University of Technology, Jamaica

Faculty of Engineering and Computing (FENC)

Land Surveying (CVE1002)
April 30, 2021
Ricke’y McIntosh-1702021
Lecturer: Dr. Young
Tutor: Mr. Dell
Table of Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction of Student ................................................................................................................... 6
CIVIL ENGINEERING IN RELATION TO LAND SURVEYING ............................................. 7
Unit 1 Introduction to Land Surveying ......................................................................................... 10
Geomatics ................................................................................................................................. 10
Definition .............................................................................................................................. 10
Major Fields in Geomatics .................................................................................................... 10
Professions in the Built Environment that benefit from Geomatics ..................................... 10
Land Surveying ......................................................................................................................... 11
Definition .............................................................................................................................. 11
Land Surveying and Geomatics ............................................................................................ 11
Land Surveying Activities Aid in Civil Engineering Designs .............................................. 11
Principles of Land Surveying................................................................................................ 11
Roles and Responsibilities of a Land Surveyor .................................................................... 13
Basic Importance of Land Surveying to Civil Engineering and Built Environ .................... 14
Types of Survey .................................................................................................................... 15
Surveying Methods ............................................................................................................... 16
Table 1: Plane Surveying vs. Geodetics Surveying .............................................................. 16
Surveying Products ............................................................................................................... 18
Surveying Products and its Relation to Build Environs........................................................ 18
Applications of Surveying in Civil Engineering ................................................................... 19
Equipment used in Surveying ............................................................................................... 19
Errors in Land Surveying ...................................................................................................... 29
Unit 2 Distance Measurements ..................................................................................................... 30
Horizontal Distances ................................................................................................................. 30
Definition .............................................................................................................................. 30
Methods and Equipment used to measure Horizontal distances ........................................... 30
Vertical Distances ..................................................................................................................... 30
Definition .............................................................................................................................. 30
Methods and Equipment used to measure Vertical distances ............................................... 30
Conversional Factors Used in Geomatics ............................................................................. 30
 Accuracy and Precision......................................................................................................... 31
Importance of Accuracy and Precision in relation to Civil Engineering .............................. 32
Field Assignment 1- Basic Land Surveying Measurement ................................................. 34
Computation Worksheet 1- Conversion and Basic Measurements....................................... 37
Unit 3 Angular Measurements ...................................................................................................... 50
Angles ....................................................................................................................................... 50
Definition .............................................................................................................................. 50
Systems of Measuring Angles .............................................................................................. 50
Types of Angles .................................................................................................................... 53
Instruments and Methods used in Angular Measurements ................................................... 53
Bearings .................................................................................................................................... 59
Definition .............................................................................................................................. 59
Types of Bearings ................................................................................................................. 59
Converting Quadrantal Bearing to Whole Circle Bearing .................................................... 62
Converting Whole Circle Bearing to Quadrantal Bearing .................................................... 63
Unit 4 Measurements of Heights .................................................................................................. 65
Leveling .................................................................................................................................... 65
Definition .............................................................................................................................. 65
Leveling Terminologies ........................................................................................................ 65
Importance of Leveling to Built Environment ...................................................................... 66
Methods of Booking and Calculation ................................................................................... 66
Difference in the Methods of Booking and Calculations...................................................... 67
Contouring Methods ............................................................................................................. 68
Fieldwork- Two Peg Test...................................................................................................... 70
Height of Instruments Booking and Calculations ................................................................. 74
Rise and Fall Booking and Calculations- Route Survey of Utech ........................................ 75
Unit 5 Traversing .......................................................................................................................... 78
Definition .............................................................................................................................. 78
Types of Traverse ................................................................................................................. 78
Purpose and Importance of Traversing ................................................................................. 79
Methods of Traversing .......................................................................................................... 79
Traversing Measurement Technique..................................................................................... 80
 Coordinates: Latitude and Departure .................................................................................... 81
Sequence of Operations for Traversing ................................................................................ 83
Fieldwork- Traversing (Had issues Placing survey site in document ................................... 86
Computational Worksheet #2- Traversing ............................................................................ 90
Unit 6 Application of Surveying to Construction Works ........................................................... 114
Importance of surveying in Relation to Civil Engineering and Construction Works ......... 114
Setting Out .............................................................................................................................. 114
Definition ............................................................................................................................ 114
Importance of Setting Out ................................................................................................... 114
Construction Layout and Skating........................................................................................ 115
Earthworks Surveying ......................................................................................................... 117
Deformation Surveys .......................................................................................................... 117
Computational Worksheet 3- Route Surveying and Building Setting Out ......................... 118
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 137
References ................................................................................................................................... 138
Introduction

During my first session of this module, a question was asked; “Do you think land

surveying is relevant to the civil engineering field?” My response, was “No.” At this point, I

thought it was not important as a module because I’m now a fourth-year student who has never

seen the relevance of this module or field of profession to Civil Engineers. Moving in depth into

the module, I then realized the importance of Land Surveying to Civil Engineers and the

construction industry. This portfolio is a representation of all that I’ve learnt from the Land

Surveying modules as a Civil Engineering student. This portfolio outlines the introduction basic

surveying measurements, computations and techniques for field analysis used in surveying and

how they are closely linked to my pursing profession.

Introduction of Student

Up until the age of 18, I would’ve never imagined being anything near the career path of

an engineer. Always a sports enthusiast, and was determined to pursue a career in sports. It was

until I had to apply for universities, that I choose engineering, having no idea what the world of

Engineering was like, it just sounded like it would’ve challenged me and that was exactly what I

was looking for. In my first year, I still had no idea why I choose civil engineering and what my

purpose was in this field of expertise. It took me two and a half years (2.5) to realize why I was

on the path that I was. This career cannot be defined by words, the numerous deterrents that civil

engineers should overcome covers a tremendous area of duties and responsibilities. Until my 3rd

year, I finally understood why I choose engineering; to help with the design and outcome of low-

income houses, design of a full self-operated children’s home as well as homeless shelter and to

correct drainage facilities in Jamaica, and since of late to get into the environmental aspect of

engineering as it relates to water treatment and air pollution.

At the beginning of this module, I never understood the importance of surveyors to civil

engineering and how they were closely linked for different operations in the civil/construction

field. This module has shown part of its importance to the field, through the emphasis placed on

the accuracy in measurements and computations on different field analysis methods. I also

understood that it helps with the preparation of engineering maps for detailing highways, canals

and reservoirs and the role it plays in road design with elevation and the establishment of

boundaries.
CIVIL ENGINEERING IN RELATION TO LAND SURVEYING

Surveys are the methods used to determine three-dimensional places of focus. It

incorporates estimating the angles ad distance between points that are situation on a superficial

level, above or underneath the Earth’s surface. Surveys are completed for the readiness of

guides, geography, plots and limits to set up land proprietorship, and utilized in designing and

arranging and construction of all types of structures and communication organization (Ekimai,

2017). Surveying assumes a fundamental part in land improvement and development, from

arranging and plan of land regions though to the last construction of infrastructures. Surveying

help to forestall chaos in a very chaotic world. In the event that surveying jobs are not as

efficiently as possible or this profession didn’t exist, the construction and built environment

professions would not be as detailed in today’ society. Work done by civil engineers, architect or

any other profession in the built environment would be inadequate without significant

information and data which would’ve been provided by the surveyor (RVS Land Surveyors,

2020). From making plans on the page to setting up the entire construction and infrastructures, in

actuality, surveyors are required to play a significant role. Each engineer requires a land surveyor

for his works, where the surveyor gives land report throughout all the task, which the

engineering project is dependent on.

