Chapter – 4

India’s External Relations

International Context
• As a nation born in the backdrop of the world war, India decided to conduct
its foreign relation with an aim to respect the sovereignty of all other
nations and achieve security through the maintenance of peace.
• Just as both internal and external factors guide the behavior of an individual
or a family, both domestic and international environment influence the
foreign policy of a nation.
• In the period immediately after the II World war many developing nations
choose to support the foreign policy preferences of the powerful countries
who were giving them aid or credits.
• This resulted in the division of the countries of the world into two clear
camps – US, USSR.

The Policy of Non-Alignment

• Foreign policy of a nation reflects the interplay of domestic and external
factors, therefore the noble ideals that inspired India’s struggle for freedom
influenced the making of its foreign policy.
• The first PM Jawaharlal Nehru played a crucial role in setting the national
agenda.
• The three major objectives of foreign policy were:
1. To preserve the hard-earned sovereignty.
2. To protect territorial integrity.
3. Promote rapid economic development.
• Nehru wishes to achieve this objective through the strategy of non-
alignment by reducing Cold War tensions and by contributing human
resources to the UN peacekeeping operations.
• India wanted to keep away from the military alliances led by the US and
Soviet Union against each other.
• India advocated nonalignment as the ideal foreign policy approach which
was a difficult balancing act and sometimes the balance did not appear
perfect.

Afro-Asian Unity
• Nehru envisaged a major role for India in world affairs and especially in
Asian affairs.
• His area was marked by the establishment of contacts between India and
other newly independent states in Asia and Africa.
 • Under his leadership India convened the Asian relations conference in
March 1947, five months ahead of attaining independence.
• India was a staunch supporter of the decolonization process and firmly
opposed racism especially apartheid in South Africa.
• The Afro-Asian conference was held in the Indonesian city of Bandung in
1955 commonly known as the Bandung Conference.
• This conference later led to the establishment of the NAM. The first
summit of the NAM was held in Belgrade in September 1961.

Peace and conflict with China

• India’s relationship with China after Independence started on a friendly
note.
• After the Chinese revolution in 1949, India was one of the first countries
to recognize the Communist government.
• Nehru felt strongly for this neighbor that was coming out of the shadow of
Western domination and helped the new government and international
forum.
• A joint enunciation of Panchsheel, the five principles of peaceful
coexistence by the Indian PM Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou EnLai on
29 April 1954 was a step in the direction of stronger relationship between
two countries.
• The five principles of Panchsheel were:
1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
2. Non-aggression against each other
3. Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs
4. Equality and mutual benefits
5. Peaceful coexistence

Tibet issue
• The plateau of the Central Asian region called Tibet is one of the major
issues that historically caused tension between India and China.
• From time to time in history, China had claimed administrative control
over Tibet.
• 1950, China took control over Tibet which led to widespread protests.
• The Tibetan spiritual leader Dalai Lama accompanied the Chinese Premier
Zhou Enlai during the official Chinese visit to India in 1956. Informed
Nehru about the worsening situation in Tibet.
• In 1958, there was armed uprising in Tibet against China’s occupation.
This was suppressed by the Chinese forces. Sensing that the situation had
become worse in 1959, the Dalai Lama crossed over into the Indian border
and sought asylum which was granted.
 • The Chinese government strongly protested against this. Over the last half
century, a large number of Tibetans have also sought refuge in India and
many other countries of the world.
• China has created the Tibet autonomous region, which is an integral part
of China. Tibetan suppose the Chinese claim that Tibet is a part of Chinese
territory and also the policy of bringing into the bit more and more Chinese
settlers.

The Chinese Invasion, 1962

• Two developments strained our relationship with China:
1. China annexed Tibet in 1950 and thus removed a historical buffer
between the two countries which strained the relations and China
alleged that the government of India was allowing anti-China
activities to take place from within India.
2. Boundary dispute – the border between British India and China
had never been marked clearly. For reasons of security, Britain
maintained a forward claim in the Himalayas, but administrative
borders were further south. The main British claim was the
McMohan Line, which had been drawn up during the Shimla
conference of 1914. Owing point to various disagreements with the
British, the Republic of China refused to ratify and recognize any
agreement reached at the conference.
• Main dispute was about the western and the eastern end of the long border.
• China claimed to areas within the Indian territory Aksai-Chin area in the
Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir and the NEFA (North Eastern
Frontier Agency).
• China launched a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both the
disputed regions. The first attack lasted one week and Chinese forces
captured some key areas in Arunachal Pradesh.

