Lecture Notes Mechatronics (M.

Tech, Design Dynamics)

Displacement and position sensors

Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement
of an object. Position sensors are employed to determine the position of an
object in relation to some reference point.
Proximity sensors are a type of position sensor and are used to trace when
an object has moved with in particular critical distance of a transducer.
Displacement sensors
1. Potentiometer Sensors

Schematic of a potentiometer sensor for measurement of linear

displacement

Figure above shows the construction of a rotary type potentiometer sensor

employed to measure the linear displacement. The potentiometer can be of
linear or angular type. It works on the principle of conversion of mechanical
displacement into an electrical signal. The sensor has a resistive element
and a sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along this conductive body,
acting as a movable electric contact.
The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the
slider by using
• a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)
• a moving rod (for linear displacement)
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• a cable that is kept stretched during operation

The resistive element is a wire wound track or conductive plastic. The track
comprises of large number of closely packed turns of a resistive wire.
Conductive plastic is made up of plastic resin embedded with the carbon
powder. Wire wound track has a resolution of the order of ± 0.01 % while the
conductive plastic may have the resolution of about 0.1 μm.
During the sensing operation, a voltage Vs is applied across the resistive
element. A voltage divider circuit is formed when slider comes into contact
with the wire. The output voltage (VA) is measured as shown in the figure
below. The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of the slider
over the wire. Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated against
the output voltage VA.

Potentiometer: electric circuit

Applications of potentiometer
These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop
to ensure that the moving member or component reaches its commanded
position.
These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level
assemblies, forklift trucks, automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing,
these are used in control of injection molding machines, woodworking

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machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also used in

computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.
Strain Gauges
The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of
applied load to the original length of an element. The strain changes the
resistance R of the element. Therefore, we can say,
ΔR/R α ε;
ΔR/R = G ε (2.2.5)
where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor.
In general, the value of G is considered in between 2 to 4 and the
resistances are taken of the order of 100 Ω.

A pattern of resistive foils

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Whetstone’s bridge
Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per
the equation 2.2.5. It comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as
shown in Figure 2.2.3. These foils are made of Constantan alloy (copper-
nickel 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a backing material plastic
(ployimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy. The strain gauges are
secured to the workpiece by using epoxy or Cyanoacrylate cement Eastman
910 SL. As the workpiece undergoes change in its shape due to external
loading, the resistance of strain gauge element changes. This change in
resistance can be detected by a using a Wheatstone’s resistance bridge as
shown in Figure 2.2.4. In the balanced bridge we can have a relation,
R2/ R1 = Rx / R3
where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is balancing/adjustable
resistor, R1 and R3 are known constant value resistors. The measured
deformation or displacement by the stain gauge is calibrated against change

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in resistance of adjustable resistor R2 which makes the voltage across nodes

A and B equal to zero.
Applications of strain gauges
Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis
on machines and failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial
stress fatigue testing, proof testing, residual stress and vibration
measurement, torque measurement, bending and deflection measurement,
compression and tension measurement and strain measurement.
Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in
automotives. In particular, they are employed for force measurement in
machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic press and as impact sensors in
aerospace vehicles.
Capacitive element based sensor
Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to
measure the linear displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of
millimeters. It comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one
capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear displacement might take in
two forms:
a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation
changes
b. area of overlap changes due to the displacement.

Figure below shows the schematic of three-plate capacitive element sensor

and displacement measurement of a mechanical element connected to the
plate 2.

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Displacement measurement using capacitive element sensor

The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,
C = εr εo A / d
where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo
permittivity of free space, A area of overlap between two plates and d the
plate separation.
As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the
movement of the element /workpiece of which displacement is to be
measured, separation in between the plate changes. This can be given as,
C1 = (εr εo A) / (d + x)
C2 = (εr εo A) / (d – x)
When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone’s bridge, then the resulting
out-of-balance voltage would be in proportional to displacement x.
Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor. The approach of
the object towards the sensor plate is used for induction of change in plate
separation. This changes the capacitance which is used to detect the object.

Applications of capacitive element sensors

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• Feed hopper level monitoring

• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
• Metrology applications o to measure shape errors in the part being
produced
o to analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine tools
such as surface grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air bearing spindles
by measuring errors in the machine tools themselves

• Assembly line testing o to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or

other design features
o to detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue
etc.

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

Construction of a LVDT sensor

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used
for measurement of linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to
± 400 mm in general. It has non-linearity error ± 0.25% of full range. Figure
2.2.6 shows the construction of a LVDT sensor. It has three coils
symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is primary coil
and the other two are secondary coils. Secondary coils are connected in
series in such a way that their outputs oppose each other. A magnetic core
attached to the element of which displacement is to be monitored is placed
inside the insulated tube.