According to an article presented by Bettersworth and Associates,Inc (2018), a land

surveying company, each land development project should have been done in ideal areas.

Without the report from the surveyor, the architect and engineers can’t begin their work. The

land surveyor consistently utilizes all his insights to find appropriate areas to situate ventures and

projects. Before the development begins, blueprint outlines are made. The land surveyor assists

the designers to set up the plan with significant data. Additionally, information pertaining to land
boundaries and GPS coordinates are provided, along with geological data concerning the

topography of the land.

Land surveying is not only imperative for new developments in civil engineering and the

built environment. It also important for the correction of land boundaries and used for

assessment of as-built survey. For example, in Jamaica, construction is halted by the Parish

Council for violations to codes, the land and building that is already constructed has to be

assessed by a surveyor and an engineering. After which a report and a drawing plan is generated

by the surveyor with the violations and corrections to be made, this is presented to the engineer

and the correction of the design is done. A letter is then sent to the Parish Council by the

surveyor to say they have surveyed the land and prepared a as-built survey to the engineer which

the corrections are sent along with. This is then assessed by Parish Council and instructions are

then given to the engineers as it relates to the resumption of work. In essence; as-built survey

provides information and data shown for a property at any particular time (Engineering and

Science, Inc, 2020). This is also done post construction or during construction which presents an

overlay over existing design with original design for comparison.

Land surveying also plays a vital role in construction skating and setting out. This is an

exact interaction that decides the specific situation of the structure on the property and the base

estimations that any remaining worker will follow (Hinds, E 2021). The primary justification of

setting out is to guarantee that the development stays inside the lawful limit. This will ensure that

there are no legal debates later on with respect to property boundaries and privileges of access to

said boundaries.

In conclusion, land surveying methods and techniques are vital to the world of

construction, from small scale to large scale project and places order to a world of pure chaos. It
takes into consideration the Earth’s surface, which ultimately allows engineers to design and

build efficiently.
Unit 1 Introduction to Land Surveying

Geomatics
Definition
Geomatics involves a wide range of methods and technologies for collecting, managing,

and analyzing date about Earth and the phenomena arranged on and near its surface. Geomatics

is a subset of study in the discipline of Geography and Land Surveying.

Major Fields in Geomatics

➢ Photogrammetry

➢ Geographic Information System (GIS)

➢ Global Positioning System (GPS)

➢ Digital mapping

➢ Land Information Management

➢ Cartography

➢ Remote sensing

Professions in the Built Environment that benefit from Geomatics

➢ Urban Planners

➢ Land Valuation Surveyors

➢ Architects

➢ Civil Engineers

➢ Quantity Surveyors

➢ Land Surveyors
 Land Surveying
Definition

Land surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining terrestrial or three-

dimensional position of points and the distances and angles. Land surveying allows persons to

understand land boundaries. A survey is performed in order to locate, describe, monument and

map boundaries and corners.

Land Surveying and Geomatics

Land surveying and Geomatics are similar in its approach, which involves the scientific

process of measuring three-dimensional aspects. These measurements include angles, distance

and elevations.

However, based on definition; geomatics; geo (for earth) or geography means studying

the earth, phenomena concerning it, relationships and the processes and “matics” taken from

mathematics is the study of mathematical relationships about earth processes and phenomena.

While surveying is the study and mapping of position of objects on, above and underneath the

Earth’s surface.

Land Surveying Activities Aid in Civil Engineering Designs

Principles of Land Surveying

There are seven (7) principles of Land Surveying:

1. Reconnaissance and Planning- This is the first stage of any survey. This is an extensive

study of an entire area. This allows site exploration and taking a general consensus of the
 job at hand. This helps to determine what is survey methods, equipment needed and the

amount of time for the job.

2. Control- This is also referred to as “working from whole to a part.” As the name implies,

the survey work must be carried out from whole to part. This means that when an area is

to be surveyed, first of all, a system of control points s established such that it covers the

entire area with a higher degree of precision. After this, minor control points and details

are further established with a lesser degree of precision. The main idea of this principle is

to prevent the undue accumulation of errors and thereby control and localize the minor

errors. If the survey is carried out from part to whole, the magnitudes of errors

accumulated would be very high.

3. Economy of Accuracy- Survey work is usually described as being to a certain standard

of accuracy which in turn is suited to the work in hand. Bearing in mind the purpose for

which the survey is being made, it is better to achieve a high degree of accuracy than to

aim for exactness which if were to be altered would depend not only on the instrument

but also on the care taken by the operator to ensure that the work is free from mistake.

The standard accuracy attained in the field must be in keeping with the size of the

ultimate drawings. The equipment selected should be appropriate to the test in hand. An

important factor when selecting equipment is that the various instruments should produce

roughly the same order of precision. A steel chain best at an accuracy of 1/500 to 1/1000

would be of little use for work requiring an accuracy of 1/1000. Similarly, the theodolite

reading to one second would be pointless where a reading to one minute is sufficient.
 Having selected the equipment necessary, the work should be thoroughly checked and if

found wanting should be adjusted, repaired or replaced or have allowance calculated for

its deficiencies. This task will be less tedious if field equipment is regularly maintained.

4. Consistency- Keeping consistency in the method, instrument, reading and noting

observations helps to gain the desired level of accuracy. This allows the maintained of

standard and also the precision and accuracy needed for the job.

5. Independent Checking- Fundamental principle that is generally adopted to prevent error

in survey works. Every measurement taken in the field must be re-checked by adopting a

suitable method of independent field test and observations that any mistake is present is

not passed. For example, measuring distance into both directions.

6. Safeguarding- Ensures that all markers and data are protected in order to avoid

repeating expensive surveys.

7. Revision- This is the utilization of a conventional system, where measurements and data

recording can be accessed and reviewed by other surveyors and engineers. This is created

so work can be done on site without any confusion between professionals.

Roles and Responsibilities of a Land Surveyor

➢ Conduct surveys on land sites and properties.

➢ Examine previous records and evidence to ensure data accuracy.

➢ Research and design methods for survey processes.

 ➢ Use equipment and tools to accurately measure land features (longitudes, latitudes).

➢ Build maps, sketches, and charts.

➢ Supervise and provide guidance to field staff.

➢ Purchase and maintain equipment.

➢ Report on survey results and present findings to clients.

➢ Collaborate with engineers and architects on several projects

Basic Importance of Land Surveying to Civil Engineering and Built Environ

Surveying plays an integral role in land development, from the planning and design of

land subdivisions through to the final construction of roads, utilities and landscaping. Surveyors

are the first people on any construction site, measuring and mapping the land. These primary

measurements are then used by architects to understand and make the most of the unique

landscape when designing and engineers to plan structures accurately and safely, ensuring

buildings not only fit with the landscape but are able to be constructed. The first necessity in

surveying is to prepare a plan and a section of an area to be covered by the project. From these

prepared maps and sections, the best possible alignment, amount of earthwork and other

necessary details depending upon the nature of the project can be calculated.

The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as railways, highways,

tunneling, irrigation, dams, reservoirs, waterworks, sewerage works, airfields, ports, massive

buildings, etc. are based upon surveying measurements. During execution of the project of any

magnitude is constructed along the lines and points established by surveying. The measurement

of land and the fixation of its boundaries cannot be done without surveying. The economic

feasibility of the engineering feasibility of a project cannot be properly ascertained without

undertaking a survey work. Also, the execution of hydrographic and oceanographic charting and

mapping requires. Overall, surveying is used to prepare a topographic map of a land surface of

the earth.

