Modern India

Advent of the Europeans

The Portuguese

 On 20 th May, a Portuguese sailor named Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut, an important

seaport of South-West India. He was cordially received by King Zamorin.
 In 1501, Vasco da Gama came back to india for the second time. He set up a trading factory at
Cannanore. Gradually, Calicut, Cannanore and Cochin became the important trade centres of
the Portuguese.
 In 1505, Franciso de Almeida was sent as the first governer of the Portuguese possession in
India. His vision was to make the Portuguese the master of the Indian Ocean. His policy was
known as the Blue Water Policy.
 The real founder of the Portuguese power in India was Alfonso de Albuquerque. In 1509, he
replaced Almeida as the governer and in the next year (1510), he captured Goa subsequently
became the headquarters of the Portuguese settlements in India.
 The sole aim of the Portuguese was to maintain their trade monopoly in India. Therefore, they
combined trade with power from the very beginning. Their hold over the coastal areas and
superiority in naval power helped them significantly.
 By the end of the 16 th century, the Portuguese brought Goa, Daman, Diu, and Salsette and a
vast area around the Indian coast line under their control.
 However, the Portuguese ascendancy on Indian trade did not last long. With the arrival of new
trading communities from Europe, there began a fierce rivalry among them. In this struggle, the
Portuguese had to give way to the more powerful and enterprising competitors.

The Dutch

 Formation of the Company: The Dutch East India company was formed with powers to make
wars, conclude treaties, acquire territories and build fortresses in March, 1602, by a Charter of
the Dutch Parliament.
 Establishment of Factories: The Dutch set up factories at Masulipatam (1605), Pulicat (1610),
Surat (1616), Bimilipatam (1641), K. Arikal (1645), Chinura (1653), Kasimbazar, Barangore, Patna,
Balasore, Negapatam (all in 1658) & Cochin (1663).
 The Dutch replaced the Portuguese as the most dominate power in European trade with the
East, including India.
 Pulicat was their main centre in India till 1690, after which Negapatam replaced it.
  The Dutch conceded to English after their defeat in the Battle of Bedera in 1759.

The French

 In the middle of the seventeenth centuary, Louis XIV’s finance minister Colbert formed a French
East India Company named Compagnie des Indes Orientales in 1664.
 It set up the first French factory at Surat in 1668. The second factory was set up at
Masulipatnam in 1669. A factory was also developed at Chandernagar (Bengal) between 1690
and 1692. Two major French trading posts in India were Pondicherry, established in 1674 by
Francis Martin, and Chandernagar.
 In 1693, the newly built French factory at Pondicherry was captured by the Dutch but by the
Treaty of Ryswick between the European powers, there was restoration of mutual conquests
and the Dutch returned Pondicherry to the French in 1697.
 During the first quarter of the eighteenth century, however, the French Company suffered
serious setback for lack of resources and the factories at Surat, Masulipatam and Bantam had to
be abandoned. This condition of the French Company continued till 1720.
 After 1742, when Dupleix became Governor of Pondicherry, there was a change in the character
and objective of the French Company’s motive of imperial expansion replaced their former
commercial motive. This naturally opened a new chapter in the Anflo-French conflict in India.
 Independent States

Awadh

 Established by Saadat Khan.

 He was also called Burhan-ul-Mulk.
 He joined hands with Nadir Shah and later committed suicide. Safdarjang and Shuja-ud-Daula
were prominent rulers.
 Shuja-ud-Daula concluded the Treaty of Benaras with Warren Hasting (1773). He provided
shelter to the fugtive Mughal emperor Shah Alam II.
 In alliance with the Nawab of Bengal, the Mughal emperor fought the Battle of Buxar against
the British (1764).
 He signed Treaty of Allahabad (1765) by which he gave Allahabad and Kota to the Mughal
emperor Shah Alam II and paid Rs. 50 lakh as indemnity.
 He annexed Rohilkhand in 1774 with the help of the British.
 Asaf-ud-Daula transferred capital from Faizabad to Lucknow (1775).
 During Wazid Ali Shah (1847-56), annexation of Awadh took place by Dalhousie in 1856 on the
ground of misgovernance.

British Conquest of Bengal

 Murshid Quli Khan founded the autonomous State of Bengal.

 Sarfaraz Khan (Nawab of Bengal 1739-40), took the title of Alam-ud-Daula HaiderJung.
 Battle of Giriya (Bihar) was fought between Alivardi Khan and Sarfaraz Khan in 1740, in which
Alivardi Khan defeated and murdered him.
 Saadat Khan, Burhan-ul-Mulk founded the autonomous state of Awadh.
 Safdar Jung (Nawab of Awadh 1739-54), took part in the battle of Nanpur against Ahmad Shah
Abdali in 1748.
 Asaf-ud-Daula is known for promoting Lucknow culture and built important monuments like
Imambara and Rumi Darwaza.
 Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was also known as Jann-i-Alam and Akhtarpiya.
 Asaf Jah, Nizam-ul-Mulk founded the autonomous State of Hyderabad. His original name was
Chinquilich Khan, but Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar conferred on him the titles of Khan-i-Duran
and later Nizam-ul-Mulk.
 The Mughal governor of Bengal virtually independent of the Mughal Empire during his reign
(1717-1727).
 His son Shuja-ud-daulah succeeded him and ruled for 12 years.
 After his death, Alivardi Khan ruled till 1756.
 Situation worsend in 1756, when the young and quick-tempered Siraj-ud-Daulah succeeded his
grandfather, Alivardi Khan.
 When the Nawab ordered the English to demolish their fortifications at Calcutta, the British
refused to do so. English joined a conspiracy hatched by the enemies of the young Nawab to
place Mir Jafar on the throne of Bengal. They presented Siraj-ud-Daulah with an impossible set
of demands. Both sides realized that a war to the finish would have to be fought between them.
They met for the battle on the field of Plassey, 20 miles from Murshidabad, on 23 rd June 1757.
  The alleged Black Hole Tragedy happened during the reign of Siraj-ud-Daulah in 1757.
 Battle of Plassey: The result was the defeat of Siraj-ud-Daulah in the Battle of Plasey in 1757. In
this battle major part of Nawab’s army (led by Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh) didn’t take part in the
battle. The Nawab was defeated and killed.
 Battle of Buxar: Mir Qasim belied English hopes and soon emerged as a threat to their position
and designs in Bengal. Mir Qasim was defeated in a series of battles in 1763 and fled to Avadh,
where he formed an alliance with Shuja-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Avadh, and Shah Alam, the
fugitive ruler of Mughal Empire. The three allies crashed with the English army under Major
Murno at Buxar on 22 nd October, 1764 and were thoroughly defeated.

Hyderabad

 Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724, founded the Hyderabad State. His original name is was Chin
Qullie Khan (1724-48).
 He was conferred the title Khan-i-Dauran and later Nizam-ul-Mulk by Farukshiyar and was
conferred the title Asaf Jah by Md. Shah.
 He followed a tolerant policy towards the Hindus. E.g., Puran Chand, was his Diwan.
 Carnatic was one of the subas of the MUghal Deccan. It came under the Nizam of Hyderabad’s
authority.
 When Nizam freed himself and became independent of Delhi, the Deputy Governer of Carnatic
Sadatullah Khan had freed himself of the control of the Nizam and made his nephew Dost Ali
Khan his successor without Nizam’s approval.
 In 1740, due to repeated struggles for Nawabship, the Carnatic’s state affairs deteriorated. This
provided an opportunity to the European trading company to directly interfere in India politics.

Mysore

Haider Ali (1761 AD-1782 AD)

 He began his career as a soldier in Mysore state which became independent of the Vijayanagara
empire in 1565 under Hindu Wodeyar Dynasty.
 He was the founder of Mysore as an independent state in 1761 with its capital Seringapatnam
after overthrowing the real power behind the Mysore throne, the minister Nunjaraj.
 He fought First Anglo-Mysore war in 1767-69 and signed humiliating treaty with British (Treaty
of Madras).
 In the second battle of Anglo-Mysore, he was defeated by the British at Porto Novo in 1781 by
Eyre Coote but he defeated them in 1782.
 He died during the Second Anglo-Mysore War.

