 1st Archealogical evidence of
worship of lord Vishnu in India.

3. Satavahana’s Dynasty
• They were also known as Andhra or Andhrabhritya.
• The most important source of information about Satvahana’s is Puranic literature
particularly Matsya Purana.
• The real foundation was laid down by a person named Simukh.
• They also completely dissolved Magadha and annexed it.
• Hala was the initial important ruler who patronized art and literature. He wrote an erotic
love poetry, Gathasaptasati in Prakrit language.
• Gautamiputra Satakarni was the most important ruler and from here onward Satvahanas
became matrilineal.
• His mother Gautami Balashri wrote Nashik Inscription whereby she mentions that:
“ Satakarni was the deep believer of Brahmanism and only protector of the Brahmin's in
the sub-continent.
• Satvahanas were the 1st ruler in India who issued lead coins for commercial transaction
apart from other coins.
• Satvahanas were also the 1st ruler in India who initiated the practice of granting land to the
Brahmin’s and monks in lieu of their service. It marked the beginning of Feudalism in India.
 GUPTA EMPIRE
The initial ruler of Gupta was Sri Gupta around 250 AD who was followed by Ghatotkach but in
319 AD, Chandragupta I became the next ruler, who is considered as the real founder of Gupta
Empire.
Chandragupta I
• He amalgamated all the small principalities of North under one central authority.
• He followed the policy of matrimonial alliance to consolidate his position and as such he
married Kumardevi of Licchavi. To celebrate this occasion special type of Kumardevi coins
were minted.
• His capital was “Prayag”.
• He issued coins and started Gupta Calendar.
• He assumed the title of “Maharajadhiraj”, which means king of kings.
• He conquered: Patliputra, Magadh, Eastern UP and Bihar.
Samudragupta
• He is considered as the most powerful rulers of Guptas and also 2 nd Chakravartin Samrat
of India.
• His court poet, Harisena wrote “Prayag Prashasti” in eulogization of Samundragupta. He
mentions that: Samudragupta never faced any defeat and won more than 100 battles.
• He was deep believer of Hinduism and he performed one Ashwamedha Yajna.
• He issued gold and silver coins with the legends: “Restorer of Ashwamedha”. Moreover,
in one of his coins he is depicted as slaying or sacrificing an animal.
• He was also accommodative to Bhuddist. In one such incidence, he allowed Srilankan
ruler Meghavarman to create a Buddhist Monastery at Bodh Gaya and also funded it.
• He was also fond of artforms and he himself was a great poet and musician. In one of his
coins, he is depicted as playing veena.
• He was also known as Kaviraj and because of his military achievement he was hailed as
“Indian Napoleon”
Chandragupta II
• He is considered as the most enlightened ruler from Gupta. During his tenure there was
holistic development in the field of religion, temple architecture, religious literature, As-
trology, Astronomy, etc.
• He took the title of “Vikramaditya” and he created 2nd capital of Gupta’s at Ujjain.
• He maintained several luminaries in his court which included very famous:
a. Kalidasa
b. Amarsimha
c. Varahmihir
d. Vararuchi
e. Dhanvantari
f. Harisena
g. Kahapanaka
h. Sanku
i. Vetalbhatta
• He also followed the policy of political marriages whereby he married Naga princess, Ku-
ber Naga. He also married his daughter Pravabhuti to Vakataka ruler, Rudrasena.
 • He conquered Mathura from the Kushanas and western Malwa and Gujrat from Shaka
Kshatrapas.
• He issued gold coins known as Dinars, Silver coins known as Denaree and copper coins
known as Daler.
• Chinese Buddhist traveller, Fa-Hien visited the court of Chandragupta II and he wrote a
book named Fu-Kuo-Ki, which is an important source of information about Gupta.
Kumargupta
• Under the influence of Fa-Hien, Kumargupta laid the foundation of Nalanda University for
Buddhist learning on modern lines.
• He was a worshipper of Kartikeya.
• He took the title of “Mahendraditya”, “Ashwamedha Mahendra”
• At the end of his reign, a powerful wealthy tribe called the “Pushyamitras” defeated the
Gupta army.
Skandagupta
• He was the last important ruler of Gupta.
• During his tenure a barbaric tribe from central asia, “Huna’s” started to invade Gupta ter-
ritory but this challenge was effectively met by Skandagupta and he eliminated Huna’s
threat for the time being.
• After the death of Skandagupta, Huna’s reorganised themselves under the leadership of
Toraman and Mihirkula, and they looted Gupta territory and took away their valuables.
• This invasion led to decline and disintegration of Gupta’s by 550 AD.
NOTE: Last ruler of Gupta Dynasty was Vishnugupta