Types of Survey

1. Topographic Survey- This entails land surveys that specifically focuses on defining a

natural or man-made structure in an area. This includes existing tress, creeks and

elevations to help architects and engineers work around natural obstruction. Man-made

structures can include things like existing buildings, barriers, fences or any landscaping

elements. In essence, it is a 3-dimensional map showing all natural and man-made

features and improvements.

2. Cadastral Survey- Cadastral survey is the discipline of land surveying that relates to the

laws of land ownership and the definition of boundaries. It establishes boundaries and

dimensions of properties. Cadastral surveys are important for the better management of

land as it establishes the extent of each land; the size, location and other attributes of

land.

3. Engineering Survey- Engineering survey implies all survey exercises needed or required

to support the sound conception, arranging, plan, development, maintenance and ongoing

operation of engineered project, but excludes the surveying of real properties for the

establishment of land boundaries/limits, right-of-way, easements and the dependent or

independent surveys.
 4. Hydrographic Survey- Hydrographic survey maps and measures the oceans, rivers,

creeks – waterway of any kind. This helps to provide important navigation, storm water

and hydraulic information to developers and agencies.

Surveying Methods

Plane Surveying- This is a specific type of surveying where the surface of the Earth is

considered as plane and the curvature of the Earth is not taken into account. The line connecting

any two points is a straight line and the angles of polygons are plane angles. Plane surveying is

suitable for small and flat areas and its degree of accuracy is comparatively low.

1. Chain Surveying

2. Plane Table Surveying

3. Theodolite Surveying

4. Compass Surveying

5. Leveling

Geodetic Surveying- The type of surveying which takes into account the curvature of the

Earth’s surface for achieving high precision. This generally extends over large areas.

Table 1: Plane Surveying vs. Geodetics Surveying

Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying

The earth surface is considered as a plain The earth surface is considered as a curved

surface. surface.
The line formed by any two points are The line formed by joining any two points are

considered as a straight line – as the same considered as arch –as the same angles are

angles are plain angles. spherical angles.

Plane surveying effect of the curvature of the Geodetic surveying effect of the curvature of the

earth’s surface is ignored. earth’s surface is included.

Length up to 12km is treated as plane Length more than 12km is treated as geodetic

surveying. surveying.

Plane surveying suitable for small area Geodetic surveying suitable for large area

surveying. surveying.

Plane survey accuracy is low. Geodetic survey accuracy is high.

Involves smaller areas less than about 260

Involves larger areas more than about 260 km2.
km2.

The special instrument needed and long survey

Economical and easy survey method.
method.

Knowledge of spherical trigonometry is

Knowledge of plane trigonometry is required.
required.

Used in general civil engineering survey They are used for the precise location of a

project work. widely distant area.

Plane surveying uses normal instruments like Geodetic surveying uses more precise

a chain, measuring tape and theodolite. instruments and modern technology like GPS.
 Done by the concerned state or government
Done locally by the individual organization.
department.

Surveying Products

Maps

This is a graphic representation, drawn to scale, and usually on a flat surface, of features of an

area of the Earth or any other celestial body. A map is not an objective depiction of reality. It is a

symbolic interpretation of places and highlights boundaries between states, countries or parishes.

The depiction and types of maps are related to the type of survey discussed in the above topic

“Types of Survey”. Each type of survey has a different mapping product.

Plans

Representation of property lines of private, public and government lands. This is a technical and

legal document prepared by a registered cadastral surveyor. This is done so that property can be

identified by owners and adjoining owners.

Digital Models

The process of creating a computer model of lands that replicates the form of the land. A digital

model can include information such as site surveys and as-built or as-constructed information.

Surveying Products and its Relation to Build Environs

With graphical representation; maps and plans, useful information can be produced which

are relevant to land ownership. This can produce information including but limited to; the

volume of the land, the boundaries, its area and features. With the provision of this information;
it reduces any amount of misinformation or confusion as it relates to land and its ownership.

Surveying products can settle boundary disputes and allows for boundary identification and

correction if needed. These data and graphical representation help with the setting out of civil

structure and also check in quantity surveying.

Applications of Surveying in Civil Engineering

The applications of surveying in Civil Engineering are explained in the following points;

➢ To prepare cadastral map showing boundaries of properties like houses, buildings, fields,

colonies, etc.

➢ To prepare archeological map showing the places where ancient relics may have lied.

➢ To prepare the contour map to determine the best possible route and amount of earthwork

required.

➢ To prepare the geographical map.

➢ To prepare the topographical map which shows hills, rivers, forests, valleys, etc.

➢ To prepare the engineering map showing engineering details like highways, railways,

canals, dams, reservoirs, etc.

➢ To prepare the contour map to determine the best possible route and amount of earthwork

required.

Equipment used in Surveying

Level

A level or surveyor’s level is an optical instrument used to establish or verify points in the same

horizontal plane in a process known as leveling. This consist pf a telescope fitted with a spirit

level and is usually mounted upon a tripod. This is used in conjunction with a leveling staff to
establish the relative heights level of objects or marks. There are different types of levels used in

surveying. These are listed below;

1. Automatic Level: An automatic level is also known as a self-leveling level and is a

professional tool that can establish or verify points in the same horizontal plane. Builders,

contractors, engineers and land surveyors use these optical levels to plan structures and

developments and ensure structural soundness.

Components of Automatic Level

➢ Telescope

➢ Objective lens

➢ Eyepiece

➢ Focusing knob

➢ Baseplate

➢ Horizontal tangent screw

➢ Circular level

➢ Crosshairs

Operations of the Automatic Level

a. Mounting the level

 Firstly the automatic level needs to be mounted on the tripod. For that

purpose, the instrument is placed on the head of the tripod carefully such that the

nuts under the instrument perfectly aligning with the bolts present on the head of

the tripod and then the bolts are tightened with the nuts completing the mounting

process.

b. Leveling the level

Once the auto level is properly mounted on the tripod it then needs to be

levelled before taking measurements as unleveled instrument gives blunder

readings. In order to level the automatic level a very simple but efficient enough

instrument called “Circular Level” is used. Circular Level is actually a very basic

and cost-effective levelling tool, it contains a small bubble floating inside a small

circular glass which indicates the state of levelling of a horizontal surface or in

this case an instrument on the surface. So to level, the instrument one needs to

take that small bubble in the middle of the circular level by adjusting the legs of

the Tripod and by moving the levelling screws carefully. When the bubble comes

in the middle of the circle the automatic level will then be considered as levelled

and ready to take measurements.

c. Focusing automatic level

After setting up the automatic level, the next step is focusing the automatic

level. Firstly, the telescope is aimed at the target and is roughly aligned with the

target by means of “Alidade”. When seen through the eyepiece the target may

look blurry but turning the focusing knob either left or right should make the

object appear clearer.

 d. Making reference line

After careful setup of the level, the height of the crosshair is determined by either

sighting from a known benchmark with the known height determined by a

previous survey or an arbitrary point with an assumed height is used.

Sighting is done with an assistant surveyor who holds a graduated staff vertical

at the point under measurement. The surveyor rotates the telescope until the

graduated staff is in the crosshairs and records the reading. This is repeated for

all sightings from that datum. The instrument should be moved to another

position within sighting distance, it is re-leveled, and a sighting taken of a known

level in the previous survey.

