Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 3: Waves
Summary Notes
(Content in ​bold​ is for physics only)

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General wave properties
Waves ​transfer energy and information without transferring matter; ​the particles oscillate
about a fixed point.

● Transverse​ waves
o Have​ peaks​ and ​troughs
o Vibrations are at ​right angles ​to the direction of travel
o An example is light
● Longitudinal​ waves
o Consists of compressions (particles pushed together) and rarefactions (particles
moved apart)
o Vibrations are in the ​same direction ​as the direction of travel
o An example is sound

Amplitude – the ​distance​ from the ​equilibrium​ position to the ​maximum displacement
Wavefront – a line joining points on a wave at the same point in their wave cycle at a given
time
Frequency – the ​number of waves​ that pass a single point​ per second
Wavelength – the ​distance​ between a ​point​ on one wave and the ​same point​ on the next wave
Time period – the ​time taken ​for ​one complete wave ​to pass a fixed point

The ​speed​ of a wave is equal to the product of the frequency and wavelength:
● speed = f requency×wavelength v = fλ
The frequency of a wave is equal to the reciprocal of the time period, measured in ​Hertz (Hz):
1
● f requency = time period f = T1

The Doppler Effect:

If a wave source is ​moving relative ​to an observer, there will be a

change​ in the ​observed frequency and wavelength ​due to the
Doppler effect. ​This is because the wavefronts either get ​bunched
together​ or ​spaced apart. ​An example of this is when the siren of an
ambulance is high-pitched as it approaches you, and low-pitched as
it goes away.

Reflection:
● All ​waves can be ​reflected ​when they travel from a medium of low
optical density ​(such as air) to one of much higher optical density
(such as glass)
● The law of reflection states that:
o Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
● Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all ​unchanged

Refraction:
● All waves can be refracted, which is when the ​speed​ of a wave
changes​ when it enters a new medium
● If the wave enters a ​denser​ medium, its speed ​decreases​ and it
bends ​towards​ the normal
● If the wave enters a​ less dense​ medium, its speed ​increases
and it bends ​away from​ the normal

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 ● In all cases, the ​frequency​ stays the ​same​ but the ​wavelength changes.​ As a result, the
velocity must change.

Electromagnetic spectrum
You need to learn the ​main groups ​of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of ​decreasing
wavelength ​and ​increasing frequency ​including the ​colours​ of the visible spectrum (ROYGBIV).

All electromagnetic waves travel with the ​same high speed​ in a vacuum and ​approximately the
same​ speed in air.

Uses of electromagnetic waves:

● Radio waves​ are used for ​radio and television communications.​ They have a long
wavelength and are reflected by a layer of the atmosphere called the ​ionosphere​.
● Microwaves​ are used for ​satellite transmissions​ and in ​cooking.​ As they have a greater
frequency (shorter wavelength) they are more penetrating so can pass through the
ionosphere and penetrate deep into food.
● Infrared radiation​ is used in ​heaters ​and​ night vision equipment.
● Visible light ​is used in ​fibre optics ​and ​photography.
● Ultraviolet ​light is used in ​fluorescent lamps.
● X-rays​ are used in ​medical imaging ​and in ​security​ as (because they have a very short
wavelength and high frequency) they can penetrate material easily.
● Gamma radiation​ is used in ​sterilising food and medical equipment ​due to its high
energy.

Hazards:
● Microwaves can cause ​internal heating​ of body tissues.
● Infrared radiation can cause ​skin burns.
● Ultraviolet light exposure increases the risk of​ skin cancer​ and ​blindness.
o Sun cream ​and ​sun glasses ​prevent over-exposure in summer.
● X-rays and Gamma rays are ​ionising​ radiation that can cause ​mutations​ leading to
cancer.
o Exposure​ to these kinds of radiation should be ​minimised ​(for example, by using
protective shielding made of very dense materials such as lead).

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Light and sound
Light​ waves are ​transverse​ waves and can be ​reflected​ and ​refracted.

● Reflection​ of light can be shown when light reflects at a plane

mirror and forms an image.
o This can be represented by a ​ray diagram​ like the first
one shown on the right.
● Refraction​ of light can be shown when light is passed through a
glass slab at an angle to its normal.
o When light enters a more optically dense medium,
the ​angle of incidence ​(the angle between the
incident ray and the normal) is​ greater​ than the
angle of refraction​ (the angle between the
refracted ray and the normal). This can be
represented by a ray diagram like the second one
shown on the right.
o The​ opposite​ is true when light enters a less
optically dense medium.

Snell's law​ relates the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction to the refractive index of a
medium by n1sini = n2sinr where n is the optical density & i is the angle of incidence and r is the
angle of refraction.

Total internal reflection:

● At a certain angle of incidence called the ​critical angle​, the light
will travel along the boundary between the two media.
● Total internal reflection​ occurs when the angle of incidence is
greater​ than the critical angle and the light​ reflects​ back into the
medium.
● For total internal reflection to occur, the light must also be
travelling from a ​more optically dense medium​ into a ​less
optically dense medium​ (most common example is glass to
air).
● The critical angle c can be related to the refractive index by:
1
n= sin sin c
Optical fibres:
● An ​optical fibre​ is a long thin rod of ​glass​ surrounded by cladding which uses total internal
reflection to transfer information by light, even when bent.

● They are used extensively in ​medicine ​(endoscopes, inside-body flexible cameras) and
communications​ (high speed data transfer).

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Sound waves are ​longitudinal​ waves and can be ​reflected​ and ​refracted.

The range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.

To measure the​ speed of sound ​in air, you can make a noise at a known, large​ distance​ from
a solid wall and record the ​time​ for the ​echo​ (reflected sound) to be heard, then use
speed = distance/time, where distance is 2 x length - taking into account the fact that the
sound had to go there and back.

An ​oscilloscope​ connected to a ​microphone​ can be used to display a sound wave and find
its frequency and amplitude.
● The ​greater the amplitude​ of a sound wave, the ​louder​ it is.
● The​ greater the frequency​ of a sound wave, the ​higher its pitch.

● The first sound wave shown is

quiet​ and ​low pitched.
● The second sound wave shown
is ​loud ​and ​low pitched.
● The third sound wave shown is
loud​ and ​high pitched.

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