CHAPTER 9 Drying of Process Materials 91 INTRODUCTION AND METHODS OF DRYING 9.1A. Purposes of Drying ‘The discussions of drying in this chapter are concerned with the removal of water from process materials and other substances, The term drying is also used to refet to cemoval of other organic liquids, such as benzene or organic solvents, from solids. Many of the types of equipment and calculation methods discussed for removal of water can also be used for removal of organic liquids. Drying, in general, usually means removal of relatively small amounts of water from rial. Evaporation refers to removal of relatively large amounts of water (rom material. In evaporation the water is removed as vapor at its boiling point. In drying the water is usually removed as a vapor by air. Tn some cases water may be removed mechanically from solid materials by presses, centrifuging, and other methods. This is cheaper than drying by thermal means for removal of water, which will be discussed here. The moisture content of the final dried product varies depending upon the type of product. Dried salt contains about 0.5% water, coal about 4%, and many food products about 5%. Drying is usually the final processing step before packaging and makes many materials, such as soap powders and dyestuffs, more suitable for handling, Deying or dehydration of biological materials, especially foods, is used as a preset- vation technique. Microorganisms that cause food spoilage and decay cannot grow and multiply in the absence of water. Also, many enzymes that cause chemical changes in food atid other biological materials cangot function without water. When the water content is reduced below about 10 wt %, the microorganisms are not active. However, it is usually necessary to lower the moisture content below 5 wt % in foods to preserve flavor and nutrition. Dried foods can be stored for extended periods of time. Some biological materials and pharmaceuticals, which may not be heated for ordinary drying, may be freeze-dried as discussed in Section 9.11. Also, in Section 9.12, sterilization of foods and other biological materials is discussed, which is another method often employed to preserve such materials. 5209.1B General Methods of Drying Drying methods and processes can be classified in several different ways. Drying pro- cesses can be classified as batch, where the material is inserted into the drying equipment and drying proceeds for a given period of time, or as continuous, where the material is continuously added to the dryer and dried material continuously removed. Drying processes can also be categorized according to the physica) conditions used to add heat and remove water vapor: (1) in the first category, heat is added by direct contact with heated air at atmospheric pressure, and the water vapor formed is removed by the air; (2) in vacuum drying, the evaporation of water proceeds more rapidly at low pressures, and the heat is added indirectly by contact with a metal wall or by radiation (low temperatures can also be used under vacuum for certain materials that may discolor or decompose at higher temperatures); and (3} in freeze drying, water is sublimed from the frozen material. 9.2 EQUIPMENT FOR DRYING 92A Tray Dryer In tray dryers, which are also called shelf, cabinet, or compartment dryers, the material, which may be a lumpy solid or a pasty solid, is spread uniformly on a metal tray to a depth of 10 to 100 mm. Such a typical tray dryer, shown in Fig, 9.2-1, contains removable trays loaded in a cabinet Steam-heated air is recirculated by a fan over and parallel to the surface of the trays. Electrical heat is also used, especially for low heating loads. About 10 to 20% of the air passing over the trays is fresh air, the remainder being recirculated air. ‘After drying, the cabinet is opened and the trays are replaced with a new batch of trays. A modification of this type is the tray-truck type, where trays are loaded on