Tipu Sultan

 Tipu Sultan continued the second Anglo-Mysore war till 1784 when both the sides got tired and
concluded peace by the treaty of Mangalore (178).
 Introduced new system of coinage. New scales of weight & measurements and a new calendar.
 He was defeated by Cornawallis with the help of the Marathas and signed Treaty of
Seringapatnam (1792) by which he lost about half of the territories of the British.
  The Fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799) marked the complete collapse of Tipu’s power. Tipu died
while fighting at Sri Rangapattanam (May 1799).
 Tipu dethroned the Raja and openly assumed the title of Sultan in 1786.
 Tipu had great regard for Jagadguru Shankaracharya of Sringeri.
 Tipu was the first Indian sovereign who tried to apply western methods to his administration.

Rise of Sikh State

 Sikhism transformed into a militant religion during Guru Hargobind (1606-45), the sixth guru.
 Guru Gobind Singh waged constant war against the armies of Aurangzeb and the hill rajas.
 After Guru Gobind Singh’s death (1708), leadership passed to Banda Bahadur Singh who began
the Sikh war of independence against the Mughal imperial authority.
 His disciples called him the Sachha Padashah or veritable sovereign and coins were struck in his
name.
 In 1716, Banda Bahadur and his son were tortured to death by the Mughals.
 Sikhs founded a leader in Kapur Singh who began organizing what later on developed as the
celebrated Dal Khalsa or the Army of the theocracy of the Sikhs.
 In 1764, the triumphant Sikhs assembled at Amristar and struck the first coins of pure silver
with the legend Degh, Tegh, Fateh which was the first proclamation of Sikh sovereignty in
Punjab.
 Between 1763 and 1773, the Sikhs extended their power from Saharanpur in the east to Attok in
the west, and from Multan in the south to Kangra and Jammu in the north.
 Zakaria Khan, the governer of Lahore, had tried to establish an independent political system in
Punjab.
 The Sikhs organized themselves into numerous small and highly mobile jathas and posed serious
challenge to the Mughal imperial authority.
 Ranjit Singh laid the foundation of Punjab as an independent state in 1792.
 He captured Lahore with the help of Zaman Shah of Afghanistan, also captured Amristar, added
golden dome to the Golden Temple.
 He occupied Ludhiana through British intervention and mission of Metcalf.
 By Treaty of Amristar (1809), Ranjit Singh agreed to confine his activities to the west of the
Satluj.
 He acquired Kohinoor from Shah Shuja of Afghanistan after giving him protection.
 Tripartite treaty (1838): The British forced Ranjit Singh to sign the tripartite treaty (1838) with
Shah Shuja and the English company which gave freedom to British troops to pass through
Punjab.
 Between the death of Ranjit Singh and the accession of Dalip Singh (1843), three rulers ruled.
 In 1843, Dalip Singh, a minor son of Ranjit Singh was placed on the throne.
 During his reign, the British invaded Punjab (The First Anglo-Sikh War, 1845-46), occupied
Lahore and dictated a peace treaty (known as the treaty of Lahore) on March 9, 1846.
 Gulab Singh was given Kashmir by the East India Company.
 After Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49), Punjab was annexed to the East India Company.
 Maharaja Dalip Singh was deposed and given a pension.
Kerala

 Divided into a large number of feudal chiefs in the 18 th century.

 Four important states – Calicut (under Zamorin), Chirakkal, Cochin and Travancore.
 In 1729, Travancore rose to prominence under King Martanda Varma.
 Conqured Quilon ansd Elayadam, ands defeated the Dutch.
 In 1766, Haidar Ali invaded Kerala and annexed northern Kerala up to Cochin.
 Revival of Malayalam literature.
 Trivandrum became a famous centre of Sanskrit scholarship.

Rajput States

 Rajputana states continued to be divided as before. Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber was the
most outstanding ruler of the era. He founded the city of Jaipur.
 Made Jaipur a greart seat of science and art. Erected observatories at Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi
and Mathura.
 Drew up a set of tables, entitled Zij Muhammadshahi.
 Translated Euclid’s “Elements of Geometry” into Sanskrit.
 Social reforms urged to reduce lavish marriage expenditures.

Jats

 Jat peasants revolted in 1669 and 1688.

 Jat state of Bharatpur was set up by Churaman and Badan Singh.
 Reached its highest glory under Suraj Mal, who ruled from 1756 to 1763.

Foreign Invasions

 Nadir Shah: Persian ruler whose father was shepherd. In 1738, he conqured Kandhar. He took
seventy crore rupees and also peacock throne built by Shah Jahan and famous Kohonoor
diamond.
 In 1747: Nadir Shah was assassinated. Ahmad Shah Abdali became ruler and invaded India
seven times and looted many properties. His significant win was Third Battle of Panipat, which
was fifth invasions in which he defeated Marathas in 1761 under Baji Rao I. even today, there is
a memorial at Paniput in honour of Maratha soldiers who were killed.
 Between 1793 and 1813, the British manufactures launched a campaign against the company,
its trade monopoly and the privileges it enjoyed. Ultimately, they succeeded in abolishing the
East India Company’s monopoly of Indian trade. With this, India became an economic colony of
England.
 Phase of Economic Policy in India

 1600-1757: The east India Company was a purely trading company dealing with import of goods
and precious metals into India and export of spices and textiles.

The Mercantilist Phase (1757-1813)

 The East India Company monopolized trade and began direct plunder of India’s wealth.
 They could impose their own prices that had no relation to the costs of production. This was the
pase of buccaneering capitalism whereby wealth flowed out of the barrel of the trader’s guns.
 The company used its political power to monopolise trade & dictate terms to the weavers of
Bengal.
 The company used revenue of Bengal to finance exports of Indian goods.

The Industrial Phase (1813-1858)

 The commercial policy of the East India Company after 1813 was guided by the needs of the
British industry.
 Charter Act of 1813 allowed one way free trade for British citizens resulting in Indian markets
flooded with cheap & machine-made imports. Indian lost not only their foreign markets but
their markets in India too.
 India was now forced to export raw materials consisting of raw cotton jute and silk, oilseeds,
wheal, indigo and tea, and import finished products.

Financial Colonialism (1860 & After)

 The essence of 19 th century colonialism lay in the transformation of India into a supplier of
foodstuffs and raw materials to the metropolis, a market for metropolitan manufactures and a
field for investment of British capital.
 Started with emergence of the phase of Financial Capitalism in Britain. The rebellion of 1857
was the key factor in the change of the nature of the colonialism.
 The British introduced roads and railways, post and telegraph, banking and other services under
the ‘guaranteed interests’ schemes (government paid a minimum dividend even if profits were
non-existent). Various investments by the British capitalists were also made in India.
 As a result of this, the burden of British public debts kept on increasing and India became, in the
real sense, a colony of Britain.

Drain of Wealth Theory

 R.C. Dutt & Dadabhai Naoroji first cited the drain of wealth theory. Naoroji brought it to light in
his book titled “Poverty And Un-British Rule In India”. R.C. Dutt blamed the British policies for
Indian economic ills in his book ‘Economic History of India’ (1901-03).
 Drain of wealth refers to a portion of national product of India, which was not available for
consumption of its people.
  Drain of wealth began in 1757 after Battle of Plassey when the company’s servants began to
extort fortune from Indian rulers, zamindars, merchants and common people and sent home.
 In 1765, the company acquired the Diwani of Bengal & began purchase of the Indian goods out
of the revenue of Bengal and exported them. These purchases were known as Company’s
investment.
 Duty-free inland trade provided British merchants a competitive edge over their Indian
counterparts.

Constituents of the Drain

 Home Charges: Costs of the Secretary of State’s India Office, East India Company’s military
adventures, cost of suppressing the Mutiny of 1857 and the compensation to the company’s
share holders, pensions to the British Indian officials and army officers, costs of army training,
transport, equipment and campaigns outside India and guar-anteed interests on railways.
 Remittances: To England) a part of their salaries, income and savings) by English civil servants,
Military and railway employee’s lawyers, doctors etc.
 Foreign Trade: The phase of financial imperialism entered India with the introduction of
railways, development of plantations, mines, banking and factories financed through British
capital. Much of the burden of the expanding railway network was met by the Indian taxpayer
through the guaranteed interest scheme.

Land Revenue System Permanent Settlement

 Introduced in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and districts of Benaras & Northern districts of Madras by
Lord Cornwallis in 1793.
 John Shore planned the Permanent Settlement.
 It declared Zamindars as the owners of the land. Hence, they ould keep 1/11 th of the revenue
collected to themselves while the British got a fixed share of 10/11 th of the revenue collected.
The zamindars were free to fix the rents.
 Assured of their ownership, many Zamindars stayed in towns’ (absentee landlordism) and
exploited their tenants.

