TECHNICAL REPORT OF STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK

EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

DONE AT

EXWORKS ENGINEERING SERVICES LIMITED

Fegge, Onitsha, Anambra State

BY

NWOKOYE PRINCE CHIEMELIE

MATRICULATION NO: 20161994265

DEPARTMENT OFGEOLGY

(GEOLOGY OPTION)

SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, P.M.B. 1526, OWERRI,

IMO STATE

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B.Tech.) DEGREE IN
GEOLOGY

AUGUST, 2021

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 CERTIFICATION

I certify that the student industrial work experience scheme (SIWES)

programme was carried out by student Geologist, NWOKOYE PRINCE
CHIEMELIE, with matriculation number 201619942651 of the department of
Geology, Federal university of technology Owerri. That this report was compiled
by him and will be submitted to the department of Geology, School of Physical
Sciences, SEET, Federal University of Technology Owerri.

....................................................... ..................................

Student’s name Sign/Date

..................................................... ...................................

I.T Supervisor Sign/Date

ii
 ABSTRACT

This report is based on the experience acquired during my six months

students industrial works experience scheme (SIWES) that took place Exworks
Engineering Services Limited, Fegge, Onitsha, Anambra State. Basically the goal
of the training was to introduce me to various geologic machines, uses and
maintenance during my first week of training, the code of operation and
application was stressed. I was later introduced to the identification and usage of
several equipments.
I was also introduced to various field techniques and data interpretation
methods for the different machines.

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 DEDICATION

This report is dedicated to the Almighty God who is the only determinant of
success and progress, and who by His mercies and divine provision made
this program a success.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank God Almighty for His mercy and grace that kept me all through my
industrial training period. My Special appreciation goes to Exworks Engineering
Services Limited, specially the Manager and the operators for giving me the
privilege to learn and be trained.
I also thank my colleagues, co-workers for their time, patience and support,
behaviour that has given me the opportunity to get a feel of the work environment
which has exposed me to the responsibilities and ethics.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION .................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. iii
DEDICATION ......................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .........................................................................................v
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................1
1.0 HISTORY OF SIWES ......................................................................................1
1.1 FUNCTIONS OF SIWES UNIT ......................................................................2
1.2 ROLE OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN SIWES...............................2
1.3 ROLES OF ACADEMIC BODIES ..................................................................3
1.4 ROLES OF THE SUPERVISING AGENCIES ...............................................3
1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE SIWES SCHEME......................................................3
1.6 IMPORTANCE OF THE SIWES SCHEME. ..................................................4
1.7 BENEFITS OF SIWES. ....................................................................................4
1.8 AIMS OF THE SIWES SCHEME ...................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................7
2.0 COMPANY PROFILE .....................................................................................7
2.1 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE COMPANY ........................8
2.3 MISSION STATEMENT .................................................................................9
2.4 VISION STATEMENT ....................................................................................9
CHAPTER THREE..................................................................................................10
3.0 INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGICAL MACHINES ...................................10
3.1 GEODIMETER ..............................................................................................11
3.1.1ELECTRONIC MECHANISM ....................................................................12
3.1.2WORKING PRINCIPLE ..............................................................................13
3.1.3USES .............................................................................................................13
3.1.4CARE AND MAINTENANCE ....................................................................13
3.1.5CLEANING ..................................................................................................14
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 3.2 ELECTRICAL TRANSMITTERS .................................................................15
3.2.1 APPLICATIONS .........................................................................................16
3.2.2 DAILY AND REGULAR MAINTENANCE .............................................17
3.3 THEODOLITE ...............................................................................................19
3.3.1 TYPES OF THEODOLITE .........................................................................20
3.3.2 PARTS OF A THEODOLITE .....................................................................23
3.3.3USES .............................................................................................................24
3.3.4 MAINTENANCE ........................................................................................25
CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................27
4.1 RESISTIVITY METER ..................................................................................27
4.1.1PRINCIPLE ...............................................................................................28
4.1.2APPLICATIONS .......................................................................................28
4.1.3 MAINTENENCE.........................................................................................29
4.2 SUPERSTING ................................................................................................31
4.2.1 USE CASES: ...............................................................................................33
4.2.2 MAINTENANCE ........................................................................................34
4.3 SOIL AUGER .................................................................................................35
4.3.1 TYPES ......................................................................................................36
4.3.2 USES ............................................................................................................38
4.3.3MAINTENANCE ......................................................................................38
CHAPTER FIVE......................................................................................................41
5.1 EARTH RESISTIVITY METER ...................................................................41
5.1.2 MAINTENANCE .....................................................................................43
5.2 MAGNETOMETER .......................................................................................44
5.2.1USES..........................................................................................................45
5.2.2WORKING PRINCIPLE ...........................................................................46
5.2.3APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETOMETERS ............................................46

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 5.2.4 MAINTENENCE .....................................................................................47
5.3 GRAVIMETER ..............................................................................................47
5.3.1 WORKING PRINCIPLES .......................................................................49
5.3.2 MAINTENANCE .....................................................................................50
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................51
RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION.......................................................51

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 HISTORY OF SIWES

SIWES in 1973 was established by the Industrial Training Fund, ITF. It was
introduced to solve the problem of lack of adequate skills by Nigerian institute
graduates required for employment. The SIWES program was founded solely to
imbibe in graduating students the necessary skill s which are required for
employment. It is a skill training program which helps expose and prepare students
of universities, polytechnics and colleges of education for the industrial work to be
met with after graduation from the university. The SIWES scheme enables students
apply knowledge they have acquired from the classroom.

Before the introduction of the scheme, there was a major concern by

company/industry owners over graduating students joining the work force. This
was simply because these students graduating on a yearly basis lacked working
experience, thus were not really relevant to the industry. The students literally
lacked practical capability for employment. This inability disqualified them from
getting employment. As a result, employees came forth and agreed that theoretical
education isn’t enough as it doesn’t prove responses to the demand required by the
labour force. This was the steady complaint of thousands of employers around
Nigeria until 1973 when the SIWES scheme came forth.

The SIWES scheme was introduced by the ITF (Industrial Training Fund),
with sole aim to help out students who were interested in the program. The scheme
was officially introduced, approved and presented to the Federal Government in
1974. The ITF was entrusted with funding the program till 1978 when they
withdrew from the program .the reason for the withdrawal was due to the
cumbersome funds required to handle the program. The Federal Government

1
handed over management of the scheme to the Nigerian Universities Commission
(NUC) and the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE).

Management and implementation of the scheme was reverted to the ITF by

the Federal Government late in November 1984. The scheme was officially taken
over by the ITF in the year 1985, although funding of the program was then totally
handled by the Nigerian Federal Government.