Administration During Gupta Period

Gupta’s rule can be divided into two types of holds: -

a) Directly Ruled: all the power were there with the King.
b) Indirectly ruled: Those kings who accepted the supremacy of Gupta and the Feudal states.
• For ease of administration following sub division were created:
Sub division Meaning Head/Governed by
1. Bhukti Province Uparika
2. Vishaya District Vishayapati
3. Vithi or Nagar Town or City Vithipati
4. Gram Village Gramika or Gramani
• They also had their stamp with the image of Garuda.

Economy During Gupta Period

• Land Tax was the most important source of revenue which was fixed at 1/6th of the
produce in normal times. But it was altered in emergency situations for example, during
war the rate increases whereas during natural calamity the rate decreases.
• Vishti was a type of tax mostly imposed on landless people or small farmers. It was paid in
the form of Labour on Agricultural Land. (This tax was mentioned by Kautilya in
Arthashastra but it was implemented during Gupta Period)
• In the latter half of the Gupta rule they started to grant land to priest, nobles and officer in
lieu of their services.
Agrahara and Brahmadeya were special type of land grant which was given to Brahmin’s only.

Society During Gupta Period

• Guptas tried to ameliorate the position of women by comparing with the goddess like
Laxmi Parvati, etc. Moreover, women were expected to inculcate a moral ethical behaviour
and not to indulge in physical thing. Further their movement was restricted and particularly
upper class womens were not allowed to secure independent source of living.
• At this point of time the institution of prostitution rapidly grew and objectification of
women increased. Prostitute were known as Garika.
• Sati Pratha was also very much practised at this point of time. The first evidence of sati is
found from Eran Inscription of Madhya Pradesh dated around 510 AD.
• At this point of time law giver Katyayana clearly defined the concept of Stree Dhana
whereby he maintained that it is not a dowry price and sole property of the girl who is
married. Moreover, he maintained that only she has the right to sell it or mortgage it.

Religion During Gupta Period

• This period led to the consolidation and institutionalisation of tenets of Hinduism which
reflected from compilation of Hindu religious literature like Puranas and beginning of
Temple Architecture. Bhagwad Gita was compiled during this period.
• In this period the idea of bhakti or Devotion superseded the concept of animal sacrifice.
• Tridev concept i.e. creator, protector and destroyer were formalised in the post mauryan
period but the concept of Tridevi was consolidated during this period.

Post Gupta Period

North India: Pushyabhuti Dynasty

• Prabhakar Vardan was the founder of this dynasty based in Thaneswar in Haryana.
• His daughter Rajyashri was married to Kannauj Ruler Grahavarman, after his death his son
Rajyavardhan became the next ruler.
• One of the advisroy Shashank Gauda of Bengal not only killed Grahavarman but also
imprisoned Rajyashri at Kannauj. Moreover, under a conspiracy he also eliminated
Rajyavardhan. In this situation the young Harshavardhan became the next ruler and
successfully rescued his sister Rajyashri and made Kannauj his capital.
• Shashank was a formidable enemy and it took 13 years to finally defeat him.
• Harshavardhan was an ambitious ruler who wanted to extend his territory to South of
Narmada River, which led to battle between Harshavardhan and Chalukya ruler,
Pulakeshin II.
• In this battle Pulakeshin II defeated Harshavardhan but he did not annexed anything instead
a treaty was signed between the two rulers whereby both promised to each other that in
future they will respect Narmada as the boundary of their respective empire.
• The court poet of Pulakeshin, Ravikriti mentioned this treaty in the famous Inscription of
Aihole in Karnataka in Sanskrit language.
• During his tenure, the Chinese Buddhist traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kannauj. He wrote a
book “Si-Yu-Ki” (Experience of western world).
 • Hiuen Tsang mentions that Harshavardhan was an ardent devotee of Lord Shiva and the
Sun and he also accepted Mahayana Buddhism Bunder the influence of Hiuen Tsang but
he never abandoned the worship of Shiva and Sun.
• Harshavardhan convened two Buddhist council one at Kannauj and other at Prayag. In both
the council Hiuen Tsang gave elaborate lectures on Mahayana Buddhism which is
considered as “Bedrock for Mahayana Buddhism”.
• Harshavardhan was an accomplish Sanskrit poet and he wrote 3 Books:
a) Ratnavali
b) Nagananda
c) Priyadarshika
• Biography of Harshavardhan was written by his court poet Banabhatta which is
Harshacharita.
• The Song Ruler of China sent another envoy led by I-Tsing to meet Harshavardhan but he
was unfortunate that before his arrival Harshavardhan died.