Ryotwari System

 Introduced in Bombay, Madras and Assam. Munro (Viceroy) and Charles Reed recommended it.
 In this, a direct settlement was made between the government and the ryot (cultivator).
 The revenue was fixed for a period not exceeding 30 years, on the basis of the quality of the soil
and the nature of the crop. It was based on the scientific rent theory of Ricardo.
 The position of the cultivator became more secure but the rigid system of revenue at will while
the cultivator was left at the mercy of its officers.

Mahalwari System

 Modified version of Zamindari settlement introduced in the Ganga valley, NWFT, parts of
Central India & Punjab.
 Revenue settlement was to be made by village or estates with landlords. In western Uttar
Pradesh, a settlement was made with the village communities, which maintained a form of
common ownership known as Bhaichara, or with Mahals, which were groups of villages.
 Revenue was periodically revised.
 Revolt of 1857

Political Causes

 Growing suspicion among native rulers over Lord Dalhousie’s policies of “Doctrine of Lapse”.
 Annexation of the territories of native rulers.
 Annexation of Avadh on the ground of “misgovernance”.
 Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
 Lucknow was annexed in 1856 on the charges of maladministration and Jhansi was annexed
owing to Doctrine of Lapse.

Administrative and Economic Causes

 Inefficient administrative machinery of the company.

 Racialism in civil and military administration.
 Deprivation of the traditional ruling classes of their luxury.
 Introduction of new revenue system.
 De-industrialisation of the country.

Military Causes

 Debarring the foreign service allowance or batta for sepoys serving in Sindh and Punjab.

Racial Discrimination

 Indian soldiers were paid low salaries: they could not rise above the rank of subedar and were
racially insulated.
 The soldiers were also distressed by the fact that their cherished Awadh state had been annexed
by the British.

Social and Religious Cause

 Spread of Christianity through missionaries.

 Enactment of the Religious Disabilities Act, 1850, which enabled a convert to inherit his
ancestral property.
 Antagonism of the traditional Indian society into the law-prohibiting sati, child marriage and
female infanticide.

The Immediate Cause:

Greased Cartridges

 The government introduces a new Enfield rifle in the Army. Its cartridges had a greased paper
cover which had to be bitten off before the cartridge was loaded into the rifle.
 It was believed that grease was composed of beef and pig fat. The Hindu as well as Muslims
sepoys was enraged.
  The first soldier to protest against using the greased cartridges was Mangal Pandey. He killed
two English officers at Barrackpore near Calcutta on 29 March 1857. He was arrested, tried and
executed.
 On 24 April 1857, some soldiers stationed at Meerut also refused to use the cartridges.
On 9 May 1857, they were severely punished for this.
 This incident sparked off a general mutiny among the sepoys of Meerut. On 10 May 1857, these
rebel soldiers killed their imprisoned comrades and hoisted the flag of revolt.

Suppression of Revolt

 Sir Archdale Wilson, Nicholson and Sir John Lawrence were the military officers who freed Delhi
from the rebels.
 Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi died in the battle field on 17 June 1858.
 Nana Sahib defeated at Kanpur, escaped to Nepal in 1859.
 Tentia Tope escaped into jungles of Central India from where he carried on guerrilla warfare
until April, 1859 when he was betrayed by a zamindar friend & captured & put to death after
hurried trail on 15 th April 1859.
 By 1859 – Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan Bahadur Khan of Barelly, Rao Sahib & Maulavi
Ahmadullah were all dead.
 Begum of Awadh was compelled to hide in Nepal.
 Delhi was captured on 20 September 1857, with Bahadur Shah II surrendering. He was found
guility by trail and exiled with his favorite Queen Begum Zinat Mahal and her sons in Ragoon.
Three of his younger sons were shot dead publicly on 2 September 1857 at Khooni Darwaza,
Delhi.
 Robert Clive: Governor of Bengal during 1754-60 and again during 1765-67 and established Dual
Government in Bengal from 1765-72. (True founder of British Political dominion in India).
 Vanisttart (1760-65): The Battle of Buxar (1764).
 Cartier (1769-72): Bengal Famine (1770).
 Governors-General of Bengal

Warren Hasting (1772-1785)

 Brought the Dual Government of Bengal to an end by the Regulating Act, 1773.
 Became Governor-General in 1774 through the Regulating Act, 1773.
 Started Diwani and Faujdari adalats at the district level and Sadar diwani and Nizamat adalats
(appellate courts) at Calcutta.
 Redefined Hindu and Muslim laws.
 Wars: Rohilla War (1774); 1 st Anglo-Maratha War (1776-82): 2 nd Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84).
 Wrote introduction to the first English translation of the ‘Gita’ by Charles Wilkins.
 Founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784.

Lord Cornwallis (1786-93)

 First person to codify laws in 1793. The code separated the revenue administration from the
administration of justice.
 Created post of district judge; Introduced Permanent Settlement in Bengal (1793).
 Cornwallis is called ‘The Father of Civil Service in India’.
 Wars: 3 rd Anglo-Mysore War (defeat of Tipu and the Treaty of Srinagpatanam, 1792).

Sir John Shore (1793-98)

 Introduced the 1 st Charter Act (1793)

 Wars: battle of Kharda between Nizam and the Marathas (1795).

Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

 Started Subsidiary Alliance system to achieve British paramountcy in India.

 Madras Presidency was formed during his tenure.
 Wars: 4 th Angole-Mysore War (1799) defeat and the death of Tipu Sultan; 2 nd Anglo-Maratha
War (1803-05)- defeat and the Scindia, the Bhonsle and the Holkar; Treaty of Bassein (1802).

George Barlow (1805-1807)

 Vellore Mutiny (1806).

Lord Minto-I (1807-1813)

 Concluded Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809).

 Charter Act of 1813 was passed.

Lord Hastings (1813-1823)

 Adopted the policy of intervention and war.

 Introduced the Ryotwari settlement in Madras by Thomas Munro, the Governor.
 Wars: Anglo-Nepalese War (1813-23); 3 rd Anglo-Maratha War (1817-18). Hastings forced
humiliating treaties on Peshwa and the Scindia.
Lord Amherst (1823-28)

 Wars: 1 st Burmese War (1824-26). Acquisition of territories in Malay Peninsula; Capture of

Bharatpur (1826).
 Governors-General of India

Lord William Bentick (1828-35)

 First Governor-General of India.

 Most liberal and enlightened Governor-General of India;
 Regarded as the Father of Modern Western Education in India;
 Abolished Sati and other cruel rites (1829);
 Annexation of Mysore (1831). Concluded a treaty of perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh
(1831);
 Passed the Charter Act of 1833, which provided that no Indian subject of the Company was to
be debarred from holding am office on account of his religion, place of birth, descent and
colour.
 On recommendation of Macaulay Committee, made English the medium of higher education in
India.
 Abolished provincial courts of appeal and circuit set up by Cornwallis, appointment of
Commissioners of revenue and circuit.
 Wars: Annexed Coorg (1834), Central Cachar (1834) on the plea of misgovernance.

Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835-36)

 Passed the famous Press Law, which liberated the press in India (Called Liberator the Press).

Lord Auckland (1836-42)

 1 st Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) and the Treaty of Lahore 1846 (marked the end of Sikh
sovereignty in India).
 Gave preference to English education in employment.

Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)

 Abolished Titles and Pensions, Widow Remarriage Act (1856). Made Shimla the summer capital.
 Administrative Reforms: Introduced the system of centralized control in the newly acquired
territories known as Bon-Regulation System; Raised Gurkha regiments.
 Educational Reforms: Recommended the Thomosonian system of Vernacular education for
whole of the North Westren Frontier Provincves (1853); Wood’s Educational Despatch of 1854
and opening of Anglo-Vernacular schools and government colleges; an engineering college was
established at Roorkee.
 Public Works: Started the first railway line in 1853 (connecting Bombay with Thana); Started
electric telegraph service, laid the basis of the modern postal system (1854); A separate public
works department was set up for the first time; Started work on the Grand Trunk Road and
developed the harbours of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta.
 Wars: Introduced Doctrine of Lapse (Captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849),
Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854); Fought 2 nd Anglo-Sikh War
(1848-49) and annexed the whole of Punjab; 2 nd Anglo-Burmese War (1852) and annexation of
Lower Burma or Pegu; Annexation of Berar in 1853; Annexation of Avadh in 1856 on charges of
maladministration.
 Viceroys of India (1858-1947)

Lord Canning (1858-62)

 The last Governor General and first Viceroy of India.

