NZ Wood Design Guides

TREES, TIMBER, SPECIES & PROPERTIES

Chapter 1.2 | February 2020
 NZ Wood Design Guides is a Wood Processors and Manufacturers Association
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CONTENTS
Page

2 BACKGROUND
Page Page
2 Forestry 2 Natural Variety
2 Natural Qualities 2 Natural Choice

3 FOREST MANAGEMENT
3 Planting 3 Harvesting
3 Pruning 4 Species
3 Thinning 5 Sustainability

6 WOOD STRUCTURE
6 Tree Growth 8 Grain Direction
6 Cellular Structure 8 Location in the Tree
7 Density

9 FEATURES VISIBLE IN LOG

9 Bark 10 Knots
9 Pith 10 Corewood
9 Growth Rings 11 Reaction Wood
10 Sapwood and Heartwood 11 Pitch Pockets

12 MOISTURE EFFECTS
12 Water and Wood 18 Movement of Large Timber Components
15 Shrinkage and Swelling

19 SAWN TIMBER
19 Sawmilling 20 Seasoning
19 Log Quality 20 Features of Sawn Timber
20 Flat Sawn vs. Quarter Sawn Timber

24 MANUFACTURED TIMBER PRODUCTS

24 Roundwood 24 CLT
24 Sawn Timber 25 Plywood
24 Glued Laminated Timber 25 Other Panel Products
24 LVL

26 STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF SAWN TIMBER

26 Relationship between Strength and Stiffness 28 Bending Strength
26 Compressive Strength 29 Shear Strength
27 Tensile Strength 29 Torsional Strength

30 STATISTICAL VARIATION OF STRENGTH PROPERTIES

30 Upgraded Timber 32 Engineered Wood Products
31 Graded Timber

33 OTHER FACTORS INFLUENCE STRENGTH PROPERTIES

33 Moisture Content 33 Duration of Load
33 Size Effects

35 GRADING OF STRUCTURAL TIMBER

35 Graded Systems 35 Methods of Grading Structural Timber
35 Structural Grades

38 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROPERTIES OF TIMBER

38 Small Clears Testing Vs. In-Grade Testing 39 Other Exotic Species
38 Radiata Pine and Douglas Fir
40 VERIFICATION OF METHODS
40 Verification Requirements in NZS AS 1720.1 42 Proof Testing
41 Properties of Timber Species Not Listed 42 Design Values From Small Clear Test Results

43 DURABILITY OF TIMBER

44 INFORMATION SHEETS FOR MINOR SPECIES

NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 1

 1. BACKGROUND
1.1 FORESTRY
Native indigenous forest covers 23% of New Zealand (6.2 million hectares); however, virtually none of this forest is
harvested, as the New Zealand forest industry is almost entirely based on 1.8 million hectares of sustainably managed
planted forest, of introduced “exotic” species.

Most timber produced in New Zealand is plantation grown radiata pine (Pinus radiata) which is used in timber structures
throughout New Zealand. Significant quantities of radiata pine are exported as structural framing timber, glue
laminated timber, laminated veneer lumber and panels for use in overseas markets. Smaller quantities of douglas fir
and minor species (such as macrocarpa and eucalypts) are also planted, harvested, and used in structural engineering
applications.

1.2 NATURAL QUALITIES

Wood is the only major building material that is a sustainable and renewable resource (i.e. able to be replenished in
a reasonable time period). It is tough and attractive, and gives a pleasant feel to any surroundings. Timber is easy
to handle and work using basic tools and equipment, and has been used by builders and craftspeople for centuries.
It has earned its key role in our lives through a process of “natural selection”. The very qualities that ensure timber’s
continuing importance are those that are most difficult to simulate in other materials. The appearance of timber
is unique and even if the eye is temporarily fooled by artificial substitutes the hand is not. The thermal insulation
properties of timber make it pleasantly warm to the touch.

1.3 NATURAL VARIETY

In ancient times, humans created structures using timber in its natural form - the trunks or branches of trees. Timber
milling has come a long way since those times, as have methods of processing. Sawn timber boards have been
complemented by a huge variety of panels products such as plywood, fibreboards and particle boards in a wide range
of thicknesses and sizes. For structural uses there are laminated timber beams and other engineered components
including LVL, CLT, timber trusses and composite structures.

The natural properties of wood can be enhanced by processing and finishing to improve strength, hardness, durability
and resistance to attack from insects and weather. Chemical treatment of wood is one way to ensure long life under
extreme conditions. Timber buildings can be designed with excellent resistance to hazards such as wind, fire and
earthquake.

1.4 NATURAL CHOICE

New Zealand has a large and increasing resource of plantation grown radiata pine, and a growing number of smaller
plantations of special purpose species. Wood from these plantations has largely replaced scarce New Zealand native
species for structural purposes. The wide variety of quality timber and wood products produced in New Zealand are
complemented by a range of imported timbers, used mainly for appearance purposes.

The use of timber and wood products is supported by codes and standards, together with manufacturers’ product
information. Specifying timber and wood products for your next project adds structural flexibility, high strength-to-
weight ratios, excellent insulation properties and a unique bonus in terms of appearance and “feel”. With care and
attention to detail, the benefits of designing, working and living with wood can be something that both you and your
clients can enjoy.

2 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
2. FOREST MANAGEMENT

This section gives a brief description of the practice of exotic forestry in New Zealand, where the trees are primarily
radiata pine, but also douglas fir and many others in smaller quantities.

2.1 PLANTING
In a typical commercial forestry operation, small pine seedlings are planted in a manual process using hand tools.
Planting is usually on bare ground or pasture or cleared forest. Typical spacing is a 3 metre grid (about 1000 stems per
hectare). This number of trees is far more than will be carried to maturity, to allow for control of grass and weeds and
future thinning to remove poorer quality trees.

2.2 PRUNING
Pruning is the process of cutting branches off young trees to avoid the formation of knots in the timber. On maturity,
pruned trees will have a knotty core of low quality wood in the centre of the butt log, surrounded by high quality wood
with no knots. Logs cut from higher in the tree will contain knots the same as unpruned trees. Trees are usually pruned
to a height of about 6 metres in one or two lifts, before the stem gets larger than about 100mm in diameter. Removing
too many branches will reduce the growth rate of the trees. Pruning produces higher quality timber, but it is not
essential if the cost of pruning will exceed the increased value of the pruned sawn timber.

2.3 THINNING
Thinning is the process of cutting down unwanted trees after a few years of growth. Unnecessary trees are removed
to ensure that the final crop has maximum size and quality, hence maximum value. The thinned trees are occasionally
taken out of the forest and used for fence posts or other uses (“production thinning”) but this is usually uneconomic
so the felled trees are left to rot on the ground (“thinning to waste”). Thinning is usually carried out after the trees
are about 10 years old, to leave between 300 and 600 trees per hectare (4m to 6m spacing between trees). The trees
selected for thinning include smaller or deformed trees unsuitable for commercial production.

2.4 HARVESTING
Harvesting is the process of removing trees from the forest for processing. Trees are harvested (logged) when the
trunk reaches an optimum size for processing. This is usually a base diameter between 400mm and 800mm. Radiata
pine is usually harvested at an age between 25 and 35 years. douglas fir is more often harvested at an age between 35
and 50 years. Logging may be manual (with a chainsaw) or by machine. Modern logging machines can cut the trunk
at its base, cut off all the branches, cut the logs to length, and load them on to a truck. At the time of harvesting, the
tree trunk is cut into logs 4 to 6 metres long, depending on the eventual market. Each tree usually produces up to four
logs, the bottom log known as the butt log.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 3
 2.5 SPECIES
HARDWOODS AND SOFTWOODS
The terms “hardwood” and “softwood” are botanical terms which do not necessarily indicate hardness of the
wood (for example, a well known hardwood is balsa wood, which is very soft). Softwoods, known botanically
as gymnosperms, are coniferous trees which have needle-like leaves usually staying on the tree for several years.
Hardwoods, known as angiosperms are usually deciduous trees which lose their leaves in winter.

EXOTIC SOFTWOODS
Radiata pine
Radiata pine (Pinus radiata) makes up 90% of the sawn timber produced in New Zealand.
Radiata pine is a native of California, where it is known as Monterey pine. Radiata pine wood is
light coloured with an even texture, and a low proportion of heartwood. The natural durability
is low, but it is easily treated. It is moderately strong, has excellent gluing, nailing and machining
properties and is suitable for an extremely wide variety of uses. To establish its engineering
properties, radiata pine has been extensively researched by independent organisations including
Scion (formerly the New Zealand Forest Research Institute), BRANZ and universities. Many of New Zealand’s consulting
engineers and timber product manufacturers have specific expertise in working with this species of timber. Radiata
pine has proven suitable for a very extensive range of building materials and structural applications, some unique to
this country.

Douglas fir
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) accounts for 5% of annual production of sawn timber in New
Zealand. Douglas-fir is a native of western regions of the USA and Canada. The wood has a
high proportion of heartwood, which is pinkish brown in colour, with prominent high and low
density wood in the annual rings. Douglas-fir is mostly used for structural applications, where it
is stiffer and stronger than radiata pine and knots are generally smaller, intergrown and randomly
located. Douglas-fir is slightly more durable than radiata pine so it is not required to be treated for
some low decay risk applications.

Cypress group
This large group of species includes macrocarpa (Cupressus macrocarpa) and Lawson’s cypress
(Cupressus lawsoniana). Most cypress species have similar wood properties characterised by a
distinctive smell, an attractive grain, a medium to low density, natural durability and excellent
stability. The wood is suitable for interior and exterior joinery, weatherboards, and boat-
building. It also suits general construction uses, being slightly stronger than radiata, but dry wood
is prone to splitting when nailed.

Other exotic softwoods

Other softwoods are available in small quantities, usually being used for specialist decorative
applications. European larch (Larix decidua) is used in some applications where high toughness
or small knot size is important.

EXOTIC HARDWOODS
There are several species of Eucalyptus which have been planted widely in New Zealand. They are mostly medium to
high density, with a red or brown heartwood. They are often used for panelling, furniture, flooring and joinery, but can
be used for general structural uses. They are stronger than radiata, but can be difficult to dry in large sizes. Locally
grown European and American hardwood species are also available in small quantities for specialist uses.

4 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
NATIVE SPECIES
Native species are indigenous New Zealand trees. Most native trees are endemic to New Zealand which means that
they do not grow naturally anywhere else in the world. Natural growth rates are often very slow. Native timber is not
widely available because of restrictions on logging on many land tenures. Most native timber is used for decorative
rather than structural uses, often in thin sections or veneers.

NATIVE SOFTWOODS
The native softwood species with the most potential for future growth is totara (Podocarpus
totara). After a long period of poor availability, production is steadily increasing, especially in
Northland. Totara is widely used for Maori carving and other non-structural uses.

Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) is commercially available in very small quantities, mostly in the
South Island. It is a brown, fine grained, even-textured medium density wood with reasonable
strength. It has been used for framing, joinery, furniture manufacture and a variety of other
purposes. Other native softwoods are only available in very small quantities for special uses
such as kauri (Agathis australis) for boat building.

NATIVE HARDWOODS
Native hardwoods include silver beech (Nothofagus menziesii), red beech (Nothofagus fusca)
and tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa). They are available in small quantities in particular areas.
Because they are harder and more dense than radiata pine, good quality wood is usually used
in furniture, panelling or manufactured items.

INFORMATION SHEETS
Information sheets on native species and some less common exotic species are available from the NZ Wood website
www.nzwood.co.nz. Additional information sheets are available from the website of the New Zealand Farm Forestry
Association www.nzffa.org.nz.

All of these data sheets provide useful information, but they are not a complete path to compliance without
verification of structural properties, as described below.

IMPORTED TIMBER
Not much timber is imported into New Zealand for structural purposes, but a number of species are imported in small
quantities for decorative or durable uses.

2.6 SUSTAINABILITY
Wood which is harvested from well managed forests is a renewable resource, with excellent sustainability credentials.