trucks which are pushed into the dryer. This saves considerable time, since the trucks can be loaded and unloaded outside the dryer. In the case of granular materials, the material can be loaded on screens which are the bottom of each tray. Then in this through-circulation dryer, heated air passes through the permeable bed, giving shorter drying times because of the greater surface area exposed to the air. 9.2B Vacuum-Shelf lodirect Dryers Vacuwn-shelf dryers are indirectly heated batch dryers similar to tray dryers, Such a dryer consists of a cabinet made of cast-iron or steel plates fitted with tightly fitted doors trays Lexa adjustable louvers ZI. wz a $22) =e ee ENS iow ge Me mater —- LY eG —- Y FiGure 92-1, Troy or shelf dryer. Sec.9.2 Equipment For Drying 521so that it can be operated under vacuum. Hollow shelves of steel are fastened per- manently inside the chamber and are connected in parallel to inlet and outlet steam headers. The trays containing the solids to be dried rest upon the hollow shelves. The heat is conducted through the metal walls and added by radiation from the shelf above. For low-temperature operation, circulating warm water is used instead of steam for furnishing the heat to vaporize the moisture. The vapors usually pass to a condenser. These dryers are used to dry expensive, or temperature-sensitive, or easily oxidizable materials, They are useful for handling materials with toxic or valuable solvents 9.2C Continuous Tunnel Dryers Continuous tunnel dryers are often batch truck or tray compartments operated in series, as shown in Fig. 9.2-2a. The solids are placed on trays or on trucks which move continuously through a tunnel with hot gases passing over the surface of each tray. The hot air flow can be countercurrent, cocurrent, or a combination. Many foods are dried in this way. When granular particles of solids are to be dried, perforated or screen-belt continu- ous conveyors are often used, as in Fig. 9.2-2b. The wet granular solids are conveyed as a layer 25 to about 150 mm deep on a screen or perforated apron while heated air is blown upward through the bed, or downward. The dryer consists of several sections in series, each with a fan and heating coils. A portion of the air is exhausted to the atmosphere by a fan. In some cases pasty materials can be preformed into cylinders and placed on the bed to be dried rN e air in-————> - fresh air Z + S8 neater 08 |) 2 wet material———+| { (2 [=~ |__+-dry material trucks enter—/ “me me TL WL “ot flow O (b) Lary product Ficure 9.2-2. Continuous tunnel dryers : (a) tunnel dryer trucks with countercurrent air flow, (b) through-circulation screen conveyor dr yer. 522 Chap.9 Drying of Process Materialsul heating ~ FiGure 9.2-3. Schematic drawing of a direct-heat rotary dryer. 92D Rotary Dryers A rotary dryer consists of a hollow cylinder which is rotated and usually slightly inclined toward the outlet. The wet granular solids are fed at the high end as shown in Fig. 9.2-3 and move through the shell as it rotates. The heating shown is by direct contact with hot gases in countercurrent flow. In some cases the heating is by indirect contact through the heated wall of the cylinder. The granular particles move forward slowly a short distance before they are showered downward through the hot gases as shown. Many other variations of this rotary dryer are avaiiable, and these are discussed elsewhere (PI) 92E Drum Dryers A drum dryer consists of a heated metal roll shown in Fig. 9.2-4, on the outside of which a thin layer of liquid or slurry is evaporated to dryness. The final dry solid is scraped off the roll, which is revolving slowly. Drum dryers are suitable for handling slurries or pastes of solids in fine suspension and for solutions. The drum functions partly as an evaporator and also as a dryer. Other variations of the single-drum type are twin rotating drums with dip feeding or with top feeding to the two drums. Potato slurry is dried using drum dryers, to give potato flakes. 