2. Dumpy Level: Dumpy levels and automatic levels are similar. The difference is, in

dumpy level, to level the bubble, one has to keep the bubble parallel to the two leveling

screws and then right angle to the third screw. In automatic level, the bubble can be

adjusted from any side and any angle with any here screw. Also the line of sight is

manually adjusted in the dumpy level.

Components of Dumpy Level

➢ Telescope

➢ Bubble tubes
 ➢ Compass

➢ Vertical spindle

➢ Tribrach screws

➢ Foot screws

➢ Leveling head

Operations of Dumpy Level

a. Setting up of instrument

The instrument is fixed to the tripod stand using clamp screws. Spread the tripod legs

and position the instrument at convenient height. Firstly, fix the two legs in the

ground at a point and centering of bubble in the bubble tubes is done by adjusting

third leg.

b. Leveling up

The leveling up of an instrument is done using foot screws or leveling screws. In this

case, the telescope is arranged parallel to the any two leveling screws and the bubble

in the tube is centered by turning both the screws either inwards or outwards. When it

is centered, then the telescope is turned 90o and the third screw is turned until the

bubble come to center. Repeat the process until the bubble in the tube always stays at

the middle in any position of telescope.

c. Focusing

Focusing is done by adjusting eye piece and focusing screw. Eye piece is adjusted

until the cross hairs of diaphragm are clearly visible. To eliminate the parallax error, a

white paper is used to obtain sharp vision of cross hairs. Focusing screw is adjusted to

view the clear image of the objective or staff. Focusing is said to be done when the
 cross hairs bisect the objective or staff with clear vision. After completion the above

temporary adjustments, now it’s time to take levels of required positions or points.

The telescope is rotated towards the line of objective or staff and bisect it.

3. Tilting Level: Telescope can be tilted through about four (4) degrees with the help of

tilting screw. Hence the bubble in the tilting level can be easily centered. The main

advantage of this level is it is useful when the few observations are to be taken with one

set up of level.

Components of Tilting Level

➢ Leveling screw

➢ Micrometer level

➢ Cross level

➢ Scale

➢ Miller head

➢ Clamp screw

➢ Prism

➢ Telescope
 Operations of Tilting Level

a. Setting up of Instrument

The titling level is set up in the same ways as the dumpy level.

b. Leveling the instrument

Using the foot screws or ball-and-socket joint bring the circular bubble into

the center of its ring. Centre the telescope bubble with the tilting screw for

each staff reading.

c. Vertical axis adjustment

As the telescope bubble of the tilting level is never fixed permanently at right-

angles to the vertical axis the bubble tube adjustment as described for the

dumpy level does not apply to the tilting level.

4. Digital Level: This relies on an electronic laser to scan a levels staff with barcode

Markings. This type of level reduces the chance of human error when interpreting

graduation marks, and a digital display ensures accurate reading.

Components of Digital Level

➢ Telescope
 ➢ Focus encoder

➢ Compensator control

➢ Detector

➢ Focusing lens

➢ Eye piece

➢ Beam splitter

Operation of Digital Level

a. Place the digital electronic level on the surface you want to measure.

b. Wait a moment for the level to settle on a degree reading.

c. Adjust the surface accordingly to bring the degree reading to 0.0 degrees, or level.

d. Double check the level reading by referencing the bubbles vials, if they are present. If

the vials and LCD screen do not match, your electronic level needs to be recalibrated.

5. Laser Level: Laser levels are used for leveling and aligning vertical, horizontal, square,

angle, grading-slope and point-transferring applications. Contractors use line laser levels

for initiating a number of projects. There are many types of laser levels.

Measuring Tape: This is a flexible ruler used to measure size or distance. It is used to measure
horizontal and vertical distances, as well as slopes.
Ranging Rods: Surveying instrument used for marking the positions of stations and for sightings
of those stations, as well as for ranging straight lines.

Tripod Stands: This is the device used to support any one of a number of surveying instruments,
such as theodolites and total stations.
Philadelphia Rods: This is a level staff used in surveying. The rod is used in leveling procedures
to determine elevations and is read using a level. A Philadelphia rod consists of two sliding
sections graduated in hundredths of a foot.

Total Station: This is useful for the measuring of horizontal angles, vertical angles and distance-
it does this by analyzing the slope between itself and a specific point.
Errors in Land Surveying

➢ Systematic Errors- These are specific errors found in the system which impacts the

accuracy of a measured unit, for example, a plastic measuring tape developing a stretch

which alters the accuracy of each unit line.

➢ Gross Errors- These errors are due to the surveyor, where instances such as writing

incorrect values due to how similar they look or sound. For example, seeing the value

112.06 and writing 122.06 instead in the log book for a traverse point.

➢ Random Errors- In the event of preventing or eliminating mistakes and also correcting

systematic errors, random errors remain in the form of variations, such as the tension of

the measuring tape when checking point distances.

Unit 2 Distance Measurements

Horizontal Distances
Definition
In plane surveying, the distance between two points means the horizontal distance. If the
points are at different elevations, then the distance is the horizontal length between the plumb
lines at the points. Horizontal distances can be determined by many different methods.

Methods and Equipment used to measure Horizontal distances

Ranging

Pacing

Taping

Vertical Distances
Definition
The distance between two vertical positions. Many vertical coordinates exist for
expressing position: depth, height, altitude and elevation.
Methods and Equipment used to measure Vertical distances
Taping

Changing

Conversional Factors Used in Geomatics

Metric Units: Meter, Kilometre

10 mm = 1 cm
100 cm = 1 m
1000 m = 1 km
1 mm = 1 /10 cm = 1 /1000 m = 1 /1 000 000 km
1 mm = 0.01 cm = 0.001m
Imperial Units: Inch, Foot, Yard, Link, Chain, Furlong, Mile
12 inch = 1 ft
3 ft = 1 yard
66 ft = 1 chain = 100 links
660 ft = 1 furlong = 220 yards
5280 ft = 1 mile = 80 chains = 8 furlong 0.66 ft = 1 link

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy: The degree to which the result of a measurement, calculation, or specification

conforms to the correct value or a standard. If a measurement is accurate, it means that it agrees

closely with the accepted standard to that measurement. The closer a system’s measurements to

the accepted value, the more accurate the system is considered to be.

Precision: This is the quality, condition or fact of being exact and accurate. This is the

refinement in measurement, calculation, or specification, especially as represented by the digits

given. A measurement that is precise mean that it agrees with the other measures of the same

thing.

Difference between Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy is the degree of closeness to true value, while precision is the degree to which an

instrument or process will repeat the same value. In other words, accuracy is the degree of

veracity while precision is the degree of reproducibility. Accuracy can be determined by one

measurement while many measurements are needed to assess precision.

Importance of Accuracy and Precision in relation to Civil Engineering

When designing a construction site, surveying is an extremely important part of the

process. It’s the first step that must be done in order for the engineer to know the existing

topography, or geographical features of the land, which they’ll utilize when planning the design

of a building or roadway.

In most cases, the engineer will develop a conceptual plan that’s practical for the site

based on our survey. One important factor is to balance the cut and fill, or determine the amount

of dirt that needs to be added or removed. This information minimizes the need to bring dirt in or

haul it off the site. If dirt has to be hauled away from or onto the site it’s very costly.

Consider this example: You have a 80-acre building site where there’s going to be a big

office building. If your elevations are off a consistent one tenth of a foot over the entire site, that

equals out to 6,453 cubic yards of dirt. That’s a difference of about 240 dump truck loads of dirt,

which is a significant amount.