1.1 FUNCTIONS OF SIWES UNIT

By the directive of the National University Commission (NUC) and Industrial
Training Fund (ITF), the unit is mandated with the following functions.

1. Seeking of Industrial placement for undergraduate students enrolled in

disciplines scheduled for participation in SIWES.
2. Supervision of the students placed in the industries located within the ITF
zone.
3. Processing of students logbook, ITF forms and industrial attachments
reports upon which is based on the Federal government fundings,or
supervision and students allowance.
4. Provision of advisory guidance to participating students on career
employment opportunities.
5. Fostering close link between the University and industry participating in the
SIWESProgramme.

1.2 ROLE OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN SIWES

1. One among the roles of the government is the provision of adequate funds to
the ITF.
2. The federal government is to make mandatory for all industries, companies
and ministries to make provisions for students in accordance with the decree
No. 47 of the 1971 constitution as amended in 2011.

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1.3 ROLES OF ACADEMIC BODIES
1. Academic bodies are supposed to appoint coordinators and supporting staffs.
2. They are to capture and register students as well as their bank details during
registration.
3. They should prepare and submit to the ITF the master and placement lists.
4. They should apply placement opportunities for the students attachment with
employers.
5. In collaboration with ITF the academic bodies should organize seminars and
orientations for their students whom are to be attached.
6. Academic bodies are to submit all competed ITF forms to the nearest ITF
area office.

1.4 ROLES OF THE SUPERVISING AGENCIES

The general roles of the supervising agencies are;

1. They are to ensure the establishment and accreditation of SIWES units in

institution under the jurisdiction.
2. They are to direct for the appointment of full time coordinators.
3. They are to ensure adequate funding of the units in all institutions.
4. In line with advancement in technology, they should research into
development if the program.
5. They should collaborate with ITF to ensure that all Federal Government
policies are implemented.
6. They should develop, monitor and review job specifications to in
collaboration with the institutions involved.

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE SIWES SCHEME

1. The SIWES scheme is necessary for skill acquisition.
2. Another objective of the SIWES scheme is to prepare and expose students to
real life work environment and work situations.

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 3. It exposes students to work methods and techniques that will not be
available during their course of study.
4. Provision of a platform to apply learnt knowledge from school and real work
skills together.
5. Another very important objective of the SIWES is that it introduces students
to real life work atmosphere which would enable them know what the
industry expects and is in demand of.

1.6 IMPORTANCE OF THE SIWES SCHEME.

1. Participation in SIWES is very important and is necessary for he awards of
diplomas, and degree certificates in many institutions in Nigeria.
2. The SIWES scheme is important as it equips students with the adequate
working experience required in industries after graduating.

1.7 BENEFITS OF SIWES.

1. The SIWES program enables students to learn responsibility.
2. Its enables students to gain knowledge and attitudes necessary for a
successful program.
3. It enables students acquire good working habits and ethics.
4. The scheme grows in students the skills to learn to get along with fellow
workers in the industries.
5. Students under the SIWES scheme develop personality.
6. The scheme enables students understand the connection between job
production and wages.
7. Students also get to discover the relationship between education and success
in the industry.

BENEFITS OF THE SCHEME TO THE SCHOOL.

1. The scheme [provides an opportunity to relate academic training to job

requirements.

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 2. It develops good community school relations.
3. The scheme provides assistance in occupational guidance.
4. It increases the schools ability to hold students in school for a longer
duration of time.
5. The scheme provides direct avenue through which the school can meet
community needs.
6. It utilizes many community facilities and resources of training purpose.

BENEFITS OF THE SIWES SCHEME TO THE EMPLOYERS

1. The scheme provides a training ground for prospective employees of

companies in Nigeria.
2. It provides an opportunity for the employer to redefine an d validate the
company’s own training method.
3. It provides the employers with employees who are receiving additional
training through related instructions at school training desired but not
warranted or possible on the job.
4. It provides a set of part time workers from which to select permanent
employees from.

1.8 AIMS OF THE SIWES SCHEME

The following are some of the aims and objectives which the program
attempts to achieve.

1. To provide students with an opportunity to apply and modify the principle of

academic discipline within the practical environment.

2. To promote the development of competent skilled manpower in their field of

study.

3. It exposes the students to real life situation thus, supplementing the theoritical
lessons.

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4. Provides an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire
industrial skills and experience in their approved course of study.

THE MAJOR OPERATORS DIRECTLY INVOLVED IN SIWES ARE:

1. The Federal government whose main function is to provide funds through the
Federal ministry of commerce and industry for the smooth running of the scheme.

2. The industrial training (ITF) is solely responsible in the direct management and
smooth running of the scheme. It also supervises students undergoing training
through the various ITF area offices. They examine and sign the students logbook
and the necessary ITF forms .Also, they supervise the payments of allowance to
students and institution based supervision.

3. The institution: compile and submit the Masters Placement test to ITF. Their
roles are;

a. Ensure the students placement are relevant to their courses of study.

b. Prepare students for industrial training through the organization of
orientation programs.
c. Appoint supervisors to students in their places of attachment.
d. Beneficiaries of SIWES are undergraduate in science, engineering and
technology disciplines with duration of four months for polytechnics
and college of education and six months for University.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 COMPANY PROFILE

EXWORKS ENGINEERING SERVICES LIMITED (R.5328) is a

registered Engineering firm as a limited liability company incorporated under the

Company and Allied Matter Act of 1990: as Geophysical technician, engineering

contractors and project managers (Exworksengineering services limited is

registered with the Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria

(COREN), Nigeria Society of Geologist.

Exworksengineering services limited is located at Fegge, Onitsha, Anambra

State, it specializes in Engineering Consultancy,civil engineering works and

Geophysical survey, its state of the art facilities has made the company one of the

leading Geotechical Engineering consultant in Abiastate, Enugu State, as well as

Anambra State and hope to be the leading Geotechnical Engineering consultants in

Nigeria, it has contributed immensely in the training of manpower like students in

industrial training. The project Manager is a COREN Registered Civil Engineer, a

member of the Nigerian Society of Engineers and member of the Nigerian Society

of Geologist

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 2.1 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE COMPANY
EXWORKS ENGINEERING SERVICES LIMITED
MD/CEO

COMPANY’S SECRETARY

ACCOUNT OFFICER ADMINISTRATION CIVIL GEOTECHICAL

STAFF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CLEANERS, SECURITY,
MEN, MESSENGERS,
DRIVERS
Engineering technologist,
technician and IT students

8
2.2 COMPANY PHILOSOPHY

“Early in our corporate growth, we took time to develop guiding principles to

ensure we would fulfill our vision and mission every single day.”

2.3 MISSION STATEMENT

To provide the best construction and Geotechical experience through-

Relationships built on integrity.

Success built on performance.

Fueled by a commitment to continual improvement, both personally and

professionally.