9.2F Spray Dryers Ina spray dryer a liquid or slurry solution is sprayed into a hot gas stream in the form of a mist of fine droplets. The water is rapidly vaporized from the droplets, leaving particles internally steam~ film heated drum spreader \ OI. 77-~— liquid or slurry feed \— knife seraper dried material Ficure 9.2-, Rorary-drum dryer. Sec. 9.2 Equipment For Drying 523“| feed fn chamber ey eee ARG exhaust gas et \ droplets, cyclone separator it “ A hopper LS ary product screw conveyor Figure 92-5, Process flow diagram of spray-drying apparatus of dry solid which are separated from the gas stream. The flow of gas and liquid in the spray chamber may be countercurrent, cocurrent, or a combination, ‘The fine droplets are formed from the liquid feed by spray nozzles or high-speed rotating spray disks inside a cylindrical chamber, as in Fig. 9.2-5. It is necessary to ensure that the droplets or wet particles of solid do not strike and stick to solid surfaces before drying has taken place. Hence, large chambers are used. The dried solids leave at the bottom of the chamber through a screw conveyor. The exhaust gases flow through a cyclone separator to remove any fines. The particles produced are usually light and quite porous. Dried milk powder is made from spray-drying milk 9.2G Drying of Crops and Grains In the drying of grain from a harvest, the grain contains about 30 (0 35% moisture and for safe storage for about 1 year should be dried to about 13 wt % moisture (HI). A typical continuous-flow dryer is shown in Fig. 9.2-6. In the drying bin the thickness of the layer of grain is 0.5 m or less, through which the hot air passes. Unheated air in the bottom section cools the dry grain before it leaves. Other types of crop dryers and storage bins are described by Hall (H1), grain inlet wire screen —_ dry grain Figure 9.2-6. Vertical continuous-flow grain dryer su Chap.9 Drying of Process Materials | | | | oO9.3 VAPOR PRESSURE OF WATER AND HUMIDITY 9.3A Vapor Pressure of Water I. Introduction. In a number of the unit operations and transport processes it is necessary to make calculations involving the properties of mixtures of water vapor and. air. These calculations involve knowledge of the concentration of water vapor in air under various conditions of temperature and pressure, the thermal properties of these mixtures, and the changes occurring when this mixture is brought into contact with water or with wet solids in drying. Humidification involves the transfer of water from the liquid phase into a gaseous mixture of air and water vapor. Dehumidification involves the reverse transfer, whereby water vapor is transferred from the vapor state to the liquid state. Humidification and dehumidification can also refer to vapor mixtures of materials such as benzene, but most practical applications occur with water. To better understand humidity, it is first neces- sary to discuss the vapor pressure of water. Vapor pressure of water and physical states. Pure water can exist in three different physical states: solid ice, liquid, and vapor. The physical state in which it exists depends on the pressure and temperature, Figure 9.3-1 illustrates the various physical states of water and the pressure temperature relationships at equilibrium. In Fig. 9.3-1 the regions of the solid, liquid, and vapor states are shown, Along the line AB, the phases liquid and vapor coexist. Along line AC, the phases ice and liquid coexist. Along line AD, ice and vapor coexist. Ifice at point (1) is heated at constant pressure, the temperature rises and the physical condition is shown moving horizontally. As the line crosses AC, the solid melts, and on crossing AB the liquid vaporizes. Moving ftom point (3) to (4), ice sublimes (vaporizes) to a vapor without becoming a liquid. Liquid and vapor coexist in equilibrium along the line AB, which is the vapor- pressure line of water. Boiling occurs when the