Note: Hiuen Tsang Visited the court of both Harshavardhan and Pulakeshin II.

• After the demise of Pushyabhuti Dynasty no central authority emerged in North and
Central India. By 750 AD, three new dynasty emerged which are as follow:
1. Pala Dynasty
2. Pratihara Dynasty
3. Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Pala Dynasty (Eastern India)

• Gopala was the founder of this dynasty in 750AD.
• Dharmapala was the most important ruler of this dynasty. He created 3 Universities for
Buddhist Learning:
a) Vikramshila University
b) Odantapura University
c) Somarupa University
• He also donated 200 villages to Nalanda University for its maintenance.
• Pala were the first people who initiated Miniature Painting in India which was created on
Palm Leaves.

Pratihara Dynasty of Malwa (Pratihara-Gurjara Dynasty)

• They claimed that they are lineage of Lord Lakshman who was Pratihara (Door Keeper).
• Nagabhatta is considered as the initial ruler of Pratihara.
• Mihir Bhoja was the most important ruler of this dynasty. He was an ardent devotee of
vishnu and took the title of Adi-Varah.
• He also initiated Maru-Gurjara style of Temple which is noted for large number of indepth
pillars and intricate stone carvings.
• He maintained a very strong cavalry because he was procurring very good quality Horses
from Central Asia.
Rastrakuta of Central India
• Founded by Danti Durga in 757 AD when he defeated Chalukya Ruler, Kirtivarman.
• 2nd ruler, Krishna I is known for creation of Kailashnath Temple in Ellora. It is a monolithic
temple and top-down approach was followed in its construction. This temple is considered
as one of the “Architectural Wonder of India”
• Amoghavarsha was the most important ruler who is known for its patronization to Kannad
language and literature. He wrote the earliest Kannad Poetics, Kavirajmarg.
• Amoghavarsha professed Jain faith and 2nd Monarch after Chandragupta Maurya who
performed Sallekhna.

All the three dynasties were known for their Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj in which finally
Pratihara were successfull
 Sangama Age

The Early Cholas

• Elara was the initial ruler. He annexed Srilanka and ruled there for next 50 years after which
Srilanka became free.
• The emblem of the Chola was Tiger.
• Initially Uraiyur was the capital, it was a cotton textile industry centre. Later Puhar became
its capital which was also known as Kaveripatnam and it was their most important port.
• Arikamedu (Pudducherry) was another important port.
• Karikala was the most important ruler, perhaps he was the 1st ruler from India who created
a dam on Kaveri River which was known as Karikala Dam.
• Various Sangam poems mentions The Battle of Venni where he defeated an alliance of
Cheras, Pandayas and 11 chieftains.

The Cheras
• They were also mentioned as Keralaputra.
• Udayinjeral was the initial ruler.
• The emblem of Cheras was Bow and Arrow.
• Capital was Vanji or Karur and their most important port was Muziri (at this place Roman
constructed Temple of Augustas).
• Senguttuvan was the most important ruler who was also known as Good Chera or Red
Chera. He founded Pattinicult and created the Temple of Kannagi.
• He was the first ruler to send an ambassador to China from South India.

The Pandayas
• Mudukumudi was the initial ruler.
• Capital- Madurai, the biggest cotton textile in South. The most important port was
Thutikodi and Korkai. Nidunjelyan was the most important ruler. He expanded the
Pandayan territory and he was known for his just rule but he made a grave mistake for
which he was cursed by Kannagi.
• Under the Pandayan ruler, 3 Sangam Assembly were held which resulted into Tamil
literature or Sangam literature. One of the very important parts of Sangam literature are
the two epics: -
1. Silappadhikaram by Ilango Adigal
2. Manimekalai by Chattanar.