2.4 VISION STATEMENT

To be sought out as the recognized and trusted firm in the industry and
community; retaining, developing, and attracting the best in committed
construction leadership; and to drive deliberate and intelligent growth of the

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGICAL MACHINES

Simple geologic Machines are tools that make geophysical survey easier
and have few or no moving parts. Most simple geological machines are
computerized for effective data records.A geological survey is the systematic
investigation of the geology beneath a given piece of ground for the purpose of
creating a geological map or model. Geological surveying employs techniques
from the traditional walk-over survey, studying outcrops and landforms, to
intrusive methods, such as hand augering and machine-driven boreholes, to the use
of geophysical techniques and remote sensing methods, such as aerial
photography and satellite imagery. Such surveys may be undertaken by state,
province, or national geological survey organizations to maintain the
geological inventory and advance the knowledge of geosciences for the benefit of
the nation.

The sensing instruments such as gravimeter, gravitational wave

sensor and magnetometers detect fluctuations in the gravitational and magnetic
field. The data collected from a geophysical survey is analysed to draw meaningful
conclusions out of that. Analysing the spectral density and the time-frequency
localisation of any signal is important in applications such as oil exploration and
seismography.

At Exworks Engineering Services Limited I learnt how to use some

geological instruments, the working principles and maintainences.

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3.1 GEODIMETER
The Geodimeter (acronym of geodetic distance meter) was the first optical
electronic distance meter surveying instrument. It was originally developed for
measuring the speed of light. It was invented in 1947 by Erik OstenBergstrand .It
was used in the Transcontinental Traverse.

It is an instrument designed to measure distances by means of the time

required for electromagnetic waves in the optical or infrared regions of the
spectrum to cover the distance.

There are both pulse and phase-comparison Geodimeters, classified

according to the method used to determine the passage time over the distance to an
object and back again. The pulse type measures distance according to the time
between the moment a pulse is emitted by the transmitter and the moment when
the pulse returns from a reflector erected at the end of the distance being measured.

11
 The phase-comparison type makes measurements according to the phase
difference between the sinusoidally modulated radiation that is transmitted and the
reflected radiation that is received. Phase-comparison Geodimeters are the most
common. Incandescent lamps (3–30 watts) and gas-discharge lamps (50–100
watts) were formerly used as light sources; they have been superseded by gas and
semiconductor lasers. Usually amplitude modulation at frequencies between 10
and 80 megahertz is used so that a phase difference of 1° corresponds to a change
in distance of less than 1 cm.

Geodimeters can measure distances up to 50 km with a mean square error of

±(1 + 0.2D km) cm, where D is the distance measured. The weight of the
instrument ranges from 30 to 150 kg, and the power consumption is between 5 and
150 watts.

3.1.1Electronic mechanism
The mechanism uses a Kerr cell in an optical train that chops a collimated light
beam under the control of a precision electronic oscillator in the megahertz range.
It is similar in principle to earlier mechanical choppers in Fizeau–Foucault
apparatus that used a toothed wheel or a rotating mirror.

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3.1.2WORKING PRINCIPLE
The operating principle of the Geodimeter was the projection of a pul sating
beam of light to a reflector and back to the instrument where a compari son was
made between the transmitted and received light to measure the time for the light
pulses to make the round trip.

Geodimeters work by sending a light signal of known wavelength to a reflector.

The wavelength of the returning signal is compared to the outgoing one, and the
difference (called the "phase shift") is measured. Using multiple frequences of
light, the instrument computes a distance based on the known lengths and
measured phase shifts of returning light waves. As the Geodimeter evolved, the
Coast and Geodetic Survey (C&GS) continuously worked to refine the technology.
Experiments with the use of a laser as the light source led to increased distance
range in a variety of weather conditions.

3.1.3USES
It is a brand of distance-measuring instrument, used in surveying, that measures
the change in phase of a modulated light beam when it returns to the instrument
from a distant point..

3.1.4CARE AND MAINTENANCE

Geodimeter System 600 is designed and tested to withstand field conditions, but
like all other precision instruments, it requires care and maintenance

1) Avoid rough jolts and careless treatment.

2) Keep lenses and reflectors clean. Always use lens paper or
other material intended for cleaning optics.
3) When the instrument is not being used, keep it protected in an upright
position, preferably in its transport case.
4) Don't carry the instrument while mounted on the tripod in order to avoid
damage to the tribrach screws.
Do not rotate the instrument by the handle. How much it effects the value
depends on the quality of the tribrach and the tripod.

13
 5) Use instead the servo controls to rotate the instrument.
6) Don't carry the instrument by the telescope barrel. Use the handle.
7) When you need extremely good measurement precision, make sure the
instrument has adapted to the surrounding temperature. Great variations of
instrument temperature could affect the precision.

Geodimeter System 600 is designed to withstand normal electromagnetic

disturbance from the environment. However, the instrument contains circuits
sensitive to static electricity and the instrument cover must not be removed by
unauthorized personnel. If the instrument cover has been opened by an
unauthorized person, the function of the in- strument is not guaranteed and the
instrument warrant becomes invalid.

3.1.5CLEANING
a) Caution must be exercised when the instrument is cleaned, especially when
sand and dust are to be removed from lenses and reflectors.
b) Never use coarse or dirty cloth or hard paper. Anti-static lens paper, cotton
wad or lens brush are recommended.
c) Never use strong detergents such as benzene or thinner on instrument or
case.

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3.2 ELECTRICAL TRANSMITTERS
Induced polarization (IP) is a geophysical imaging technique used to identify
the electrical chargeability of subsurface materials, such as ore. The polarization
effect was originally discovered by Conrad Schlumberger when measuring the
resistivity of rock. The survey method is similar to electrical resistivity
tomography (ERT), in that an electric current is transmitted into the subsurface
through two electrodes, and voltage is monitored through two other electrodes.

The VIP series of Electrical transmitters are purposely designed for deep
Induced Polarisation or Resistivity sounding investigations.The VIP 5000 internal
microprocessor is capable of excellent current regulation in almost any load.

Predominantly used as part of mineral exploration studies, the VIP series

include three systems with different power specifications. This transmitter is
generally used together with V-Fullwaversor Pro receivers.

To simplify operation, the instrument manages the injection current and

voltage automatically. When starting, the VIP automatically operates several safe
tests to ensure that the device is not misused.

15
 All VIP systems offer four operating modes:

• Time domain waveform, On Time (Ton) and Off time (Toff),

• Frequency domain waveform, outputting two user-selectable frequencies from

0.0625Hz and 4Hz.

• Dual frequency mode, a base frequency is selected from 0.0625 to 0.5Hz and the
high frequency is fixed at 8 times the base frequency.

• Continuous mode, injects a constant DC current into the ground.