 The Indian Councils Act of 1862 was passed, which proved to be a landmark in the constitunal
history of India.
 The Indian Penal Code of Criminal Procedure (1859) was passed; The Indian High Court Act
(1861) was enacted; Income Tax was introduced for the first time in 1858.
 The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras founded in 1857.
 Revolt of 1857 took place in his time. Passed the Act of 1858, which ended the rule of the East
India Company.
 Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.

Lord Elgin-I (1862-63)

 Wahabi Movement (Pan-Islamic Movement).

Sir John Lawrence (1864-69)

 Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe.

 High Courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865; Expanded canal works
and railways.
 Bhutan War (1865).
 Advocated State-managed railways; Created the Indian Forest Department and recognized the
native judicial service.

Lord Mayo (1869-72)

 Introduced financial decentralization in India, Established Rajkot College at Kathiarwar and

Mayo College at Ajmer for the princes.
 Organized the Statistical Survey of India, Established the Departement of Agriculture &
Commerce.
 He was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in Andamans in 1872.
 Introduction of State Railways.
 For the first time in India history, a census was held in 1871.

Lord Northbrook (1872-76)

 Kuka Movement of Punjab took rebellious turn during his period.

Lord Lytton (1876-80)

 Most infamous Governor-General, pursued free trade and abolished duties on 29 British
manufactured goods which accelerated drain of wealth of India.
 Arranged the Grand Darbar in Delhi (in 1877) when the country was suffering from a servere
famine.
  Passed the Royal Title Act (1876) and Queen Victoria was declared as the Kaisar-i-Hind.
 Arms Act (1878) made mandatory for Indians to acquire licence for arms.
 Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878).
 Proposed the plan of Statutory Civil Service in 1878-79 and lowered the maximum age limit
from 21 to 19 years.
 The 2 nd Afghan war proved a failure (Viceroy of reverse chatacters).

Lord Rippon (1880-84)

 Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, 1882.

 The First Factor Act, 1881 to improve labour condition;
 Resolution on Local Self-Government in 1882, Resolution on Land Revenue Policy;
 Appointed Hunter Commission (for education reforms) in 1882;
 The Ilbert Bill controversy erupted during his time (1883) enabled Indian district magistrates to
try European criminals. But this was withdrawn later.

Lord Dufferin (1884-88)

 3 rd Burmese War (Annexation of Upper and Lower Burma) in 1885.

 Establishment of Indian National Congress in 1885.

Lord Lansdowne (1888-94)

 The second Factor Act of 1891.

 Categorization of Civil Services into imperial, provincial and subordinate.
 Indian Council Act of 1892 (introduced selections which was indirect).
 Appointment of the Durand Commission to define the line between British India and
Afghanistan (1893).

Lord Elgin II (1894-99)

 The Munda uprising (Birsa Munda) of 1899.

 Convention delimiting the frontier between China and India was retified.
 Great famine of 1896-97, Lyall Commission appointed after famine (1897).
 Assassination of two British officials-Rand & Amherst-by Chapekar Brothers in 1897.

Lord Curzon (1899-1905)

 Appointed a Police Commission in 1902 under Andrew Frazer.

 Set up the Universities Commission and accordingly the Indian Universities Act of 1904 was
passed.
 Set up the Department of Commerce and industry.
 Calcutta Coperation Act (1899); Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act (in 1899) and
put India on a gold standard.
 Partition of Bengal took place in 1905.
 Created NWFP and Archaeological Survey of India.
 Extended railways to a great extent.
Lord Minto II (1905-10)

 Swadeshi Movement (1905-08)

 Foundation of the Muslim League, 1906
 Surat session and split in the Congress (1907)
 Newspaper Act, 1908
 Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909

Lord Hardinge (1910-16)

 Annulment of the partition of Bengal (1911)

 Transfer of Capital from Calcutta to Delhi (1911)
 Delhi Darbar and Coronation of King George V and Queen Mary (1911); Establishment of Hindu
Mahasabha by Madan Mohan Malviya (1915); Annie Besant announced Home Rule Movement
and a bomb was thrown at him, but he escaped unhurt.

Lord Chelmsford (1916-21)

 Home Rule Movement launched by Tilak and Annie Besant (1916).

 Lucknow Pact between Congress and Muslim League (1916).
 Arrival of Gandhi in India (1915); Champaran Satyagraha (1917); Montague’s August Declaration
(1917); Kheda Satyagraha and Satyagraha at Ahmedabad (1918).
 Government of India Act (1919), Repressive Rowlatt Act (1919); Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
(1919); Khilafat Movement (1920-22); non-cooperation Movement (1920-22), Saddler
Commission (1917) and an Indian Sir S. P.Sinha was appointed Governor of Bengal.

Lord Reading (1921-26)

 Criminal Law Amendment Act and abolition of cotton excise.

 Repeal of Press Act of 1910 & Rowlatt Act of 1919.
 Violent Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921).
 Foundation of CPI (1921).
 Chauri Chaura Incident (1922).
 Kakori Train Dacoity (1925).
 Foundation of RSS (1925); Murder of Swami Shradhanand (1926).
 Suppressed non-cooperation movement.
 Women’s University was founded at Poona (1916).

Lord Irwin (1926-31)

 Simon Commission announced in 1927.

 Butler Commission (1927).
 Nehru report (1925); 14 points of Jinnah (1929); Lahore session of Congress and ‘Poorna Swaraj’
decleration (1929); Civil Disobedience Movement (1930); Dandhi March (1930); Gandhi-Irwin
Pact (1931); Martyrdom of Jatin Das (hunger strike).
Lord Willington (1931-36)

 2 nd Round Table Conference (1931).

 Civil Disobedience Movement (1932).
 Announcement of MacDonald’s Communal Award (1932).
 3 rd Round Table Conference, Foundation of Congress Socialist Party-CSP (1934).
 Government of India Act (1935).
 Burma separated from India (1935).
 All India Kisan Sabha (1936).
 Poona Pact was signed.

Lord Linlithgow (1936-43)

 General Elections (1936-37), Congress ministers in 1937 and resignation of Congress ministers in
1939.
 ‘Deliverance Dat’ by Muslim League in 1939; Foundation of Forward Block by S.C. Bose (1939);
Lahore Resolution (1940).
 August Offer (1940).
 Cripps Mission (1942).
 Quit India Movement (1942).
 Outbreak of Second World War in 1939.

Lord Wavell (1943-1947)

 C.R. Formula
 Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference in 1945; End of 2 nd World War in 1945; INA Trials in 1945;
Naval mutiny in 1946.
 Cabinet Mission, 1946 and acceptance of its proposals by Congress.
 Direct Action Day by the Muslim League on 16 th August, 1946 and first meeting of the
Constituent Assembly was held on December 9, 1946.

Lord Mountbatten (March – August 1947)

 Announced the 3 June, 1947 Plan.

 Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in the House of Commons and passed by the British
Parliament on July 4, 1947.
 Appointment of 2 boundary commissions under Sir Cryil Radicliffe.
 Governors-General of Independent India

Lord Mountbatten (1947-48)

 The first Governor General of free India; Kashmir acceded to India (October 1947).

C. Rajagopalachari tenure (21 June 1948 – 26 January 1950)

 The last Governor General of free India; The only Governor General.
 Socio-Religious Movements

Brahmo Samaj

 Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. He earlier started Atmiya Sabha in 1814.
 Criticized Sati Pratha, casteism and advocated window remarriage.
 Established a Vedanta College in which cources both in Indian and Western social and physical
sciences were offered.
 He was opposed to Sanskrit system of education, because he thought it would keep the country
in darkness.
 The Brahmo Samaj is based on the twin pillars of reason, the Vedas and the Upanishads. Laid
emphasis on human dignity, opposed idolatry, and criticized social evils. Succeeded in
persuading Lord Bentick to abolish Sati in 1829.
 He gave enthusiastic assistance to David hare, who founded the famous Hindu College in
Calcutta.
 Wrote in Persian his famous work, A Gift to Monotheists of Tuhafatul-Muwahidin – 1809.
 Launched a movement for the abolition of Sati through his journal Sabad Kaumudi (1819).
 Published his Precepts of Jesus-1820.
 He believed that the philosophy of Vedanta was based on this principle of reason..
 Other important leaders were Devendranath tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore) and Keshab
Chandra Sen.
 Tagore dismissed Keshab Chandra in 1865.
 Keshab started Sangat Sabha, Prarthana Samaj and Brahmo Samaj of India.
 Tagore’s organization come to be known as Tattuabodhini Sabha and Adi Brahma Samaj.
 Anand Mohan Bose started the Sadharana Brahmo Samaj.
 Justice M.G. Ranade founded the Prarthana Sabha.

