APSTIPRINĀTS

Novikontas Jūras koledžas Padomes sēdē

ar 14.07.2015. prot. Nr. 3-1-1/2015/14

NOVIKONTAS MARITIME COLLEGE

Subject name: Ships Electronics and Automation 6 sem

Exercise number: 4. Transmission of signals

Teacher: Deniss Krasovskis

Student: Sergejs Boiko
Date: 22.01.2021
Ship Particulars.
 1. Transmitters

1.1. Develop a report describing main characteristics of a transducer.

The device which converts the one form of energy into another is known as the transducer.

The process of conversion is known as transduction. The conversion is done
by sensing and transducing the physical quantities like temperature, pressure, sound, etc.
The electrical transducer converts the mechanical energy into an electric signal. The electrical
signal may be voltage, current and frequency. The production of the signal depends on the resistive
inductive and capacitive effects of the physical input.

Needs of Transducer

It is quite difficult to determine the exact magnitude of the physical forces like temperature,
pressure, etc. But if the physical force is converted into an electrical signal, then their value is easily
measured with the help of the meter. The transducers convert the physical forces into an electrical signal
which can easily be handled and transmitted for measurement. 

The following are the advantages of converting the physical quantity into an electrical signal.

1. The attenuation and amplification of the electrical signals are very easy.
2. The electrical signal produces less friction error.
3. The small power is required for controlling the electrical systems.
4. The electrical signals are easily transmitted and processed for measurement.
5. The component used for measuring the electrical signal is very compact and accurate.
6. The electrical signals are used in telemetry.

Parts of Transducer

The transducer consists two important parts.

1. Sensing Element
2. Transduction Element
The transducer has many other parts like amplifiers, signal processing equipment, power supplies
calibrating and reference sources, etc.
1. Sensing or Detector Element  – It is the part of the transducers which give the response to the physical
sensation. The response of the sensing element depends on the physical phenomenon.
2. Transduction Element  – The transduction element converts the output of the sensing element into an
electrical signal. This element is also called the secondary transducer.

Factors Influencing the Choice of Transducer

The choice of the transducers used for measuring the physical quantity depends on the
following factors.

1. Operating Principle – The transducers are selected by their operating principles. The operating
principle may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezoelectric, etc.
2. Sensitivity – The sensitivity of the transducer is enough for inducing the detectable output.
3. Operating Range – The transducer must have wide operating ranges so that it does not break during the
working.
4. Accuracy  – The transducers gives accuracy after calibration. It has a small value for repeatability which
is essentials for the industrial applications.
5. Cross Sensitivity – The transducers gives variable measured value for the different planes because of
the sensitivity. Hence, for the accurate measurement, the cross sensitivity is essential.
6. Errors  – The errors are avoided by taking the input output relations which is obtained by the transfer
function.
7. Loading Effect – The transducers have high input impedance and low output impedance for avoiding
the errors.
8. Environmental Compatibility – The transducers should be able to work in any specified environments
like in a corrosive environment. It should be able to work under high pressure and shocks.
9. Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals – The transducer should be sensitive enough for ignoring the
unwanted and high sensitive signals.
10. Usage and Ruggedness  – The durability, size and weight of the transducer must be known before
selecting it.
11. Stability and Reliability – The stability of the transducers should be high enough for the operation. And
their reliability should be good in case of failure of the transducer.
12. Static characteristic – The transducer should have a high linearity and resolution, but it has low
hysteresis. The transducer is always free from the load and temperature.

Applications of Transducer

The following are the application of the transducers.

1. It is used for detecting the movement of muscles which is called acceleromyograph.

2. The transducer measures the load on the engines.
3. It is used as a sensor for knowing the engine knock.
4. The transducers measure the pressure of the gas and liquid by converting it into an electrical signal.
5. It converts the temperature of the devices into an electrical signal or mechanical work.
6. The transducer is used in the ultrasound machine. It receives the sound waves of the patient by emitting
their sound waves and pass the signal to the CPU.
7. The transducer is used in the speaker for converting the electrical signal into acoustic sound.
8. It is used in the antenna for converting the electromagnetic waves into an electrical signal.
The classifications of the transducers depend on the various factor like by transduction, the
converting electrical signal from AC
or DC, etc.