The WPMA Design Guides on Sustainability describe responsible forest management in accordance with FSC and
PEFC guidelines, the benefits of carbon forestry, carbon and the environment, and the social and economic benefits of
timber construction.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 5
 3. WOOD STRUCTURE
3.1 TREE GROWTH
Trees take in water and minerals from the soil through their roots, and absorb carbon dioxide from the air through
their leaves or needles. Using the process of photosynthesis, using the energy of sunlight, basic carbohydrate
compounds are formed in the leaves. These travel in the sap to the cambium layer, the thin active growth layer under
the bark (see Figure 4), where they provide food for the growth of the fibres, which make up most of the wood. During
the growing season, cells in the cambium layer are continually dividing, creating new wood on the inside and new
bark on the outside.

3.2 CELLULAR STRUCTURE

Wood is a cellular material mainly comprised of long, tube-like cells, or fibres. Chemically, the cells are mainly cellulose,
and they are bonded together with lignin. The main cells in softwoods are called tracheids, about 4 mm long and 0.04
mm in diameter. The tracheids are oriented vertically in the tree, to provide the main strength of the wood and also to
conduct mineral solutions in the sapwood. Rays are collections of smaller storage cells oriented horizontally from the
centre of the tree (the pith) to the bark as shown in Figure 1.

LATE WOOD CELLS

They form in summer, are narrow & dark coloured

EARLY WOOD CELLS

They form in spring and are wide &
light coloured

RAYS

GROWTH RING PITS

They let sap pass between wood cells

Figure 1. Cellular structure in one growth ring of softwood

The strength and stiffness of wood is mainly related to the mechanical properties of the main cells in the wood. The
wall of each cell consists of a composite matrix of several layers, as shown schematically in Figure 2. The part of the
cell having most influence on wood strength and stiffness is the middle layer of the cell wall. This layer consists of
closely packed cellulose chains (microfibrils) which are aligned close to the longitudinal axis of the cell. Inclination of
the microfibral angle is a major factor affecting wood stiffness.

Inner layer

Middle layer
Outer layer

Primary wall

Middle lemella

Figure 2. Schematic sketch of cell wall showing orientation of microfibrils

6 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
3.3 DENSITY
The size of cell cavities and the thickness of cell walls affect the density of wood. Density can vary within a tree, from
tree to tree, and from species to species. The apparent density will also change with moisture content, and with
the presence of preservative treatment. For wood free of major defects, dense wood is usually stronger, harder and
stiffer than less dense wood, but density is difficult to assess in a sawmill environment. The density of most softwoods
(at 12% moisture content) is about 500kg/m3 (weight 5 kN/m3). Green wood in a standing tree or a freshly cut log is
approximately double this value (1000kg/m3).

Care must be exercised when referring to wood density because there are several different definitions.

• The “basic density” is the oven dry weight of the wood divided by the volume in the green condition. This is a
rather artificial definition of density which is often used by forest growers.
• The “oven dry density” is the oven dry weight of the wood divided by the oven dry volume.
• The “nominal density” at any moisture content is the oven dry weight of the wood divided by the volume at
that moisture content.
• The “test density” at a specific moisture content is the most commonly used definition for estimating the
weight of timber in a structure. It is the weight divided by the volume, both at the measured moisture content
of the wood.

For conversions between these different definitions of density, see Mike Collins FRI Bulletin No. 49.

Derived using the equations in Bulletin No. 49, Table 1 shows the different values of density for one typical piece of
radiata pine wood with a basic density of 4.15 kN/m3. The oven dry density is 4.70 kN/m3 (a higher value because it
is the same weight divided by a smaller volume). These values are properties of the wood material, independent of
moisture content. The nominal density and the test density depend on the moisture content, so at a moisture content
of 12%, the nominal density is 4.46 kN/m3 and the test density is 5.00 kN/m2.

Moisture Content Basic Density Oven Dry Density Nominal Density Test Density
kN/m3 kN/m3 kN/m3 kN/m3
8% 4.15 4.70 4.54 4.90
12% 4.15 4.70 4.46 5.00
20% 4.15 4.70 4.32 5.18

The new timber design standard, NZS AS 1720.1, gives a value for Design Density in Table 2.1 which is the nominal density
at 15% moisture content, to be used for calculation of fastener strength in accordance with Chapter 4.

The new standard for fire design of timber structures, AS/NZS 1720.4, specifies a density of 550kg/m3 at 12% moisture
content, for all sawn timber and manufactured products from radiata pine grown in New Zealand. This notional value
of density was back-calculated to give a charring rate of 0.65mm/min in standard fire exposure, the same value as in
NZS 3603, previously verified by fire resistance testing.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 7
 3.4 GRAIN DIRECTION
The cellular structure of wood gives rise to anisotropic properties. Wood has different properties in three perpendicular
directions as shown in Figure 3; longitudinal (parallel to the grain), radial, and tangential (both perpendicular to the
grain).
l
tia
en
ng
Ta

l Longitudinal
dia
Ra

Figure 3 Anisotropic directions for describing wood properties

3.5 LOCATION IN THE TREE

Wood properties can depend on the position in the tree. The greatest difference is over the log cross section, with both
strength and stiffness increasing from the pith to the outside of the log. The wood in the five to ten growth rings closest
to the pith is very weak (see Corewood, page 10). There is a small reduction in strength moving up the tree from the
butt log to the top logs, but this is not significant for structural engineering properties.

8 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
4. FEATURES VISIBLE IN A LOG

4.1 BARK
The bark is the weatherproof covering at the outer surface of the log. During tree growth, new bark is formed
continuously as cells divide in the cambium layer between the bark and the wood. Outer layers of bark slowly fall off the
tree as it gets older. The bark is removed when logs are processed.

4.2 PITH
The pith is the small core of soft material at the very centre of the log, as shown in Figure 4. The pith at the centre of
every log was originally formed as the new shoot of the growing tip of the young tree.

Knot from Unpruned

Annual Growth Branch
Rings
Bark

Pith
Cambium Layer
Pitch
Pocket

Corewood

Sapwood Heartwood Sapwood

Figure 4. Cross section of tree trunk

4.3 GROWTH RINGS

Each year, trees increase in diameter by adding new layers of cells at the cambium layer. Annual changes in these
layers make up the growth rings, or annual rings, which vary in thickness with the species, growth conditions and tree
age. In most softwood trees grown in temperate climates, large thin-walled cells are formed in the spring, when the
wood is growing faster, and thicker-walled cells are formed in the slow summer growing season. The areas of fast
growth are called earlywood or springwood, and are lighter in colour; the areas of more dense slow growth are called
latewood or summerwood which are darker in colour. Counting the number of rings at ground level gives the age of the
tree. Figure 1 shows an enlargement of the wood cells in one annual growth ring.

As an interesting diversion, dendrochronology is the science of dating past events or estimating the age of ancient
wood relics by looking at tree rings. It is based on the principle that all the trees in a region have similar variations in
the width of the growth rings from year to year due to climatic and other factors.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 9
 4.4 SAPWOOD AND HEARTWOOD
Sapwood is the wood in the outer region of the tree trunk where the wood cells support tree growth by conducting
sap and storing food. As a tree increases in diameter the cells towards the centre become inactive and function only
as support for the tree. This older wood is called heartwood. Complex organic compounds known as extractives are
deposited in the heartwood, often giving it a darker colour and some increased decay resistance. It is easy to visually
identify heartwood and sapwood in most softwood species by the different colours. Sapwood, although it has lower
natural decay resistance, is more easily treated by preservatives because it is more permeable than heartwood.
Sapwood and heartwood are of similar strength.

4.5 KNOTS
Knots in logs are due to the presence of branches. Most branches originate at the pith, and while they remain alive,
they grow combined with the trunk, as shown in Figure 5. When splitting firewood with an axe, it can be seen that
wood fibres tend to “flow” around branches, producing grain disturbances some distance from the knot itself.

If branches die and fall off naturally, or if they removed in a pruning operation, the stubs become overgrown and the
subsequent wood is clear of knots. Many radiata pine forests are manually pruned because the branches do not fall
off naturally.

Radiata pine tends to have discrete whorls of branches at certain heights in the tree. Douglas-fir differs in that it
has a much more random location of small branches which is a definite advantage for structural timber, giving less
strength reduction from knots.
Pith
Bark

Cambium

Unpruned
Branch

Callus Scar

Stub

Heart
Sap Wood Pruned Branch
Wood (After 4 years growth)

Figure 5. Cut-away segment showing a pruned branch and an unpruned branch

4.6 COREWOOD
Corewood refers to wood within about 5 to 10 growth rings from the centre of the tree, including the pith. It is
sometimes referred to as juvenile wood because it was formed when the tree was very young. The corewood is less
dense than the wood in the rest of the tree, and tends to have wide, low density growth rings that contain spiral
grain with a propensity for twist. There is no clear definition of corewood and it cannot be identified visually except
by counting growth rings from the pith. Boards cut from the centre of a log often have a large amount of corewood,
leading to higher longitudinal shrinkage, more twisting, and less strength than wood from further out in the log.

Not all species are affected by the problem of corewood, but it is very significant in radiata pine. Douglas-fir exhibits
more uniform properties within stems than radiata pine and therefore has less of a corewood problem.

10 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
4.7 REACTION WOOD
Reaction wood is abnormal woody material formed in the trunk of a tree, usually as a result of a leaning trunk. Reaction
wood also occurs naturally in branches of trees.

In softwoods, reaction wood is called compression wood, and it is found on the lower side of a branch or an inclined
trunk. The density of compression wood may be 30% to 40% greater than normal wood, and the cells are modified.
After sawing, the presence of compression wood results in excessive longitudinal shrinkage which may cause
significant warping when the wood dries. Compression wood is difficult to recognise visually, easier to identify in a
log than in sawn timber, because the larger growth rings on the lower side of a leaning tree cause the pith to be away
from the centre of the log, as shown for an extreme case in Figure 6.

In hardwoods, reaction wood is called tension wood, which occurs on the upper side of branches and leaning trunks,
and can also cause problems in sawn timber.

Bark

Compression
Pith
Wood

Normal Wood

Figure 6. Eccentric growth rings due to the formation of compression wood in a leaning tree.

4.8 PITCH POCKETS

A pitch pocket is an opening between growth rings, which contains resin, or bark, or both. Pitch pockets are usually
caused by surface damage to the bark of young trees. Pitch pockets containing resin can create appearance
problems in timber because the pitch can slowly ooze out over a period of time, even if the surface is painted.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 11
 5. MOISTURE EFFECTS
Wood is derived from living material and interacts with the moisture in its environment. Changes in humidity and
temperature cause fluctuations in wood moisture content and these affect its properties and dimensions. More
problems in timber construction are attributable to inadequate detailing for moisture-related issues than anything
to do with structural design. Designers must therefore consider how moisture affects the performance of timber
components and structures, during manufacture, construction and in service.

To minimise shrinkage, swelling, warping or splitting of wood, the moisture content should be controlled at all stages.
Changes in moisture content may also lead to problems with gluing, machining, and surface coating. Fungal and
insect attack and metal corrosion are also affected by the amount of moisture in wood. To reduce the effect of
changes in moisture content wood should be:
(a) Dried to the correct moisture content.
(b) Stored properly to avoid undue moisture change before and during manufacture.
(c) Manufactured under controlled conditions.
(d) Protected properly before use and while being put into use.
(e) Protected as necessary in the finished situation.
Any structure or component should incorporate appropriate allowances for moisture content control in the design,
specification and detailing.

5.1 WATER AND WOOD

Wood in normal use always contains water. The water may be “bound”, ie. combined with the wood cell walls, or it
may be “free” water within the cell cavities. When wet wood is dried the free water is lost first. This causes little change
in wood properties other than reducing weight. But if drying is continued until all the free water is lost and the cell
cavities are empty, further loss can only come from bound water. The loss of this bound water is accompanied by
shrinkage and changes to properties such as strength and modulus of elasticity.

MOISTURE CONTENT
Moisture content (m.c.) is a measure of the amount of water in a piece of wood and is defined as:

Moisture content (%) = weight of water / weight of oven dry wood × 100

This can be measured either indirectly with hand-held moisture meters or directly and most accurately by weighing
samples before and after oven drying. Oven drying typically consists of leaving the wood sample in an oven at 105°C
for 12 hours, or until there is no further loss of weight.

Several types of moisture meter are available. The most common is the electrical resistance type of moisture meter
with two probes hammered into the wood. This is reasonably accurate, measuring moisture content to within 1.5%
when the moisture content is below the fibre saturation point. Moisture meters with short probes are easier to use but
they only measure moisture content near the surface whereas those with longer probes can measure much deeper
in the timber. Some moisture meters are surface contact only. Radio frequency moisture meters are only accurate to
about 3% but are very useful as a rapid indicator. Moisture meter readings need to be corrected for species, treatment
and temperature effects, so they should be correctly calibrated.