vapor pressure of the water is equal to the total pressure above the water surface, For example, at 100°C (212°F) the vapor pressure of water is 101.3 kPa (1.0 atm), and hence it will boil at 1 atm pressure. At 65.6°C (150°F), from the steam tables in Appendix A.2, the vapor pressure of water is 25.7 kPa (3.72 psia). Hence, at 25.7kPa and 65.6°C, water will boil Ha pan of water is held at 65.6°C in a room at 101.3 kPa abs pressure, the vapor pressure of water will again be 25.7 kPa. This illustrates an important property of the solid region: 7, J. —liquid region _vapor region Pressure Temperature Ficure 9.3-1, Phase diagram for water Sec.93 Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity. 528vapor pressure of water, which is not influenced by the presence of an inert gas sucheds air; ie,, the vapor pressure of water is essentially independent of the total pressure of the system. 9.3B Humidity and Humidity Chart 1. Definition of humidity. The humidity H of an air-water vapor mixture is defined as the kg of water vapor contained in 1 kg of dry air. The humidity so defined depends only on the partial pressure p, of water vapor in the air and on the total pressure P (assumed throughout this chapter to be 101.325 kPa, 10 atm abs, or 760 mm Hg). Using the molecular weight of water (A) as 18.02 and of air as 28.97, the humdiity H in kg H,O/kg dry air or in English units as Ib H,O/lb dry air is as follows: py K@H:O___pu_ ke mol H,O | 18.02 kg H,O 1 kg mol H,O * 2897 kg air/kg mol air (93-1) kgdry air) P—p, kg mol air Saturated air is air in which the water vapor is in equilibrium with liquid water at the given conditions of pressure and temperature. In this mixture the partial pressure of the water vapor in the air-water mixture is equal to the vapor pressure p,s of pure water at the given temperature. Hence, the saturation humidity H, is 1802 _ pas ~ 28.97 P — pas s (93-2) 2. Percentage humidity. ‘The percentage humidity H, is defined as 100 times the actual humidity H of the air divided by the humidity Hy if the air were saturated at the same temperature and pressure. H Hy = 100 — 9.3-3) p= 1005 (03:3) 3. Percentage relative hu ty. The amount of saturation of an ait-water vapor mix. percentage relative humidity H, using partial pressures ture is also given a: Pa Hy = 100 24 (93-4) Pas Note that Hy # Hp, since Hp expres (9.3-2), and (9.3-3) is ed in partial pressures by combining Eqs. (93-1), H 18.02 py / - Hy = 100 7, = (100) HB OZEI Pas Emre An end Pas jee Pa Pa as 5 2897 P—p,| 2897 P= pay ~ Pas Pap, 1) OF) This, of course, is not the same as Eq. (9.3-4) EXAMPLE 9.3-1. Humidity from Vapor-Pressure Data The air in a room is at 267°C (80°F) and a pressure of 101.325 kPa and contains water vapor with a partial pressure p, = 2.76 kPa. Calculate the following. (a) Humidity, #1 (b) Saturation humidity, H., and p (c) Percentage relative humidity, Hp. stage humidity, Hp 526 Chap.9 Drying of Process MaterialsSolution: From the steam tables at 26.7°C, the vapor pressure of water is pgs = 3.50 kPa (0.507 psia). Also, py = 2.76 kPa and P = 101.3 kPa (14.7 psia). For part (a), using Eq. (9.3-1), — _ 1802 _ pa 18.02(2.76) * 2897 P =p, 2B9TLO1.3 — 2.76) For part (b), using Eq, (9.3-2), the saturation bus _ 18.02 _ pas 18.02(3.50) “2897 P = pag 28.97(101.3 — 3.50) 0.01742 kg H,O/kg air diy is = 0.02226 kg H,O/kg air The percentage humidity, from Eq. (9.3-3), is H__ 100(0.01742) Hy = 100 57 = —Soaaag— = 783% For part (c) from Eq. 0,3-4), the percentage relative humidity is = 100 PA = 1082.76) _ 79 go, Hy = 100 PA m= SSS = 789% 4, Dew point of an air-water vapor mixture. ‘The temperature at which a given mixture of air and water vapor would be saturated is calied the dew-point temperature or simply the dew point. For example, at 26.7°C (80°F), the saturation vapor pressure of water is Pas = 3.50 kPa (0.507 psia). Hence, the dew point of a mixture containing water vapor having 2 partial pressure of 3,50 kPa is 26.7°C. Ian air—water vapor mixture is at 37.8°C (often called the dry bulb temperature, since this is the actual temperature a dry thermometer bulb would indicate in this mixture) and contains water vapor ofp, = 3.50 kPa, the mixture would not be saturated. On cooling to 26.7°C, the air would be saturated, ie. at the dew point. On further cooling, some water vapor would condense, since the partial pressure cannot be greater than the saturation vapor pressure. 