2. Controlling Elements (Pneumatic)

2.1. Describe the flapper and nozzle arrangement;

2.2. Explain what is meant by negative feedback and by positive feedback;

2.3. Sketch a flapper and nozzle arrangement with negative feedback;

2.4. Explain the function of a force-balance transducer.

 Describes the flapper and nozzle arrangement?- The nozzle and flapper mechanism is a
 displacement type detector which converts mechanical movement into a pressure signal, by covering
the orifice of a nozzle with a flat plate called the flapper. This restricts the nozzle fluid flow and generates
a pressure signal.

It
is a

widely used mechanical means of creating a high gain fluidic amplifier. In industrial control systems they
played an important part in the development of pneumatic PID controllers and are still widely used today
in pneumatic and hydraulic control and instrumentation systems.
The operating principle makes use of the high gain effect when a "flapper" plate is placed a small
distance from a small pressurised nozzle emitting a fluid.
The example shown is pneumatic. At sub-millimetre distances a small movement of the flapper
plate results in a large change in flow. The nozzle is fed from a chamber which is in turn fed by a
restriction, so changes of flow result in changes of chamber pressure. The nozzle diameter must be larger
than the restriction orifice in order to work. The high gain of the open loop mechanism can be linearised
using a pressure feedback bellows on the flapper to
create a force balance system with a linear output.
The "live" zero of 0.2 bar or 3 psi is set by the bias
spring which ensures that the device is working in its
linear region.
The industry standard ranges of either 3-15 psi
(USA), or 0.2 - 1.0 bar (metric), is normally used in
pneumatic PID controllers, valve positioner
servomechanisms and force balance transducers.
 The nozzle and flapper in pneumatic controls is a simple low maintenance device which operates
well in a harsh industrial environment, and does not present an explosion risk in hazardous atmospheres.
They were the industry controller amplifier for many decades until the advent of practical and reliable
electronic high gain amplifiers. However they are still used extensively for field devices such as control
valve positioners, and I to P and P to I converters.

 Explains what is meant by negative feedback and by positive feedback?

The basic principle of negative feedback is that the output tends to drive in a direction that creates
a condition of equilibrium (balance). In an op-amp circuit with no feedback, there is no corrective
mechanism, and the output voltage will saturate with the tiniest amount of differential voltage applied
between the inputs. The result is a comparator:
With negative feedback (the output voltage “fed back” somehow
to the inverting input), the circuit tends to prevent itself from driving
the output to full saturation. Rather, the output voltage drives only as
high or as low as needed to balance the two inputs’ voltages:
Whether the output is directly fed back to the inverting (-) input
or coupled through a set of components, the effect is the same: the
extremely high differential voltage gain of the op-amp will be “tamed”
and the circuit will respond according to the dictates of the feedback
“loop” connecting output to inverting input.
Another type of feedback, namely positive feedback, also
finds application in op-amp circuits. Unlike negative feedback, where
the output voltage is “fed back” to the inverting (-) input, with positive
feedback the output voltage is somehow routed back to the noninverting
(+) input. In its simplest form, we could connect a straight piece of wire
from output to noninverting input and see what happens.
The inverting input remains disconnected from the feedback loop,
and is free to receive an external voltage. Let’s see what happens if we
ground the inverting input:
With the inverting input grounded (maintained at zero volts), the
output voltage will be dictated by the magnitude and polarity of the
voltage at the noninverting input. If that voltage happens to be positive,
the op-amp will drive its output positive as well, feeding that positive
voltage back to the noninverting input, which will result in full positive
output saturation. On the other hand, if the voltage on the noninverting
input happens to start out negative, the op-amp’s output will drive in the
negative direction, feeding back to the noninverting input and resulting
in full negative saturation.

 Sketches a flapper and nozzle arrangement with negative feedback?

Referring to the diagram below, as the measured value deviates from set point, flapper moves
closer to the nozzle. This results in an increase in output air pressure. This increase in output air pressure
changes the controlled condition (parameter to be controlled), say by closing or opening a valve. At the
 same time the increased output air pressure act on the feedback bellows also. This negative feedback
pushes the flapper away from the nozzle, thereby reducing output air pressure. Now the system is in
equilibrium. Remember that an offset is inevitable here. Moving the nozzle away from the feedback
bellows increase sensitivity and hunting of the system. Also moving nozzle towards feedback bellows
reduces hunting and increases offset. So position of the nozzle (or Proportional Band) can be adjusted
carefully to obtain a stable system with minimal offset and hunting.