Arya Samaj

 Founded by Swami Dayanand (or, Moolshankar) in 1875.

 His motto was ‘Go back to the Vedas’ & ‘India for the Indians’
 He disregarded Puranas, idol workship, casteism and untouchability. He advocated widow
remarriage.
 Also started the ‘Shuddhi’ movement to convert non-Hindus to Hinduism.
 Dayanand’s views were publiched in his famous work, Satyarth Prakash. He also wrote Veda
Bhashya Bhumika and Veda Bhashya.
 Opposed untouchability, caste discrimination, child marriage, and supported widow remarriages
and inter-caste marriages.
 In 1886 DAV School was instituted at Lahore by Lala Hansraj. In 1902-Gurukula Pathsala at
Haridwar was established.
 After the death of Dayanand in 1883, differences occurred in the Gurukul section led by Swami
Shradhananda and DAV Section led by Lala Lajpat Rai and Lala Hansraj. While the Gurukul
section laid emphasis on the traditional pattern of education, the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic section
stood for the spread of English education. This led to te split of the Samaj in 1892.
  The Anglo-Vedic school established at Lahore in 1886 provided the nucleus for Arya Samaj
movement.
 Lala Hansraj started the Gurukul near haridwar to protagate the more traditional ideals of
education.
 Other prominent person of Arya Samaj were Lala Hansraj, Pt. Guru Dutt, Lala Lajpat Rai, Swami
Shraddhanand.

Ramakrishna Mission

 Founded by Vivekananda (earlier, Narendranath Dutta) (1863-1902) in 1897, 11 years after the
death of his guru Ram Krishna Paramhans whose original name was Gadoidhar Chattopadhyay.
 Vivekanand attended the Parliament of Religion at Chicago in 1893.
 Irish woman Margaret Nobel (Known as sister Nivedita) popularized it.
 He subscribed to Vedanta, which he declared to be a fully rational system & reinterpreted the
Vedant which led to Neo-Vedantism.
 Contributed to the rise of nationalism.

Young Bengal Movement

 Founded by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-31). He was a teacher in Hindu College in
Calcutta.
 He urged the students to live and die for trust. He also supported women’s education and their
rights.

Veda Samaj

 Veda Samaj was called Brahmo Samaj of South. Started by Sridharalu Naidu.
 He translated books of Brahmo Dharma into Tamil and Telugu.

Dharma Sabha

 Initiated by Radhakant Deb in 1830.

 Was opposed to reforms and protected orthodoxy, but played an active role in promoting
western education even to girls.

Lokahitawadi

 Started by Gopal Hari Deshmuk. Advocated western education and a rational outlook. He
advocated female education for the uplift of women.
 As a votary of national self-reliance, he attended Delhi Durbar in 1876, wearing handspun khadi
cloth.

Servants of India Society

 Formed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1915. It did notable work in providing famine relief and in
improving the condition of the tribals.
 It was founded to unite and train Indians of different ethnicities and reliogions.
 It was the first secular organization in the country to devote itself to the under- privileged, rural
and tribal people.
Theosophical Society

 Founded by Westerners who drew inspiration from Indian thought and culture.
 Madam H P Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in US in 1875. Later, Col. MS Olcott
of the US Army joined her.
 In 1882, it was shifted to India at Adyar (Tamil Nadu).
 Annie Besant was elected its president in 1907. She founded the central Hindu College in 1898,
which became Banaras Hindu University in 1916.

Seva Samiti

 Hridayanth Kunzru, a member of the Servants of India Society, organized the Samiti at Allnabad
in 1914, to improve the status of the suffering classes, reform criminals and to rescue those
suffering in society.

Radhaswami Movement

 Founded in 1861 by a banker of Agra, Tulsi Ram, popularly known as Shiv Dayal Saheb or Swami
Maharaj.
 The sect preached belief in one Supreme Being, the Guru’s supreme position and a simple social
life for the belivers (the Satsangis).

Dev Samaj

 Founded by Shiv Narain Agnihotri in 1887. It preached high moral and social conduct like, for
instance, keeping oneself away from gambling and intoxicants.
 Deva Shastra tells us about the ideals of Dev Samaj.
 Indian National Congress

 Indian National Congress is the largest and the oldest democratic political party of India. It was
founded by Allan Octavian Hume on 28 December, 1885.
 Named Congress by: Dada Bhai Naoroji.
 INC First Conference: Bombay, from 28 to 31 December, 1885. It was presided by Womesh
Chandra Banerjee.
 INC First President: W.C. Banerjee
 INC Second Conference: 1886 Kolkatta presided by Dada Bhai Naoroji.
 INC Third Conference: 1887 Madras (presided by Badaruddin Tiyabji).
 INC Foreign President: George Yule.
 First Woman President of INC: Annie Basant 1917 (Kolkata).
 First Indian Woman President of INC: Sarojini Naidu 1925 (Kanpur)
 INC’s Long Tenured President: Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad.
 Gandhi Elected as President of INC: 1924 Belgam.
 Netaji Elected as President of INC: 1938 Haripuram.
 INC President at The Time of Independence: J.B. Kripalani.
 Last Congress Conference in British India: 1946 Meerut.
 Badruddin Tiyabji was the first Muslim to become the President of Indian National Congress.
 George Yule, a Scottish businessman, was the first non-Indian President of Indian National
Congress.
 First President of INC after independence was Jivatram Bhagwandas Kriplani

Objectives of the Indian National Congress

The objectives of the Congress, as stated by its president W.C. Banerjee, were:

 To promote personal intimacy of and friendship amongst those people from every part of India
who were part of India who were sincerely devoted to the welfare of India.
 To protect and enhance the feeling of unity among all Indians without distinction of caste,
religion and province, etc.
 To collect all those opinions concering society which were properly deliberated upon by the
educated Indians, and
 To fix up those aims and means which were to be adopted by Indian politicians for the welfare
of India.

Moderates and Extremists

 In the pre-Independence era, the Congress was divided into two groups, moderates and
extremist.
 The Moderates were more educated and wanted to win people’s faith to lead the nation to
independence without bloodshed.
 The Extremists, however, wanted to follow a revolutionary path and make it a militant
organization.
  By 1907, the party was split into two halves: the Garam Dal (hot faction) of Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
or Extremists, and the Naram Dal (soft faction) of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, or Moderates,
distinguished by their attitude towards the British.
 Under the influence of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the Congress became the first integrated mass
organization in the country, bringing together millions of people against the British.
 During this period, when the Indian National Congress led the freedom struggle, several great
leaders emerged from the nation. Before the Gandhi Era came leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, all starting
with the first legendary icon of Indians: Dadabhai Naoraji, the President of the Indian National
Association and later the first Indian Member of Parliament in the British House of Commons.

Partition of Bengal in 1905

 The Congress was transformed into a mass movement by Surendranath Banerjee and Sir Henry
Cotton during the Partition of Bengal in 1905 and the resultant Swadesi Movement.
 On July 20, 1905, Lord Curzon issued an order dividing the province of Bengal into two parts:
Piston Bengal and Assam with a population of 31 million and the rest of Bengal with a
population of the 4 million of whom 18 million were Bengalis and 36 million Biharis and Oriyas.
 The Indian National Congress and the nationalists of Bengal firmly opposed partition. They
realized the principal motive behind partition was the destruction of the solidarity of the
Bengalis on religious grounds.
 Its most prominent leaders at the initial stage were moderate leaders like Surendranath
Banerjee and Krishna Kumar Mitra; militant and revolutionary nationalist its took over in the
later stages.

The Swadeshi Movement

 The Swadeshi movement had its genesis in the anti-partition movement which was started to
oppose the British decision to partition Bengal.
 The formal proclamation of the Swadeshi movement was made on August 7, 1905 at a meeting
held at the Calcutta Town Hall.
 At the August 7 meeting, the famous Boycott resolution was passed. Boycott was the first
suggested by Krishna Kumar Mitra in Sanjivani in 1905.