12 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
 Example: Oven drying method to obtain wood moisture content:

A sample of wood weighs 5 kg. It is placed in an oven at 105°C until there is no loss in weight. It now weighs
only 4 kg, 1 kg of water having been driven off. The original moisture content was:

Moisture content = (5 – 4) / 4 ×100 = 25%

GREEN (UNSEASONED) WOOD

Wood from newly felled trees is usually called “green” wood and has a high moisture content. The cell cavities
contain water and the cell structure is swollen. The moisture content of green wood is often around 100%, but varies
considerably between species, ranging from 45% to 200%. Low density species such as balsa and redwood have a low
mass of wood in a given timber volume, so they can have moisture contents exceeding 200%. Heartwood generally
has lower moisture content than sapwood.

DRY WOOD
The term “dry” wood must be used carefully, because all wood in service contains some moisture. A specification
referring to dry wood must be qualified with a specified range of moisture contents to ensure that allowances for any
change in properties or dimensions are of the right magnitude.

EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT

Timber in constant conditions of humidity and temperature will gain or lose moisture until it comes into equilibrium
with the atmosphere. It is then said to have reached its equilibrium moisture content (e.m.c.) for those conditions.
Because e.m.c. varies with chemical composition, different species and wood products may reach different moisture
contents under similar conditions.

Air conditioned or Intermittently heated

Use category centrally-heated buildings buildings Unheated buildings

Weatherboards, exterior 14-18 14-18 14-18

joinery, finishing and framing,
items outside the insulation

Flooring exposed to ground 10-14 12-18 14-18

atmosphere

Interior joinery, and finish wall 8-12 10-14 12-16

framing, flooring not exposed
to ground atmosphere

Table 2. Suggested moisture content for finishing and framing timbers in New Zealand (percent)

Table 2 gives the approximate e.m.c. and therefore the recommended moisture contents for timber in various
environments in New Zealand. In exterior environments such as bridge beams, the e.m.c. may be as high as 20% to
24%. Piles beneath the soil water table and in marine structures should be considered to be saturated or “green.”

The general relationship for solid timber is given in Figure 7, which enables the e.m.c. to be calculated for any
environment of known humidity and temperature. Timber in a low temperature, high humidity environment has
high e.m.c., whereas timber in high temperature, low humidity conditions has a low e.m.c. For example, a glulam
component destined for the Middle East may need to be below 8% moisture content.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 13
 Surface coatings reduce the rate of moisture movement into and out of wood and wood products, but they cannot
entirely halt the process. Given sufficient time, wood ultimately comes into equilibrium with the average temperature
and relative humidity of its environment, regardless of the surface coating. Consequently, if it is desired to minimise
the effects of moisture content on wood properties, it is essential that the wood be dried to (and maintained at) a
moisture content as close as possible to the e.m.c. of the final conditions of use. For dry indoor environments, this is
best achieved by kiln drying the wood.

Moisture Content (%)

20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13
90
12
11
80 10
9
70 8
Relative Humidity (%)

7
60
6
50 5

40

30

20

10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature (0C)

Figure 7. Equilibrium moisture content as influenced by temperature and relative humidity.

DRYING
To reduce the moisture content of wood for given service conditions, timber needs to be dried. The two main methods
used by the timber industry are:
• Air drying where timber is filleted in stacks and allowed to dry with the passage of air and wind, often exposed
to the rain and natural weather conditions.
• Kiln drying using heat and air flow in a controlled cycle in a kiln.
In both cases the wood must be filleted in stacks with spacers between layers to allow passage of air.

These processes involve time and handling that can sometimes affect the delivery of timber orders. Air drying is rarely
used because it can take several weeks or months depending on the time of the year, but it may be used for high value
decorative timbers that are difficult to dry. Air drying usually results in moisture contents of 14% to 18%.

Conventional drying kilns can usually achieve much lower moisture content in a week, whereas special high
temperature kilns are increasingly used for drying in 24 hours. Wood in kilns is often stacked with weights to keep the
boards straight and prevent distortion during the drying process. Thinner wood takes less time to dry. Thin veneers
used for plywood and LVL manufacture can be dried to 5% moisture content in less than 10 minutes.

14 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
5.2 SHRINKAGE AND SWELLING
MOVEMENT OF WOOD
As the moisture content of wood reduces during drying, shrinkage commences after the cell walls start to lose bound
water. This is called the fibre saturation point (FSP) and is usually about 30% moisture content, as listed in Table 3.
Shrinkage of limber is usually expressed as the change in dimension from green (fibre saturation point) to 12% moisture
content, divided by the green dimension, expressed as a percentage. Shrinkage and swelling of green wood due to
moisture changes above the fibre saturation point is negligible. For moisture changes below the fibre saturation point,
wood will swell as it gains moisture and shrink as it loses moisture as shown in Figure 8. The amount of movement is
directly proportional to the change in moisture content and varies with species, density and the direction of the grain.
Dense woods generally shrink and swell more than lighter woods.

% shrinkage, when drying from

green to 12% m.c. Fibre saturation
Species
point (% m.c.)
Tangential Radial
Radiata 3.9 2.1 29
Douglas fir 4.9 2.8 27
Macrocarpa 3.2 1.8 25
Redwood 2.2 1.3 25
Eucalyptus sp. 6.0 3.5 30
Kauri 4.1 2.3 26
Matai 3.5 1.9 24
Rimu 4.2 3.0 27
Beech, red 7.1 3.3 24
Tawa 6.7 3.4 30

Table 3. Shrinkage properties of some New Zealand timbers.

10

6 Radial Shrinkage
Shrinkage (%)

5 Tangential Shrinkage
4
Longitudinal Shrinkage
3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Moisture content of wood (%)

Figure 8. Shrinkage at various directions to the grain.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 15
 TRANSVERSE SHRINKAGE
Typical values for transverse shrinkage (across the grain) are given in Table 3. Tangential shrinkage is always greater
than radial shrinkage. This difference is the cause of much distortion and degrade in drying, such as:
• Cupping of flatsawn boards as shown in Figure 12
• Diamonding of square sections as shown in Figure 12
• Checking and splitting of poles
• Checking and splitting of large beams which enclose the pith
Limits are placed on distortion by timber grading rules (NZS 3631). Glulam, LVL, and finger-jointed timber are
much more stable than single long lengths of timber because they contain smaller pieces of wood and the varying
movements of adjacent pieces are averaged.

Example:
If a piece of wood measures 150 mm wide in the green state, and 144 mm when dried to 12% moisture content,
its width shrinkage is:
150 – 144
× 100 = 4%
150

LONGITUDINAL SHRINKAGE
Longitudinal shrinkage (along the grain) of most timbers is about 0.1% when drying from green to 12% m.c. This
is less than one tenth of the transverse shrinkage, so it can normally be ignored. For typical timber in service, the
small seasonal variation in moisture content of 2 to 5% will result in only small changes in length which are usually
inconsequential.

Longitudinal movement is only likely to be a problem where long members supporting critical elements are subject to
differential movements producing visible deflections or undesirable stresses. Compression wood, and juvenile wood
from the centre of the tree, may shrink more than normal wood and the resulting uneven longitudinal shrinkage can
cause distortion or warp (crook, bow, twist) if moisture content is not controlled (Figure 15). Engineered wood products
such as glulam and LVL are much less prone to distortion.

CALCULATING MOISTURE MOVEMENT OF WOOD

Transverse movement:
Designers, specifiers and builders have little or no control of the orientation of the radial and tangential components
of structural timber. It is therefore appropriate to use an average value when calculating shrinkage or swelling of
structural elements. Movement can be variable so accuracy to within less than a millimeter is probably not warranted.
Using the shrinkage values in Table 3, the change of a given cross-sectional dimension can be calculated from:

Dimensional change = % shrinkage from Table 3 x m.c. change × initial dimension

[Equation 1]
100 FSP – 12

Example using equation [1]:

Use the equation to calculate the shrinkage of a flat-sawn douglas fir board, 300mm wide, when it dries from
27% m.c. to 12% m.c (change of 8%):
From Table 3, the tangential shrinkage of douglas fir from green to 12% m.c. is 4.9% and the FSP is 27%.

4.9 8
Dimensional change = × × 300mm = 7.8mm
100 27-12

16 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
 Simple rule for radiata pine:
Equation [1] can be used to get a simple rule for a quick estimate of long term transverse moisture movement
for radiata pine for a moisture content change of 1%. With the average transverse shrinkage of 3% from Table 3,
and the fibre saturation point of 29%, equation [1]: gives
3 1
Dimensional change = × × initial dimension
100 29-12
= 0.00176 x % m.c change x initial dimension

Examples using the simple formula for radiata pine:

1. Consider a 100mm wide timber board drying from green (29%) to 12% m.c:
The m.c. change is 17 %, so the shrinkage = 0.00176 x 17 x 100mm = 3mm.
2. Consider a 250mm wide timber board going from air dry (20%) to 12% m.c:
The m.c. change is 8 %, so the shrinkage = 0.00176 x 8 x 250mm = 3.5mm
3. Consider a 150mm wide timber board going from kiln dry (10-14%) to 12% m.c:
The m.c. change is ±2%. Shrinkage = 0.00176 x 2 x 150mm = ±0.5mm. This shows that kiln dried wood is
variable and may move one millimter or more as it equilibrates with the environment.

Longitudinal movement:
For almost all timbers, longitudinal movement can be estimated from:

Change in length = 0.00005 x initial length x % m.c. change

This may usually be neglected in design. Consider a 4.8 m long post of green timber, installed in a situation where the
final e.m.c. is 12%. The shortening of the post for the change in moisture content of 30 - 12 = 8% is:

0.00005 x 4800 x 18 = 4.3 mm

If the adjacent supports are steel or masonry, there will be differential deflection of 4.3mm. Pith or corewood in the
column could lead to larger movement. Simple precautions would be to specify that the column should be pith free,
dried to 12% before installation, and protected from rewetting during construction. Glulam or LVL would be more
appropriate for a critical member such as this.

DISTORTION
Distortion of wood and wood products occurs in many different ways, mostly due to differential shrinkage during
drying. Figure 15 shows the most common forms of distortion occurring in sawn timber.

DIMENSIONAL STABILITY
It is not only the amount of moisture movement from green to dry that is important, but also the speed at which
already dry timbers respond to changes in environmental conditions. Movement may be of either a long-term or short-
term nature. Dimensional stability of heartwood of different species is given in Table 4. Long-term movement is typically
associated with moisture content change as wood is exposed to dry summer conditions and later to wet winter
conditions. The amount of movement is dependent on the wood’s shrinkage value, fibre saturation point, and its e.m.c.

Short term movement is the response of wood to fluctuations such as those from alternating rainy and sunny
conditions, depending on how quickly moisture moves through the wood. A timber that is stable in the short term is
one that responds slowly to changes in environment. Values for short term stability in Table 4 range from 1.0 for red
beech to 3.0 for tawa. This means that an article made from tawa would move three times as much as an equivalent
red beech article when subjected to similar short-term atmospheric changes. Conversely, although red beech is 2.2
times more stable than radiata pine in the short term, its long term movement is three times as much. In other words,
red beech may shrink a large amount on drying, but once dried and installed, it will tend to retain its dimensions.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 17
 Long-term Short-term
movement movement

Radiata 2.0 2.2

Douglas fir 3.6* 2.5
Macrocarpa 1.4 1.2
Redwood 1.6* 2.1
E. Regnans 2.4 2.3
E. Saligna 2.9 1.9
Kahikatea 2.9* 2.8
Kauri 3.0* 2.8 Long-term movement is the percentage decrease in
Matai 2.6* 1.5 tangential dimension from equilibrium at 90% relative
Rimu 2.9* 2.2 humidity to equilibrium at 60% relative humidity.
Beech, red 5.9* 1.0 Short-term movement is the tangential swelling from
Beech, silver 4.0* 1.9 equilibrium at 60% humidity after 24 hours at 95%
Tawa 4.5* 3.0 relative humidity.
*Derived from previous data not in this form.
Table 4. Dimensional stability (%) of some New Zealand timbers.