The VIP 5000 power makes it suitable for use in almost all geological
formations. In situation where a wired synchronization is not possible, the VIP can
be operated alongside the I-Fullwaver for accurate absolute time stamps when
recording precise full waveform time domain measurements.

3.2.1 APPLICATIONS
I. Water ressources
II. Locate conductive fault in fractured acquifere
III. Assess water table characteristics
IV. Characterize salt water wedge extension in groundwater
V. Environment
VI. Monitor pollution
VII. Detect leaks and monitor degradation in waste disposal
VIII. Locate and image buried structures
IX. Natural hazard
X. Detect and characterize cavities
XI. Assess landslide extension and volume
XII. Detect and locate clayey layers for geotechnical application
XIII. Mineral exploration
XIV. Detect dike type orebody
XV. Deep orebody or detection
XVI. Detect lens type orebody

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  Characteristics Transmitter

Pulse duration: 500ms,1s, 2s, 4s, or 8s

Output Power:0 - 5000 W

Output Voltage:0 – 6000 Vpp

Output Current:regulated 0 – 10000 mA1 mA / 1%

Resolution / Accuracy:

Frequency option: 0.0625Hz to 4Hz by factors of 2

Readings: Displays output current, output voltage, contact resistance and input
power.

Protection: Short circuits, thermal protection, Input overvoltage and under-voltage.

Power requirements: 175 to 270VAC, 48-450Hz single-phase or three-phases

generator

Dimensions ( L x W x H) 50x40x30cm

weight: 23Kg Operating Temp.: -40 to +50°C

3.2.2 Daily and regular maintenance

1. Circuit inspection

Check the instrument indication, whether there is any abnormality, to see

whether it fluctuates within the specified range;Some transmitters without field
instructions, to the control room to see its secondary value.Whether there is
sundries around the instrument or whether there is dust on the surface of the
instrument, it should be cleaned and cleaned in time.Instrument and process
interface, pressure pipe and valve between the wrong leakage, corrosion and so on.

17
 2. Regular inspection
 Regularly check regularly at intervals.Sewage, condensate and venting are
carried out on a regular basis.
 Regularly purge the pressure pipe of the easily blocked medium, and fill the
isolation liquid.
 Regularly check the transmitter parts intact, no serious corrosion, damage;
nameplate, logo clear and correct; fasteners should not be loose, the
connector is in good contact, the terminal wiring is firm.
 Regular on-site measurement of the line, including whether the input and
output circuits are intact, whether the line is disconnected, short-circuited,
and whether the insulation is reliable.
 Cautions During Servicing

A. Parts identified by thesafety. Replace only with part number specified.

B. In addition to safety, other parts and assemblies arespecified for conformance

with regulations applyingto spurious radiation. These must also be replacedonly
with specified replacements.Examples: RF converters, RF cables, noise block-ing
capacitors, and noise blocking filters, etc

C. Use specified internal wiring. Note especially:1) Wires covered with PVC
tubing2) Double insulated wires3) High voltage leads

D. Use specified insulating materials for hazardous liveparts. Note especially:1)

Insulation tape2) PVC tubing3) Spacers4) Insulators for transistors

E. When replacing AC primary side components(transformers, power cord, etc.),

wrap ends of wiressecurely about the terminals before soldering.

F. Observe that the wires do not contact heat produc-ing parts (heatsinks, oxide
metal film resistors, fus-ible resistors, etc.).

18
G. Check that replaced wires do not contact sharpedges or pointed parts.

H. When a power cord has been replaced, check that5 - 6 kg of force in any
direction will not loosen

Also check areas surrounding repaired locations.

J. Use care that foreign objects (screws, solder drop-lets, etc.) do not remain inside
the set.

K. Crimp type wire connectorThe power transformer uses crimp type

connectorswhich connect the power cord and the primary sideof the transformer.
When replacing the transformer,follow these steps carefully and precisely to
preventshock hazards.

Replacement procedure

 Remove the old connector by cutting the wires at apoint close to the
connector.Important: Do not re-use a connector. (Discard it.)
 Strip about 15 mm of the insulation from the ends ofthe wires. If the wires
are stranded, twist the strandsto avoid frayed conductors.
 Align the lengths of the wires to be connected. Insert the wires fully into the
connector
 Use a crimping tool to crimp the metal sleeve at itscenter. Be sure to crimp
fully to the complete closureof the tool

L. When connecting or disconnecting the internal con-nectors, first disconnect the

Ac plug.

3.3 THEODOLITE
The theodolite is an instrument that can measure both horizontal and vertical
angles, which allows surveyors to “triangulate” the position of objects in a specific
area. While the digital and transit theodolite have been used by land surveyors and

19
engineers, they can be used for other purposes as well. Be sure to look at the broad
selection of theodolites and other surveying tools that we have at Engineering
Supply.

Theodolite is a surveying instrument. It is very popular in measuring

horizontal and vertical angles. There are different types of theodolite available in
the market. To fulfill the purpose of a specific one must choose the right type of
theodolite for the surveying. Different theodolite types are discussed in the
following segments.

3.3.1 Types of Theodolite

There are various kinds of theodolites for different purposes of different
constructional works. Usually, four types of theodolites are uses in site works for
different measuring points. Such as-

 Repeating Theodolite
 Directional Theodolite
 Electrical Digital Theodolite
 Total Station

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To clearly saying, theodolites can be also classified into two types

 Primary Theodolite
 Electronic Digital Theodolite

These types of theodolites are briefly discussed below.

 Theodolite Classification 1

This classification of theodolite contains four types of theodolite which are

discussed below

 Theodolite Classification 1

This classification of theodolite contains four types of theodolite which are

discussed below

Repeating Theodolite

This design facilitates horizontal angles to be remade any number of times

and added directly on the instrument circles. This type of instruments is restricted
for locations wherethe support is not steady, orarea for using other such
instruments is limited.

21
Directional Theodolite

Angles are obtained by deducting the first direction reading from the second
direction reading. This reads directions rather than angles. The non-repeating
instrument has no minor motion.

Electrical Digital Theodolite

Naturally interprets and records horizontal and vertical angles. Eliminates

the standard reading of scales on graduated circles

Total Station

The total Station accommodates the functions of a theodolite for measuring

angles, an EDM for measuring gaps, digital data, and information documentation.
Examples of Total Stations are the Nikon DTM 801, Topcon, and Geodimeter 400
series.

 Theodolite Classification 2

This classification of theodolite contains two types of theodolite which are

discussed below

 Primary Theodolite

Primary Theodolite can be two types.

Transit Theodolites: A theodolite is named a transit theodolite once its

telescope will be transited i.e. rotated through a whole revolution regarding its
horizontal axis within the vertical plane.
22
 Non-Transit Theodolite In this kind, the telescope cannot be transited.
They are inferior in utility and have currently become obsolete.