 Surveyors usually provide the engineer with a certified copy of the survey and in most

cases a 3D computer-aided design (CAD) file where they can see the contours of the land and

other features that affect their design. They can tell how steep the slopes are and where the

ditches or drainage areas are located; these locations are very critical. Equipped with this

information, the engineer is able to properly complete the design work.

The accuracy needed on the project depends on what type of survey you’re doing. For

boundary surveys, or surveys that aim to formally establish the extent of a given parcel, the state

or country has standards that surveyors must meet.

As you can see, accuracy is extremely important when it comes to surveying, and there is

an abundance of factors that can affect the measurements being exactly right. One mistake and

you can throw off the design plans pretty quickly.

Field Assignment 1- Basic Land Surveying Measurement
Computation Worksheet 1- Conversion and Basic Measurements
Unit 3 Angular Measurements

Angles

Definition

Angular measurement can be defined as the measure of the angle formed between two rays or

arms at a common vertex. Angles are measured and represented in degrees (°), grads or radians

(rads).

Systems of Measuring Angles

There are three different systems of units that are used in the measurement of angles.

Sexagesimal System

This is also called the English system. The angles are measures in degrees, minutes and

seconds. A complete rotation describes 360°. In this system, a right angle is divided into ninety

(90) equal parts and ach such part is called a Degree (1°); a degree is divided into sixty (60)

equal parts and each such part is called a Sexagesimal Minute (1’) and a minute is further sub-

divided into sixty (60) equal parts, each of which is called Sexagesimal Second (1”). In essence;

1 right angle= 90 degrees (90°)

1 degree (1°) = 60 minutes (60’)

1 minute (1’) = 60 seconds (60”)

Centesimal System (French System)

In centesimal system, an angle is measured in grade, minutes and seconds. In this system,

a right angle is divided into 100 equal parts and each such part is called a Centesimal Minute

(1’); and a minute is further sub-divided into 100 equal parts, each of which is called Centesimal

Second (1”). In essence;

1 right angle= 100grades (100g)

1 grade (1g) = 100 minutes (100’)

1 minute (1’) = 100 seconds (100”)

While there are some similarities between the sexagesimal system and the centesimal system,

there’s also an obvious difference with both systems. Here for example,

1 right angle = 90*60 = 5400 sexagesimal minutes (5400’), while,

1 right angle = 100*100 = 10000 centesimal minutes (10000”)

Since, 1 right angle = 90° =100g

Therefore, 90°= 100g or 1°= (10/9)g and 1g= (9/10)°

Circular System (Radian System)

In this system, an angle is measured in radians. In this system a radian is considered as the unit

for the measurement of angles. A radian is an angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc

whose length is equal to the radius.

Let’s take down below for example;

Let OX=r be the radius of a circle having center at O.

The arc XY of the circle is taken that arc XY=r and join OY. By definition ∠XOY = one radian.

One radian is written as 1c. The circular radian measure of an angle is the number of radians it

contains. Thus, the circular measure of a right angle is π/2.

If an angle is given without mentioning units, it is assumed to be in radians. The relation

between degree measure and circular (radian) measures of standard is placed in a table below.

Degrees (°) Radians (c)

0 0

30 π/6

45 π/4

60 π/3

90 π/2

120 2π/3

135 3π/4
 150 5π/6

180 π

270 3π/2

360 2π

Types of Angles

Horizontal Angles

Horizontal angle is the angle made by two ground lines horizontally. Horizontal angles are

usually expressed in degrees. A full circle is divided into 360 degrees.

Vertical Angles

A vertical angle is a pair of non-adjacent angles formed when two lines intersects. There are two

pair of vertical angles with intersecting lines, they are across from each other.

Instruments and Methods used in Angular Measurements

Theodolite

Definition
Theodolite is a measurement instrument utilized in surveying to determine horizontal and

vertical angles with the tiny low telescope that may move within the horizontal and vertical

planes.

Uses of Theodolite in Surveying

• Measuring horizontal and vertical angles

• Locating points on a line

• Finding the difference in the level

• Prolonging survey lines

• Ranging curves

• Setting out grades

• Tachometric surveying

Types of Theodolites

There are various kinds of theodolites for different purposes of constructional work and

surveying. There are two different classifications of theodolites. Usually, four types of

theodolites that are used in site work for different measuring points and are placed in

classification 1.

Classification 1

1. Repeating Theodolite

This design facilitates horizontal angles to be remade any number of times and added

directly on the instrument circles. This type of instruments is restricted for locations

where the support is not steady, or area for using other such instruments is limited.
2. Directional Theodolite

Angles are obtained by deducting the first direction reading from the second direction

reading. This reads directions rather than angles. The non-repeating instrument has no

minor motion.

3. Electrical Digital Theodolite

Naturally interprets and records horizontal and vertical angles. Eliminates the standard

reading of scales on graduated circles.

4. Total Station

The total Station accommodates the functions of a theodolite for measuring angles, an

Electronic distance measurement (EDM) for measuring gaps, digital data, and

information documentation.

Classification 2

1. Primary Theodolite can be divided into two types; transit and non-transit theodolite.
 i. Transit Theodolites: A theodolite is named a transit theodolite once its

telescope will be transited, for example, rotated through a whole revolution

regarding its horizontal axis within the vertical plane.

ii. Non-Transit Theodolite In this kind, the telescope cannot be transited. They

are inferior in utility and have currently become obsolete.

2. Electronic Digital Theodolite

This type of theodolite provides the worth of observation directly within the viewing

panel. The exactitude of this sort of instrument varies within the order of 1" to 10". It

has also two types.

i. Vernier Theodolites: For reading the graduated circle, verniers are used to

correct reading of measuring points and this theodolite is termed as a Vernier

theodolite.

ii. Micrometer Theodolites: A micrometer provides to browse the graduated

circle identical be termed as a Micrometer theodolite.

This Digital theodolite is also known as Modern Theodolite and can perform the following

functions:

• Distance measurement

• Angular measurement

• Data processing

• Digital display of point details

• Storing data is an electronic field book

Magnetic compass

Magnetic compass is used to find out the magnetic bearing of survey lines. The bearings

may either measured in Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B) system or in Quadrantal Bearing

(Q.B) system based on the type of compass used. The basic principle of magnetic

compass is if a strip of steel or iron is magnetized and pivoted exactly at centre so that it

can swing freely, then it will establish itself in the magnetic meridian at the place of

arrangement.

Major types of magnetic compass are:

1. Prismatic compass

Prismatic compass is a portable magnetic compass which can be either used as a hand

instrument or can be fitted on a tripod. It contains a prism which is used for accurate

measurement of readings. The greatest advantage of this compass is both sighting and

reading can be done simultaneously without changing the position.

2. Surveyor’s compass

Surveyor’s compass consists of a circular brass box containing a magnetic needle which

swings freely over a brass circle which is divided into 360 degrees. The horizontal angle

is measured using a pair of sights located on north – south axis of the compass. They are

usually mounted over a tripod and leveled using a ball and socket mechanism.

Abney level

Abney Levels are used in Land Surveying which consists of a fixed sighting tube, and a

movable bubble level that is connected to a pointing arm, and a protractor scale. The

Topographic Abney Level is easy to use, affordable, and when used correctly is a very

accurate land surveying and construction tool. Topographic Abney Levels are used to
 measure degrees, percent of grade, topographic elevation, and chain correction. The user

can use trigonometry to determine height, volume, and grade. Topographic Abney Levels

are used by the surveyor and is best employed when used with a second person of the

same eye height which allows for easy sighting of the level and greater accuracy.