5. Humid heat of an air-water vapor mixture. The humid heat cs is the amount of heat in J (or kJ) required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of dry air plus the water vapor present by ! K or 1°C. The heat capacity of air and water vapor can be assumed constant over the temperature ranges usually encountered at 1.005 kJ/kg dry air-K and L.88 kJ/kg water vapor: K, respectively. Hence, for SI and English units, cs ki/kg dry air-K = 10054188 (SI g dry sn 03-6) cs btu/lb, dry air-°F =0.24+0.45H (English) [In some cases ¢s will be given as(1.005 + 1.88H)10° J/kg K.) 6. Humid volume of an air-water vapor mixture. The humid volume vy is the total volume in m> of 1 kg of dry air plus the vapor it contains at 101.325 kPa (1.0 atm) abs pressure and the given gas temperature. Using the ideal gas law, 22.41 1 vy mh ir == 7 eee eae « (uit wea") = (283 x 1079 44.56 x 10°? AT K 359 L 1 by f0/Ib, dry air = == TPR H Oy Wilby dry ait = 365 (ts 18.02, ) = (0.0252 + 0.0405H)T?R (93-7) Sec. 93 — Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity 527Fora saturated ait-water vapor mixture, H = Hs, and vy is the saturated volume. 7. Total enthalpy of an air-water vapor mixture. The total enthalpy of | kg of air plus its water vapor is H, J/kg or kI/kg dry air. If Ty is the datum temperature chosen for both components, the total enthalpy is the sensible heat of the air—water vapor mixture plus the latent heat 4 in J/kg or ki/kg water vapor of the water vapor at Ty. Note that (T — To°C = (T — Tp) K and that this enthalpy is referred to liquid water. H, ki/kg dry air Gs(F = Ty) + Hg (1.005 + 188HXT — Ty°C) + Hy 03-8) H, btu/lb,, dry air = (0.24 + O4SH\T — Ty °F) + Ho If the total enthalpy is referred to a base temperature To of 0°C (32°F), the equation for H, becomes H, kijkg dry air = (1,005 + L88H) (T°C — 0) + 2501.4H (SI. v9) H, btu/lby dry air = (0.24 + 0.451) (T°F — 32) + 1075.4H (English) " 8, Humidity chart of air-water vapor mixtures. A convenient chart of the properties of air-water vapor mixtures at 1.0 atm abs pressure is the humidity chart in Fig. 9.3-2. In this figure the humidity H is plotted versus the actual temperature of the air-water vapor mixture (dry bulb temperature), The curve marked 100% running upward to the right gives the saturation humidity H, as a function of temperature. In Example 9.3-1, for 26.7°C Hy was calculated as 226 kg H,O/kg ait. Plotting this point of 26.7°C (80°F) and Hy = 0.02226 on Fig. 2, itfalls on the 100% saturated line. Any point below the saturation line represents unsaturated air-water vapor mix- tures. The curved lines below the 100% saturation ling and running upward to the right unsaturated mixtures of definite percentage humidity Hp. Going downward lly from the saturation line at a given temperature, the line between 100% turation and zero humidity H (the bottom horizontat line) is divided evenly into 10 increments of 10% each. All the percentagi can be calculated from ¢ idity lines H, mentioned and the saturation hu ¢ data of vapor pressure of water. EXAMPLE 93-2. Use of Humidity Chart Air entering a dryer has a temperature (dry bulb temperature) of 60°C (40°F) and a dew point of 26.7°C (80°F). Using the humidity chart, deter. mine the actual humidity H, percentage humidity Hp, humid heat cs, and the humid volume vy in SI and English units, Solution: The dew point of 26.7°C is the temperature when the give: mixture is at 100% saturation. Starting at 26.7°C, Fig. 9.3-2, and drawing a vertical line until