All the three dynasties were rich and affluent because of their strong Naval power and trade with
Arab and Roman World. They exported Spices, Ivory, Cotton textiles and Pearls to the Roman world
from where they received huge amount of bullions.
 South India
1.Chalukya and Pallava
• After the demise of Early Chola, two important dynasties emerged in South India:
a) Chalukya’s of Badami
b) Pallavas of Kanchipuram
Both these dynasties from the very beginning were fighting for control over Raichur Doab (fertile
area of Tungabhadra River)
• In the very 1st battle between Pulakeshin and Pallava ruler, Mahendravarman, Chalukya
became victorious and they capture the area of Vengi and it was handed over to Pulakeshin
brother Vishnuvardhan.
• 2nd Battle was initiated by Pallava ruler, Narasimhavarman who defeated Pulakeshin II and
captured his capital Badami (Vatapi). To celebrate this victory, Narasimhavarman took the
title of Vatapikondi (conqueror of Vatapi).
• After this battle Vengi Branch of Chalukya was created and later on in the 8th century a
Western Branch emerged at Kalyan.
• The greatest contribution of these two dynasties was initiation of temple architecture in
south. Pallavas initiated Rock cut cave architecture which gave rise to Dravida Style of
Temple whereas Chalukya initiated Vessara Style of Temple.

Mainline Chola
• This dynasty was founded by Vijayalaya around 890 AD.
• Prantaka I was the initial important ruler who captured Thanjore from Pandaya and made
it the capital of Cholas.
• Raj Raja Chola was one of the most important rulers. He defeated Pandaya’s at Madurai
and Cheras at Trivandrum. Moreover, he also captured North Eastern part of Srilanka.
• He created most important port of the Cholas, Nagapattinam. He also facilitated creation
of Buddha Vihara at Nagapattinam.
• His most important contribution was creation of Brihadeswar Temple at Tanjore which is
also known as RajRajeshwar Temple and the temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• Rajendra Chola is considered as the most powerful ruler of the Cholas. He completely
annexed the Pandaya, Chera and Srilanka Kingdom.
• He was the first ruler from far south who invaded Gangetic Valley and defeated Mahipala
of Pala Dynasty. He celebrated this victory by creating a city on the banks of River Kaveri
which is known as Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
• He was the first ruler from India who crossed Bay of Bengal to invade cities of Shrivijaya in
Malay Peninsula. After this invasion Cultural exchange started to happen in this area.
Note: Angkorvat Temple was created by Suryavarman.
Administration of Chola
The Chola rulers were the 1st truly decentralised ruler from India. For the ease of administration,
they created many Sub-division and officers were appointed with sufficient autonomy and power.