CALCULATING MOISTURE MOVEMENT OF PANEL PRODUCTS

For plywood, moisture movement can be related to the properties of the wood from which it was made. Transverse
movement across the grain in the plane of the veneer is constrained by minimal longitudinal movement parallel to
the grain in adjacent veneers crossing at right angles. Therefore, movement in the plane of the panel is only about
double the longitudinal movement of timber. Swelling in plywood is recoverable on drying.

Change in width or length of sheet = 0.0001 x initial dimension x % m.c. change.

Product Likely moisture E.m.c.: E.m.c.: Linear expansion Thickness

content Very dry conditions Very humid conditions coefficient swelling
ex factory (50% relative (90% relative mm/%m.c. mm/%m.c.
humidity, 200C) humidity, 200C)

Plywood 10-14 8 19 0.0001 0.001
Particle board 16-14 10 17 0.0003
Bison board 7-13 9 15 0.0006 0.01
MDF hardboard 7-13 7 12 0.0005 0.01
Hardboard 6 12 0.0003

Table 5: Moisture content and movement properties of some panel products.

For most other panel products the fibres are randomly oriented. The change in dimension can still be obtained by
multiplying the initial dimension x % m.c. change x the coefficient from Table 5. Depending on the adhesive used,
wood particle board and wood fibre based panels may swell permanently in the thickness and never recover the
quite large movements that may occur, because of some loosening of the fibres.

5.3 MOVEMENT OF LARGE TIMBER COMPONENTS

For large timber components, even a small change in moisture content can result in significant movement that might
affect detailing and connection requirements. On the other hand, changes in moisture content will be slow in large
timber members.
The use of glulam or LVL has advantages in the control of moisture movement because:
Manufacturing is at a moisture content close to e.m.c. (gluing requires that timber be dry)
• Increased stability results from the random gluing together of pieces
• Glulam and LVL are handled and stored carefully because of their high value
• These products can be wrapped or coated with water repellents before delivery
Large solid sawn timber beams (such as a 300 x 100 mm sawn timber beam) may split on one face if they contain the
pith of the tree, called “boxed pith”. There is no way of preventing this splitting. If appearance is important the beams
should be selected carefully from previously dried stock, or they should be cut from the outer part of the log so that
they are free of pith, or be made from engineered wood.

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6. SAWN TIMBER

6.1 SAWMILLING
When a forest is logged, the branches are cut off and the logs are transported to processing facilities. For conversion
into sawn timber, logs are taken to sawmills. Despite advanced technology, converting a round log into rectangular
timber is rather inefficient, and only about half of the log volume becomes sawn timber. The remainder ends up as
slabs, chips or sawdust, which may become feedstock for panel products or energy production.

6.2 LOG QUALITY

The quality of the logs is assessed visually and sonically. Additional information on log quality may be obtained from
silvicultural records dealing with pruning, thinning, seedling quality etc. Logs for conversion into structural timber are
assessed for quality with an estimate of the modulus of elasticity (MoE), made either in the forest or at the sawmill, with
a device which measures the time taken for a sound wave to travel the length of the log, after one end is hit with an
electronic hammer, as shown in Figure 9. Low stiffness logs will be sawn into appearance grade timber or chipped for
manufacturing into panel products.
Modern sawmills are sophisticated industrial facilities, with much of the work done by computer-controlled machinery.
Logs are often scanned and centred before sawing to ensure maximum yield of timber from each log.

Figure 9. Use of an impact (sonic) device to sort logs.

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 6.3 FLAT SAWN VS. QUARTER SAWN TIMBER
In the sawmill, the logs are sawn into timber. There are many different possible patterns for cutting a log, with two
possibilities shown in Figure 10. The resulting timber is often described as “quarter-sawn” or “flat-sawn” as illustrated
in Figure 11. In quarter-sawn timber the annual rings form angles of 45° to 90° with the surface, whereas in flat sawn
timber, they are at 0° to 45° with the surface. Quarter sawn timber suffers much less distortion than flat sawn timber
when it is dried. It is also much less prone to surface checking if exposed to sunlight.

Figure 10. Two of the many ways that logs can be

converted into sawn timber.

Quarter-sawn board Flat-sawn board

Figure 11. Quarter-sawn and flat-sawn boards

6.4 SEASONING
When logs are converted to sawn timber the moisture content of the wood is very high, maybe 100% of the weight
of the dry wood. The timber needs to be seasoned (dried) to reduce the moisture content before use. This is done
by air drying or kiln drying. Changes in moisture content result in shrinkage and swelling of the wood which can be
calculated. Changes in dimension after installation can be minimised by seasoning the timber to near the equilibrium
moisture content before use. See Section 5 for methods of calculating shrinkage in different grain directions.

6.5 FEATURES OF SAWN TIMBER

Several important features are apparent in sawn timber. These depend on how the tree grew, its species, and how it
was sawn and dried. In order of importance, the main features that affect strength and stiffness are:
• knots
• sloping grain
• corewood (or juvenile wood)
• compression wood
• splits, checks and shakes
• warp (or distortion)
• pitch pockets
• wane
Limitations on these features are the basis of visual grading rules.

20 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
KNOTS
Knots appear in sawn timber as a result of the wood grain “flowing” into the branches in the living tree. The shape of
a knot on a sawn surface depends upon the direction of the saw cut with respect to the axis of the branch. When a
branch is sawn through at right angles to its length, a nearly circular knot results as shown in Figure 12(a). When the
branch is sawn through lengthwise a “spike knot” appears as shown in Figure 12(b). Sawing diagonally produces an
oval knot. A “dead knot” or an “encased knot” results when the tree has grown around a dead branch; these knots
sometimes fall out leaving a hole right through the board. Most often, “live knots” or “inter-grown knots” result from
sawing trees in which the branches were still alive. Douglas-fir differs from radiata pine in its branching as it does
not form discrete whorls of branches in the living tree, resulting in a more random arrangement of small knots in the
boards with less reduction in strength.
All types of knots will decrease most mechanical properties because:
• there is loss of load carrying cross section
• the fibres in the area of the knot are distorted, resulting in perpendicular-to-grain stresses
• checking or splitting often occurs around knots when the wood dries
Because sloping grain causes a greater reduction of tension strength than compression strength, knots also causes
a greater reduction of tension strength than compression strength. For a simply supported beam, a knot will have
the greatest strength-reducing effect when it is situated in the centre of the span on the lower side, where the tension
stress is highest. Since knots also affect stiffness, they can decrease the buckling strength of columns.

(a)

(b)

Figure 12. Knots. (a) circular knot, (b) spike knot.

SLOPING GRAIN
Sloping grain lowers the strength of sawn timber. Sloping grain in a tree refers to the angle of the grain not being
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the tree trunk, whereas sloping grain in wood refers to the grain not being parallel
to the longitudinal axis of the wood member cut from the tree. Sloping grain may be local, or it may be over the whole
cross section, due to several causes:
• the grain was disturbed locally in the growing tree due to a branch
• the board was sawn parallel to the pith of the tree, but the log had pronounced taper (resulting in
“diagonal grain”)
• the log had fibres growing in a spiral direction about the trunk of the tree instead of in a straight direction
(called “spiral grain”) as shown in Figure 13.
Slope of grain is not always visually detectable, although it may have significant effects on strength. In radiata pine
there are often small brown longitudinal flecks in the wood which help to identify sloping grain.

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 Figure 13. Spiral grain in a tree.

COMPRESSION WOOD
“Compression wood” has been described earlier. It is weaker than normal wood, and is comparatively brittle.
Unfortunately it is very difficult to identify compression wood in sawn timber, although a greater proportion of
summerwood, and increased opacity may be present. Boards with some compression wood are likely to suffer greater
distortion when the wood dries, in which case the boards will be downgraded for the distortion rather than for the
compression wood itself.

SPLITS, CHECKS AND SHAKES

Splits, checks and shakes are cracks or fissures parallel to the main axis of the tree, but they each have slightly different
definitions:
• A split is a separation along the grain, forming a crack or fissure that extends through the piece of wood from
one surface to another.
• A check is similar, except that the fissure does not extend all the way through the piece.
• A shake is a separation occurring between annual growth rings.
A shake and a check are shown in Figure 14. Splits and checks are usually the result of differential shrinkage during
drying which often occurs because the end grain of a piece of wood will dry more quickly than the rest of the piece,
and thus will shrink faster. The differential strain can cause splits or checks. Coating the end grain or drying at a slow
rate can reduce this occurrence. Checks and splits can cause significant loss of shear strength. They also create
cosmetic and durability problems, because an unbroken paint film cannot be maintained over a split or check. A pitch
pocket is an opening between growth rings (i.e. a shake), which contains (or has previously contained) resin, or bark,
or both.

Wane

Check

Shake

Figure 14. Shake, Check and Wane.

22 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
WANE
Wane is a lack of wood at the corner of a board, as shown in Figure 14, usually caused by the sawmill cutting too close
to the outside surface of the log. A small amount of wane is not a serious strength-reducing defect because the wood
at the outside of the log is usually the strongest wood in the tree, so that boards with wane are often the strongest
boards in a given population. Wane may be an unacceptable visual defect in some situations.

WARP (DISTORTION)
If different parts of a cross section shrink at different rates, the result will be distortion of the board. This distortion is
known as “warp”. Warp can be due to several factors, all related to shrinkage when the wood is dried:
• Different rates of shrinkage in the radial and tangential directions of the cross section
• Higher longitudinal shrinkage on one side of the board, due to the local presence of corewood or
compression wood
• Uneven drying, with one side of the board drying more quickly than the other
• Spiral grain in the board, resulting in twisting when the board dries
Warping can cause the sides of the board to deviate from plane surfaces. There are four main types of distortion
referred to as warp, as shown in Figure 15:
• Bow
• Crook
• Cup
• Twist
Warp can cause an apparent decrease in strength, because straightening forces can add extra unexpected stresses.
Warp is also inconvenient for building for many practical reasons. Warp is generally prevented by careful seasoning,
restraining the timber in a straight position during drying.

Bow

Cup

Crook

Twist
Figure 15. Warp in sawn timber.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 23
 7. MANUFACTURED TIMBER PRODUCTS
Trees are felled, limbed, cut into logs and transported to sawmills or other processing facilities where they are
converted into sawn timber or other products.

7.1 ROUNDWOOD
Roundwood refers to naturally round wood such as posts and poles which are often used in structural applications.
Roundwood is inexpensive because it requires very little processing, and poles are stronger than similar sizes of sawn
timber. There are many advantages of using roundwood in applications such as foundations, retaining walls, farm
buildings, pole houses, and many others.

7.2 SAWN TIMBER

Sawn timber refers to simple rectangular boards of timber which are sawn from a log in a sawmill. The most common
sawn timber boards have a thickness of 45mm, with widths of 90, 140, 190, 240 or 290mm. Special orders may be
requested for larger sizes, which will often be a higher price.
These dimensions are nominal sizes which depend on the moisture content of the wood. Shrinkage and swelling will
result in slightly larger sizes in boards with a high moisture content and slightly smaller sizes in dry boards.

7.3 GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER

Glued laminated timber (glulam) can be manufactured in almost any size and shape by gluing sawn timber boards
together. Curved glulam beams are more expensive than straight beams because the tighter the radius of curvature,
the thinner the laminates, requiring additional machining and additional quantities of adhesive. Glulam is often
manufactured from chemically treated timber for enhanced durability, especially for exposed outdoor applications.

7.4 LVL
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is a structural panel product manufactured from thin peeled veneers of wood (about
3mm thick), rather like thick plywood, but with all the grain running in the longitudinal direction. Long lengths are
possible from a continuous manufacturing process. Structural LVL members such as beams and columns have high
strength and stiffness because all the grain runs parallel to the main axis of the member. Some manufacturers can
produce more expensive cross-banded LVL with two or more veneers rotated 90˚ to give increased stability and
resistance to splitting.

7.5 CLT
Cross laminated timber (CLT) is made from sawn timber boards glued together in layers at 90° to each other as shown
in Figure 16, rather like very thick plywood. CLT is manufactured in large panels several metres in each direction. The
individual board thickness is usually between 10 mm and 40 mm. The most common layups are three-ply, five-ply, or
seven-ply, so the finished thickness of typical panels is from about 40 mm (3 thin layers) to 300 mm (7 thicker layers).
Most CLT is used for pre-fabricated building systems, with pre-assembled panels for walls or floors. Most CLT panels
are glued with one-component polyurethane adhesive, although some overseas manufacturers offer other adhesives
or even non-glued panels where the boards are held together with nails or hardwood dowels.