 Explains the function of a force-

balance transducer?

A transducer is a device that provides an output quantity having a determined relationship to the
parameter being measured - force in this case.
If you apply a force to a block of metal (ie 'squeeze' it) it will change its shape, albeit not very much,
and if you are able to measure the shape-change (deformation) - perhaps with a micrometer - you will
have made a mechanical force transducer. Provided that you calibrate the block - that is measure how
much it deforms when subjected to a sequence of known forces - you can subsequently use it to measure
forces by measuring its deformation.
Alternatively, some materials change their electrical resistance when mechanically deformed and
can thus be used as force transducers provided there is a means available to measure the resistance change.
Unfortunately they can only withstand very small forces before breaking but gluing such a component to
the side of the metal block in the above example effectively scales-down the 'squeezing' force applied to it
- allowing it to survive much higher forces. So,
providing you have the means to measure the changes
in resistance as the combination is subjected to
various forces (and again it has been calibrated), you
will have converted your mechanical force tranducer
into an electrical force tranducer by joining two very
different force transducers together.
 Many force transducers employ an elastic load-bearing element or combination of elements.
Application of force to the elastic element causes it to deflect and this deflection is then sensed by a
secondary transducer which converts it into a measurable output. The output may be in the form of
electrical signal as in strain gauge and linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) type load cells or
mechanical indications as in proving rings and spring balances. Such transducers are known generically as
elastic devices, and form the bulk of all commonly used force transducers. There are a number of different
elastic transducer elements but generally they consist of circular rings, cylinders or beams.
The fundamental nature of elastic devices is illustrated opposite where, in this case, the elastic
element is a circular cylinder made of a metal such as steel. The force is applied to the end of the cylinder
and the deformation is measured as the difference between the uncompressed and compressed length. The
cylinder also expands outwards as it is compressed, the ratio of outward expansion to longitudinal
compression being determined by the nature of the material (through Poisson's ratio). The force may also
be applied such that the device is in tension, rather than compression, and in that case the distortion is
simply reversed.
All elastic devices share this common basis, but the method of measuring the distortion of the elastic
element varies considerably. The most frequent method is to make measurements of the longitudinal and
lateral strain, and when this is undertaken by electrical resistance strain gauges such a transducer is known
as a strain gauge load cell. These are the most common commercially available type of force transducer
and are described, with many others, under types of force transducer with a separate page summarising
their operating characteristics.

3. Develop a report including the below-listed topics related to the

principle features of an electro pneumatic transducer(Electrical):

3.1. Use a Wheatstone bridge used as a transducer;

3.2. Describe the principles of a variable-inductance;

3.3. Describe the principles of a variable-capacitance transducer;

3.4. Describe the principles of an electronic force-balance system.

Electro-pneumatic transducers convert a current or voltage input into proportional output

pressure. They are often paired with valves, pneumatic relays, and flow regulators in process control
applications.
Electro-pneumatic transducers typically accept a standard current loop, often 4-20 mA, or a 0-5V or
0-10V voltage signal. As in all transducers, the device's output values must be calibrated with the input
range to ensure accurate output pressure. Important calibration specifications include zero, the lowest
possible pressure matched to the lowest input value, and span, the numerical value between the minimum
and maximum output. Adding the span to the zero value yields the maximum output pressure for a
calibrated device.
Electronic pressure regulators (EPR) are effectively modern electro-pneumatic transducers and are
referred to as electronic pressure controllers, electronic pressure valves, or electronic pressure transducers.
EPRs require a power supply and a digital or analog set-point signal, and employ a push valve and a vent
valve to regulate output pressure. These devices often include a feedback signal to increase accuracy and
repeatability and may incorporate a bleed valve for venting low gas volumes. An EPR's maximum output
pressure is greater than an analog device's, typically falling between 600 and 1000 psig.

Two-loop EPRs are specialized devices that incorporate a second pressure transmitter connected
directly to the process. These are often used when pressure must be maintained in a remote location or
when the quality of an existing transmitter exceeds that of the transmitter within the EPR. The external
feedback signal results in improved accuracy and process efficiency.