 Electronic Digital Theodolite

This type of theodolite provides the worth of observation directly within the
viewing panel. The exactitude of this sort of instrument varies within the order of
1" to 10". It has also two types.

Vernier Theodolites: For reading the graduated circle, verniers are used to
correct reading of measuring points and this theodolite is termed as a Vernier
theodolite.

Micrometer Theodolites: A micrometer provides to browse the graduated

circle identical be termed as a Micrometer theodolite.This Digital theodolite is also
known as Modern Theodolite and can perform the following functions:

1) Distance measurement
2) Angular measurement
3) Data processing
4) Digital display of point details
5) Storing data is an electronic field book

3.3.2 Parts of a Theodolite

Knowing the parts of a theodolite is important. The parts should be
accustomed to each other. Without regulate of the parts cannot be worked
accurately. Whenever theodolite uses in sites, each part takes seriously. Depends
on placing the parts, measuring result could be changed or stabled. Theodolite
consists of some main parts, such as:

I. Telescope
II. Horizontal plate (Circle)
III. Vertical Circle
23
 IV. Index frame
V. The standards
VI. The upper plate
VII. The lower pale
VIII. Plate level
IX. The leveling head
X. The shifting head
XI. Magnetic compass
XII. Tripod
XIII. Plumb bob

3.3.3USES
Followings are the major uses of theodolite:

1. Measuring horizontal and vertical angles

2. Locating points on a line
3. Finding the difference in the level
4. Prolonging survey lines
5. Ranging curves

24
 6. Setting out grades
7. Tachometric surveying

3.3.4 MAINTENANCE
Although the instruments are ruggedly built, careless or rough use and
unnecessary exposure to the elements can seriously damage them. If handled
reasonably, they will provide consistently good result with a minimum of
downtime for repair or adjustment. Some general guidelines for the care of
instruments are:

 Lifting – instruments should be removed from the case with both hands,
gripping the micrometer knob standard and base on the older instruments.
Newer instruments are equipped with a carrying handle; the other hand should
support the base. One hand should continually support the instrument until the
tribrach lock is engaged and the tripod fixing screw secured.
 Carrying Tripod - In most cases, the instrument should be removed and re-
cased for transportation to a new point. If the point is nearby, the instrument
should be carried in the vertical position (tripod legs pointing straight down).
An instrument should never be “shouldered” or carried horizontally.
 Adjusting collimation – The collimation error of theodolites and total stations
is determined by following the procedure outlined in the users’ manual. If the
collimation error is found to be consistently in excess of ten seconds on the
horizontal and twenty seconds on the vertical, the instrument should be
adjusted. The collimation adjustment should be made in the field only by a
specially trained individual. Otherwise, the instrument should be returned to an
authorized repair shop.
 The theodolite must be kept in correct adjust-or bump it against any object. If
the instrument getsment if accurate results are to be obtained.
 If wet, it must be dried before it is returned to the storage room.

25
 There are five tests and adjustments of the theod-carrying case. As soon as
possible, the instrumentolite that should be made periodically.
 Theseshould be placed in a dry room or tent.
 It should betests should be performed in the sequence inremoved from the
carrying case so that it may dry.
 The instrument should be transported in itstripod as nearly level as possible.
The theodolite carrying case, When transported in a vehicle, the theodolite
should also be protected from the wind.
 theodolite should be in the dome-shaped carrying case, andthe case should be in
the padded box.
 For short distances, the carrying case may be held in an upright position Plate
Level Adjustment.

26
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 RESISTIVITY METER

Resistivity Meters are electronic meters used to measure the resistivity of
fluids, slurries or semi-solids. These instruments feature solid state electronics, and
are designed to meet the needs of field and laboratory personnel for resistivity
measurement according to API Recommended Practice. Conductivity of the
medium being measured is obtained by taking the reciprocal of the resistivity
measurement.

The Model 653B Resistivity Meter is a solid-state, electronic meter used to

measure the resistivity of fluids, slurries or semi-solids that have resistivities of 2
0.01 to 10 ohm-meters/meters². The instrument features a transparent sample cell
with a built-in thermometer. It is packaged in a lightweight high-density
polypropylene case and is suitable for onsite testing.

27
4.1.1Principle
The electrical resistivity method is an active geophysical technique. It
employs an artificial source which is introduced into the ground though a pair of
electrodes. The procedure involves measurement of potential difference between
other two electrodes in the vicinity of current flow. Apparent resistivity is
calculated by using the potential difference for the interpretation. These electrodes
by which current is introduced into the ground are called Current electrodes and
electrodes between which the potential difference is measured are called Potential
electrodes.

4.1.2Applications
1) Ground Water Exploration

2) Bed rock Investigation

3) Delineation of Geological Structures

4) Sand and Gravel Deposit Identification

5) Mineral Investigations

Depending on the application, 4-Electrode, 3-Electrode or 2-Electrode, the

MILLER-400D can be used to determine the following:

 The average earth resistivity to a specific depth (with the application of an

appropriate multiplier to convert resistance to resistivity, based on the
electrode separation distance) – 4-Electrode Application
 The resistivity of a soil sample, or of a liquid, via an electrolyte (soil/liquid)
box (with the application of an appropriate multiplier to convert resistance to
resistivity, depending on the box geometry) – 4-Electrode Application
 The resistance-to-earth of a buried electrode, such as a ground rod, or an
anode, for example – 3-Electrode Application

28
  The resistance between two buried electrodes, such as two ground rods, or
two anodes – 2-Electrode Application
 All H-4385D resistivity meters include a calibration certificate

4.1.3 MAINTENENCE
Power is usually supplied by dry cell batteries in the smaller
instruments and motor generators in the larger instruments. From 90 V
up to several hundred volts may be used across the current electrodes in
surveys for engineering purposes. In the battery-powered units, the
current usually is small and is applied only for very short times while the
potential is being measured, so battery consumption is low.

Care should be taken to NEVER energize the electrodes while they

are being handled, because with applied potentials of hundreds of volts,
DANGEROUS AND POTENTIALLY LETHAL shocks could be
caused.

Current electrodes used with alternating current (or commutated

direct current) instruments commonly are stakes of bronze, copper, steel
with bronze jackets, or, less desirably, steel, about 50 cm in length.They
must be driven into the ground far enough to make good electrical
contact. If there is difficulty because of high contact resistance between
electrodes and soil, it can sometimes be alleviated by pouring salt water
around the electrodes.

Many resistivity instruments include an ammeter to verify that the

current between the current electrodes is at an acceptable level, a
desirable feature. Other instruments simply output the required potential

29
difference to drive a selected current into the current electrodes. Typical
currents in instruments used for engineering applications range from 2
mA to 500 mA. If the current is too small, the sensitivity of
measurement is degraded. The problem may be corrected by improving
the electrical contacts at the electrodes.