Effect of the war on India

• The China war dented India’s image at home and abroad, India had to
approach the Americans and the British for military assistance to tide over
the crisis.
• Nehru on stature suffered as he was severely criticized for his naïve
assessment of the Chinese intention and the lack of military preparedness.
• For the first time a no-confidence motion against his government was
moved and debated in the Lok Sabha.
• The Sino-Indian conflict affected the opposition as well and led to growing
a rift between China and the Soviet Union which was reflected in
differences in Communist party of India.
 • The pro-USSR faction remained within CPI and moved towards closer ties
with the Congress.
• The other faction was for some time close to China and was against any
ties with the Congress.
• The party split in 1964 and the leaders of the latter faction formed the
Communist party of India (Marxist) CPI-M.

India’s Nuclear Policy

• Nehru’s period was of voluntary nuclear abstinence. Nehru had always put
his faith in science and technology for rapidly building a modern India.
• A significant component of his industrialisation plans was the nuclear
program initiated in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha.
• India wanted to generate and atomic energy for peaceful purposes. Nehru
was against nuclear weapons so he pleaded with superpowers for
comprehensive nuclear-test-ban however the nuclear arsenal kept rising.
• Nehru was not only deeply committed to the complete elimination of all
nuclear weapons but also opposed to the manufacture and possession by
any state including India.
• He was opposed to nuclear weapons on moral, political and strategic
grounds calling their possession a “crime against humanity”. He integrated
this opposition into India's foreign policy giving it an activist edge.
• He was the first world leader to call for an end to all nuclear testing
following US bomb test in the Pacific in 1954.
• However, India’s civilian nuclear energy programme under the
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) also had a dual use capacity major
figures such as Homi J. Bhabha were not aware of this Bhabha himself was
not as categorically opposed to a possible future bomb as was Nehru.

India's nuclear policy has always been peace-oriented, whose clear

impression is reflected in the policy of No First Use. But in view of
contemporary regional security challenges, the present government led by
Prime Minister Narendra Modi has made it clear that the policy of no first
use can be reviewed and changed in consonance with India's regional and
national security. In addition, India is committed to ensuring its
membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) and opposing partisan
and unjust nuclear treaties like CTBT and NPT.

Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)

The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is the treaty banning all
nuclear explosions on earth. The treaty was negotiated at the conference on
disarmament in Geneva and adopted by the United Nations General assembly. It
opened for signature on 24 September 1966. Since then, the treaty has reached
near universality. 182 countries have signed the Treaty – Best country to do so
was Trinidad and Tobago on 8 October 2009. 151 countries have ratified the
treaty – most recently, Marshall Islands on 28 October 2009.

INDO-U.S. RELATIONS
Relations between India and the US have transformed from being Estranged
democracies (during the cold war) to Strategic partners (in the Post-cold war
era).

Recently, the US President, Donald Trump visited India.

While only three of the nine US Presidents during 1947-2000 visited India, every
President in the last two decades has visited India at least once.
Many reasons could be ascribed to the higher frequency of visits —

a shift in global geopolitics in the post-Cold War era,

India’s economic ascent,

the rise of an assertive China and
India's place on the global high table.

Indo-U.S. Relations during Cold War

• In 1954, the United States made Pakistan a Central Treaty Organization
(CENTO) treaty-ally.
• In 1961, India became a founding member of the non-aligned movement
to avoid involvement in the Cold War powerplay.
• India cultivated strategic and military relations with the Soviet Union to
counter Pakistan-United States relations.
• India’s 20 years treaty of friendship with USSR (1971) portrayed a definite
tilt towards USSR.
• Disintegration of Soviet Union in 1991, emergence of unipolar world and
new economic policy of India gave a new turn to Indo-US relations.