Specifications

Transducers are specified using three values related to their static (constant-temperature) accuracy:
repeatability, hysteresis, and linearity.
Repeatability refers to a transducer's ability to reproduce an output when the same input is
repeatedly applied under identical conditions.Hysteresis is the difference between two output readings
when the first value is taken during a period of increasing temperature and the second is taken with
decreasing temperature. It represents the device's ability to give the same or similar outputs before and
after a temperature cycle.
 Linearity specifies the deviation of a calibration curve from a specified straight line.

Examples of linearity (left) and hysteresis curves.

 Uses a Wheatstone bridge used as a transducer?

A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical

resistance. The electrical resistance in most medically relevant case is of a strain gauge, which is coupled
to a measured parameter (eg. arterial or venous blood pressure). The coupling is usually via some sort of
incompressible fluid-filled tubing. Typically, the circuit takes the shape of a circular arrangement of
resistors where the resistance of all but one is known. The remaining "unknown" resistor acts as the strain
 gauge. As pressure on the gauge changes, so does its resistance, and this causes a change in the current
which flows though the Wheatstone bridge. The magnitude of this pressure can be inferred from the
magnitude of the changes in current.

In summary:

 Wheatstone bridge = electrical circuit with one unknown resistor

 Used to measure an unknown electrical resistance.
 Resistance of the unknown resistor is determined by pressure
 Thus, the resistor becomes a pressure gauge
 This pressure gauge is coupled to the fluid-filled compartment of interest via some sort of
incompressible fluid-filled tubing.

The resistance of all the resistors is known, except for Resistor X.

VG is a galvanometer which measures the current flowing between D and B.
Essentially, if the ratio of resistance in the R1/R2 limb is the same as the resistance of the R3/Rx
limb, there should be no current flowing through that galvanometer.
So, you can adjust the resistance of R2 until the current drops to zero (which is when the resistance
of R2 is the same as the resistance of Rx).
Alternatively, you can calculate what the Rx resistance is using Kirchhoff's circuit laws, which is
what ends up happening in the common hospital-grade blood pressure monitor.

 Describes the principles of a variable-inductance?

This transducer is used for displacement measurement. It is done by calculating the change in
inductance in a single coil according to the variation in inductance. A schematic of the linear motion
variable inductance transducer is shown below.
 The device consists of an arm that moves linearly according to the displacement produced. It also
consists of a single coil wound on a former with ‘N’ number of turns. The end of the arm is connected to a
soft iron core which moves linearly along the axis of the former. Thus, reluctance ‘R’ will be produced
due to the flux path. The coil inductance of the device can be written by the equation, L= N2 /R.
A linear movement of the arm to the right decreases the reluctance ‘R’ of the flux path. Thus,
according to the equation given above, the inductance increases due to the decrease in reluctance and vice
versa. This inductance ‘L’ can be calculated or recorded with the help of an inductance bridge or through a
recorder. Thus the measure of the displacement of the arm can be obtained from the corresponding change
in inductance.
If the transducer is connected to the input of an oscillator tank circuit, the change in frequency ‘f’
of the oscillator could be taken as the measurement for the corresponding change in the displacement of
the arm. A displacement of the arm changes the inductance and hence the frequency. Thus, the output can
be measured in terms of inductance and frequency.

 Describes the principles of a variable-capacitance transducer

The capacitive transducer or sensor is nothing but the capacitor with variable capacitance. The
capacitive transducer comprises of two parallel metal plates that are separated by the material such as air,
which is called as the dielectric material. In the typical capacitor the distance between the two plates is
fixed, but in variable capacitance transducers the distance between the two plates is variable.
In the instruments using capacitance transducers the value of the capacitance changes due to
change in the value of the input quantity that is to be measured. This change in capacitance can be
measured easily and it is calibrated against the input quantity, thus the value if the input quantity can be
measured directly.
  Describes the principles of an electronic force-balance system?