Bearings
Definition

A bearing is defined as the clockwise or counterclockwise angle between north or south and a

direction. In surveying, bearings can be referenced to true north, magnetic north and grid north.

Types of Bearings

Whole Circle Bearing

The horizontal angle made by a line with the magnetic north in the clockwise direction is

the whole circle bearing of the line. This system is also known as the azimuthal system. In this

system, only the north direction is used as reference meridian. In whole circle bearing, the value

of the bearing varies from 0° to 360°. Just measure the angle between true north line to the

survey line to find the whole circle bearing. This is measured from the clockwise angle.

If a survey line falls in the first quadrant, its whole circle bearing varies from 0° to 90°.

Similarly, in the second quadrant, whole circle bearing value varies from 90° to 180°; in the third

quadrant, whole circle bearing value varies from 180° to 270°; in the fourth quadrant, whole

circle bearing value varies from 270° to 360°.

Whole circle bearing in the first quadrant.

Line X is in the first quadrant. It is at an angle of 46° with the north line in the clockwise

direction. Therefore, the whole circle bearing of line X is 46°.

Whole circle bearing in the third quadrant.

Line Y is in the first quadrant. It is at an angle of 226° with the north line in the clockwise

direction. Therefore, the whole circle bearing of line X is 226°.

Quadrantal Bearing (Reduced Bearing)

The horizontal angle made by a line with the magnetic north or south (whichever is closer from

the line) in the eastward or westward direction is the quadrantal bearing or reduced bearing of the
 line. In quadrantal bearing or reduced bearing, both north and south are considered as reference

meridians. Depending upon the position of a survey line, the direction of the reference meridian

to the line can be either clockwise or anticlockwise. In the expression of the reduced bearing

value of a line, quadrant has to be mentioned in which the line lies.

Difference between Whole Circle Bearing and Quadrantal Bearing

Whole circle bearing and quadrantal bearing are two different types of bearing measurement

used in surveying. The differences are listed below;

Whole Circle Bearing/Azimuthal Quadrantal Bearing/Reduced Bearing

The horizontal angle made by a line with The horizontal angle made by a line with the magnetic

the magnetic north in the clockwise north or south (whichever is closer from the line) in the

direction is the whole circle bearing of the eastward or westward direction is the Quadrantal Bearing

line. or Reduced Bearing of the line.

Only the magnetic north line is considered Both magnetic north and south lines are considered as

as reference line in whole circle bearing reference line in quadrantal bearing system.

system.

The clockwise angle from the reference line Both clockwise and anticlockwise angle from the

is Only taken reference line is Only taken

The value of the whole circle The value of the reduced bearing varies from 0° to 90°.

bearing varies from 0° to 360°.

 Whole Circle Bearing/Azimuthal Quadrantal Bearing/Reduced Bearing

Example: 26°, 121°, 245°, 350° etc. Example: N26°E, S59°E, S65°W, N10°W etc.

Converting Quadrantal Bearing to Whole Circle Bearing

1. Line OB, W.C.B= 30°30՛

2. Line OC, W.C.B= 180°-50°= 130°

3. Line OD, W.C.B= 180° + 20° 45’= 200° 45’

 4. Line OE, W.C.B= 360°-25°= 335°

Converting Whole Circle Bearing to Quadrantal Bearing

Rules

1. When whole circle bearing (W.C.B) lies between 0° to 90°, reduced bearing (R.B) =

W.C.B.

2. When W.C.B lies between 90° to 180°, when R.B = (180°- W.C.B).

3. When W.C.B lies between 180° to 270°, when R.B. = (W.C.B-180°).

4. When whole circle bearing (W.C.B) lies between 270° to 360°, reduced bearing (R.B) =

(360- W.C.B).

Converting whole circle bearing to quadrantal bearing

a. 30°
 For 30°, Reduced Bearing(R.B) = 30° NE

b. 160°

For 160°, R.B = (180° – 160°) = 20° SE

c. 200°

For 200°, R.B = (200° – 180°) = 20° SW

d. 315°

For 315°, R.B = (360° – 315°) = 45° NW.

Bearings calculation was done on Computational Worksheet #2 and is presented in Unit 2-

Distance Measurement
Unit 4 Measurements of Heights

Leveling

Definition

Leveling is a process used to determine the vertical position of different points below, on,

or above the ground. In surveying operations, vertical elevations and vertical control are

generally derived independently of horizontal control. This is used to determine elevation of a

point relative to a datum, or establish a point at a given elevation relative to a datum.

Leveling Terminologies

Fore sight: It is the last reading taken on a point before shifting the instrument. It is usually the

point whose elevation is measured.

Intermediate sight: The foresight taken on a leveling staff held at a point between two turning

point to determine the elevation of that point.

Back sight: This is the first reading taken on a point of elevation

Reduce level: This is the difference between the level point and datum line.

Bench mark: Benchmark is the point laid above or below the datum line with known elevation.

This is considered the check for the other level points. There are permanent, arbitrary, temporary

and great trigonometrical survey benchmarks.

Rise: This is the increase in elevations between two points.

Fall: The decrease in elevation between two points.

Level line: This is the curved line in a level surface.

Plumb line: Also known as vertical line. Plumb line connects the station to the center of the

Earth.

Horizontal line: This is the line of sight of the instrument which is tangential to the level surface

and it is perpendicular to the plumb line.

Datum: Datum line is the reference line with respect to which levels of other station points are

fixed.

Importance of Leveling to Built Environment

Levelling in surveying is important because gravity is by far the most significant force

affecting our everyday life. Working parallel and perpendicular to the force of gravity is

fundamental in designing and constructing the homes we live in, the roads we cycle or drive on,

the bridges we cross and the office blocks we work in. We also need to be able to discount

optical illusions that may make things appear either higher or lower than something else.

Methods of Booking and Calculation

Rise and Fall Method

Rise and fall method is the method of calculating the difference in the elevation between

consecutive points in leveling work.

Steps in Numerical Calculation

a. Determine rise or fall

B/S-I/S or I/S-F/S

b. If; Step A result is positive, then there’s a rise between two distance, but if

negative there is a fall.

c. Determining the new Reduced level (R/L)

 New R/L= Old R/L- Fall or New R/L= Old R/L + Rise

d. Arithmetic checking

ΣB/S – ΣF/S = ΣRise -ΣFall Last R/L- First R/L

Height of Instrument Method

Height of instrument method deals with obtaining the RL of the line of collimation by

adding BS reading of a point whose RL is known. The RL of line of collimation is called Height

of Instrument. From this, the staff readings of all intermediate stations is subtracted to get the RL

at those points.

R/L= HI=BS

R/L=HI-F/S

R/L= HI-IS

Difference in the Methods of Booking and Calculations

There are slight similarities within the methods of computation and booking in leveling;

as they both work towards the same results, but there are also significant differences between

both methods.

Height of Instrument Method (HI) Rise and fall method

HI method is less tedious, more rapid and Rise and fall method is more tedious.
simple method.
 In an HI method less calculation is required. Rise and fall method more calculation is
required.

HI method is less accurate. Rise and fall method is more accurate.

There is no check on RL of intermediate There is cross-check on each RL of

points, hence possibilities of more mistake in intermediate points, hence possibilities of
calculation. less mistake in calculation.