it intersects the line for 100% humidity, a humidity of H = 00225 kg H,O/ké dry air is read off the plot. This is the actual humidity of the air at 60°C. Stated in another way, if air at 60°C and having a humidity H = 0.0225 is cooled, its dew point will be 26.7°C. In English units, H! = 0.0225 Ib H,O/lb dry air. Locating this point of H = 0.0225 and 1 = 60°C on the chart, the percentage humidity Hp is found to be 14%, by linear interpolation verti- cally between the 10. and 20% lines. The humid heat for H = 0.0225 is, from 528, Chap. 9 — Drying of Process Materials* Guoyssnused a1 “0861 Muodwo yoog III H-MDs2Y 240.4, MaN “Pa pag ‘suoyiDs0do afew L-S60 YoqKO4L “FH Wor) (8x7 maw Y9L) Par 5ZE'TOL Jo 24N8594d Jor03 w 20 4odon Jaxon pu ATO fo SoAmixtt JOf LaDy KuprumtT —Z-{'6 34ND (0,) samexoduias, ' Ocl OTST. OT 06 08 ou 09 os ov of 07 on ° 0 100 200 £0°0 070 Soro 90°0 “00 80°0 600 oro tro (ae Aap By/s0dea sovem 84) 7 “AUEPRUINA ao ero oro sto 529 Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity See. 9.3Eq. (9.3-6), 1.005 + 1.88(0.0225) 047 kI/kg dry air-K or 1.047 x 10° J/kg-K = 0.24 + 0.45(0,0225) 250 btuflb, dry air-°F (English) The humid volume at 60°C (140°F), from Eq. (9.3-7), is Oy = (2.83 x 107) + 4.56 x 107? x 0,0225Y60 + 273) = 0.977 mi/kg dry air In English units, by = (0.0252 + 0.0405 x 0.0225\460 + 140) = 15.67 fP/lb,, dry air 9.3C Adiabatic Saturation Temperatures Consider the process shown in Fig. 9.3-3, where the entering gas of air-water vapor mixture is contacted with a spray of liquid water. The gas leaves having a different humidity and temperature and the process is adiabatic. The water is recirculated, with some makeup water added. ‘The temperature of the water being recirculated reaches a steady-state temperature called the adiabatic saturation temperature, T;. If the entering gas at temperature T having a humidity of H is not saturated, T, will be lower than T. If the contact between the entering gas and the spray of droplets is enough to bring the gas and liquid to equilibrium, the leaving air is saturated at T;, having a humidity Hy. Writing an enthaipy balance (heat balance) over the process, a datum of Ty is used. The enthalpy of the makeup HO is then zero. This means that the total enthalpy of the entering gas mixture = enthalpy of the leaving gas mixture, or, using Eq. (9.3-8), eT — Ts) + His = cg Tg — Te) + HAs (93-10) Or, rearranging, and using Eq. (9.3-6) for cs, HH, 1 1.88H sf _,1005 + 188 gy, T-T; Bs Ay (93-11) H—H, 024+ 045H eee (English) TT. ds Equation (9.3-11) is the equation of an adiabatic humidification curve when plotted inlet gas HT outlet gas makeup HzO Ts FiGure 9.3-3. Adiabatic air-water vapor saturator. 530 Chap.9 Drying of Process Materialson Fig. 9.3-2, which passes through the point Hy and T; on the 100% saturation curve and other points of H and T. These series of lines, running upward to the left, are called adiabatic humidification tines or adiabatic saturation lines. Since ¢, contains the term H, the adiabatic lines are not quite straight when plotted on the humidity chart. Ifa given gas mixture at T, and HY, is contacted for a sufficiently long time in an adiabatic saturator, it will leave saturated at Hs, and Tsy. The values of fs, and Ts, are determined by following the adiabatic saturation line going through point T,, H, unti intersects the 100% saturation line. If contact is not sufficient, the leaving mixture will be at a percentage saturation less than 100 but on the same line, EXAMPLE 93-3. Adiabatic Saturation of Air An air stream at 87.8°C having a humidity H = 0.030 kg H,O/kg dry air is contacted in an adiabatic saturator with water. It is cooled and humidified to 90% saturation. (a) What are the final values of H and T? (b) For 100% saturation, what would be the values of H and T? Solution: For part (a), the point H = 0.030 and T = 87.8°C is located on the humidity chart. The adiabatic saturation curve through this point is followed