Figure 16. Typical cross laminated timber (CLT) panel.

24 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
7.6 PLYWOOD
Plywood is a panel product made up of thin layers (or plies) of peeled veneer (3mm thick), with the grain of adjacent
layers at right angles. Typical panel sizes are 1.2m wide by 2.4m to 3.0m long. The thickness of structural plywood can
range from about 7 mm to 30 mm. Plywood has several advantages as it has high strength, stiffness, and stability both
in the length and width of the panel, and can be made highly durable if suitably treated. Structural plywood is often
used for flooring, bracing, and other components such as I-beams and folded plate roofs.

7.7 OTHER PANEL PRODUCTS

There is a range of other wood-based panel products, sometimes used for flooring, linings, insulation, furniture,
joinery and packaging. They have a number of advantages over solid wood in that they are easily worked, cheaper,
more stable and have more consistent properties. On the other hand, they are often not durable, especially in wet
conditions.

STRAND BOARD
Strand board is a class of panel products made from wood flakes or strands rather than fibres or particles. These can
be aligned in the manufacturing process to give oriented strand board (OSB) which has high strength and stiffness in
one direction, with properties approaching those of plywood.

PARTICLEBOARD
Particleboard is made from small wood chips or particles, bonded together with adhesive. It is commonly made from
residues from processing solid wood. Particleboard has relatively low strength and stiffness compared with plywood. It
is usually used for flooring, rather than primary structural purposes.

HARDBOARD
Hardboard is a fibre board which depends on the natural bonding of the fibres without added adhesive. High pressure
is used to achieve a high density material. It can be treated to produce tempered hardboard which is strong and
moisture resistant.

MEDIUM DENSITY FIBREBOARD

Medium density fibreboard (MDF) is a board with the bond between the fibre coming from added adhesive. MDF is used
extensively in furniture and joinery, because it has superior strength to conventional particleboards and can be given
a superior edge. MDF can be used for flooring, or as an interior lining material, but is not often used for structural
purposes. Triboard is a proprietary product made of outer layers of MDF and an inner core of low grade wood
particles.

STRUCTURAL INSULATED PANELS

There is a range of products known as Structural insulated panels (SIPs) consisting of a structural skin either side of an
insulated core. Wood-based structural insulated panels often consist of outer layers of oriented strand board (OSB)
outside an insulated core of foamed plastic.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 25
 8. STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF SAWN TIMBER
8.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS
The relationship between stress and strain (force and deflection) of defect-free wood is shown schematically in
Figure 17. Wood is much stronger parallel to grain than perpendicular to grain, by a factor of about 10 to 20. For this
reason, structural members are designed to take advantage of the high strength parallel to the grain. When considering
the strength of wood in different directions, it is convenient to consider the wood structure to consist of parallel hollow
fibres rather like a bundle of drinking straws, as shown in Figure 18.

Compression Stress PARALLEL TO GRAIN

PERPENDICULAR TO GRAIN

Splitting X Strain
failure
E
Brittle
fracture 1

Tension Stress
Figure 18. Simplified wood structure consisting
Figure 17. Idealised stress-strain relationship for clear wood. of parallel tubes.

8.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

PARALLEL TO GRAIN
When wood is stressed in compression parallel to the grain (Figure 19 (a)), each wood fibre acts as an individual hollow
column, although the fibres give and receive support to neighbouring fibres. At failure, fibres buckle simultaneously
producing a local failure visible on the wood surface, often called a compression crease. When wood is deformed in
compression beyond its maximum load, it has the ability to maintain reduced strength in a non-linear range as shown
in Figure 17.

PERPENDICULAR TO GRAIN (BEARING STRENGTH)

Wood is weaker in compression perpendicular to grain because the cell walls do not offer much resistance to crushing.
The ultimate compression strength perpendicular to grain (the bearing strength) is difficult to measure precisely,
because of the continuously rising stress-strain curve shown in Figure 17 and because of the effect of unloaded
adjacent areas shown in Figure 19 (b). Under severe loading, deformation continues until the wood substance is fully
compressed, which is at about one third of the original volume.

The values of compression strength perpendicular to the grain, as presented in standards and manufacturers’
documentation, are bearing capacities perpendicular to the grain at a certain level of deformation. The testing
method for bearing strength perpendicular to the grain, as specified by AS/NZS 4063.1, states that the test deformation
value is 2mm.

If the loaded surface is only part of the resisting member (as shown Figure 19 (b)) the fibres in unloaded areas assist
those directly loaded, so small areas can develop higher unit stresses than larger areas. This is quantified by the
Bearing Factor k7 in Table 2.6 of NZS AS 1720.1.

A much more comprehensive coverage of bearing strength is given in Eurocode 5, which defines an effective contact
area, 30mm wider than the actual contact area on each side, with an additional increase in strength depending on
the wood material and the underlying support. This is described by Blass and Sandhaas (2017).

26 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
ANGLE TO GRAIN
The compressive strength at an angle to the grain (Figure 19 (c)) is intermediate to the strengths parallel and
perpendicular to the grain. Formulae such as Hankinson’s formula are available to interpolate the strength at various
grain angles.

The compression strength of wood is affected by wood defects, but the affect is often not very great because
compression stresses can be transferred through many defects.

(a)

Compression parallel to grain

(b)

Compression perpendicular to grain

(c)
Figure 19. Wood stressed in compression.
Compression at angle to grain

8.3 TENSILE STRENGTH

Clear wood is very strong in tension parallel to grain (see Figures 17 and 20). However, tensile failure in wood is
inherently brittle. If a member contains defects such as knots, holes, notches or cuts, not only is there a net loss of
area, but there is also a stress-concentrating effect reducing tensile strength even further. The effect of defects is much
greater in tension than in compression.

Wood is very much weaker in tension perpendicular to grain, where failure results in splitting, with separation between
the wood fibres. It is good design practice to avoid stressing wood in tension perpendicular to grain. However, these
stresses are unavoidable in some structures such as curved members in which case the stresses must be kept below
acceptable limits.

Tension parallel to grain

Figure 20. Wood stressed in tension.

Tension perpendicular to grain

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 27
 8.4 BENDING STRENGTH
Bending induces both tensile and compressive stresses (see Figure 21). The bending strength of wood depends on
the relative values of the tensile and compressive strengths, each of which can depend on the presence of defects in
the wood. The bending behaviour and the bending strength are different in defect-free specimens compared with
commercial timber with defects in the tensile zone.

In a clear wood beam, the tensile strength is much higher than the compressive strength. As load on the beam is
increased, the bending behaviour becomes non-linear (at the proportional limit) after the wood in the compressive zone
begins to crush (see Figures 22 and 23). Because the compressive behaviour of wood has residual non-linear strength as
shown in Figure 17, there is now a redistribution of the stresses within the beam, leading to a drop in the neutral axis in
order to maintain internal equilibrium. Stresses continue to increase until the extreme fibre stresses at the bottom of the
beam reach the failure stress of the wood, at which point a brittle fracture occurs, as shown in Figure 22(c).

In a wood beam with defects in the tensile zone, the tensile strength of the wood is less than the compressive strength.
Failure occurs when the extreme fibre stresses at the bottom of the beam reach the failure stress of the wood, before
any crushing in the compressive zone and before any non-linear behaviour.

The modulus of rupture is the apparent failure stress, assuming linear elastic behaviour. It is calculated by dividing the
bending moment at failure by the elastic section modulus. For wood with tensile defects (Figure 22(a)) the modulus
of rupture is a good estimate of the failure stress in the tensile zone. For wood with no defects, the modulus of rupture
has no physical meaning, but it provides a notional failure stress intermediate between the compression and tension
strengths of the wood. The characteristic modulus of rupture is presented in NZS AS 1720.1 as the characteristic bending
strength, f’b for design of timber beams.

T
Wood beam with ‘four point bending’

Bending moment diagram

Figure 21. Wood stressed in bending; top in compression (C), bottom in tension (T).

fc fc max. fc
Modules
of
Rupture

Neutral Axis

ft ft ft max.
(a) Beam stressed (b) Compression failure (c) Stress distribution approaching
elastically moving down the beam failure showing assumed linear
modulus of rupture derivation

fc = compression stress ft = tension

Figure 22. Stress distribution in a beam at failure, depending on the ratio of tension to compression strength; (a) beam weaker in
tension than compression, (b) beam about equal in tension and compression (c) beam stronger in tension (from FRI Bulletin 41).

28 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
 Failure of clear
wood beam
X

Proportional limit for

clear wood beam
Load

X
Failure of beam with
tensile defects

Deflection

Figure 23. Load deflection plot for wood in bending.

8.5 SHEAR STRENGTH

There are 3 different shear strengths in wood; vertical shear, longitudinal shear and rolling shear, as shown in
Figure 24. Wood is very strong when the shearing force and shearing plane are perpendicular to the fibres (vertical
shear). It is much less strong in longitudinal shear, where the shearing force and shearing plane are parallel to the
fibres. In a beam, longitudinal shear stress is maximum near the ends of the beam at the height of the neutral axis
and it can be checked using conventional engineering methods. Shear failure will be a horizontal sliding parallel to the
grain as shown in Figure 25. Any holes, notches or cuts which reduce the effective shear resisting area can cause stress
concentrations and lead to premature shear failures. The characteristic longitudinal shear strength for structurally
graded radiata pine and douglas fir beams is given in NZS AS 1720.1.

Shear strength is even less strong in rolling shear, where the shearing force is perpendicular to the fibres but the
shearing plane is parallel to the fibres. This shear mode is not stressed in an ordinary wood beam, although it does
occur in plywood, in CLT, and in some glued connections.

Vertical Shear

Longitudinal Shear

Horizontal
shear
failure

Rolling Shear

Figure 24. Wood stressed in shear Figure 25. Typical shear failure in a wood beam.

8.6 TORSIONAL STRENGTH

Wood structural elements are seldom loaded in torsion. Calculations can be based on the relevant shear strengths
and moduli. The shear modulus, G (sometimes referred to as the Modulus of Rigidity) of wood is not often measured,
but is usually taken as E/15 where E is the longitudinal modulus of elasticity.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 29
 9. STATISTICAL VARIATION OF STRENGTH
PROPERTIES
9.1 UNGRADED TIMBER
Any population of timber boards will have a range of strength and stiffness. Within a sample population of ungraded
timber, the strongest boards may be up to five times stronger than the weakest boards. For graded timber, the
variability between boards (and the shape of the statistical distribution) will depend on the accuracy of the grading
method and the number of grades chosen by the producer. For example, variability will be less with an accurate
grading method and a tightly defined set of grade classes, and vice versa.

It is important for designers to understand that when specifying timber of a particular grade, up to 5% of the delivered
boards may be weaker than the code-specified strength, and up to half of the boards may have stiffness less than
the code-specified MoE, depending on the shape of the distribution. This is because of the way design strength and
stiffness values are defined.

Sawmillers can decide to offer single grades or combinations of grades, depending on their raw material. For
example, weak boards can be “upgraded” by combining them with better material, to increase the 5th percentile
strength or mean MoE of the whole population without any change in the wood properties of the weak boards. Such
mixing may not be economic if it significantly reduces the assigned design values of the better material.

As an example of the strength distribution of a typical population of broken boards, Figure 26 shows a histogram of
strength values, from the results of 100 randomly selected boards tested in bending. The plotted values show the
number of boards in each 5 MPa grouping of strength. In this sample, the weakest board failed at 22 MPa and the
strongest at 93 MPa, with a mean value of 51 MPa. It can be seen from the figure that the distribution is only roughly
symmetrical.

Figure 27 shows the same data sorted from weakest to strongest on the x-axis, and plotted as a cumulative
distribution function with probability F(x) from zero to 1.0 on the y-axis. Each data point represents one broken board.
The 5th percentile value of 32 MPa is shown by the dotted vertical line, dropping from the point where the horizontal
line from F(x)=0.05 meets the plotted data. This is the value which would be used as the characteristic strength for
design using this population of boards.