The error in the calculation of RL of any The mistake made in the calculation of RL
point is not carried forward. of any point will be carried forward.

Used for calculation the RL of profile Used for precise levelling, fly levelling
levelling work, for preparation of contour and check to level.
map.

Contouring Methods

An imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation is known as

contour. In other words, contour is the line in which ground surface is intersected by a level

surface obtained by joining lines of equal elevations. This line on the map represents a contour

and is called contour line. There are two main types of contouring methods.

Direct Contouring Methods

In direct method contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground. These points are plotted

on ground and contours are marked through them. This method is fallowed where great accuracy

is required.
Indirect Contouring Methods

In this method, spot level is taken at the regular interval along predetermine line on the ground

the work is then plotted on plan and then the required contour line is drawn by the process of

interpolation. The indirect method is less tedious and speedy as compared to the direct method.

Contouring and Civil Engineering

The purpose of contour lines is to represent the tridimensional shape of the terrestrial

surface on a bidimensional map. Civil engineer needs to understand the nature of the land on

which he is conducting constructional work. To understand the nature and type of the site,

contour survey is needed. By drawing in the section in the plan, it is possible to find out the

profile along the line. It helps with cut and fill information level of the roads and railways. This

creates intervisibility of any two points and allows for the selection of routes of railways, roads,

sewer and canals with the economical consideration of balancing and minimization of

earthworks. Contouring also helps with stormwater analysis and catchment area of any basin and

subbasins within an area.

Fieldwork- Two Peg Test

Y
2
Height of Instruments Booking and Calculations
Rise and Fall Booking and Calculations- Route Survey of Utech
Unit 5 Traversing

Definition

Traverse is a method in the field of surveying to establish control networks. A traverse is a

geometrical figure consisting of a series of survey lines. Traverse networks involve placing

survey stations along a line or a path of travel, and then using the previously surveyed points as a

base for observing the next point.

Types of Traverse

There are two main types of traverses; open and closed traverse.

Open Traverse Surveying

An open traverse is one that does not return to its stating point. It consists of a series of lines

expanding in the same direction. Open traverse is also called unclosed traverse. This is suitable

for surveying of roads and costal lines.

Closed Traverse Surveying

A closed traverse is one that returns to the starting point, thereby forming a closed polygon. In

this case, both starting and terminating points of the traverse coincide with each other. A closed

traverse is employed for locating boundaries of sports grounds, pond, lakes and forest across

which tie lines cannot be measures for area determination.

Purpose and Importance of Traversing

A traverse network of survey line and ground marks provides control, points which can be

accurately plotted in a map or plan. It also helps with setting out; to position roads, buildings or

new construction. The pegs can be set out on the ground from the traverse to define the position

of design points. Traversing is also used for the establishment of property boundaries and for

mapping purposes.

Methods of Traversing

Traversing is performed by four different methods and these methods are classified according to

the survey instrument used. The methods are as follows;

Chain Traversing

Chain traversing is done by taking linear measurements only. Hence, chain or tape is enough for

chain traversing. The angle between the adjacent traverse lines is measured using the chain
angles concept. Chain traversing is performed in areas such as ponds, where it is difficult to

adopt triangulation.

Compass Traversing

In the case of compass traversing, both linear and angular measurements of traverse lines are

taken by using chain and prismatic compass respectively. Both fore bearing and back bearings

are measured and required corrections for local attraction are applied. If any closing error is

obtained while plotting of traverse, then Bowditch rule is applied for the adjustment of error.

Theodolite Traversing

In the case of theodolite traversing, the linear measurements are done by using chain or stadia

method and angular measurements are done by theodolite. Using theodolite, the magnetic

bearing of the first traverse line is measured and from that magnetic bearing of other sides are

calculated. This method is very accurate compared to other methods.

Plane Table Traversing

In plane table traversing, the measuring and plotting of the traverse on the paper are done

simultaneously. The plane table equipment is set up at every traverse station one by one in a

clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. The sides of each traverse station are drawn on paper to a

suitable scale. If there is any closing error, graphical methods are used for its adjustment.

Traversing Measurement Technique

There are two techniques used in traversing; interior and exterior angle measurement.

Interior Angle Measurement

The field operations in the interior angle method of traversing consist of occupation of the

successive stations and a transit or theodolite is being used to measure horizontal angle. At each
station the vernier is set at zero, and a backsight to the preceding station is taken. Interior angles

lie inside of the closed traverse. The measurement of the angle is in the clockwise direction but

the direction of the traverse is in the anti-clockwise direction.

A check can be made because the sum of all angles in a polygon must equal to (n-2) *180 or (2n-

4) *90, where n is the number of angles

Exterior Angle Measurement

An exterior angle is one that is not enclosed by the sides of a closed traverse or is located outside

of s closed polygon. There is an advantage to measuring this handle, which can be used to create

another check.

A check can be made for each angle, where the interior angle +exterior angle is equal to 360.

Also, the sum of the angles must be equal to (2n+4) =90, where n is the number of sides.

Coordinates: Latitude and Departure

Latitude

The latitude of a line is its projection on the north-south meridian and is equal to the length of the

line times the cosine of its bearing. The latitude is the y-component of the line and is also known

as the north.

Departure

The departure of a line is its projection on the east-west meridian and is equal to the length of the

line times the sine of the bearing. The departure is the x-component of the line and is also known

as the east.
Closure in Latitude and Departure

➢ The algebraic sum of all latitudes must equal zero or the difference in latitude between

the initial and final control points.

➢ The algebraic sum of all departures must equal zero or the difference in departure

between the initial and final control points.

➢ If the sum of latitude and departure is not equal to zero, then corrections must be made.

Misclosures in Traversing

The errors in closed traversing are two kinds;

Linear Error: Linear misclosure is the hypotenuse of a right triangle whose sides are the

misclosure in latitude and the misclosure in departure. The allowable misclosure is ± 5mm.

Angular Error: Angular misclosure is the difference between the measured angles' sum on a

traverse and the angle condition for the traverse configuration. The amount of allowable angular

misclosure is dependent on the survey purpose.

Adjustment of Latitude and Departure

This is the balancing and adjustments is used to get the sum of latitude and the sum of departure

to be equal to zero. There are two methods of adjustments; the transit rule and the compass rule.

The Bowditch (compass) rule is mostly used to balance traverse when linear and angular

measurements are equally precise. By this rule, the error in latitude or departure is distributed in

proportion of the lengths of the traverse legs. The transit rule distributes the closure error by

changing the northings and eastings of each traverse point in proportion to the northing and

easting differences in each course.

Bowditch Rule

Correction to Latitude

• (Distance of the traverse leg) / (Total Distance) * (Error in Latitude)

Correction to Departure

• (Distance of the traverse leg) / (Total Distance) * (Error in departure)

Transit Rule

Correction to Latitude

• (Error in Latitude) / (Total Distance) * (Length of Leg)

Correction to Departure

• (Error in Departure) / (Total Distance) * (Length of Leg)

Sequence of Operations for Traversing

Reconnaissance Survey

General overview of the site is carried out and suitable station points is selected. This is the

“whole to part” principle. According to this principle, it is always desirable to carryout survey

work from whole to part. This means, when an area is to be surveyed, first a system of control

points is to be established covering the whole area with very high precision. Then minor details

are located by less precise methods. The idea of working this way is to prevent the accumulation

of errors and to control and localize minor errors which, otherwise, would expand to greater

magnitudes if the reverse process is followed, thus making the work uncontrolled at the end.
Station Marking and Line Clearing

The station can be mark when the station criteria had been full fill. The common station marking

are wood peg and nails. The selection of the station marking depend on the site condition. If the

survey works on the road, the suitable marking is nails. If the survey works in the forest or

construction site, the wood peg is the best used as station marking. For permanent marking, the

station can be in concrete.