Force-balance principle - It means that the inertial force is compensated (or `balanced') with an
electrically generated force so that the seismic mass moves as little as possible; of course some small
motion is still required because otherwise the inertial force could not be observed. The feedback force is
generated with an electromagnetic force transducer or `forcer'. The electronic circuit is a servo loop like in
an analog chart recorder. A servo loop is most efficient when it contains an integrator, in which case the
offset of the mass is exactly nulled in the time average. Due to unavoidable delays in the feedback loop,
force-balance systems have a limited bandwidth; however at frequencies where they are effective, they
 force the mass to move with the ground by generating a feedback force strictly proportional to ground
acceleration. When the force is proportional to the current in the transducer, then the current, the voltage
across the feedback resistor R, and the output voltage are all proportional to ground acceleration. We have
thus converted the acceleration into an electric signal without depending on the precision of a mechanical
suspension.

Feedback circuit of a force-balance accelerometer (FBA). The motion of the mass is controlled
by the sum of two forces: the inertial force due to ground acceleration, and the negative feedback
force. The electronic circuit adjusts the feedback force so that the two forces very nearly cancel.

The response of a force-balance system is approximately inverse to the gain of the feedback path. It
can easily be modified by giving the feedback path a frequency-dependent gain. For example, if we make
the capacitor C large so that it determines the feedback current, then the gain of the feedback path
increases linearly with frequency, and we have a system whose responsivity to acceleration is inverse to
frequency and thus flat to velocity over a certain passband.

4. Please explore the main principles of a voltage-current transducer

(Receivers) and describe the principal features of:

4.1. The pneumatic receiver integrator;

4.2. The potentiometric pen recorder.

3.

Current and voltage transducers can be used to convert direct,

alternating, and distorted currents as well as voltages into a standard analog
signal.
 The pneumatic receiver integrator?

This receiver is for flow recording down force on bellows (B) from increased (above datum) input
signal (proportional to square of flow measurement ) and about focrum (x) closes force bar (F) into (F)
into nozzle (N).
Increased pressure from relay R acts on a 60 “tooth” turbine wheel (T) to cause rotation and
equilbruim is obtained when up force due to centrifugal force through pin (P) on bar balances down force.
Adjustment is via spring (S) causing movement of weights (W).
Turbine wheel speed is directly proportional to flow, and by gear reduction to the counter, indication
is of total flow.

The potentiometric pen recorder?

The unit is shown below in input dc voltage, from say a thermocouple, is measured against slide
wire voltage at B with a constnant voltage bridge source.
Difference between A and B is ampliefied at the continuous balance unit so energizing the
balancing motor to move pen arm and B until the voltage difference is zero.
The balancing motor is two phase with a reference winding and a control winding from the balance
unit. Input to the balance unit incorporates a converter and center tap of an input transformer.
The vibrating need converter in moving between two conctancts allows current to pass alternately
through each half of the transformer.
Secondary as voltage is amplified and fed to the control winding of the balancing motor, so timed
with ac supply to give correct restoring action.
 5. Explain the function of an X-Y recorder.

A strip chart recorder records the variations of a quantity with respect to time while a X-Y Recorder
is an instrument which gives a graphic record of the relationship between two variables. In strip chart
recorders, usually self-balancing potentiometers are used. These self-balancing potentiometers plot the
emf as a function of time.
In X-Y Recorders, an emf is plotted as a function of another emf. This is done by having one self-
balancing potentiometer control the position of the rolls (i.e., the paper) while another self-balancing
potentiometer controls the position of the recording pen (stylus). In some X-Y recorders, one self-
balancing potentiometer circuit moves a recording pen (stylus) in the X direction while another
selfbalancing potentiometer, circuit moves the recording pen (stylus) in the Y direction at right angles to
the X direction while the paper remains stationary. Hence a X-Y Recorder consists of a pair of servo
systems, driving a recording pen in two axes through a proper sliding pen and moving arm arrangement as
shown.
 There are many variations of X-Y recorders. The emf used for operation of X-Y recorders, may not
necessarily measure only voltages. The measured emf may be the output of a transducer that measure
displacement force, pressure, light intensity or any other physical quantity.

6. Please describe the basic principles of ac and dc servo motors, the

units which are included.

A servo motor is one of the widely used variable speed drives in industrial production and
process automation and building technology worldwide.