Figure 28 shows a scatter-graph of the bending strength (modulus of rupture) and stiffness values for the same
population of boards. The 5th percentile modulus of rupture and the average stiffness are shown as the design values
which can be found in NZS AS 1720.1.

35

30

25
Number of Boards

20

15

10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Strength (MPa)

Figure 26. Histogram of strength values.

30 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
 1.00

0.90

0.80
Cumulative frequency

0.70

0.60

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10.

0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
5%ile = 12.4 MPa Strength (MPa)

Figure 27. Same data as in Figure 25 plotted as a cumulative distribution function.

100
Mean MoE
5%ile MoE

90

80
Bending Strength (MPa)

70

60

50

40

30

20
5%ile MOR
10
Design value
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12 13 14 15 16
Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)

Figure 28. Scatter-graph of bending strength and stiffness values for the same boards.

9.2 GRADED TIMBER

The same principle can be used for plotting the distributions of timber after grading. Timber can be graded by either
visual grading or by machine stress grading, with its properties verified and identified in accordance with NZS 3622.
Verified timber is given the denomination ‘SG’ for Structurally Graded.

Figures 29 and 30 show the stiffness and strength, respectively, of a population of timber after machine stress grading
into several verified grades, all plotted as cumulative distribution functions. It can be seen in Figure 27 that the
grades have clear differences in the distribution of stiffness, which is not surprising because the grading was done by
measuring the stiffness. The difference in strength between the grades (Figure 30) is much less than the difference in
stiffness (Figure 29), especially at the 5th percentile level. It can be seen that very few boards from this population were
stiff enough to be graded as SG12.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 31
 1.00
0.90
0.80

Cumulative frequency
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40 SG10
SG8
0.30
SG6
0.20
0.10.
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12 13 14 15 16
Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)
Figure 29. Distributions of stiffness after sorting into three grades.

1.00
0.90
0.80
Cumulative frequency

0.70
0.60
0.50 SG10
0.40 SG8
SG10
SG6
0.30 SG8
0.20 SG6
0.10.
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Bending Strength (MPa)

Figure 30. Distributions of strength of the same three grades.

9.3 ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS

Engineered wood products (EWPs) tend to have much less variability in mechanical properties than sawn timber,
because they have fewer significant defects.

For this reason there can be a larger difference in characteristic strengths between sawn timber and EWPs than the
difference in mean strengths, as shown in Figure 31, for European grades GL30 glulam and C30 sawn timber. The
variability may be even less in an engineered wood product manufactured from many layers, such as LVL.
Difference in characteristic Difference in mean
strength strength

GL30
Frequency

C30

Strength
Figure 31. Distribution functions for the strength of glulam beams and structural sawn timber

32 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
10. OTHER FACTORS INFLUENCING STRENGTH
PROPERTIES

10.1 MOISTURE CONTENT

The strength and stiffness of wood are higher in dry wood than in moist wood. The design properties for “dry” wood
are usually given for wood with a moisture content of 15%, as shown in Tables 6 and 7. The design properties for “green”
wood should be used for any wood with moisture content over 20%. As a rough rule of thumb, the bending strength
and the compression strength both decrease by about 5% for each 1% increase in moisture content (ref TDG).

10.2 SIZE EFFECTS

When testing most brittle materials, including wood, the failure stress tends to decrease slightly as the size of the test
specimen increases. With wood, this effect is most pronounced for brittle failure modes in tension, such as in large
beams or tensile members. The reason for this size effect is that large members have a greater statistical probability of
containing a critical defect.

This is one of the reasons why the results of small clear tests cannot be used directly for design of large members.
Some timber design codes include a size factor to allow for this effect, but this is not necessary if verification of timber
strength is done in the sizes which will be used for construction.

The impact of size is commonly considered on glue laminated timber (glulam) and laminated veneer lumber (LVL)
structures. Characteristic bending strengths and tension strengths in NZS AS 1720.1 are to be multiplied by the volume/
size reduction factor kv for this reason.

10.3 DURATION OF LOAD

Wood subjected to load for a long period of time tends to fail at lower loads than in short term testing. This effect is
included in design codes by publishing the strength value for short term loading with factors to reduce the strength for
long term or permanent loading.

The duration of load is allowed for in NZS AS 1720.1 through the use of the duration of load factor for strength, k1.

FATIGUE
Compared to other traditional structural materials, wood has good resistance to the effect of cyclic loading. Fatigue
does not need to be considered in normal structural design.

PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT
Chemicals used in preservative treatment affect the strength of wood very little, so no reduction in design stresses is
required. The only exception is a small reduction in strength when wood is steamed as part of the treatment process.
Fire retardant chemicals have some effect on strength, and North American codes specify a 10% reduction in design
stresses. There is no similar consideration in NZS AS 1720.1, however where such products are used, designers should
check to ensure that no reduction is needed.

ELECTRICAL, THERMAL, ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES

ELECTRICAL
The electrical resistance of wood is very high when it is dry, but this decreases by 0.3% moving from oven-dry to
the fibre saturation point. Electric moisture meters utilise this property to measure moisture content in wood. The
meters are inaccurate above the fibre saturation point (25-30%). Like many poor conductors, wood can be heated
by subjecting it to a high-frequency radio electric field. This property is used to cure heat sensitive adhesives in the
manufacture of glue laminated timber and some other wood products.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 33
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Expansion
Like most materials, wood expands on heating, but compared to other structural materials the thermal expansion is
very small. A compensating factor is that as the temperature rises the equilibrium moisture content reduces and the
wood may dry out, causing shrinkage. Only in very long spans, such as in bridges or large floor areas is it necessary
to consider thermal movement. However, differential thermal expansion may need to be considered when other
materials are used in conjunction with wood.

Some wood-based panel products such as medium density fibreboard (MDF) have greater thermal expansion than
solid wood. This may need to be allowed for with expansion joints.

Conductivity
The thermal conductivity of wood is about 1/400 that of steel, making it an excellent natural insulator. This is due
to the air pockets within its cellular structure. Lighter wood has bigger cavities and is a better insulator. Thermal
conductivity also decreases with lower moisture content. Thermal conductivity is greater parallel than perpendicular
to the grain, and is thus affected by structural irregularities such as checks and knots.

Insulating construction
Timber wall and floor assemblies can be constructed with excellent thermal insulating properties. Materials such as
fibreglass batts and building wraps can be built into timber assemblies to improve thermal performance.

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
Wood strength is affected by temperature, to a relatively small extent, compared with materials like steel. Whereas
steel becomes brittle at low temperatures, wood becomes stronger. Wood strength reduces with increasing
temperature, but design stresses for timber are safe for wood exposed to continual temperatures of up to 40°C with
occasional exposures up to 50°C.

NZS AS 1720.1 considers that for most situations in New Zealand, the temperature will not impact design strengths. The
temperature effect factor, k6, is therefore set to 1 unless special conditions apply. Very dry wood (close to 0% moisture
content, in very hot or cold environments) has been found to be more brittle than wood at normal moisture contents.

ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES
Sound insulation refers to the ability of wood to reduce the intensity of sound passing through it. Wood has internal
friction about 10 times that of steel, which means that it is more efficient for damping of vibrations. However good
sound insulation also depends on other factors such as the barrier material having a high mass, and low rigidity, or
containing air spaces and no rigid ties from one space to another. With careful design it is possible to obtain a timber
structural unit with excellent sound insulation properties.

Sound absorption refers to the amount of incident sound on a surface which is not reflected by that surface. Sound
absorption depends on the frequency, and is considerably higher for wood than materials such as concrete. See the
WPMA Design Guide on Acoustic Design for more information.

34 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
11. GRADING OF STRUCTURAL TIMBER
This section describes grading systems for structural sawn timber. Methods of verifying the grades are described later.

There are three basic ways of obtaining material design stresses for different grades of timber:
1. Most designs will be carried out using verified timber.
2. A second option is to use non-verified timber which has been visually graded,
3. A third option is to carry out specific testing in accordance with AS/NZS 4063, as described below.

11.1 GRADING SYSTEMS

Grading refers to any system of classifying timber for specific end uses. Sawn timber will generally have large variability
in strength and stiffness between individual pieces, so the pieces need to be sorted into a limited number of grades for
convenience in distribution, merchandising and standardisation. Grading is essential to reduce the variability in timber
properties for structural design.

Structural grades have assigned values of strength and stiffness, for use by designers of buildings and other structures.
Other grades, such as appearance grades for cladding, furniture, finishing and other non-structural uses, do not have
assigned design values. Structural grading can be done visually according to visible features, or mechanically using a
device that measures the Modulus of Elasticity of the timber, or a combination of both.

Grading systems establish a number of strength classes, so that sawmillers can use whatever technique or equipment
they wish to segregate their production into the different classes, with specified methods for verifying that the sorted
timber meets the stated requirements.

Strength classes work well for structural designers because they can make all their calculations using a particular
strength class, leaving the timber supplier with responsibility for providing verified timber with the specified properties.

11.2 STRUCTURAL GRADES

For many years, timber grading in New Zealand was done by visually grading a very small number of structural grades,
with no verification of strength properties. Current structural grading requires testing for verification.

The current range of verified structural timber grades is shown in Table 6, (Table 2.1 from NZS AS 1720.1). These grades are
applicable only to radiata pine and douglas fir grown in New Zealand, unless additional verification is carried out. See the
section on Verification later in this guide.

For structural graded (SG) timber, the SG grade number refers to the short duration average modulus of elasticity
assigned to that grade. For timber produced by visual grading but not verified, there is only one grade, No.1 Framing
grade, with strength properties similar to SG6, as shown in Table 7 (Table 2.2 from NZS AS 1720.1).

11.3 METHODS OF GRADING STRUCTURAL TIMBER

In the grading process, every timber board is assessed to assign it to a particular grade. The two main methods of
structural grading are visual grading and machine stress grading, but there are many other possible methods as
mentioned below.

VISUAL GRADING
Visual grading is a historic and widely practised way of segregating timber for different uses. Visual grading rules limit
the sizes of knots and other visible features according to the reduction that they make in the properties of clear defect-
free timber. Visual grading is not able to precisely predict the strength properties of timber. For example, Figure 32 shows
the very poor correlation between knot size and bending strength in 90 x 45mm boards of radiata pine timber.

NZS AS 1720.1 allows for visual grading of un-verified No. 1 Framing grade and verified SG timber up to SG10. The main
visual characteristic defining No. 1 Framing grade in NZS 3631 is that no knot or combination of knots should occupy more
than one third of the cross section of any board.

NZS 3622 specifies verification methods for visually graded timber.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 35
 100
90

80
Bending strength, MPa

70
60
50
40

30
20

10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Knot area ratio, %

Figure 32. Relationship between strength and knot area ratio in radiata pine timber.

MANUAL DEFLECTION GRADING

Testing for stiffness can be done very simply by bending a board on the flat over a convenient span, applying a weight
at the centre, and measuring the deflection. This is known as the “Three Brick Test” and is convenient where there is
some doubt about the properties of a particular piece of timber.

With reference to Figure 33, if the mid-span deflection Δ (mm) is measured under the application of a load P (N), over a
span of length L (mm), the MoE (MPa or N/mm2) can be calculated from the formula

E = P L3 / 48 Δ I
The moment of inertia I (mm4) is calculated from
I = B D3/12
where B (mm) is the breadth of the board and D (mm) is the depth of the board.

L
B
(a) Test arrangement (b) Cross section of tested board

Figure 33. The “Three Brick Test” for manually obtaining the Modulus of Elasticity of a board.

36 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
MACHINE STRESS GRADING
Machine stress grading passes timber boards through a system of rollers, using the relationship between applied load
and bending deflection to calculate the flat-wise flexural stiffness, or Modulus of Elasticity (MoE), of each board at
several locations along its length.

Some stress grading machines apply a given load and measure the bending deflection, whereas other machines
measure the load to impose a given deflection. In either case the only output is the MoE of the wood, using the formula
given above. This may be single bending as shown in Figure 34 or double bending as shown in Figure 35.

MARKING OF GRADED BOARDS

Most machine grading methods use coloured paint marks to indicate the grade of each board. This can be measured
and marked every 100mm along the length, or continuously along the length in some machines, in accordance with
Appendix A of NZS 3622. Brands, stamps or labels indicating the grade may also be used.

B P
D

Figure 34. Single bending stress grading machine.