However, if the problem is due to a combination of high earth

resistivity and large electrode spacing, the remedy is to increase the
voltage across the current electrodes. Where the ground is too hard or
rocky to drive stakes, a common alternative is sheets of aluminum foil
buried in shallow depressions or within small mounds of earth and
wetted.

One advantage of the four-electrode method is that measurements are

not sensitive to contact resistance at the potential electrodes so long as it
is low enough that a measurement can be made, because observations
are made with the system adjusted so that there is no current in the
potential electrodes. With zero current, the actual value of contact
30
resistance is immaterial, since it does not affect the potential. On the
current electrodes also, the actual value of contact resistance does not
affect the measurement, so long as it is small enough that a satisfactory
current is obtained, and so long as there is no gross difference between
the two electrodes. Contact resistance affects the relationship between
the current and the potentials on the electrodes, but because only the
measured value of current is used, the potentials on these electrodes do
not figure in the theory or interpretation.

When direct current is used, special provisions must be made to

eliminate the effects of electrode polarization and telluric currents. A
nonpolarizing electrode is available in the form of a porous, unglazed
ceramic pot, which contains a central metallic electrode, usually copper,
and is filled with a liquid electrolyte that is a saturated solution of a salt
of the same metal (copper sulphate is used with copper). The central
electrode is connected to the instrument, and electrical contact with the
ground is made through the electrolyte in the pores of the ceramic pot.

4.2 SUPERSTING
The SuperSting is a next-generation electrical resistivity meter and
induced polarization (IP), and self-potential (SP) system, used to scan
and image the subsurface of the earth and visualize the results in 2D
slices or 3D volumes. The fully automated SuperSting has been
thoroughly field-tested on every extreme environment on earth, utilized
in over 700 peer-reviewed journal articles, and provides the highest
accuracy and lowest noise levels in the industry. The SuperSting line of

31
electrical resistivity tomography equipment is the first in the industry to
have multi-channel capability and is continually improved and updated
with additional features. With the included tablet, you can control the
SuperSting from up to 100m away!

There are five models of the SuperStingavailable (which can be

upgraded simply from anywhere in the world by use of a license code):

R1 (single channel)

R2 (two channel)

R4 (four channel)

R6 (six channel)

R8 (eight channel)

32
4.2.1 USE CASES:
The SuperStingis versatile enough to be applied in virtually any
resistivity and induced polarization (IP) field situation, including:

a) Traditional vertical electrical sounding (VES)

b) Multi-electrode electrical tomography (imaging) in 2D, 3D, and4D
c) Groundwater Exploration
d) Imaging Dams & Levees
e) Marine Dredging
f) Borehole Tomography
g) Monitoring Landfills
h) Mine Leach Piles
i) Gold Exploration
j) Mineral Exploration
k) Borehole-To-Borehole Tomography
l) Marine Measurements
m)Imaging Tree Trunks
n) Imaging Vertical Walls
o) Imaging Inside Tunnels
p) Imaging Over Pyramids
q) Locating Graves

33
  Supported Measurement Arrays:
a) Dipole-Dipole (8-Channel)
b) Bipole-Bipole (8-Channel)
c) Pole-Bipole (8-Channel)
d) Pole-Pole (8-Channel)
e) Gradient (8-Channel)
f) StrongGradient (8-Channel)
g) EdgeGradient (8-Channel)
h) Radial Dipole-Dipole

4.2.2 MAINTENANCE
1) Lethal voltages may be present inside the PowerSting even after
the A/C input voltage is disconnected. Only properly trained and
qualified personnel should remove covers and access the inside of
thePowerSting.
2) Installation and service must be performed only by properly
trained and qualified personnel who are experienced in dealing
with electrical hazards.

34
Air Filter Cleaning

Blocking ventilation or running the PowerSting with a dirty air

filter will cause the PowerStingto overheat and shut down. Make sure to
clean the air filter as soon as it gets dirty. This is important especially
after using the PowerSting in a dusty environment.

3) It is extremely important to keep the connectors clean and dry, to

avoid current leakage and corrosion. Corrosion can cause
erroneous readings.
4) Always keep the dust cap on the connector, whenever it is
disconnected
5) Never leave an open connector on the ground
6) If the connectors have been contaminated or wet, try to blow them
clean using dry compressed air, rinse in distilled water (careful not
to get water into the connector housing), blow dry and finally dry
the connector in a warm place overnight. If dry compressed air is
not available, try canned air, which can be obtained from most
computer stores. This product is used to blow
7) Dust off keyboards and computer components.

4.3 SOIL AUGER

An earth auger, earth drill, or post-hole auger is a drilling tool or
machine used for making holes in the ground. It typically consists of a
rotating vertical metal rod or pipe with one or more blades attached at
the lower end, that cut or scrape the soil

35
4.3.1 TYPES
 Blade arrangement

The most common design of earth auger has a helical screw blade
(the flighting) winding around lower part of the shaft. The lower edge of
the screw blade scrapes dirt at the bottom of the hole, and the rest of the
blade acts like a screw conveyor to lift the loose soil out of the way.
When the hole reaches the desired depth and the tool is pulled out, the
screw blade scoops out the remaining loose dirt.

The rod may end in a sharp point protruding below the screw
blade. Its purpose is to push the dirt that lies just below the rod to the
sides, where the blade can pick it up. It also helps keep the hole straight
by prevent the auger from wandering off to the side. The lower edge of
the screw blade may have teeth.

Another type of earth auger has two vertical blades instead of a

helical screw. Rather than scraping the soil at the bottom of the hole, this
type of auger cuts a cylindrical plug out of it, that is held by friction
between the two blades. The auger must then be pulled out and emptied
every foot or so. This type may require less force to operate, but may be
adequate only for certain types of soil.

36
  Power source

An earth auger can be powered by hand, through a "T"-shaped

horizontal handle at the top of the rod.

An earth auger can also be powered by an electric motor or internal-

combustion engine, or from a tractor or other vehicle through a power
take-off.

37
4.3.2 USES
Hand-powered earth augers are typically used to plant tree
saplings or to set up posts for fences or other ends.

Large mechanized earth augers, called drilling rigs, are used to

make holes for piles destined to be deep foundations or retaining wall.

Gas- or hand-powered augers are used by ice fishermen to drill

through the ice layer over lakes or rivers.