Phase of Swadeshi Movement

1. 1905-1909: Movement confined to Bengal and launched as a protest movement.

2. 1909-1910: Country wide spread of movement and launching of anti-colonial movement.
3. 1910-1911: Swadeshi movement merged with revolutionary terrorist movement of first phase
and led to the foundation of numerous secret associations.

Formation of the Muslim League

 The separatist and loyalist tendencies among a section of the Muslim nawabs and landlords
reached a climax on 30 December 1906, when the All India Muslim League was founded under
the leadership of Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.
  The main objective of the league was to protect and advance the rights of Muslims in India and
represent their needs to the government. By encouraging the issue of separate electorate, the
government sowed the seeds of communalism and separatism among Indians.
 The formation of the Muslim League is considered to be the first fruit of the British master
strategy of ‘Divide and Rule’, Mohammad Ali Jinnah later joined the League.
 The main aim of the league was to promote among Indian Muslims a feeling of loyalty towards
the British government.

Surat Split (1907)

 The agitation following the partition of Bengal brought into prominence the rise of extremists.
 The fundamental difference between the two concerns both the political goal and the method
to adopt to achieve it.
 The difference between the Moderates and the Extremists remained under the surface at the
Congress session of 1904.
 A split was narrowly averted at the Benaras Congress Session in 1905, over which Gokhale
presided, by compromise.
 The Calcutta Session next year (1906) showed that both the Moderates and the Extremists were
heading fast towards a complete breach. And this actually happened in the Surat Congress
(1907).

Home Rule Movement

 In 1916, two Home Rule Movements were launched in the country: one under the leadership of
Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the other under Annie Besant.
 The Tilak’s League was to work in Maharashtra (including Bombay city), Karnataka, the Central
Provinces and Berar. Tilak’s League was organized into six branches. Tilak popularized the
demand for Home Rule.
 Besant’s Home Rule League: Annie Besant came to India in 1893 to work for the Theosphical
Society. In 1914, she decided to enlarge her activities to include building up of a movement for
Home Rule in India on lines of Irish Home Rule League. In September 1916, Besant announced
the formation of Home Role League, with George Arundale, r Theosphical follower, as the
organizing secretary. Jamnadas Dwarkadas, Shankarlal Banker, Indulal Yagnik, George Arundale,
L.P. Ramaswamy Iyer were among the prominent members of Besant’s League.

Lucknow Session of the Congress

 The efforts, which were being made since 1907 to unite the two wings of the Congress,
succeeded in the Lucknow session of the Congress in 1916.
 The extremists were admitted to the Congress at the session.

Rowlatt Act, 1919

 In March 1919, the government passed the Rowlatt Act under the Sedition Committee headed
by Justice Rowlatt even though every single Indian member of the Central Legislature Council
opposed it.
 This Act, thus, severly curtailed the civil liberties of Indians in the name of curbing terrorist
violence.
Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy

 In protest against the Rowlatt Act, Amritsar observed hartal peacefully both on 30 th March
and 6 th of April 1919.
 The government decided to crush the popular protest with respression.
 On April 10, 1919, Dr. Satyapala and Dr. Kitchlew, two popular leaders of the province, were
deported from Amristar.
 On the same day, a peaceful procession at Amritsar was fired upon. Thereupon, the people
committed acts of arson and assaulted a few Europeans.
 On 12 April, 1919, the proclamation was issued by General Dyer, who had taken charge of
troops the day before, that no meetings or gathering of the people were to be held. However,
no steps were taken to see the proclamation was brought to the notice of the people. The result
was, public meeting was announced for 13 April, 1919 at 4:30 PM in Jallianwalla Bagh.
 The meeting started at right time and there were about 6,000 to 10,000 people present in the
meeting. Without giving any warning to the people to disperse, General Dyer ordered the troops
to fire. The firing continued until the whole of the ammunition at the disposal of the troops
exhausted. Officially, 379 people were killed.

Hunter Committee

 The Jallianwala bagh massacre provoked a strong public reaction in India and England. The
Government appointed a Committee of Enquiry (consisting of four British entry Indian
members) under the chairmanship of Lord Hunter to enquire into the Punjab disturbances.
 The Indian National Congress decided to boycott the Hunter Committee and appointed the non-
official committee consisting of popular lawyers, including Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Abbas
Tiyabji, Mr. Jayakar and Gandhiji.
 Before the Hunter Committee began its proceeding, the government passed an Indemnity Act
for the protection of its officers. The “white washing bill” as the Indemnity Act was called , was
severely criticized by Motilal

Khilafat Movement

 Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) was a significant Islamic movement in India during the British
rule under the leadership of prominent Muslim leaders, notable one being Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad. This was an attempt by the Indian Muslim community to unite together in support of the
Turkish Empire ruled by the Khalifa, which was attacked by European powers.
 The Khilafat Movement, aimed against the British government, received the support of
Mahatma Gandhi, who related his Non-Cooperation Movement with it.

Non-cooperation Movement

 In May 1920, it was decided at All India Congress Committee meeting to boycott all foreign
goods and schools.
 In September 1920, the special session of Congress was organized in Calcutta under the
presidentship of Lala Lajpat Rai. The session gave the approval of non-cooperation movement
despite the opposition from some senior leaders like C. R.Das, who opposed to the boycott of
 Vidhan Parishad. Annie Besant, S.N. Bannerjee, Madan Mohan Malviya, M.A. Jinnah, B.C. Pal and
Shankar Nayar also opposed. Ali Brother and M.L. Nehru supported non-cooperation
movement.
 At the Nagpur session, Chittranjan Das and Lala Lajpat rai withdrew their opposition.
 After Nagpur session in 1920, four members quit Congress: M.A.G.S. Khaparde.
 The Non-Cooperation Movement was firmly launched on 1 August, 1920.
 It was the first mass-based political movement under Gandhjii. The main emphasis of the
movement was on boycott of schools, colleges, law courts and advocacy of the use of Charkha.
 There was widespread student unrest and top lawyers like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru gave up
their legal practice. Thereafter, the stress was on boycott of the forthcoming visit of the Prince
of Wales in November, 1921; popularization of Charkha abd Khadi and Jail Bharo by Congress
volunteers.
 Gandhi returned the title ‘Kesar-i-Hind’ before launching non-cooperation movement.
Jamunalal Bajaj returned the title ‘Rai Bahadur’.
 The new aim of Congress was attainment of Swaraj by legitimate and peaceful means.

Simon Commission, 1927

 The Government of India Act 1919 had introduced the system of dyarchy to govern the
provinces of British India. However, the Indian public demanded for revision of the difficult
diarchy form of government.
 The Indian Statutory Commission was a group of seven British Members of Parliament that had
been dispatched to India in 1927 to study constitutional reforms in that colony.
 It was commonly referred to as the Simon Commission after its chairman, Sir John Simon.
 The announcement of the all-white Simon Commission (November 8, 1920) to go into the
question of constitutional reforms stung the Indians. All the established political groups (except
Justice Party in Madras and Punjab Unionists) decided to boycott the Commission.
 The Simon Commission created enough disaffection all over the country and everywhere ot was
hailed with black flags. A general hartal was observed throughout the country on the day the
Commission landed in India. In such circumstances, the Central Assembly was invited to form a
joint commission. But, it refused to do so. As a whole, Simon Commission in India was a
complete failure.

Nehru report, 1928

 A committee was appointed under the Chairmanship of Motilal Nehru, to draft the proposed
Constitution.
 The draft constitution was prepared which was called “Nehru Committee Report”, this report
was submitted on August 28, 1928 at the Lucknow conference of all the parties. But Jinnah
voted against this report.
The main points of this report were as follows:
 India would be given Dominion status. This means independence within the British Common
wealth.
 India will be a federation which shall have a bicameral legislature at the centre and Ministry
would be responsible to the legislature.
  Governor General of India would be the constitutional head of India and will have the same
powers as that of British Crown.
 There will be no separate electorate. The draft report also defined the citizenship and
fundamental rights.