P
B
D

P
Figure 35. Double bending stress grading machine.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 37
 12. STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROPERTIES OF TIMBER
Information on sources of characteristic design values of strength and MoE for standardised stress grades of structural
sawn timber, structural plywood, round timber, glue-laminated timber and structural laminated veneer lumber are given
in Clause 2.2.1 of NZS AS 1720.1. The only values given in this guide are those for sawn timber.

12.1 SMALL CLEARS TESTING VS. IN-GRADE TESTING

There are two main types of testing to obtain wood properties, “in-grade testing” and “small clears testing”. These two
test methods can give significantly different results for the strength of timber.

“In-grade testing” refers to testing of large representative samples of timber, in the actual sizes, grades and moisture
content in which they will be used in construction, in accordance with AS/NZS 4063.

“Small clears testing” refers to tests on small defect-free specimens of clear wood in laboratory conditions.

Structural timber with defects behaves in a very different manner to clear wood. For example, clear wood is stronger
in tension than in compression, but the reverse is true for sawn timber containing sloping grain or knots. The strength
properties obtained from small clears testing are generally much higher than those obtained from in-grade testing, but
the stiffness values are often about the same.

The main advantage of small clears testing is that the small test specimens are easily obtained and tested. Standard
sizes for small clears tests are 20x20mm in British Standards and 50x50mm in American Standards. The test results are
useful for comparing species, but a big disadvantage is the difficulty in predicting the lower strength of commercial size
timber from the small clear test results.

In-grade testing requires much larger numbers of test specimens taken from commercial production, with
correspondingly larger test equipment. The main advantage of in-grade testing is that the test results can be used
directly to derive characteristic code values for structural design.

12.2 RADIATA PINE AND DOUGLAS FIR

For verified SG grades of New Zealand grown radiata pine and douglas fir, the characteristic design values for primary
structural properties of strength and MoE are given in Table 6. These values have been obtained from in-grade testing.

Note that Table 6 and Table 7 give no values for the modulus of elasticity in compression perpendicular to the grain.
According to Blass and Sandhaas (2017) this value is about 3% of the value in the parallel to grain direction.

The design density in Table 6 and Table 7 is the nominal density at 15% moisture content, to be used for calculation of
fastener strength in accordance with Chapter 4 ofNZS AS 1720.1.

38 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
 TABLE 2.1
CHARACTERISTIC
CHARACTERISTIC
CHARACTERISTICSTRESSES
STRESSESFOR
STRESSES NEW
FOR
FOR NEW
NEWZEALAND VERIFIED
ZEALAND
ZEALAND TIMBER
VERIFIED
VERIFIED TIMBER
TIMBER
CHARACTERISTIC STRESSES FOR NEW ZEALAND VERIFIED TIMBER

Moisture
Moisture
MoistureContent
Content– Dry
Content (m/c
– Dry ≤ 15%)
(m/c ≤ 15%)
Moisture Content ––Dry
Dry (m/c
(m/c ≤≤15%)
15%)

perpendicular-to-
perpendicular-to-
Tension parallel-

modulus

modulus
parallel-

modulus

modulus
perpendicular-to-
parallel-to-grain
parallel-to-grain

parallel-

modulus

modulus
New
New

parallel-to-grain
New

perpendicular-to-

Short duration
duration

Lowerduration
Design density

duration
density

Characteristic
Characteristic

parallel-

modulus

modulus
duration
parallel-to-grain

short duration
density

Lower bound
bound
Characteristic

Compression
Compression
New
Stress Grade
Grade

bound
Compression

of elasticity
Shortduration

elasticity
Grade

duration
Designdensity

Characteristic

of elasticity
elasticity
elasticity

bound

elasticity
Compression
StressGrade
Zealand
Zealand

ofelasticity
Zealand

ofelasticity
Bending
Bending

to-grain
to-grain
Tension
Tension
Bending
density
density

to-grain
Zealand

Tension
density

Bending

grain
grain
to-grain

Tension

grain
density
species
species
species

grain
species

Tension

average

average
average

average
Lower
Design
Stress

Tension

average

average
Lower
Design
Stress

Tension

short
short
average

average
Short
Short

short

ofof
ofof
( ('()''')) ( fb('()ffb''')) ( fc('()ffc''')) ( ft('()fft''')) ' ''
(ftp(f ) ) (E'(E
) ''')) ( E(lbE) )
3 3 ( 3 ) 33 ( fbb) ( fc c) ( ft t) (f(ftptptp' )) (E
(E ) ((EElblblb))
kg/m
kg/m
kg/m33 kg/m
kg/m
kg/m3 MPa MPa
MPa MPa MPa
MPa MPa MPa
MPa MPa MPa
MPa MPa
MPa
MPa MPaMPa
MPa
kg/m kg/m MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
Radiata
Radiata
Radiata pine pine
pineSGSG 15 15
SG 15 570 570
570 560560
560 41.041.0
41.0 35.035.0
35.0 23.023.0
23.0 0.50.5
0.5 15200
15200
15200 11500
11500
11500
Radiata pine SG 15 570 560 41.0 35.0 23.0 0.5 15200 11500
& Douglas
&& Douglas
Douglas
& Douglas SGSG 12 12
SG 12 540 540
540 530530
530 28.028.0
28.0 25.025.0
25.0 14.014.0
14.0 0.50.5
0.5 12000
12000
12000 90009000
9000
fir fir
fir SG 12 540 530 28.0 25.0 14.0 0.5 12000 9000
fir
SGSG 10 10
SG 10 500 500
500 490490
490 20.020.0
20.0 20.020.0
20.0 8.08.08.0 0.50.5
0.5 10000
10000
10000 70007000
7000
SG 10 500 490 20.0 20.0 8.0 0.5 10000 7000
SGSG 8
SG88 8 450 450
450 440440
440 14.014.0
14.0 18.018.0
18.0 6.06.06.0 0.40.4
0.4 8000
8000
8000 50005000
5000
SG 450 440 14.0 18.0 6.0 0.4 8000 5000
SGSG
SG6 66 400400 400 390390
390 10.010.0
10.0 16.016.0
16.0 4.04.04.0 0.40.4
0.4 6000
6000
6000 40004000
4000
SG 6 400 390 10.0 16.0 4.0 0.4 6000 4000
NOTES:
NOTES:
NOTES:
NOTES: ' ''
1. 1. ShearShear in in
beamsbeamsforfor
seasoned
seasoned radiata
radiata pinepineshall be be
shall taken
taken as as
fass =
f'fs 3.8
=
= 3.8MPa.
MPa. shear
shear in in
beams
in beamsforfor
1.1. Shear Shear ininbeams
beams for
for seasoned
seasoned radiata
radiata pine
pine shall be taken 3.8 MPa.
' ''shall be taken as f s s= 3.8 MPa. shear in beams for
shear beams for
seasoned==Douglas
seasoned==Douglas
seasoned==Douglas fir fir
shall
fir shall
shallbe betaken
be takenas as
taken s=
fas f'fss3.0
== MPa.
3.0
3.0 MPa.
MPa.
2. 2. seasoned==Douglas
Compression fir shall
perpendicular-to-grain be taken as
forfor f
seasoned s = 3.0 MPa.
radiata pine andand Douglas fir fir
shall be be
taken as as
Compression perpendicular-to-grain seasoned radiata pine Douglas shall taken
2.2. f=' Compression
Compression
'
f='
f=
perpendicular-to-grain
perpendicular-to-grain for
for seasoned
seasoned radiata
radiata pine
pine and
and Douglas
Douglas firshall
fir shall betaken
be taken as
as
p= pp' 4.5
f= = MPa.
4.5 MPa.
p= =4.5
4.5 MPa.
MPa. ’ ’’ ’ ’’
3. 3.
3. Short Short
Short duration
duration
duration average
average
average modulus
modulus
modulus of rigidity
of rigidity shall be be
shall takentakenas as
G G= E=
=/15.
E /15.
3.
4. 4. Short
Grades
Grades duration
shall
shallbe average
verified
be verified inmodulus
accordance
in ofofrigidity
accordance
rigidity
with withNZS
shall
shall betaken
be
3622.
NZS 3622.
taken asG
as G’ = EE’/15.
/15.
4.4. GradesGradesshall shallbebeverified
verifiedininaccordance
accordancewith withNZS NZS3622.
3622.
5. 5. Density
Density is defined
is definedas as
(mass
(mass at 15%
at 15% m/c) / (volume
m/c) / (volume at 15%
at 15% m/c).
m/c).
5.5. Density
Density isisdefined
defined as(mass
as (mass atat15%
15% m/c)
m/c) / /(volume
(volume atat15%
15% m/c).
m/c).
6. 6. TheThe characteristic
characteristic density
density is to
is be used
to be forfor
used thethe design
design of connections
of connections using thethe
using detailed
detailedmethod.
method.
6.6. The The characteristic
characteristic density
density isistotobebeused
used for
for the
the design
design ofofconnections
connections using
using the
the detailed
detailed method.
method.
Table 6. Characteristic Stresses for Verified Timber Grown in New Zealand (Table 2.1 in NZS AS 1720.1)

12.3 OTHER EXOTIC SPECIES

For non-verified visual grades of all New Zealand grown species, the characteristic design values for primary structural
properties of strength and MoE are given in Table 7.

This table applies to all native and exotic species grown in New Zealand unless the properties have been verified.

When designing with Australian grown species which are listed in AS 1720, the structural properties in AS 1720.2 should
be used.

For imported timber species, designers must take care to identify characteristic values and the methods used to obtain
these values.

Moisture content – Dry (m/c ≤ 15%)

New
Zealand
modulus of elasticity

species 1
Lower bound short
Tension parallel-

average modulus
parallel-to-grain
perpendicular-to-

duration average
Short duration
Design density

Compression
Stress grade

of elasticity
Bending

to-grain
Tension

grain

Page
Page
1717
Page ofof
17 9393
of 93 1313November
13 2018
November
November 2018
2018
Page 17 of 93 13 November 2018

' ' '

( f 'tp ) ( f b) ( f c) ( f t) (E' ) (Elb)
3
kg/m MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
No. 1
400 0.4 10.0 16.0 4.0 6000 4000
Framing 2
1. This unverified grade is only available to timbers with an average density (at 15% moisture content) meeting
or exceeding 400 kg/m3.
2. No. 1 Framing is not verified and not subject to in-mill monitoring of strength and stiffness properties. No. 1
Framing shall be graded as a minimum to the requirements of NZS 3631.

NOTES:
1. Shear strength shall be taken as f 's = 3.0 MPa.
2. Compression perpendicular-to-grain shall be taken as f 'p = 4.5 MPa.
3. Tension perpendicular-to-grain shall be taken as ft p= 0.4 MPa.
4. Modulus of rigidity shall be taken as G’ = E’/15.

Table 7. Characteristic Stresses for Non-Verified Timber Grown in New Zealand (Table 2.2 in NZS AS 1720.1)

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 39
 13. VERIFICATION METHODS
Routine testing of random samples of stress graded timber is used to verify that the timber meets the specification of
the required grade. The purpose of verifying timber is to ensure that the 5th percentile value of bending strength and the
mean value of MoE are no less than the code-specified characteristic values for the desired grade.

Verification can be used for timber which has been visually graded, machine graded, or a combination of both. Most
verification tests are carried out as bending tests on full-size specimens. If only the stiffness needs to be verified,
non-destructive tests can be used and the tested boards can be returned to normal production. If strength needs
to be verified, destructive testing will be necessary, breaking some or all of a sample of boards to obtain a statistical
distribution of strength properties.

NZS 3622:2004 Verification of Timber Properties describes procedures for the initial evaluation and daily quality control
of strength and stiffness. It applies to both visually graded and machine stress graded timber. The standard allows for
continuous monitoring or non-continuous monitoring (batch monitoring) during sawmill production, after an initial
evaluation of 30 boards to establish the stress properties of a reference sample. For continuous monitoring, it specifies a
rate of sampling of one board in every 1000 for each size and grade.

In NZS 3622, the sawmiller has the option of breaking every board in a sample of boards or loading to a proof load equal
to the characteristic strength.

The prescribed test method is testing on edge in bending in accordance with AS/NZS 4063 Characterization of Structural
Timber. Part 1 Test Methods and Part 2 Determination of Characteristic Values. NZS 3622 can be used with any species of
timber.