Sub Divisions Meaning

1. Cholamandalam Chola Empire
2. Mandalam Province
3. Valanadu District Zone
4. Nadu Big Village or Town
5. Kottam Small Village
6. Ur Smallest Administrative unit
• From every village, highest taxpayers were part of Ur.
• Chola created large temples close to habitation and developed market around it.
Moreover, temple was not just the place of worship but also centre of Education.
• In earlier times Guilds or Shreni were controlling the rules of trade and were involved with
Banking activities but Cholas were the 1st ruler who started the banking activities and
financial services.
• The Cholas were the 1st ruler who wrote Inscription regarding Rainwater Harvesting.
 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
JAINISM
The word ‘Jain’ is derived from Jina or Jaina which means the ‘Conqueror’. They believed that
their religion is comprised of people who have managed to control and conquer their desires.
Jainism does not have a single founder, instead believes that the truth comes to the world in
difficult and different times by a teacher who shows the way or a “Tirthankara”. There were 23
Tirthankaras or great-learned men in Jain religion before Mahavira.
• First Tirthankara: Risabhanatha or Adinatha
• 23rd Tirthankara: Parshvanatha
• 24th Tirthankara: Mahavira
Major Jain pilgrimage in India include:
• Dilwara Jain Temple in Mount Abu, Rajasthan
• Palitana Temple, Gujrat
• Girnar, Gujrat
• Shikharji, Jharkhand
• Shravanabelagola, Karnataka.
BASICS ABOUT VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA
Birth: 540 BC at Kundalgram in Vaishali
Father: King Siddhartha
Mother: Queen Trishala
Clan: Jnatrika
Varna: Kshatriya
At the age of 30, he went through a moving journey and left his home to live the life of an
ascetic. According to Jain Holy books, on the 10th day of Vaishakha, he reached the town of
“Pava” near Patna where he found the truth of life i.e., Kevalya at “Jhimbikagrama, on the banks
of “Rijupalika” river.
He was given the title “Mahavira” or the great hero. Some of the other titles given to him are:
• Jaina or Jitendriya: One who conquers all his senses
• Nirgrantha: One who is free from all bonds.
Jain Teaching and Philosophy
The Jains are morally bound by their religion to live in a such a way that would not harm any
being.
• Anekantavada: is the fundamental doctrine of Jainism emphasises that the ultimate truth
and reality is complex and has multiple aspects. Hence, there exists non-absolutism.
Three-Jewels of Janism
1. Right Belief (Samyak Darshan)
2. Right Knowledge (Samyak Gyana)
3. Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra)
They belief that through three-jewel, one can get rid of the bad karma and also pull themselves
out of the cycle of rebirth and achieve salvation i.e., Kevalya. These three jewels of Jainism are
called “Ratnatraya”
Five Cardinal Principle of Jainism or Panchamahabrata
1. Ahimsa (Non-Violence)
2. Satya (Truthfulness)/ Acharya (do not lie)
3. Asteya (not Stealing)
4. Aparigraha (non-acquisition)
5. Brahmacharya (Chaste Living)
The first four principle was propounded by Parshavanath while the fifth principle was given by
Mahavira
Two Major Schools or Sects Under Jainism
1. Digambaras: They do not wear clothes as these sects believe in complete nudity.
Bhadrabahu was an exponent of Digambar sects. Sub-Sects include:
a. Mula Sangha
b. Terapanthi
c. Tarapanthi
d. Bispanthi
2. Svetambaras: They wear simple white cloths and believe in the teaching of Parshavanath.
Sthulbhadra was a great exponent of this school. Sub-Sects include:
a. Sthanakavasi
b. Murtipujaka

BUDDHISM

It is one of the major religions of the world that originated from the Indian Sub-Continent and
has now spread to large part of South-East Asia. It is the World’s fourth largest religion after
Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. In India, Maharashtra has the highest Buddhist population
followed by West Bengal.
Basic Facts about Buddha
• Gautam Buddha was born at Lumbini in 563 BC as Siddhartha Gautam, on the auspicious
day of ‘Vaishakhi Purnima’
• Father: King Suddhodhana of the Sakya Kingdom
• Mother: Maya
• Wife: Yashodhara
• Son: Rahul
• Clan: Shakya
• Varna: Kshatriya
At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his house riding on his horse ‘Kanthaka’ and along with the
charioteer ‘Channa’, to find the truth of life and he wandered as an ascetic for next six years. This
event of leaving home or renunciation is known as “Mahabhiniskram”.
He reached to place called Bodh Gaya, where under the ‘Pepal Tree’ on the bank of River
Niranjana (Phalgu), he meditated for 49 days. In the midnight of 49 th day he attained
Enlightenment (Nirvana).
After attaining Nirvana, he gave his first sermon to his five companions at the Deer Park in
Sarnath near Varanasi. This event was called “Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana” (Turning the Wheel of
Law)
Note: Nirvana means “Extinguishment of Flame of Desire”
Buddha after preaching for many years gave up his body at a place called Kushinagar in 483 BC.
This event of his death is known as “Mahaparinirvana” (Final Blow Out).
Buddha is said to be contemporary for major part of his life to King Bimbisar and for last few
years to Ajatashatru of “Haryanka Dynasty”
The predecessor of Buddha under Buddhism was ‘Kassapa Buddha’ and his successor will be
‘Maitreya’ (Future Buddha)

Three Jewels or Triratna of Buddhism

1. Buddha: The Enlightened One
2. Dhamma: Teachings of Buddha
3. Sangha: The Monastic Order
Out of the three jewels or triratnas, the concept of Sangha (the Order) was initiated by Buddha
at the time of giving first sermon at Sarnath.