Relation in the Post-Cold War Era

• Indo-U.S. bilateral relations have developed into a global strategic
partnership with the signing of comprehensive global strategic partnership
agreement during the visit of President Donald Trump in February 2020.
The frequency of high-level visits and exchanges have gone up
significantly in the recent past.
• The two countries have instituted structured dialogue covering East Asia,
Central Asia, West Asia, Africa and the Indian Ocean region.
 • From a modest $ 5.6 billion in 1991, the bilateral trade has increased more
than $ 105 billion in 2018.
• U.S. is the fifth largest source of FDI in India in 2019-20.
• Many agreements have been signed for cooperation in energy, education,
space, science and technology.
• The 3.5 million plus from Indian American community is an important
ethnic group in U.S. accounting for about 1% of the total population in the
country.
• This community comprises of a large number of professional, business
entrepreneurs and educationalist with increasing influence in the country.

Indo U.S. Relations – Major Irritants

• CAATS (Counter America’s Adversaries Through Sanction-Act) to
counter Russia, Iran and North Korea. Any trade with these countries
would invite sanctions from U.S.
• Trade deficit. US calls India ‘king of tariff’.
• Visa restrictions – H1B and H4 visas.
• Silence on state-sponsored terrorism of Pakistan into India.
• Afghan policy.

INDO-RUSSIA RELATIONS DURING COLD WAR

Political:
• Though India led the non-aligned movement, very close ties emerged
between India and USSR right since independence.
• Soviet Union exercised veto in UNSC to block anti-India initiatives on
Kashmir issue in 1957 and in 1962. During the 1971 Indo Pak war Soviet
Union cast three Peters in UNSC to block attempted to stop India from its
ongoing military campaign,
• USSR remained neutral during the 1962 Sino-India war and brokered a
peace between India and Pakistan during 1965 war.
• The 1971 Indo Soviet Treaty of Peace and friendship proved to be a great
help in the 1971 war against Pakistan.
Economic:
• USSR provided technical assistance to India for establishing core
industries. It gave aid and technical assistance for steel plants like Bhilai,
Bokaro and Visakhapatnam and machinery plant like BHEL. In the energy
sector it held in the setting up of ONGC.
• Soviet Union excepted Indian currency for trade when India was short of
foreign exchange.
Military and Space Technology:
• ISRO’s first satellite Aryabhata was launched by Soviet Union. Rakesh
Sharma became the first Indian in space in 1984, when he flew aboard the
Soviet spacecraft Sayuz T-11.
• 1991, about 70% of Indian armies armaments, 80% of its Air Force
systems, and 85% of its naval platforms were of Soviet origin.

21st Century Indio-Russia Relations

In 1991 to watershed moments happened – economic liberalization was
introduced in India and the Soviet Union was dissolved. When Vladmir Putin
became Russia’s president in 2000, the bilateral ties were put on a solid
foundation again after about a decade of post-Soviet confusion and stagnation.
Trade:
• Free trade agreement exists between India and Russia. Russia is investing
a lot in India’s ‘Make in India’ project and in building smart cities.
• In terms of investment two countries had set a target of US $30 by 2025.
The goal was reached by 2017 and the new target is set of US $50 billion
2025.
Defence:
• Russia India defence relationship has begun to move beyond the buyer-
seller model to a more cooperative relationship with the joint research,
design and production.
• India is the second biggest market for Russian defence industry. In 2007,
68% of India’s military hardware import came from Russia. Joint military
program of India and Russia include Brahmos Cruise Missile programme,
Sukhoi SU 30 MKI programme, KA – 226T twin Engine utility
helicopters, Naval Frigates, S-400 surface to air missile defence system
deal.
Science and Energy:
• Both the countries have embarked on an Integrated Long-Term Programme
of cooperation (I LTP) on science and technology.
• Russia will assist in the construction of 12 nuclear power plants in India.
India’s investment in Russia is oil and gas industry is likely to reach $15
billion 2020.
Culture:
• India and Russia historically enjoyed ties in the cultural sphere: long-term
scholarly and student exchanges, culture festivals and out exhibits,
observance of Year of Russia and India and vice versa.