13.1 VERIFICATION REQUIREMENTS IN NZS AS 1720.1

Verification of timber is specified in Clauses 2.2.3 to 2.2.7 of the current drafy of NZS AS 1720.1, reproduced below in italics,
with commentary clauses added:

2.2.3 VERIFIED TIMBER

Verified timber may be produced by visual grading or by machine stress grading. In both cases the timber shall have its
properties verified, and be identified, in accordance with the requirements of NZS 3622. Species other than radiata pine
and douglas fir may also be verified to the characteristic values in Table 2.1 or other values in accordance with NZS 3622.

This clause allows the use of any species of timber, provided that the strength properties are verified in accordance with
NZS 3622, which requires testing in accordance with AS/NZS 4063, as described above.

2.2.4 VISUALLY GRADED TIMBER

Visual grading shall only be permitted for the SG6, SG8 and SG10 grades, which, as a minimum, have been visually graded
as No. 1 Framing to the requirements of NZS 3631 and verified in accordance with Clause 2.2.3.

If timber is visually graded, then verified in accordance with NZS 3622 as meeting the requirements of SG6, SG8, or SG10,
the strength properties are given in Table 6 This applies to all species of timber.

2.2.5 NON-VERIFIED TIMBER

Non-verified timber has been visually graded as No. 1 Framing to the requirements of NZS 3631. Non-verified timber may
be applied to volumes of sawn timber less than 20 m3 at any one time. For volumes exceeding 20 m3 (either produced in a
single batch or continuously without changes to sawing or grading methods) the timber shall be verified in accordance
with Clause 2.2.3.

If timber is visually graded to the requirements of No.1 Framing grade, but not verified, the strength properties are given in
Table 7. This applies to all species grown in New Zealand, meeting the density requirement of Note 1 in Table 7 (minimum
test density of 400 kg/m3 at 15% moisture content).

40 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
This clause only applies to volumes of sawn timber less than 20 m3 produced at any one time. This is in order to limit the
use of non-verified timber to small batches typical of a small milling operation for a special purpose, not commercial
quantities.

Larger volumes need to be verified. If they are, then they become verified timber in accordance with 2.2.3 and can be
designed in accordance with Table 6.

2.2.6 PROPERTIES OF TIMBER SPECIES NOT LISTED

Timber of species and grades not listed in Table 2.1 may be assigned characteristic stresses. The characteristic stresses shall
be determined in accordance with both parts of AS/NZS 4063. This approach may be applied to volumes of sawn timber
less than 20 m3 at any one time. For volumes exceeding 20 m3 (either produced in a single batch or continuously without
changes to sawing or grading methods) the timber shall either be verified in accordance with Clause 2.2.3 or produced as
non-verified timber.

Many New Zealand-grown timber species have properties that are well in excess of the characteristic strengths presented
for non-verified timber in Table 2.2 of NZS AS 1720.1 (Table 7). Where designers want to take advantage of these higher
strength properties, testing in accordance with AS/NZS 4063 can be performed to enable a suitably qualified person,
such as a Chartered Professional Engineer to undertakes a review of the proposed properties and issue a statement
about the characteristic properties of the timber.

The New Zealand Farm Forestry Association has carried out in-grade testing of sawn timber from five species of trees,
tested in accordance with AS/NZS 4063 after visual grading to the NZFFA No. 1 Structural Grade as defined on the website
https://www.nzffa.org.nz/specialty-timber-market/brand-grades/structural-grading/#No-1-structural. The results of this
testing are listed on the website https://www.nzffa.org.nz/specialty-timber-market/brand-grades/, reproduced (with
minor rounding) in Table 8.

Species Modulus of Bending Tension Shear Compression

elasticity strength strength strength strength
(E’) (f’b) (f’t) (f’s) (f’c)
GPa MPa MPa MPa MPa

Farm totara 7.4 20.5 10.6 4.4 30.2
Lusitanica cypress 9.1 27.2 9.6 3.6 19.5
Lawson cypress 8.5 29.7 13.9 3.4 23.4
Macrocarpa 6.1 16.1 5.8 2.7 23.9
Redwood 5.5 11.6 4.9 1.4 16.6

Table 8. Characteristic design values for minor species, from test results:

13.2 USING ALTERNATIVE SPECIES WITH NZS 3604

For house framing, NZS 3604 only allows verified SG grades of timber to be used, including SG6. Table 2.1 of NZS AS 1720.1
restricts SG grades to radiata pine and douglas fir. Hence, on first appearances, non-verified timber of other species
cannot be used with NZS 3604.

However, Table 2.2 of NZS AS 1720.1 allows any New Zealand grown species to be used as non-verified timber with the listed
properties, provided that the wood meets the average density requirement of 400kg/m3 at 15% moisture content. The
strength properties for No.1 Framing grade in Table 2.1 are almost identical to those for SG6 in Table 2.2

The apparent problem for the user of a small amount of alternative species is that even though non-verified timber has
the same strength properties as SG6, it cannot be called SG6 because it has not been verified.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 41
 A solution to this problem is for the intended user to engage a Chartered Professional Engineer to give an expert opinion
that No.1 Framing grade is structurally equivalent to SG6 for the species in question. This will then allow the timber to be
used for house design in accordance with the SG6 tables in NZS 3604.

In most parts of house design, the property of most importance is MoE, not strength, so strength is not critical. If some
low key verification is desired, it is relatively easy to manually measure the MoE of small volumes of timber using the Three
Brick Test, as described above.

13.3 PROOF TESTING

For some special purposes it is desirable to produce proof-tested timber with a guaranteed minimum strength. In the
process of proof testing, every board is loaded to the required stress level. Any sub-standard piece will break in the test
and be discarded, so the boards are first carefully graded using other means in order to reduce unnecessary breakage
and wastage. Proof testing machines can be designed to stress timber either in bending or in tension.

The question often arises; “Are the boards that almost break significantly weakened?”. Studies have shown that if a
quantity of timber is proof tested twice, the percentage which break on the second testing will be only one tenth the
percentage that were broken on the first pass. Thus some damage occurs but the characteristic strength of the survivors
will still be higher than the proof test stress level. Proof testing is allowed for in NZS 3622.

13.4. DESIGN VALUES FROM SMALL CLEAR TEST RESULTS

For any species of timber that is visually graded but not verified, another path for obtaining design values is to use
mechanical properties from testing of small clear specimens, but this is difficult, especially for bending strength, because
there is such a big difference between small clear test results and in-grade testing values.

For many applications the critical property is MoE, so high strength is often not essential. The mean value of MoE from
small clears testing will be close to that obtained from in-grade testing.

FRI Bulletin 41 contains the results of many hundreds of test results from small clear testing of many different species. The
two thousand test results for radiata pine show an average MoE of 8.7 GPa, allowing a comparison with the characteristic
values for SG8, shown in Table 6.
• The characteristic compression strength in Table 6 is 18.0 MPa, which is 48% of the small clear average
compression strength of 37.5 MPa.

• The characteristic bending strength in Table 6 is 14.0 MPa, which is only 16% of the small clear average bending
strength of 88.2 MPa.
On the basis of this simple analysis for radiata pine, it might be possible to use similar ratios for timber of other species.
In this case the characteristic in-grade compression strength for design would be half of the small clear compression
strength, and the characteristic in-grade bending strength would be 15% of the small clear bending strength. This
approach may be confirmed when more test results become available for other species.

42 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
14. DURABILITY OF TIMBER
The design of timber buildings must aim at preventing deterioration of timber by providing adequate protection or by
using durable materials. Durability of timber is not covered in detail in this Design Guide. Refer to the new WPMA Design
Guide on Durability.

As a very brief summary, durability against decay or insect attack is assessed in accordance with six Hazard Classes,
H1 to H6. The hazard classes are described in terms of service exposure and biological hazard in Table 9. These hazard
classes are generally the same as in Australia except that Australia does not have a split in the H1 and H3 classes

The New Zealand standards relating to durability of timber are focussed on levels of chemical treatment of radiata pine
timber to achieve the hazard classes H1 to H6.

NZS 3602 specifies acceptable species and level of treatment for many different uses of wood in timber buildings.
Chemical treatment is specified in NZS 3640. Both standards are under review at the time of publication.

Guidance on natural durability of sapwood and heartwood other species is given by Page and Singh (2014).

As an alternative to chemical treatment, decay of any wood can be prevented by keeping the long-term moisture content
below about 18%. Building physics studies, such as a WUFI® hygrothermal computer analysis, can be used to predict the
long-term moisture content of wood at any location in a building, depending on the expected weather prolife, the use of
the building, and the weathertightness of the facade.

Hazard class Biological hazard Service conditions Typical uses

Untreated Borer Dry conditions, not exposed to Roof wall and floor framing,
weather or ground atmosphere. flooring, wall frames clad with
masonry veneer.
H1.1 Borer Dry conditions. Not exposed to Roof wall and floor framing, sub
weather. floor framing, where dry use timber
is installed wet, or dry rough sawn
for interior dry use.
H1.2 Borer, and short term Not in contact with the ground. Wall and roof framing in situations
decay fungi in a leaking Protected from the weather but complying with NZBC E2/AS1.
wall situation with a risk of moisture content
conductive to decay as a result of
moisture penetration of the building
envelope.
Not in contact with the ground
H2 (Only Termites and other borers Framing timber in Australia.
Australia,
not NZ.)
H3.1 Decay fungi and borer Periodic wetting in water shedding Cladding & trim, framing for exterior
situations, such as exterior wall walls at serious risk of moisture
framing at risk to leaking cladding penetration. Refer to E2/AS1.
(greater than H1.2). Not in contact
with the ground.
H3.2 Decay fungi and borer Periodic wetting in situations not Exterior structural and decking
shedding water. Not in contact with and all H3.1 uses in farming and
the ground. horticulture.
H4 Decay fungi and borer In water or in the ground, Posts, fencing, bridge decks,
permanently wet. landscaping.
H5 Decay fungi and borer In water or in the ground, Piles, poles, foundations, retaining
permanently wet, and where 50 year walls, line poles
durability is required for building
purposes.
H6 Decay fungi and marine In estuarine ground or immersed in Marine timber & piles
borer seawater.

Table 9. Hazard classes in New Zealand and Australia

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 43
 15. INFORMATION SHEETS FOR MINOR SPECIES
Information sheets for the minor species listed below are available on the NZ Wood website www.nzwood.co.nz. These
data sheets give information on availability, durability, and mechanical properties, showing the results of small clear
testing.

EXOTIC SOFTWOODS
Macrocarpa
Other cypresses

EXOTIC HARDWOODS
Eucalypts

Native softwoods
Rimu
Totara

NATIVE HARDWOODS
Red beech
Silver beech
Tawa

Notes:
Additional datasheets for kauri, matai and rewarewa are available from website of the National Association of
Woodworkers New Zealand, www.naw.org.nz, but these datasheets do not list mechanical properties.

Additional information for 15 tree species is available on the website of the NZ Farm Forestry Association.
https://www.nzffa.org.nz/specialty-timber-market/showcase/.

NZ Wood, www.nzwood.co.nz

New Zealand Farm Forestry Association, www.nzffa.org.nz

National Association of Woodworkers, https://naw.org.nz

16. FURTHER READING

Strength properties of small clear specimens of New Zealand grown timber. H.Bier and R.A.J.Britton. FRI Bulletin No. 41,
Forest Research Insitute, 1999.

Density Conversions for Radiata Pine. M.J. Collins. FRI Bulletin No. 49. Forest Research Institute, 1983.

Blass, H.J. and C. Sandhaas (2017). Timber Engineering Principles for Design. KIT Publishing, Karlsruhe, Germany, 2017.

Page, D. and T.Singh. Durability of New Zealand Grown Timbers. NZ Journal of Forestry, February 2014, Vol. 58, No. 4.

44 NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Andy Buchanan is one of the pioneers of modern timber construction.

With beginnings as a consulting engineer in Christchurch and now an Emeritus
Professor at the University of Canterbury, and a Chartered Professional Engineer,
Andy has worked for many years in the field of timber engineering, earthquake
engineering and fire engineering converting cutting edge research results into
industry solutions. He has been president of the New Zealand Timber Design
Society, and is author of Structural Design for Fire Safety and the New Zealand Timber
Design Guide.

NZ Wood Design Guides | NZ Wood Design Guides | Trees, Timber, Species & Properties 45
http://nzwooddesignguides.wpma.org.nz