upward to the left until it intersects the 90% line at 42.5°C and H = 0.0500 kg H, O/kg dry air. For part (b), the same line is followed to 100% saturation, where T = 40.5°C and H = 0.0505 kg H,O/kg dry air. 9.3D Wet Bulb Temperature The adiabatic saturation temperature is the steady-state temperature attained when a large amount of water is contacted with the entering gas. The wet bulb temperature is the steady-state nonequilibrium temperature reached when a small amount of water is contacted under adiabatic conditions by a continuous stream of gas. Since the amount of liquid is small, the temperature and humidity of the gas are not changed, contrary to the adiabatic saturation case, where the temperature and humidity of the gas are changed. ‘The method used to measure the wet bulb temperature is illustrated in Fig. 9.3-4, where a thermometer is covered by a wick or cloth. The wick is kept wet by water and is immersed in a flowing stream of air-water vapor having a temperature of T (dry bulb temperature) and humidity H. At steady state, water is evaporating to the gas stream. The wick and water are cooled to Ty and stay at this constant temperature. The latent heat of evaporation is exactly balanced by the convective heat flowing from the gas stream at T to the wick ata lower temperature Ty. thermometer reads Ty mm) eas TA wick Figure 9.34, Measurement of wet bulb temperature. Sec.9.3 Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity 531‘A heat balance on the wick can be made. The datum temperature is taken at Ty. The amount of heat lost by vaporization, neglecting the small sensible heat change ofthe vaporized liquid and radiation, is 4=MyNalyA (93:12) where q is KW(kJ/s), M, is molecular weight of water, N, is kg mol H,0 evaporating/ s+m?, A is surface area m?, and Ay is the latent heat of vaporization at Tyy in kJ/kg HO. In English units, q is btu/h, N , is Ibmol/hft?, and Ay is btulb,, H,O. The flux N, is “ a= Ow — = kOe — (93-13) Xe N, where ky is the mass-transfer coefficient in kg mol/s-m?- mol frac, xpy, is the log mean inert mole fraction of the air, yyy is the mole fraction of water vapor in the gas at the surface, and y is the mole fraction in the gas. For a dilute mixture xp, & 1.0 andk, = &, The relation between H and yis, HIM, eee 14 7" Tit, + HIM, 0314) where Mg is the molecular weight of air and M, the molecular weight of HO. Since H is small, s an approximation, (93-15) Substituting Eq. (9.3-15) into (9.3-13) and then substituting the resultant into Eq. (93-12), 9 = Mgk, Aw (Hw — HA (93-16) The rate of convective heat transfer from the gas stream at T to the wick at Ty is q= MT —Ty)A (93:17) where his the heat-transfer coefficient in kW/m?» K (btu/h: ft? °F). Equating Eq. (93-16) to (9.3-17) and rearranging, H—Hy _ h/Mgk, T-Ty aw (9.3-18) Experimental data on the value of h/M gk, , called the psychrometric ratio, show that for water vapor-air mixtures, the value is approximately 0.96-1.005. Since this value is close to the value of ¢s in Eq. (9.3-11), approximately 1,005, Eqs. (9.3-18) and (9.3-11) are almost the same. This means that the adiabatic saturation lines can also be used for wet bulb lines with reasonable accuracy. (Note that this is only true for water vapor and not for others, such as benzene) Hence, the wet bulb determination is often used to determine the humidity of an air-water vapor mixture. EXAMPLE 9.3-4. Wet Bulb Temperature and Humidity . A water vapor-air mixture having a dry bulb temperature of T = $0°C is passed over a wet bulb as shown in Fig. 9.3-4, and the wet bulb temperature obtained is Ty = 29.5°C. What is the humidity of the mixture? Solution: The wet bulb temperature of 29.5°C can be assumed to be the same as the adiabatic saturation temperature Ts, as discussed. Following the adiabatic saturation curve of 29.5°C until it reaches the dry bulb temperature of 60°C, the humidity is H = 0.0135 kgHO/kg dry air. 532 Chap.9 Drying of Process Materials