INDIA ISRAEL RELATIONS

• Nearly 45 years after Independence, due to political reasons, India’s
foreign policy in the Middle East region, now called West Asian region,
 and India’s relations with the West Asian countries were mainly
concentrated with the Islamic countries.
• During this period India’s attitude towards Israel, the only non-Islamic
nation in the region, remained neglected notwithstanding the two nations
gaining independence from the British colonial rule in 1947 and 1948
respectively.
• The historical and cultural ties between India and Israel have gone back
from times immemorial, diplomatic relations formally developed between
the two after the opening of Israeli Embassy in India in 1992.
• But even after the establishment of formal diplomatic relations, the
relations between the two countries started gaining firmness only after the
formation of the BJP led NDA government in 1996 and 1998 onwards.
• Relations between the two democratic nations further intensified with the
visits of the two heads of government: Prime Minister Narendra Modi to
Israel in 2017 and Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to India in 2019.
• The two nations have started cooperation in various fields like cultural
exchange, security and defence, counter terrorism, space research, water
and energy and agriculture development.

AREAS OF COOPERATION
Political Cooperation:
• Since the up-gradation of relations in 1992, defence and agriculture have
become the two main pillars of the bilateral engagement. The political ties
have become especially cordial under the Modi Government. In 2017,
Prime Minister Modi became the first-ever Indian Prime Minister to visit
Israel.
 • During this visit, the diplomatic relationship was upgraded to a strategic
level and seven agreements were signed in the areas of R&D, innovation,
water, agriculture and space.
• In 2018, the Israeli Prime Minister visited India, during which Government
to Government (G2G) agreement on cybersecurity, oil and gas
cooperation, film cooperation and air transport were signed, along with
five other semi-government agreements.
• An increase in the high-level exchanges in recent times has expanded
cooperation in areas like trade, agriculture, science and technology and
security.
Economic Cooperation:
• Major exports from India to Israel include precious stones and metals,
chemical products, textiles and textile articles etc.
• Major imports from Israel include chemicals and mineral products, base
metals and machinery and transport equipment. Potash is a major item of
Israel’s exports to India.

Agriculture:
• Cooperation in the field of agriculture is being prioritised by India. Several
India-Israel Centre of excellence for Cooperation in agriculture have been
set up in states like Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan etc.
• India has significantly benefited from Israeli’s expertise and technologies
in horticulture, mechanisation, protected cultivation, orchard and canopy
management, nursery management, micro-irrigation and post-harvest
management, particularly in Haryana and Maharashtra. C
• Currently, Israeli drip-irrigation technologies and products are widely used
in India.
• Furthermore, India is gaining Israel’s expertise in managing and improving
dairy farming and high milk yield.

Military and Strategic Cooperation:

• India’s arms trade with Israel had reached almost $600 million in 2016,
making Israel the second-largest source of defence equipment for India,
after Russia.
• The common aspiration to fight the menace of terrorism led to the
enhancement of defence cooperation.
• Four working groups in areas of border management, internal security and
public safety, police modernisation and capacity building for combating
crime, crime prevention and cybercrime were established.
What is India’s stand on Israel-Palestine Issue?
India, for a very long time, had called for the 2-state solution that supports the
establishment of a sovereign independent state of Palestine. However, India’s
stand on Israel-Palestine conflict has not hindered the growing diplomatic
relationship with India and Israel. Yet, the recent close ties with Israel have
diluted India’s stance on the issue.
Prime Minister Modi’s noteworthy visit to Israel in 2017 did not lead to
diplomatic tension with Arab nations, making it a successful turning point.
For Israel, India is an enormous market for its technologies and expertise.

CONCLUSION
Modi and Netanyahu both share an affinity for neoliberalism and religious
conservatism and judging from the political climate in both countries, they are
expected to continue being in power for the near future. The shared sociopolitical
climates in both the countries is perfectly encapsulated in anthropologist Arjun
Appadurai’s words, “Open markets – closed cultures”.