Lahore Session, 1929

 The Congress session at Calcutta marked an almost split among the leaders who wanted
dominion and leaders who wanted complete Independence.
 Ultimately, it was resolved that if the British parliament accepts the Nehru Report by 31
December 1929, Congress would adopt the report as it is.
 If the report is not accepted by the British parliament, Congress would insist on complete
independence and would organize a non-violent non-cooperation movement.
 The one-year deadline passed and no positive reply came from the government. This was
followed by Lahore Session of Congress which was presided by Jawahar Lal Nehru.
 The most landmark resolution was that the Nehru Committee Report had now lapsed and
Dominion status will not be acceptable. A Poorna Swaraj resolution was passed and it means
complete Independence.
 On the midnight of December 31, 1929 and January 1, 1930, the deadline of the Nehru
Committee Report expired and Jawahar Lal Nehru unfurled the flag of India’s independence
on the bank of river Ravi in Lahore.

Civil disobedience

 On March 12, 1930, Indian independence leader Mohandas Karamchand Gandi began a defiant
march to the sea in protest of the British monopoly on salt with the undertaking of the Dandi
Yatra.
 Gandhiji led the Dandi march from Sabarmati Ashram to the sea coast near the village of Dandi.
In this journey of 24 days and covering a distance of 390 km, thousands of people joined him. He
reached Dandi on April6, 1930, and broke the salt law.

This triggered the Civil Disobedience Movement. A programme was outlined, which included the
following:
 Violation of the laws such as Salt Law.
 Non-payment of Land Revenue, taxes and Rent.
 Boycott of courts of law, legislatures, elections, Government functionaries, schools and colleges.
 Peaceful picketing of shops that sold foreign goods. Mass strikes and procession. Picketing of
shops that sold liquor.
 Boycott of Civil Services, Military and Police services.

First Round Table Conference, 1930

 On 11 September 1930, the personnel of the Round Table Conference were announced.
 It was chaired by British PM Ramsay MacDonald. Sixteen delegates represented the three
political parties of Britain and 57 political leaders from Indian National Congress. The main
Indian representatives were as follows:
  Muslim League: Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Muhammad Shafi, Aga Khan, Muhammad Ali,
Muhammad Zafrulla Khan A.K. Fazlul Huq.
 Hindu Mahasabha: B.S. Moonje and M.R. Jayakar.
 Indian Liberal Party: TejBahadur Sapru, C.Y. Chintamani and Srinivasa Sastri.
 Sikhs: Sardar Ujjal Singh
 The Untouchables: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Dewans of many princely states.
 The concept of All India Federation was supported. Dr. Ambedkar demanded a separate
electorate for the untouchables.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact, 1931

This pact was signed between Mahatma Gandhi and the Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin on 5 March 1931.
Salient features of this pact were as following:

 The Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference.

 The Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience the Civil Disobedience Movement.
 The Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to crub the Congress.
 The Government would withdrew all prosecutions relating to offences other than violent one.
The Government would release all person undergoing sentences of imprisonment for their
activites in the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Karachi Session

 In 1931, the Congress met at Karachi. It approved the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.

 The most significant contribution of the Karachi Session was a resolution it passed on
Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy.
 It outlined the plan for the reconstruction of Indian society after Independence and to furnish
many aims and ideals for the Constitution of India and the social and economic policy of the
Indian Republic.

Second Round Table Conference, 1931

 The Second Round Conference was held in London in September 1931.

 Gandhi went to England to attend it along with Sarojini Naidu, Mahadev Desai, G.D. Birla and
Madan Mohan Malaviya.
 He powerfully advocated immediate grant of Dominion status to India which was refused. This
led to the furnance of the Second Round Table Conference.
 On his return Gandhiji resumed the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1932.

Poona Pact of September, 1932

 The Poona Pact was the agreement between Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar reached
on 25 September 1932.
The major points in this Pact were as follows:
 148 seats were to be allotted to the depressed classes in the provincial legislatures. This was
more than double from the 71 seats as promised in the Communal Award.
  Certain percentage of the seats allotted to the general non-Muslim electorate would be
reserved for the depressed classes. Congress agreed that adequate representation would be
given to the depresses classes in the civil services.
 The depressed classes agreed to adhere to the principle of Joint Electorate.

Impact of CDM

 The Congress swept the polls in most provinces in 1937.

 The left alternative, emerged for the Movement, had aroused expectations, which Gandhian
strategy could not fulfil.
 At the level of leadership, Nehru and Bose voiced the new mood, emphasizing the need to
combine nationalism with radical social and economic programmes.
 Some Congress activists formed a socialist group within the party in 1934.
 Kisan Sabhas with anti-zamindar programmes developed rapidly in provinces like Bihar and
Andhra.

Third Round Table Conference

 Third Round Table Conference was scheduled to be held in London (1932).

 The Congress did not participate in it.
 The discussion led to the passing of the Government of India Act 1935.

National Movement and II World War

 When the war broke out, Lord Linlitgow declared India to be at war without prior assent of the
Central Lesislature.
 The Congress agreed to support Britain only in return of independence being granted. The
Viceroy could promise this only after the war. In October-November 1939, the Congress
ministers resigned in protest, The Muslim League observed this as the Deliverance Day
(December 22, 1939).
 INC was willing to help the forces of democracy in their struggle against fascism, but asked how
it was possible for an enslaved nation to aid others in their fight for democracy. They declared
that India must be declared free or at least effective power put in Indian hands before it could
actively participate in the war.
 The Viceroy refused to accept pre-conditions set by the Congress- Constituent Assembly for
establishment government at the Centre. Eventually, however, the British Government was
eager for the INC to support their war efforts. Subsequently, it tried to pacify the Congress and
the Indian leaders by a series of offers through August Offer and Cripps Mission.

August Offer

 In August 1940, the Viceroy announced an offer which proposed: Dominion status in the
unspecified future.
 A post-war body to enact the constitution.
 To expand the Governor General’s Executive Council to give full weightage to minority
opinion.
 The Viceroy promised the Muslim League that the British government would never agree to
a constitution or government in India which did not enjoy their support.
  The Congress was wholly disappointed with the August Offer.

Cripps Mission, 1942

 In March 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India to hold talks with the Indian leaders.
 However, the talks broke down as the British were not willing to promise independence even
after the II World War was over and rejected the Congress proposal for the formation of a
national government during the war.
 After the failure of talks with Cripps, the Congress prepared to launch the third mass
movement against British rule.

Quit India Movement, 1942

 In August 1942, Gandhiji gave the slogan ‘Quit India’. The Congress passed a resolution on 8
August 1942, which stated that the immediate ending of British rule did not end immediately.
 The day after the resolution was passed, the Congress was banned and all the important leader
were arrested. The arrest of the nationalist leaders provoked a wave of indignation amoung the
people.
 Quit India resounded throughout the country. There were spontaneous demonstrations at many
places and people resorted to the use of violence to dislodge the foreign rule.
 The government used army and police to suppress the movement. Hundreds of persons were
killed and over 70,000 arrested in lessthan 5 monts.
 The trend of underground revolutionary activities also started during the phase. J.P. Narayan,
R.M. Lohia and Aruna Asaf Ali started consolidating underground networks.
 The most daring act of the underground movement was the establishment of Congress Radio
with Usha Mehta as its announcer.
 The Muslim League kept aloof and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned the movement. The
Communist Party of India also didn’t support the movement.
 The movement was, however, crushed.

Subhas Chandra Bose and INA

 IN 1941, Subhas Chandra Bose had escaped from India and reaches Germany. He carried on
activities for Indian’s freedom from there and made broadcasts echorting the people of India to
overthrow British rule.
 In July 1943, he came to Singapore. Ras Bihari Bose, an Indian revolutionary, who had escaped
from India to Japan in 1915, had set up the India Independence League.
 After the Japanese had defeated the British, the Indian National Army was organized from
among the Indian soldiers who had taken prisoner by the Japanese. Subhas Chandra Bose took
over the leadership of Indian Independence League and reorganized the Indian National Army
to liberate India from British rule.
 On October 21, 1943, he proclaimed the setting up of the Provincial Governement of Free India.
In 1944, three units of INA along with the Japanese troops moved into Imphal-Kohima region of
North-East India.
 The attack was repulsed. Even though the attempt to liberate India failed, the activities of
Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA served to strengthen the anti-imperialist struggle in India.
Demand for Pakistan

 In 1940, at the Lahore Session of the Muslim League, the demand for a separate state of
Pakistan was made. It was based on the two-nation theory.
 The Muslim League demanded that the areas in which the Muslim are numerically in a major as
in the North-Western and Eastern Zones of India should be grouped to constitute Independent
States in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign.
 The demand for a separate state was opposed by large sections of Muslims who were against
any separatist demand.
 Many nationalist leaders like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad who had always been in the forefront
of the national movement opposed the demand for a separate state and fought against
communal tendencies for the freedom of the Indian people.