4.3.3MAINTENANCE
 A hand auger is a versatile tool used to carry out a range of shallow
digging necessary in obtaining soil samples, making postholes,
drilling fishing holes in ice, environmental construction, mining,

38
 opening clogged drains and locating underground materials that
may potentially halt drilling and damage powered tools. Hand
augering allows the careful drilling required in environmental
construction, demolition and geological surveys.
 Compared to using power augers, hand augers may seem too
harmless to cause any mishaps. However, there is always a risk of
sharp chunks of buried materials loosening and harming the person
operating the hand auger. Use proper safety glasses to prevent eye
injury in case a piece of sharp material loosens abruptly.
 Using hard hat, gloves, safety boots, dust mask and other
protective gear saves construction workers at demolition sites from
getting hurt from other knocking down activities going on.
 Remove excavated soil only after stopping the hand auger.
 Before drilling, find out if there are any underground power lines,
cables or telephone lines running through the area. You don't want
to get electrocuted or held responsible for disrupting services.
 Be sure about the layout of underground water pipes, sewer lines
and other utilities.
 Use a hand auger efficient enough to execute the required objective
at the earliest time. Using adequately functioning equipment
allows the fastest completion of the task so the risk of injuries is
automatically minimized.
 Ergonomically designed tools conform better to body contours so
injury from long-term repetitive use can be prevented. Hand

39
 injuries occurring from using standard augers can be reduced by
opting for augers with ergonomic handles.
 Employ hand movements that exert minimum pressure on wrist
bones.
 Different types of hand augers catering to varying needs are
available. Use the auger that is most appropriate for the job to be
done. Augers unsuitable for the situation not only increase the time
taken to finish the task but also the chances of injury.
 Take precautions to prevent the hand auger from getting entangled
in any type of underground cover that may be used for
environmental, engineering or alternative purpose. Underground
fabric getting caught in an operating auger can immediately pull
the operator towards itself, especially when using power augers.

40
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 EARTH RESISTIVITY METER

The resistance tester that is used to measure the resistance of the earth is
called Earth Resistance Tester.All the equipment of the system is grounded
through the earth electrode. Unhindered earthing protects electrical equipment and
personnel from the fault current. The permanence of the earth is quite feeble.Hence
the fault current passes to the earth. This protects the system from damageThe
Earth Resistance Tester uses a hand driven generator. The rectifier and the
rotational current reverser are the two principal components of the Earth Tester.
The rectifier converts AC (Alternating Current) into DC.

This is because the Earth Tester works only on DC (Direct Current). The
rectifier and current reverser have clambered on the shaft of the DC generator.The
tester has two commutators installed simultaneously with the current reverser and
rectifier. Each commutator consists of four fixed brushes.

A commutator is a device used for switching the direction of flows of

current. It is connected in a series combination with the armature of the generator.

41
 The brushes are used for transferring the power from stationary components
to the moving portion of the device. The brushes and commutator are always
connected to each other to facilitate the continuous flow of current.

The Earth Resistance Tester consists of the following components:

 Two pressure coils

 Two current coils
 A permanent magnet
 A DC generator
 Current reverser
 Rectifier
 Potential coil
 Analog resistance indicator
 Working of Earth Resistance Tester

42
 The pressure and current coils have two-two terminals each. These pairs are
placed across a permanent magnet. One synchronized pair of current and pressure
coils are short-circuited, and connected to the ancillary electrodes.

The other pressure coil is connected to the rectifier at one end and an earthing
electrode at another end. The current coil is too connected in a similar manner.

The potential coil is undeviatingly united to the DC generator. The potential

coil is placed amidst the permanent magnet. This coil is connected to the pointer
and the pointer is calibrated to the scale. This resistance pointer indicates the
measurement of the earth’s resistance.The deflection of the pointer depends on the
quotient of the voltage of the pressure coil to the current of the current coil.

The short-circuit passes the current to the soil. And hence the resistance is
measured using Ohm’s Law which states,

V=IR;

Where V=voltage, I=current, and R=resistance

5.1.2 MAINTENANCE
When measuring earth resistance with an instrument, it is important to know
some of its basic characteristics in order to accurately measure the soil resistance
and to properly size the grounding installation. Most importantly, the range of
resistance the device measures.

Usually the range is three or four degrees. The soil moisture at which the
appliance operates is another important parameter. If the instrument cannot operate
at a certain humidity, then the measurement may differ significantly from the
realvalue of soil resistance. Comparison analog and digital grounding resistance
testers.

43
 If the earthing system is in the form of a square, the minimum distance to
the current probe should not be less than the side of the square. On the other hand,
the maximum distance should not be too great. If it is, the resulting curve is very
flat, and the intersection point becomes rather indefinite. Again, for a square
system, this maximum distance should not exceed twice the side of the square. For
other shapes of earth-electrode systems, it is necessary to judge suitable minimum
and maximum values for the distance to the current probe.

5.2 MAGNETOMETER
A magnetometer is a device that measures magnetic field or magnetic dipole
moment. Some magnetometers measure the direction, strength, or relative change
of a magnetic field at a particular location. A compass is one such device, one that
measures the direction of an ambient magnetic field, in this case, the Earth's
magnetic field. Other magnetometers measure the magnetic dipole moment of a
magnetic material such as a ferromagnet, for example by recording the effect of
this magnetic dipole on the induced current in a coil

44
5.2.1USES
Magnetometers have a very diverse range of applications, including locating
objects such as submarines, sunken ships, hazards for tunnel boring machines,
hazards in coal mines, unexploded ordnance, toxic waste drums, as well as a wide
range of mineral deposits and geological structures. They also have applications in
heart beat monitors, weapon systems positioning, sensors in anti-locking brakes,
weather prediction (via solar cycles), steel pylons, drill guidance systems,
archaeology, plate tectonics and radio wave propagation and planetary exploration.
Laboratory magnetometers determine the magnetic dipole moment of a magnetic
sample, typically as a function of temperature, magnetic field, or other parameter.
This helps to reveal its magnetic properties such as ferromagnetism,
antiferromagnetism, superconductivity, or other properties that affect magnetism.

Magnetometers are used to measure or monitor mechanical stress in

ferromagnetic materials. Mechanical stress will improve alignment of magnetic
domains in microscopic scale that will raise the magnetic field measured close to
the material by magnetometers.

Magnetometers are used extensively in experimental particle physics to

measure the magnetic field of pivotal components such as the concentration or
focusing beam-magnets

Magnetometers are also used to detect archaeological sites, shipwrecks, and

other buried or submerged objects. Fluxgate gradiometers are popular due to their
compact configuration and relatively low cost. Gradiometers enhance shallow
features and

While magnetometers can be used to help map basin shape at a regional

scale, they are more commonly used to map hazards to coal mining, such as
basaltic intrusions (dykes, sills, and volcanic plug) that destroy resources and are

45
dangerous to longwall mining equipment. Magnetometers can also locate zones
ignited by lightning and map siderite (an impurity in coal).