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Working of LVDT sensor

Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-
magnetic forces (emfs) are generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic
core is centrally placed with its half portion in each of the secondary coil
regions then the resultant voltage is zero. If the core is displaced from the
central position as shown in Figure 2.2.7, say, more in secondary coil 1 than
in coil 2, then more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and
there is a resultant voltage from the coils. If the magnetic core is further
displaced, then the value of resultant voltage increases in proportion with the
displacement. With the help of signal processing devices such as low pass
filters and demodulators, precise displacement can be measured by using
LVDT sensors.
LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as
an absolute position sensor. Since there is no contact or sliding between the
constituent elements of the sensor, it is highly reliable. These sensors are
completely sealed and are widely used in Servomechanisms, automated
measurement in machine tools.
A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the
measurement of rotation. Readers are suggested to prepare a report on
principle of working and construction of RVDT sensor.
Applications of LVDT sensors
• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications
• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills

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• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for

dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction
welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
Displacement, position and proximity sensors

Eddy current proximity sensors

Schematic of Inductive Proximity Sensor

Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but
conductive materials. They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a
triggering circuit. Figure 2.3.1 shows the construction of eddy current
proximity switch. When an alternating current is passed thru this coil, an
alternative magnetic field is generated. If a metal object comes in the close
proximity of the coil, then eddy currents are induced in the object due to the
magnetic field. These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which
distorts the magnetic field responsible for their generation. As a result,
impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating current.
This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined level of change
in current.
Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size,
highly reliable and have high sensitivity for small displacements.
Applications of eddy current proximity sensors
• Automation requiring precise location
• Machine tool monitoring

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• Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives

• Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a
vibrating element,
• Drive shaft monitoring
• Vibration measurements

Pneumatic Sensors

Working of Pneumatic Sensors

Pneumatic sensors are used to measure the displacement as well as to
sense the proximity of an object close to it. The displacement and proximity
are transformed into change in air pressure. Figure 2.3.4 shows a schematic
of construction and working of such a sensor. It comprises of three ports.
Low pressure air is allowed to escape through port A. In the absence of any
obstacle / object, this low pressure air escapes and in doing so, reduces the
pressure in the port B. However when an object obstructs the low pressure
air (Port A), there is rise in pressure in output port B. This rise in pressure is
calibrated to measure the displacement or to trigger a switch. These sensors
are used in robotics, pneumatics and for tooling in CNC machine tools.

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Proximity Switches

Figure above shows a number of configurations of contact-type proximity

switch being used in manufacturing automation. These are small electrical
switches which require physical contact and a small operating force to close
the contacts. They are basically employed on conveyor systems to detect
the presence of an item on the conveyor belt.

Hall effect sensor

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Principle of working of Hall effect sensor

Figure above shows the principle of working of Hall effect sensor. Hall effect
sensors work on the principle that when a beam of charge particles passes
through a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and the current beam is
deflected from its straight line path. Thus one side of the disc will become
negatively charged and the other side will be of positive charge. This charge
separation generates a potential difference which is the measure of distance
of magnetic field from the disc carrying current.
The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the measurement of fluid level
in a container. The container comprises of a float with a permanent magnet
attached at its top. An electric circuit with a current carrying disc is mounted
in the casing. When the fluid level increases, the magnet will come close to
the disc and a potential difference generates. This voltage triggers a switch
to stop the fluid to come inside the container.
These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the
detection of position of an object. Hall effect sensors need necessary signal
conditioning circuitry. They can be operated at 100 kHz. Their non-contact
nature of operation, good immunity to environment contaminants and ability
to sustain in severe conditions make them quite popular in industrial
automation.
Velocity, motion, force and pressure sensors
Tachogenerator

Principle of working of Techogenerator

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Tachogenerator works on the principle of variable reluctance. It consists of

an assembly of a toothed wheel and a magnetic circuit as shown in figure
2.4.1. Toothed wheel is mounted on the shaft or the element of which angular
motion is to be measured. Magnetic circuit comprising of a coil wound on a
ferromagnetic material core. As the wheel rotates, the air gap between wheel
tooth and magnetic core changes which results in cyclic change in flux linked
with the coil. The alternating emf generated is the measure of angular
motion. A pulse shaping signal conditioner is used to transform the output
into a number of pulses which can be counted by a counter.

Pyroelectric sensors

Principle of pyroelectricity
These sensors work on the principle of pyroelectricity, which states that a
crystal material such as Lithium tantalite generates charge in response to
heat flow. In presence of an electric field, when such a crystal material heats
up, its electrical dipoles line up as shown in figure 2.4.3. This is called as
polarization. On cooling, the material retains its polarization. In absence of
electric field, when this polarized material is subjected to infrared irradiation,
its polarization reduces. This phenomenon is the measure of detection of
movement of an object.

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Construction and working a Pyroelectric sensor

Pyroelectric sensor comprises of a thick element of polarized material coated
with thin film electrodes on opposite faces as shown in figure 2.4.4. Initially
the electrodes are in electrical equilibrium with the polarized material. On
incident of infra red, the material heats up and reduces its polarization. This
leads to charge imbalance at the interface of crystal and electrodes. To
balance this disequilibrium, measurement circuit supplies the charge, which
is calibrated against the detection of an object or its movement.
Applications of Pyroelectric sensors
• Intrusion detector
• Optothermal detector
• Pollution detector
• Position sensor
• Solar cell studies
• Engine analysis

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