Observation, Measurement and Booking

There are two types of observation & measurement in traverse;

• Bearing – measure angle from the north in clockwise direction

• Distance – measure distance of the traverse

The observation begins with back station to front station.

The observation must be done in face left and right.

The suitable observing sequence being:

1. Set bearing back station, face left.

2. Observe fore station, face left.

3. Set bearing back station, face right.

4. Observe fore station, face right.

Computation and Adjustment

This is the site calculation and adjustments made based on specifications and accuracy. The rules

and methods of computations are used.

Preparation of Plan and Report

This is the process of plotting to produce output product of traversing; map and plan. This is by

using the final coordinates data or final bearing and final distance.
Fieldwork- Traversing (Had issues Placing survey site in document)
Computational Worksheet #2- Traversing
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Unit 6 Application of Surveying to Construction Works

Importance of surveying in Relation to Civil Engineering and Construction Works

In the context of civil engineering, surveying refers to the gathering of various data about

the land. Surveying typically involves measurements of horizontal and vertical distances between

points, along with descriptions of the exact characteristics of the land structure and surface.

Surveys are used to plan, build, and maintain all civil engineering projects. A full survey of the

target area is usually necessary to determine its exact boundaries and to ensure that any buildings

or other structures constructed there will be safe. Surveyors also work to provide the proper

design and development of infrastructure, to protect the surrounding natural environment, and to

maximize the efficiency of the proposed structures. There is specific importance to each Top

learnt from Unit 1 through 6, that was explained throughout this portfolio, but in essence,

surveying can be described as the channel by which design and construction work begins.

Setting Out
Definition

A set-out survey is a critical procedure used to transfer a building or architectural design onto the

land or existing structures by setting out its exact position in the 'real world'. It enables engineers

and builders to construct precisely to what has been designed.

Importance of Setting Out

The main reason for setting out (other than to guide the workers as they begin construction) is to

ensure the construction remains within the legal boundary. This means there will be no legal

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disputes later on, such as those regarding property boundaries and rights of access. Setting out is

necessary for all construction projects that need to exist within a strict boundary, including:

➢ Extensions on existing buildings

➢ Building anything (from a small dwelling to a retail park or a high rise)

➢ Roads, bridges, and tunnels

Too often, the importance of correct setting out is neglected, especially on small scale

developments, where the thought is it’s an unnecessary cost. There are numerous examples of

incorrect, inaccurate setting out which has ended up costing the developer a small fortune, as

road layouts, plot positions, drainage layouts have all had to be amended as the development

doesn’t fit within the site.

Construction Layout and Skating

Definition

Construction staking, also known as a site layout survey, is the process of interpreting

construction plans and marking the location of proposed new structures such as roads or

buildings. Construction staking is performed to ensure a project is built according to engineering

design plans. The staked reference points guide the construction of proposed improvements on

the property, and will help to ensure the construction project is completed on schedule, on budget

and as intended.

The Role of Land Surveyor in Construction Skating and Layout

Accurate construction staking is a critical step in ensuring the success of a construction project.

Engaging an experienced and licensed surveyor will guarantee accuracy and reliability of results.

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During site development, the land surveyor takes the engineer’s or architect’s design shown on

their plans and places (stakes) their correct location on the ground so the construction sub-

contractors can place the buildings, roads, fences, electrical and other underground utilities, etc.

in their correct location.

Construction staking may consist of Rough Grade Staking to map the general location on

improvements at a site, or precise Site Layout Surveys for actual construction purposes.

Rough Grade Staking

Rough Grade Staking defines the location of the site improvements with their respective

reference to the location and final grade elevation. This is done for the construction of slopes,

building outlines, parking lots and roadways, and enables the contractor to grade and prepare the

site for the next sub-contractor to commence his work.

Site Layout Staking

Once the site has received inspection and approval from the local agency, the contractor can

move right into the various stages of construction of the underground utilities, retaining walls,

buildings, site lighting and parking lot or street paving.

This Site Layout Staking phase typically begins with those features that are underground such as

sanitary sewer lines, storm drain lines and water lines. Once all underground utilities are installed

the above ground features are staked for construction. The building corners are staked along with

any interior grid lines throughout the building, as well as onsite items such as fire hydrants, curb

and gutter, walls/planters, catch basins and area drains.

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Earthworks Surveying
Definition

Earthworks usually involve either the removal or placement of soil or land mass on a particular

area. For this purpose, surveyors calculate the volumes of cuts and embankment fills. This is

essential in preparing the site for actual construction.

Importance of Earthworks Surveying

First, it aids in accurate planning. The volumes of cuts and embankment fills will help engineers

in the planning of costs and timelines. In large-scale earthworks, the removal or placement of

soil can take weeks (and even months) before any construction activity commences. Accurate

information can help engineers set clear expectations and create realistic plans.

Deformation Surveys

Deformation surveys gives designers and engineers significant information that will be utilized

in the investigation of underlying deformation and actions to be taken to manage the causes or

outcomes to mitigate or dispose of potential risk and dangers and the structural safety. Deformity

normally occurs in small magnitudes throughout a period of time. In certain events, structural

deformation is seen as uncommon breaks. This requires precise and intermittently rehashed

estimations on carefully chosen areas. It tends to be finished utilizing or blend of manual or

programmed estimation frameworks to guarantee appropriate identification of conceivable

deformity.

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Computational Worksheet 3- Route Surveying and Building Setting Out

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NB- this is in picture form as my laptop is converting some of my pdf files into Chinese
languages. This includes calculations placed below.
Total cut volume=2664.546m3
Total fill volume= 5588.421m3

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Conclusion

Surveying plays a vital role in the field of Civil Engineering and other Built Environment

professions. It is also important that Civil Engineering students understands the importance of

surveying and its methods and techniques used to obtain information for the designing and

construction of buildings and other infrastructures. It gives the students an idea of what the

amount of hard work land surveyors has to do and the importance of precision and accuracy in

this field. In doing this module and this portfolio, it has also shown the importance of the job

surveyors do for the built environ sector and it opens the door for us as engineering student to

respect the professions we work alongside with.

The task of a civil engineer and a land surveyor are intertwined, and there is always a

need to work unitedly to finish a task excellently. The job profiles are very different but they

work together towards completing the job on time.

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References
Partner Engineering and Science, Inc. (2020). As-Built Surveys.
https://www.partneresi.com/services/land-surveying-mapping/as-built-surveys.

Bettersworth & Associates, Inc. (2018, May 30).

https://bettersworthandassociates.com/2018/05/how-civil-engineers-and-land-surveyors-
work-together/.

Ekimai, B. (2017, December 15). Importance of Surveying in Civil Engineering. genetics.

https://ekimgenetics.wordpress.com/2017/12/14/importance-of-surveying-in-civil-
engineering/.

Hinds, E. (2020, October 21). Why is setting out so important? Landform Surveys.
https://www.landform-surveys.co.uk/news/thoughts/why-is-setting-out-so-important

RVS Land Surveyors. (2021, February 24). Land Surveyor vs Civil Engineer.
https://www.rvslandsurveyors.com/land-surveyor-vs-civil-engineer/.

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