Magnetometers are used in directional drilling for oil or gas to detect the
azimuth of the drilling tools near the drill. They are most often paired with
accelerometers in drilling tools so that both the inclination and azimuth of the drill
can be found

5.2.2WORKING PRINCIPLE
A magnetometer can work in different ways. Take for instance, a compass.
Now we know that the compass’s needle aligns itself with the north of the earth’s
magnetic field when it’s at rest. In other words, the sum of the forces acting upon it
is zero and the weight of the compass’s own gravity cancels out the earth’s
magnetic force acting upon it. This simple example explains how this property of
magnetism lets other magnetometers work. Electronic compasses can similarly
help indicate which direction is the magnetic north using phenomena such as the
Hall effect, magnetoinduction, or magnetoresistance.

5.2.3APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETOMETERS
Magnetometers have several applications today which are;

Compasses: Today, magnetometers have been miniaturized to the point

where they are easily included in integrated circuits at a low cost and they are thus
increasingly being used as miniaturized compasses (MEMS magnetic field sensor).

Geographical surveys: Magnetometers are widely used for measuring the

earth’s magnetic field, especially in geophysical surveys. They are used to find and
identify magnetic anomalies of various types, and to ascertain the dipole moment
of magnetic materials. Surveyors use them in geophysics applications.

Aircrafts: They are also used in aircrafts, where they are usually used as a
heading reference in the aircraft’s attitude and heading reference system.

46
 Military purposes: Magnetometers are used in defense and navy to carry
out submarine activities and submarine detection as well. In fact, countries such as
the United States, Canada and Australia have categorized sensitive magnetometers
under military technology and they thus control their distribution. Defense and
aerospace: Magnetometers are also used on land, in the air, at and under sea and in
space.

Oil and gas exploration: Magnetometers are used for drilling discovered
wells. They are used in drilling sensors which are used to detect the direction or
path for the drilling processes.


5.2.4 MAINTENENCE
1) Store magnets in the place without a mechanical impact.
2) Keep the packaging materials of magnets to be dry.
3) Keep the temperature above the dew point to prevent rust during the storage.
4) Avoid water (rain, water used in the factory, etc.) to be splashed on the
packaging material.
5) Geologic interpretation of magnetic data requires the knowledge of the
magnetic properties of rocks in terms of magnetic susceptibility and
remanent magnetization.

5.3 GRAVIMETER
An instrument used to measure gravity is known as a gravimeter. For a small
body, general relativity predicts gravitational effects indistinguishable from the
effects of acceleration by the equivalence principle. Thus, gravimeters can be
regarded as special-purpose accelerometers. Many weighing scales may be
regarded as simple gravimeters. In one common form, a spring is used to
counteract the force of gravity pulling on an object. The change in length of the
spring may be calibrated to the force required to balance the gravitational pull. The
resulting measurement may be made in units of force (such as the newton), but is
more commonly made in units of gals or cm/s2.
47
 Researchers use more sophisticated gravimeters when precise measurements
are needed. When measuring the Earth's gravitational field, measurements are
made to the precision of microgals to find density variations in the rocks making
up the Earth. Several types of gravimeters exist for making these measurements,
including some that are essentially refined versions of the spring scale described
above. These measurements are used to define gravity anomalies.

Besides precision, stability is also an important property of a gravimeter, as

it allows the monitoring of gravity changes. These changes can be the result of
mass displacements inside the Earth, or of vertical movements of the Earth's crust
on which measurements are being made: remember that gravity decreases 0.03
mGal for every metre of height. The study of gravity changes belongs to
geodynamics.

48
5.3.1 WORKING PRINCIPLES
Gravimeter” is the measuring instrument of gravitational field of the Earth at
specific location. The instrument works on the principle of measuring the constant
downward acceleration of gravity. There are two types of gravimeters: absolute
and relative.

Absolute gravimeters measure the local gravity in absolute units (“Gal”

after “Galileo”). Absolute gravimeters are compact and used in the field. It works
by directly measuring the acceleration of a mass during free fall in a vacuum. The
accelerometer is rigidly attached to the ground.

Relative gravimeters are spring based. It is a specially assembled extremely

sensitive spring balance carrying a fixed mass. The basic principle is that the
changes in gravity will result change in weight of fixed mass with change of
location. Thus, the length of the spring will differ a tiny little bit with change of
location on earth. The spring extension is recorded by suitable optical, mechanical
or electrical amplifications with high precision. During any gravity survey, the
gravimeter is calibrated at regular interval at a base station where the absolute
value of gravity is known. Absolute gravity values at survey stations are obtained
by reference to the International Gravity Standardization Network (IGSN).

49
5.3.2 MAINTENANCE
a) Level the meter before unclamping.
b) Do not turn the dial while the meter is clampe.
Be familiar with the reading line on the graticule and where the beam should
be placed (eg just touching the left of the line).
c) Always turn the dial in the same direction when approaching the reading line
you may need to wind the dial back past the reading line to do this Always
use the same eye for reading.
d) For electronic meters, keep the recording time the same for each reading .
e) Gravimeters are prone to have steps in their drift curves. Some mechanical
hitch or stick catches or releases and causes the subsequent readings to be
higher or lower.
f) Prolonged or rough travel may change the drift behaviour of a meter.

50
 CHAPTER SIX

RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

 RECOMMENDATION

In as much as industrial training is worthy to be experienced, there are some

problems that go with it. I thereby recommend the following;

 ITF andinstitutions should help and ensure proper placement of students

basedontheir fieldof study so as to ensure that our graduates will be

fully baked soastofitinto thelabourmarket to helpimprove the country’s

economy.

 ITF and institutionbasedsupervisors should see that the students

arevisited regularly whichwillhelp them keep to attendance intheir

places ofattachmentandalsofocusmore on the training so as tobe able to

adopt a good working ethics.

 Also the senior staff should give the junior ones (including the student)

more task to carry out which will help them learnmore and also develop

the attitude ofself-confidence.

 Employment of more qualified operators to lessen the load of work/

activities on the operators.

51
  Improving the maintenancedepartment so as to beable to carry

outproper maintenanceonmaterials, tools and equipment used to carry

out various jobs or activities.

 The Government,ITFand the institutions should organize a re-

orientation programs for our industries (especially thoseprivate owned

establishments) and prospective employeesin regards to engaging

ITstudents.

 CONCLUSION

From the training, I have no doubt that the Students Industrial Work Experience
Scheme (SIWES) had achieved the objective for which it was established. Not only
had the training exposed me to so many plants/equipments, but also to the
fundamental working principles of these plants, which are the theories being taught
at school. Moreover, it exposed me to the working environment ethics and office
routines. It also helped me to know more about human relationship as it entails
working as a team and managing of personnel and equipment. The Industrial
Training is the bridge between paper qualification and practicality, and as such
should always be encouraged. Consequently, every Engineering, Technology and
Science student should endeavour to embark on Industrial Training at the relevant
time to enhance his/her knowledge.

52