Early Buddhist Schools

After the death of Buddha, the original Sangha is believed to have split into the two early
schools in between 383 BC to 250 BC:
1. Sthavira Nikaya
2. Mahasamghika

Concept and Philosophy Under Buddhism

The basic tenets of Buddhism are explained through the “Four Noble Truths”. They are:
1. There is suffering or misery in world: Dukkha
2. There is a cause of misery i.e., Desire: Samudaya
3. Misery can be overcome: Nirodha
4. There is a path to overcome misery: Marga

Astangika Marga (Eight-Fold Path)/Madhyam Marga

1. Samyak Drishti: Right Vision
2. Samyak Vacha: Right Speech
3. Samyak Kammanta: Right Conduct
4. Samyak Vyayama: Right Exercises
5. Samyak Dhyan: Right Concentration
6. Samyak Ajivana: Right means of Livelihood
7. Samyak Smriti: Right Self Awareness
8. Samyak Samadhi: Right Meditation
According to Buddha, the Middle Path or Madhyam Marga describes the character of the Noble
Eightfold Path that leads to liberation.
Metaphysical Thought of Buddhism
1. Universe: It is created by the law of nature
2. Veda: Buddhism rejected the authenticity of Veda
3. God: They never brought any concept of God in any of their theories
4. Re-Birth: They believed in re-birth
5. Soul: They did not believe in the concept of Soul (atman)
Four Buddhist Council
Buddhist Council Place and Year Patronage by and Details
Chairman of the
Council
First Buddhist Coun- Rajgriha around 483 Patronage: Vinaya Pitaka,
cil BC Ajatashatru which contains the
Chairman: Maha- rules of the Bud-
kasyap dhist order and
Sutta Pitaka, which
contained the
teachings of Budhha
were compiled.
Second Buddhist Vaishali around 383 Patronage: Kalasoka
Council BC Chairman: Saba-
kami
Third Buddhist Patliputra around Patronage: Ashoka Compilation of Ab-
Council 250 BC Chairman: Moggali- hidhamma Pitaka
putta-Tissa took place
Fourth Buddhist Kundalvan, Kashmir Patronage: Kanishka Division of Bud-
Council around 72 AD Chairman: Vasu- dhism into Hina-
mitra yana and Mahayana
Sects

Sects of Buddhism: Early Branches of Buddhism (in between 3 rd and 4th Buddhist Council
1. Sammitya
2. Sautantrika
3. Shravastivadin
4. Madhyamika also known as Vaibhashika founded by Nagarjuna
Major Sects of Buddhism in Present World
1. Hinayana Buddhism: It means “Lesser Vehicle”. It believes in the original preaching of the
Buddha. They did not believe in idol or image worship of Buddha. The Hinayana scholars used
“Pali Language” to interact with masses. Ashoka patronised Hinayana sects of Buddhism

2. Mahayana Buddhism: It means “Greater Vehicle”. The school is more liberal and believes in
the heavenliness of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. The ultimate goal under Mahayana is “Spiritual
Upliftment”. They believe in idol or image worship of Buddha. The Mahayana scholars used
Sanskrit language to interact with masses. Kanishka patronised Mahayana sect of Buddhism.

3. Theravada Buddhism: It is known as “School of elders”. It is the oldest branch of Buddhism.

They are orthodox in nature but they worship the idols of Buddha and symbols associated with
him. According to them, Nirvana is “Bliss and Rest”. It is very popular in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and
Thailand.

4. Vajrayana Buddhism (Tantric Buddhism): In terms of rituals, it is very close to Hinduism. Even
Tantric practices can also be seen in this version. They also worship female deities like “Tara” and
“Mahamayuri”. It is popular in Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia, Kalmykia,etc.
Decline of Buddhism
• The monk became corrupt. They started to lead a luxurious life and they started prac-
tising elite language Sanskrit which was not easily understood by the common public.
• The Monk started to interfere in the affairs of Monarchy which led to stop of patronage
to Buddhism and the monks getting sidelined.
• In the later phases when there was branching in Buddhism many branches or sects of
Buddhism adopted Hindu rituals and practices, which in the beginning was opposed by
them.
• Buddhist displayed a great missionary zeal which was not liked by many.
• The final disappearance of Buddhist happened with the arrival of Islamic rule.