Although servo motors are not a specific class of motor, they are intended and designed to use in
motion control applications which require high accuracy positioning, quick reversing and exceptional
performance.
 A servo motor is a linear or rotary actuator that provides fast precision position control for closed-
loop position control applications. Unlike large industrial motors, a servo motor is not used for continuous
energy conversion.
Servo motors have a high speed response due to low inertia and are designed with small diameter
and long rotor length.
Servo motors work on servo mechanism that uses position feedback to control the speed and final
position of the motor. Internally, a servo motor combines a motor, feedback circuit, controller and other
electronic circuit.
It uses encoder or speed sensor to provide speed feedback and position. This feedback signal is
compared with input command position (desired position of the motor corresponding to a load), and
produces the error signal (if there exist a difference between them).
The error signal available at the output of error detector is not enough to drive the motor. So the
error detector followed by a servo amplifier raises the voltage and power level of the error signal and then
turns the shaft of the motor to desired position.
Basically, servo motors are classified into AC and DC servo motors depending upon the nature of
supply used for its operation. Brushed permanent magnet DC servo motors are used for simple
applications owing to their cost, efficiency and simplicity.
These are best suited for smaller applications. With the advancement of microprocessor and power
transistor, AC servo motors are used more often due to their high accuracy control.
 DC servomotor

A DC servo motor consists of a small DC motor, feedback potentiometer, gearbox, motor drive
electronic circuit and electronic feedback control loop. It is more or less similar to the normal DC motor.
The stator of the motor consists of a cylindrical frame and the magnet is attached to the inside of
the frame.
The rotor consists of brush and shaft. A commutator and a rotor metal supporting frame are
attached to the outside of the shaft and the armature winding is coiled in the rotor metal supporting frame.
A brush is built with an armature coil that supplies the current to the commutator. At the back of
the shaft, a detector is built into the rotor in order to detect the rotation speed.
With this construction, it is simple to design a controller using simple circuitry because the torque
is proportional to the amount of current flow through the armature.
And also the instantaneous polarity of the control voltage decides the direction of torque developed
by the motor. Types of DC servo motors include series motors, shunt control motor, split series motor, and
permanent magnet shunt motor.

AC servomotor

AC servo motors are basically two-phase squirrel cage induction motors and are used for low
power applications. Nowadays, three phase squirrel cage induction motors have been modified such that
they can be used in high power servo systems.
The main difference between a standard split-phase induction motor and AC motor is that the
squirrel cage rotor of a servo motor has made with thinner conducting bars, so that the motor resistance is
higher.
Based on the construction there are two distinct types of AC servo motors, they are synchronous
type AC servo motor and induction type AC servo motor.
 Synchronous-type AC servo motor consist of stator and rotor. The stator consists of a cylindrical
frame and stator core. The armature coil wound around the stator core and the coil end is connected to
with a lead wire through which current is provided to the motor.

The rotor consists of a permanent magnet and hence they do not rely on AC induction type rotor
that has current induced into it. And hence these are also called as brushless servo motors because of
structural characteristics.

When the stator field is excited, the rotor follows the rotating magnetic field of the stator at the
synchronous speed. If the stator field stops, the rotor also stops. With this permanent magnet rotor, no
rotor current is needed and hence less heat is produced.
Also, these motors have high efficiency due to the absence of rotor current. In order to know the
position of rotor with respect to stator, an encoder is placed on the rotor and it acts as a feedback to the
motor controller.
The induction-type AC servo motor structure is identical with that of general motor. In this motor,
stator consists of stator core, armature winding and lead wire, while rotor consists of shaft and the rotor
core that built with a conductor as similar to squirrel cage rotor.
 The working principle of this servo motor is similar to the normal induction motor. Again the
controller must know the exact position of the rotor using encoder for precise speed and position control.

Major difference between A C Servo motor and D C servo motor

A C Servo Motor

 Low power output of about 0.5 W to 100 W

 Efficiency is less about 5 to 20 %
 Due to absence of commentator maintenance is less
 Stability problems are less
 No radio frequency noise
 Compare to DC servo motor it is relatively stable and smooth operation
 AC amplifier used have no drift

DC Motor Server

 Deliver high power output

 High efficiency
 Frequent maintenance required due to commentator.
 More problems of stability
 Brushes produce radio frequency noise.
 It is noisy operation
 DC amplifier used have a drift