The Simla Conference of 1945 and Wavell Plan

 The Simla Conference of 1945, generally known as Wavell Plan, was convened to discuss the
reconstitution of the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
 Lord Wavell had earlier visited London to finalize the plan. On his return, he convened the
conference in Simla on June 25, 1945 which was attented by major political leaders of India.
 The Conference reached a potential agreement for the self-rule of India.
 The talks failed, however, on the question of Muslim representation. Of the leaders who
attended the Conference, Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad represented the Congress while
Mohammed Ali Jinnah represented the Muslim League.
 Wavell had given place to 6 Muslims in the Executive Council of 14, and British had given it the
power of Veto to any constitutional proposal which was not in its intrest.
 But Muslims represented only 25% of Indian population. Thus, these unreasonable demands
were rejected by Congress.
 The Muslim League did not relent and Wavell dropped the plan.

Naval Mutiny, 1945

 A revolt took place in HMS Talwar on February 18, 1945 in Bombay due to racial discrimination,
unpalatable food and abuse after the arrest of B.C. Dutta who had written ‘British Quit India’ on
the wall.
 Next day, HMS Hindustan in Karachi also revolted.
 Soon, the revolt spread to other places also. In Bombay, the mutineers hoisted the tricolor on
their ship masts together with a portrait of S. S. Bose and shouted Jai Hind in the barracks. Their
demands included release of all political prisoners including those belonging to the Indian
National Army.
 It was suppresses after persuasion by the Indian leaders.

Rajagopalachari Formula, 1945

 He proposed that plebiscite should be held in contiguous districts of North West and East where
Muslims were in absolute majority.
  If the majority decides in favour of forming a separate sovereign state, such decision could be
accepted.
 Jinnah objected as he wanted only Muslim of North West and East of India to vote in the
plebiscites.

Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946

 The British government announced in 1946 that they were willing to end their rule over India.
For this purpose, a Cabinet Mission was sent to hold negotiations with the Indian leaders on the
transfer of power.
 The mission consisted of three cabinet ministers like the Secretary of the State Patrick
Lawrence, President of Board of Trade Sir Stafford Cripps, and First Lord of the Adminality A.V.
Alexander was sent to India.
 The Cabinet Mission proposed two-tier federal plan which was expected to maintain national
unity while conceding the largest measure of regional autonomy.
 The Cabinet Mission failed due to multiple reactions as the Mission announced on 16 th May its
three-tier scheme for forming a Union of All-India consisting of Hindu-majority provinces,
Muslim majority Provinces and the Indian States.
 On 25 th June, the Congress Working Committee passed a resolution to accept the Cabinet
Missions plan and to enter the Constituent Assembly.
 The Sikhs on the other hand were in favour of a united India. The Scheduled Castes were against
the partition and wanted guarantee of their human rights.
 The Hindu Mahasabha insisted on immediate transfer of power and indivisible India.

Interim Govt. of India, 1946

 The interim government of India was formed on 2 September 1946 from the newly-elected
Constituent Assembly of India. It existed till 15 August 1947.
 The Viceroy’s executive council served as the executive branch of the interim government.
Although originally headed by the Viceroy of India, it was transformed into a council of ministers
with the powers of a Prime Minister bestowed on the Vice-President of the council, which was
held by Congress leader Jawaharlal Nehru.
 With the exception of the Viceroy, who would hold only a ceremonial position, and the
commander-in-chief of the British Indian Army, all members would be Indians.

Mountbatten Plan

 Lord Mountbatten worked out a detailed plan for the transfer of power to the Indian people.
 Muslim-dominated areas may be separated to form a Dominion, in that case, such a dominion
would be constituted by a partition of Bengal and Punjab.
 A referendum in North-West Frontier Province would decide whether it should join Pakistan or
not.
 Similarly, the people of Sylhet, in Assam, were also to give their verdict in a referendum
whether they were willing to join the Muslim area in Bengal.
 A Boundary Commission was to define the boundaries of the Hindu and Muslim Provinces in
Punjab and Bengal.
 The British Parliament was to legislate an Act for the immediate transfer of power.
  The representatives of the Muslim-dominated areas could form a separate Constitution-making
body or Constituent Assembly.

Indian Independence Act, 1947

 The word “independence” in the Indian Independence Act emphasized freedom from the
control of the British Parliament and the Crown. However, virtually the provisions of the
Mountbatten Plan were incorporated in the Indian Independence Act. 1947.
 According to the provision of the Act, two Dominions-India and Pakistan were to emerge a
independent countries from the date 15 August, 1947. The suzerainty of the British Crown on
these two Dominions were to lapse on and from that date.
 The Indian Independence Act further provided that pending the adoption of a new Constitution,
both India and Pakistan were to by governed by the Constituent Assembly of the respective
countries.
 In short, the Indian Independence Act had transformed India from a dependency of the Crown
to an independent Dominion within the British Commonwealth of Nations.
 Development of Education During British Period

First Phase (1758-1812)

 Warren Hasting set up the Calcutta Madarasa in 1781 for the study of Arabic and Persian.
 The Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by Sir William Jones in Calcutta in 1784.
 Jonathan Duncan, the resident at Banaras started the Sanskrit College in 1791.
 Lord Welleslley started the Fort William College in 1800 for the training of Civil Servants, which
the Board of Directors closed in 1802.
 William Carey, a Baptist missionary, set up schools and published Bengali translations of the
Bible, thereby laying the foundation of English education and Bengali prose literature.

Second Phase (1813-1853)

 The Charter Act of 1813, was the first to provide an annual expenditure of one lakh rupees “for
the revival and promotion of literature.”

David Hare and Raja Rammohan Roy were instrumental in setting up the Calcutta Hindu College in 1817
which later developed into the Presidency College.

Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy and Maculay’s Minutes

 The Orientalists led by HT Princep favoured encouragement to Oriental literature and the
Anglicits favoured the advancement of Westren science and literature.
 Macualay, a member of the Executive Council, write his Minute on Educational Policy (2 nd
February 1833) which favoured athe Anglicits viewpoint. The Macualayan system wa based on
the idea that limited means negated mass education, hence a minority would be educated in
English, who would act as ‘class of interpreters’, thereby enriching the vernaculars such that the
knowledge of Western sciences and literature would reach the masses.
 Lord William Bentick, in the Resolution of 7 March 1835, accepted Machualay’s viewpoint which
led to the promotion of European science and literature.

Third Phase (1854-1900)

 Sir Charles Wood Despatch (1854): The President of the Board of Control, his schme became
the Magna Carta of English education in India. The universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay
were set up in 1857. It was Bethune’s contribution, which helped in setting up of a number of
girls’ schools.
 The Hunter Education Commission (1882-83): Its main recommendations were basically for
secondary education. Secondary education should be in two sectors-literary education leading
to the university entrance examination and commercial and vocational traning.

Fourth Phase (1900-1944)

 The Releigh Commission (1902): The only Indian member of the commission Gurudas Benerji
appointed by Lord Curzon, strongly disagreed with its recommendations, which were adopted
in the Indian Universities Act in 1904.
 The Indian Universities Act(1904): It was enacted to ensure greater government controls over
the Universities. It transferred the power of ultimate decision in matters of college affiliation
and schools recognition to government officials and sought to fix minimum college fees.
 Sadler Commission (1917-19): The two Indian members were Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee and Dr.
Ziauddin Ahmed. It was mainly for higher education. It recommended a twelve-year course of
revolution, then intermediate University. University limited to three years and into Pass Course
and Honours. Each University should be a centralized system. A board of women’s education
was also suggested.
 Wardha Scheme: Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937), worked out by the Zakir Hussain
Committee after mahatma Gandhi published a series of articles in the Harijan. It centred around
“manual productive work” which would cover the remuneration of teachers. There was to be a
seven-year course through the mother tongue of the students. It was to be centred around
crafts.
 Sergeant Plan of Education (1944): It envisaged the establishment of elementary schools an
high schools; Universal and compulsory education for all children between the age of six and
eleven; A school course of six years was to be provided for children between age eleven and
seventeen; High schools were to be of two types (a) academic and (b) technical and vocational.